Organizers: Farrish, Notsu, Samara, Dissauer

Main sequence cool stars like the Sun have magnetized stellar winds which carry particles, angular momentum, and magnetic flux out into their surroundings, establishing their own space weather environments. While the solar wind can be studied in situ, our understanding of stellar winds relies solely on modeling and limited remote sensing observations. Cool star populations provide a wide range of magnetic activity levels not seen in the present-day Sun, which can give insights to it’s more active past. Therefore it is important to discuss the ways that solar and stellar wind observations and modeling can inform each other, as well as understand the present challenges and constraints in employing solar wind models for stellar simulations. In addition, solar and stellar winds are shaped by the magnetic field of the host star, and constitute the foundation of (extra)-solar space weather research, concurrently serving as the medium through which transient events, such as eruptions, propagate. Therefore, we also seek to explore how solar observations and modeling can enhance our understanding of stellar space weather and activity, including transient phenomena and magnetic field dynamics.

1) What are the present constraints and challenges in employing solar models for stellar investigations, particularly in the context of wind modeling?

2) What are the gaps in our current understanding of the Sun-as-a-star analogue, and what kinds of solar and stellar modeling and observations are needed to fill these gaps?

3) How can current investigations on solar and stellar magnetic fields contribute to the physical understanding of stellar wind environments?

Organizers: Mahajan, Hess-Webber

In order to understand the origen and evolution of magnetic field inside the Sun and its manifestation on the photosphere, it is imperative to understand the nature of plasma flows inside the Sun. The modulation of these flows on different spatial and temporal scales has direct consequences on the solar cycle, build up of the polar field and may even be related to the triggering of eruptive events like solar flares and CMEs.

1. What drives changes in solar differential rotation and meridional flow over the course of a solar cycle?

2. How do transient flows like inflows around active regions affect the build up of the polar field?

3. What is the structure of meridional flow inside the Sun?

Organizers: Tilipman, Kazachenko

Recent developments in modeling and observations (e.g. DKIST, Sunrise, SO) have allowed us to probe small-scale dynamics and magnetism on the solar surface and in the lower atmosphere. These small scale processes may be responsible for energy build-up and transfer in the lower solar atmosphere, particularly in the absence of active regions. Examples of such processes include rotational motions (vortices), nanoflares, small-scale reconnections, flux cancellations, sunquakes, etc. The goal of this session is to discuss the importance of such events (how much of the limited observing time should be devoted to them?) and strategies on how to study them.

How important are small-scale events to our understanding of the energy transfer in the solar atmosphere?

Which observational and numerical approaches are best suited to study these events?

Organizers: Dahlin, Kazachenko, Uritsky

The CSHKP model has been highly successful in qualitatively explaining the morphology and evolution of solar flares. However, in recent years a plethora of new observations have revealed key details not addressed in this “standard model”, particularly through enhanced spatiotemporal resolution of fine-scale features. Meanwhile, advances in numerical modeling and computational power have enabled coupling of disparate scales and physical regimes, making striking advances in forward modeling of these previously unobserved details and linking them to the flare energetics. In this session, we aim to bring together modelers and observers to critically examine these advances to look beyond the CSHKP model. Relevant flare topics include, but are not limited to, the onset problem, plasmoids, flare ribbon fine structure, magnetic shear evolution, termination shocks, turbulence, supra-arcade downflows (SADs), nonthermal emission at flux rope footpoints, as well as reconnection-driven density depletion manifested in EUV dimmings. We welcome observational contributions from (but not limited to) SDO, IRIS, SolO, EOVSA, BBSO, DKIST, ASO, as well as contributions from the theoretical and numerical simulation communities providing new insights into the flare physics and setting the stage for the next-generation standard model.

What features of flare configuration & dynamics beyond the standard model have been revealed by recent observations?

How can advances in flare modeling triage and explain new features identified in the observations?

How do the latest advances in observations and numerical models uncover or identify physical mechanisms converting magnetic energy into plasma and particle energies?

Organizers: Welsch, Gilchrist, Wheatland, Liu

The widely believed “storage and release” paradigm of solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) posits that these dynamic phenomena are powered by energy stored in coronal electric currents. Do these coronal currents evolve in systematic ways before, during, and after flares and CMEs? How can the sudden photospheric magnetic changes that are often caused by large flares be understood in terms of evolution in coronal currents? Because the coronal vector magnetic field cannot be directly measured, properties of coronal currents are typically inferred using modeling and indirect methods, such as radio observations and extrapolations from photospheric observations. New data sources (EOVSA, SO/PHI, DKIST, etc.), large existing data catalogs (from SDO/HMI & AIA, IRIS, BBSO’s GST, etc.), and modeling approaches (such as improved methods for NLFFF extrapolation & data-driven dynamic modeling and Gauss’s separation method) are promising tools for better understanding how currents evolve around the times of flares and CMEs.

1. PRE-EVENT EVOLUTION: In what systematic ways, if any, do active-region coronal currents evolve prior to the onset of flares and CMEs?

2. EVENT-ASSOCIATED EVOLUTION: In what systematic ways, if any, do active-region coronal currents evolve during and immediately after flares & CMEs?

3. POST-EVENT EVOLUTION: In what ways, if any, does post-event evolution differ systematically from pre-event evolution?

Organizers: Andreas Weiss GSFC, Erika Palmerio (PSI), Jaye Verniero ( GSFC), Adam Szabo (GSFC)

Large-scale structures, such as ICMEs, have been studied for decades using single point observations using a large variety of different models and approaches. Certain events appear as text-book observations that are fully reconstructable using simple models while others show perplexing complexity. There still exists a large amount of ambiguity of how these structures actually look like in reality, with even the simplest cartoon-like figures not being verifiable using single point observations and currently available methods. This calls for new, and larger, constellation missions to probe the full three dimensional structure to enhance our understanding. This may also require accompanying methods to analyze the expected observations in a proper way.

Are single-case event studies and catalogs of large-scale structures sufficient to advance our understanding and knowledge beyond the current state?

How can we properly make use of multi-point measurements, including magnetic fields or non-thermal and energetic particles, from planned or envisioned large mission constellations?

Could we make use of smaller scale phenomena, such wave-particle interactions, to help us infer the global magnetic field topology and evolution?

Organizers: Samuel Badman (CfA), Yeimy Rivera (CfA), Samantha Wallace (ERAU), Cooper Downs (PSI)

The biggest open questions around coronal and solar wind physics (and heliophysics more broadly) are interdisciplinary and system-level. For example, a complete understanding of the solar wind evolution requires combining remote diagnostics across the corona with a complementary set of in situ signatures out in the solar wind. This session seeks to provoke discussion around how to leverage collaboration between multiple missions with complementary science objectives to close such science questions. This will be discussed from the perspective of successes and lessons learned from current community coordinating and modeling efforts, as well as identifying specific examples of instrumentation gaps. We will close by summarizing a set of recommendations aimed at capitalizing on and improving future multi-mission observations backed by specific examples raised in the discussion.

What are examples of success stories where hypotheses were conclusively tested with multi-mission coordination?

What are examples of and lessons learned from recent scientific investigations where coordinated observations with existing missions or new instrumentation could have made the conclusions much more impactful?

What avenues exist at the community, NASA, and interagency levels to coordinate future science objectives and observing strategies of upcoming missions?

Organizers: Phillip Hess (NRL), Christina Kay (GSFC), Erika Palmerio (PSI)

Thanks to new data from Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter, it is now possible to directly compare remote sensing imaging of CMEs to in-situ data. In the past, when comparing the observations closer to the Sun to the in-situ measurements at 1 AU, it was easy to dismiss any discrepancies in the observed structures as the product of complex evolution in the heliosphere. Now with more in-situ measurements closer to the Sun allowing for direct comparison between imaging and in-situ data, the various physical interpretations of the different data should align. In practice, there are still wide gaps between these two observing communities that must be addressed to form a comprehensive understanding of CME structure(s) from the Sun throughout the heliosphere.

1. Can our current understanding of CME internal structures explain what is observed in imaging and with in-situ probes when these observations are taken nearly simultaneously?

2. Are we observing features in any of these data sets that can be confidently extrapolated to global properties, or are local effects playing too large a role?

3. Do we need to rethink/reformulate our understanding of CME evolution from a fundamental physics standpoint in light of the most novel observations?

Organizers: Sam Schonfeld (AFRL), Sherry Chhabra (NRL), Shaheda Begum Shaik (NRL), Surajit Mondal (NJIT)

Radio observations combined with other wavelengths and physical models provide powerful diagnostics of the fundamental physics and characterization of space-weather-relevant events. Building on the success of our session from SHINE 2023, “What radio data can do for you!”, this session will use recent studies that utilize radio data from various instruments as catalysts to spark discussion and brainstorm new collaborative SHINE research. This session will be geared towards bringing together radio experts with other members of the SHINE community to develop ideas for new research made possible by combining the strengths of the broader community. The session will cover the entire range of SHINE environments, from the low solar atmosphere out to CMEs and the solar wind and from magnetic fields to high-energy particles.

What are the most promising synergies between novel radio probes and other data and models for addressing SHINE focus areas?

Organizers: Anshu Kumari, Peijin Zhang, Atul Mohan

How do radio observations across various wavelengths deepen our knowledge of solar and heliospheric phenomena, particularly solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and the solar wind? These phenomena are critical to the study of space weather and its impact on Earth, yet they remain incompletely understood due to their complex nature. Radio astronomy offers a unique vantage point, providing insights into the plasma processes and magnetic field dynamics within the Sun’s atmosphere and the heliosphere. By exploring data from decameter to millimeter wavelengths, this session seeks to uncover the underlying mechanisms driving these solar activities and assess their implications for space weather forecasting.

(1) What are the final steps has to be done to bring radio imaging and solar atmosphere model together?

(2) How can we benefit from the rich information of the higher solar atmosphere (1.5-2.5 Rs) that we obtain from low-frequency radio observation?

Organizers: Jim Ryan, UNH; Joe Giacalone, U Arizona; Pierre-Simon Mangeard, U Delaware; Ashraf Moradi, U Arizona

Ground Level Enhancements are rare events and signatures of the most energetic particles that the Sun produces. They result from a conspiracy of several agents and processes that together produce these extreme events. We examine the various factors, their importance and impact, that make these events happen, working backwards from the ground to the low corona.

How can neutron monitors do a better job of detecting and measuring GLEs?

Are GLEs peculiar or do they constitute the tail of an existing distribution?

What aspects of the progenitor CME and shock are most important in producing a GLE?

Organizers: Wei Liu (LMSAL/BAERI), Radoslav Bucik (SwRI), Christina Cohen (Caltech), Gang Li (UAH)

The production of high-energy particles and their far-reaching consequences are at the heart of space weather and involve a multitude of physical processes coupled from the Sun to the heliosphere. Exactly where, when, and how particles are accelerated remains a fundamental open question. Flares on the Sun and CME-driven shocks in the heliosphere are the two primary processes of particle acceleration. Observational and modeling advances in recent decades have revealed that these two processes are more closely related than previously thought. For example, there are puzzling correlations between the spectral indexes of electrons at 1 AU and of hard X-ray producing electrons on the Sun (Krucker et al. 2007; Dresing et al. 2021). Enrichments by orders of magnitudes in 3He and heavy ions, a characteristic of impulsive SEP events (e.g., Mason 2007; Hart et al. 2022), are also commonly found in gradual SEP events (e.g., Desai et al. 2016; Bucik et al. 2023). Both problems point to the need of a second-stage re-acceleration of flare-accelerated particles by a CME-driven shock (Petrosian 2012, 2016). In fact, the origen of seed populations required by shock acceleration for SEPs is an outstanding problem by itself, with particles from flares as a potential candidate (Tylka and Lee 2006). It has also been recognized that the coupling between the flare and CME-shock acceleration processes is not one-way. For example, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has detected gamma-rays associated with flares occurring up to ~50 degrees behind the solar limb (Pesce-Rollins et al. 2015, 2022; Ajello et al. 2021) and long-duration gamma-ray emission for up to ~20 hours (Ackermann et al. 2014), long after the flare X-ray and EUV emissions have died down. Both puzzles point to the possibility of CME-shock accelerated particles traveling back to the Sun to produce gamma-rays, a pioneering idea proposed three decades ago (Cliver, Kahler, and Vestrand 1993), with growing observational and modeling support (e.g., Gopalswamy et al. 2018; Jin et al. 2018).

This session will bring together timely discussions on this important subject, aiming to answer the three-fold science questions:

1. What are the relative roles of flares on the Sun and CME-driven shocks in the heliosphere in producing SEPs and (long-duration) gamma-ray emission?

2. What is the physical relationship between particle acceleration processes in flares and at CME-driven shocks?

3. To what extent and how do solar flares contribute to the seed particles of SEPs?

Organizers: Riddhi Bandyopadhyay (Princeton University), Manuel E. Cuesta (Princeton University), J. Grant Mitchell (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center)

In this SHINE session, we ask what we have learned about SEP acceleration mechanisms near the Sun. With the launch of inner heliosphere missions such as Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter, many interesting SEP events have been observed, such as the September 5, 2023 Labor day event. Utilizing simulations along with these observations has reveal new insights into the nature of SEP acceleration in the near-Sun environment. Our goal in this session is to understand the role of different mechanisms such as turbulence, shock, and reconnection in accelerating SEPs near the Sun.

1. What are the roles of turbulence, shock, and reconnection in SEP acceleration close to the Sun.

2. How can in-situ SEP signatures be identified to understand and determine the mechanism responsible for their acceleration?

Organizers: Claudio Corti (CCMC/Univ. of Hawaii), Junxiang Hu (UAH/NASA GSFC), Rohit Chhiber (Univ. of Delaware/NASA GSFC), William Matthaeus (Univ. of Delaware)

The diffusive transport of Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) in the inner heliosphere is primarily governed by the turbulent solar wind magnetic field. Remote-sensing and in-situ observations have greatly improved our understanding of the properties and evolutions of solar wind turbulence in recent years. Different global heliospheric turbulence transport models have been further developed lately with the help of PSP and SolO observations. Multiple diffusion theories (e.g., quasi-linear theory, non-linear guiding center theory, weakly non-linear theory, unified non-linear transport theory, field line random walk theory) have been proposed to describe the diffusive transport of SEP in the turbulent magnetic field, each being valid in different regimes. However, there are still many uncertainties and unknowns in the spatial extent of the turbulence parameters, and how we interpret the role of turbulence in energetic particles’ diffusive behaviors. In this session, we intend to bring together the turbulence and SEP communities and discuss the following important science questions:

1) How does the interplay between cross-field diffusion and field line meanderings affect the perpendicular transport of SEPs?

2) How do global heliospheric turbulence transport models compare with recent PSP and SolO observations?

3) How can the SEP modeling community benefit from the recent advances in turbulence transport theory and observations to improve space weather forecast capabilities?

Organizers: Soukaina Filali Boubrahimi and Shah Muhammad Hamdi

In this session, we delve into the critical pursuit of understanding and predicting rare solar events, pivotal phenomena with substantial implications for space weather and technological infrastructure. Our focus centers on three key scientific questions: firstly, identifying pivotal photospheric magnetic field parameters that reliably predict solar flares; secondly, assessing the availability of ground-truth data for rare yet impactful solar events; and thirdly, exploring the capabilities of current simulation models in generating high-quality synthetic samples of these rare occurrences. This talk aims to contribute to advancing our predictive capabilities and fortifying our comprehension of the dynamic solar atmosphere, ultimately aiding in the anticipation and mitigation of solar flare effects on Earth and space technologies.

1. What are the most important photospheric magnetic field parameters that can predict solar flares?

2. Do we have enough ground-truth data for predicting the most impactful but rare-occurring events?

3. How can present simulation models provide high-quality synthetic samples of rare solar events?

Organizers: Vincent David, Evan Yerger, Ben Chandran

The helicity barrier is a recent discovery which may have significant implications for heating in the solar wind. The barrier has been shown to allow only the balanced portion of the turbulent Alfvenic energy flux to cascade past the ion gyroscale to electron scales. Understanding the effects of the helicity barrier in detail are therefore critical for estimating the ion-to-electron heating ratio. Recent observations and simulations of imbalanced turbulence are consistent with analytical predictions of the barrier; however, the community remains divided over its existence. This session aims to discuss the analytical and empirical evidence for the helicity barrier as well as its implications for the solar wind.

1. Does the helicity barrier exist?

2. Is there a helicity barrier in solar wind turbulence and what is the numerical and observational evidence for it?

3. What are the implications for the helicity barrier on coronal heating and the structure of the solar wind?

Organizers: Laxman Adhikari (University of Alabama, Huntsville), Lulu Zhao (Michigan), Junxiang Hu (NASA-GSFC), William H. Matthaeus (University of Delaware)

In recent years global heliospheric simulation has emerged as an important tool in connecting boundary conditions, very large scale structure and observable properties across wide ranges of heliocentric position. Including turbulence transport and its effects (sometimes self consistently) on the inhomogeneous background solar wind further expands the possibilities for explaining observations and improves potential for prediction. Our session aims to highlight and discuss this interaction between large-scale heliospheric structure and the evolution of interplanetary turbulence, both in the inner and outer regions of the heliosphere. Topics we aim to discuss include the use of global models to establish connections between different heliospheric domains and boundaries, and the interplay of turbulence transport with processes such as energetic particle transport, magnetic connectivity, and “critical surfaces” in the young solar wind. Observational studies including existing spacecraft such as Parker Solar Probe, Solar Orbiter, Ulysses, and Voyager as well as upcoming missions such as PUNCH, Helioswarm, and IMAP are relevant to these goals. We welcome observational, numerical, and theoretical studies from the inner to outer heliosphere.

1) Which features and capabilities of global modeling provide optimized accounting for existing observations and how can this performance be improved?

2) How do global heliospheric turbulence transport models compare with spacecraft observations, and how can these models better meet the challenge of accurately representing the coupling of large-scale physics with turbulence?

3) How do large-scale plasma conditions influence smaller scale MHD features and turbulence in theoretical models and in observations?

Organizers: W. Matthaeus (Delaware), Alex Chasapis (Colorado), Riddhi Bandyopadhyay (Princeton), Francesco Pecora (Delaware).

Current generation heliospheric missions and modern simulations enable the investigation of space plasma turbulence across a broad range of scales ranging from the injection scales to ion and electron scales. Properties across all these scales are important in understanding fundamental space plasma phenomena ranging from coronal heating and acceleration to energetic particle propagation. Yet the scales are linked dynamically through time-dependence, turbulent cascade and cross-scale energy transfer, leading to energy conversion processes including production of internal energy. This complexity necessitates study of the turbulence at both microscopic and system levels. This session addresses broad aspects of the observed heliospheric turbulence using in situ and remote sensing measurements from Parker Solar Probe, Solar Orbiter, Magnetoshperic MultiScale, ACE, WIND, and Voyager, as well as future missions such as HelioSwarm and Plasma Observatory. These are complemented by increasingly capable magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations with large grid resolution, particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations with large particle numbers, and Eulerian Vlasov models with improving velocity space resolution. Novel scale filtering and multi-spacecraft analysis techniques are providing new and compelling insights into the pathways of turbulent energy conversion in space. Contributions are welcome from the simulation, observation and theory perspectives.

What controls the ion versus electron energy cascade across the inertial range of scale and their heating rates in the dissipation scale?

Do inertial range properties vary with large-scale driving and plasma parameters, such as the involvement of velocity shear and reconnection?

How do these large scale properties and driving mechanisms affect the termination of the inertial range and related heating and dissipation?

Organizers: Lingling Zhao (UAH), Gary Zank (UAH)

This session aims to explore the dynamic interplay between the nature of turbulence and its evolution in the Very Local Interstellar Medium (VLISM). Turbulence in the VLISM appears to be generated in part by heliospheric processes ranging from the interaction of (inner) heliosheath turbulence and its transmission the heliopause to the role of interplanetary shocks propagating into the VLISM. This in turn is superimposed on possibly pre-existing interstellar turbulence. As a result, the turbulent state immediately upwind of the heliopause that appears to be quite distinct from turbulence in heliospheric plasma. The evolution and dissipation of VLISM turbulence is not clearly understood theoretically or observationally and its implications for particle transport, particularly within the context of heliophysics, remain largely unexplored. By focusing on turbulence within the VLISM, we aim to deepen our understanding how the heliosphere influences the VLISM and conversely how it influences the heliosphere, especially in its role in modulating the transport of energetic particles, including cosmic rays, and its relevance to phenomena such as the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) Ribbon.

1. What are the characteristics of turbulence in the VLISM and how does the heliosphere act to mediate turbulence in the VLISM?

2. How does turbulence within the VLISM affect the transport and modulation of energetic particles, including cosmic rays, in the heliosphere?

3. What insights can turbulence dynamics within the VLISM provide into the origen and characteristics of observational features such as the IBEX ribbon?

Organizers: Alicia K. Petersen (University of Florida), K.D. Leka (North West Research Associates), Samuel Schonfeld (Air Force Research Lab)

Whether its modelers not understanding the intricacies of the data their models rely on, limitations of models that don’t get described in their publications, analogies in theories that get taken as fact, or one of many other “mistakes” that linger in our cross-disciplinary research community, there are times when you don’t know what you don’t know. If you’re rolling your eyes when reviewing yet another proposal making the same mistake you see time and time again, or you are a student/early career researcher eager to hear the secrets of the trade that don’t make it into the papers and the readme files, this is the session for you. When readme files and instrument papers aren’t enough, when living reviews are not so “living,” when crucial minds leave the field, what can we do to disseminate wisdom across subfields and pass it between generations of researchers? Join us for an open and fruitful discussion; come help brainstorm new solutions for knowledge dissemination.

1. Wisdom Dissemination: How do we create avenues for communicating knowledge and detailed information for users of our research that go beyond the limitations of journal publications and are more open than private discussions between those already in-the-know?

2. PSAs: From the perspective of a modeler, data expert, etc, what are some of the common “mistakes” made by the community?

3. Challenges: What are the challenges and concerns that face our growing and cross-generational research community, as for example, available methods of communicating and collaborating expand and as some long-standing members of our research community leave the field?

Organizers: Bennett A. Maruca (University of Delaware) Niharika H. Godbole (American University and NASA Goddard) Ramiz Qudsi (Boston University)

Low-cost flight platforms — including high-altitude balloons, suborbital (sounding) rockets, and CubeSats — occupy a unique role in heliophysics. Many of these missions have produced substantial scientific results in their own rights, but because of their modest costs, they also serve as important opportunities for technology development and education. Larger missions often draw substantial heritage from these sorts of small missions, and small missions typically provide far more opportunities for student involvement. This session will highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each type of flight platform, discuss best practices for successful missions, and encourage participation in these missions (especially by students and those new to mission development). — What are the unique strengths and weaknesses of each type of flight platform? — What are the most effective strategies for designing, funding, and implementing successful missions (scientific, technological, and/or educational) with these platforms? — How can students and members of the community new to hardware/mission development best become involved in these missions?

Organizers: Nikolai Pogorelov (University of Alabama in Huntsville), Ameneh Mousavi (Space Science Institute), Eric Zirnstein (Princeton University)

Pickup ions (PUIs) are created in the heliosphere and in the very local interstellar medium (VLISM) due to charge exchange, photoionization, and electron impact ionization of neutral atoms, especially hydrogen (H) and helium (He). In principle, there exist several populations of PUIs, depending on the region of their origen and the parent neutral atom population they derive from. It is common to subdivide the domain of the solar wind (SW) interaction with the interstellar medium into 4 regions: (1) the unperturbed local interstellar medium (LISM); (2) the LISM affected by the presence of the heliosphere (VLISM); (3) the heliosheath, i.e., the SW region between the heliopause (HP) and the heliospheric termination shock (TS), and (4) the supersonic SW. Neutral atoms are also commonly classified according to their origen in the above-mentioned regions. PUIs carry most of internal energy of the SW plasma and constitute its non-thermal population. They also give birth to energetic neutral atoms (ENAs), some of them being observed by the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). While the properties of PUIs were observed in situ by Ulysses and are currently being measured by New Horizons at far distances from the Sun, they also have a profound effect on interpreting Voyager measurements. It is also becoming increasingly evident that Ulysses SWICS measurements require reevaluation based on a more accurate approach of transferring the count rates into the distribution functions.

We call for data, theory, and modeling presentations addressing the following questions:

1. How the space-time evolution of PUI distribution functions, especially at collisionless shocks, affects the global heliosphere?

2. What are the physical processes influencing the IBEX ribbon and the heliosheath ENA fluxes, and the methods for improving the energy resolution of ENA models.

3. What are the theoretical challenges in our understanding of the PUI physics from the perspective of the upcoming Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) mission.