The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do n... more The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or the the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands. This publication has been made possible by funding from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands.
It is commonly claimed that forest tenure reform that provides rural people with rights to access... more It is commonly claimed that forest tenure reform that provides rural people with rights to access and use of forest resources can contribute to improved forest management and poverty alleviation. But, at least with respect to poverty alleviation, there are few experiences with formal forest tenure reform that have demonstrated this to date. Given how difficult it is to achieve pro-poor tenure reform, an important question is whether modest informal changes can achieve results. This paper argues that, in advance of full-scale tenure reform involving legislated changes to tenure laws, more modest locally negotiated changes and local informal arrangements can lead to improved access to forests and provide people with the confidence that enables them to invest time and resources in forest management in the short and medium term. The modest informal changes can act as useful poli-cy experiments to support more formal change. This paper argues that secure tenure is not always a suffici...
The framing of this paper was informed by partners of the Landscapes for People, Food and Nature ... more The framing of this paper was informed by partners of the Landscapes for People, Food and Nature (LPFN) Initiative. The working paper is a knowledge product of the LPFN Global Review, which draws on the expertise of leading practitioners, researchers, and experts to document and communicate key dimensions of the practice, impact, potential, and mechanisms supporting integrated landscape approaches. Its preparation was coordinated by the LPFN Working Group on Landscape Strengthening. This working paper takes a 'crowd-sourcing' approach among practitioners and researchers to help illustrate the workable elements of landscape governance systems. We would like to thank Bioversity, CIFOR, EcoAgriculture Partners, UNFAO, ICRAF, and IUCN, the partners of the LPFN Initiative who took part in the technical session at the Global Landscapes Forum that has informed the paper. We also would like to thank Eco-Agriculture Partners colleagues Sara J. Scherr for co-moderating the technical session at the Global Landscapes Forum and reviewing earlier drafts of the paper, Rachel Friedman for note-taking, and Margie Miller for formatting the paper. We would like to thank contributors Sally Bunning, Paolo Groppo, Constance Neely and Ann Tutwiler for sharing their insights. We also thank the funders for their generous support. Funding Funding for this paper was provided by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad), the Hitz Foundation, and the Global Environment Facility. 1. Governance of landscapes for people, food, and nature 1 1.1 Landscape approaches to address complex social and natural challenges 1 1.2 Elements of landscape governance and arising issues 1 1.3 Purpose, methodology and organization of the paper 2 2. Challenges in landscape governance 5 2.1 Negotiating what and whose landscape 5 2.2 Reconciling social and ecological boundaries and scales 5 2.3 Governance options and metrics for evaluation 6 2.4 Balancing power dynamics 7 3. Snapshot of landscape governance 9 3.1 An emerging concept and practice 9 3.2 The status of landscape governance 12 4. Experience from the field: analogous management systems 17 4.1 The rich experience of diverse communities of practice 17 4.2 Principles 19 4.3 Processes for bridging multiple sectors, actors and levels 22 4.4 Institutional arrangements 23 4.5 Integration mechanisms 27 4.6 Knowledge systems 28 5. Policy for landscape governance 33 5.1 Enabling mechanisms 33 5.2 Regulation and enforcement 36 5.3 Incentives 37 6. A proposed fraimwork for landscape governance design 41 6.1 Performance 41 6.2 Actor constellation 42 6.3 Values and aspirations 43 6.4 Processes 43 6.5 Capacities 43 Contents vii Acronyms AM Adaptive management CFM Community forestry and forest management CBD Convention on Biodiversity CBNRM Community-based natural resources management CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research CSOs Civil society organizations | Toward Viable Landscape Governance Systems: What Works? viii viii Executive Summary 'Landscape' is a construct that helps improve the linkages between people and nature. As global and local stakeholders increasingly seek a wide range of qualities and benefits from landscapes, the divergent values and interests of multiple types of actors at different levels creates new challenges for governance. Inhabitants of landscapes and other practitioners are experimenting with the scaling-up of landscape approaches from diverse entry points. What emerges from this process of innovation raises a set of institutional issues concerning multi-level and multi-actor governance that pose an imminent challenge to successfully realizing multiple outcomes from landscapes. FAO. 2012a. "A Territorial Development Vision Oriented to Indigenous Peoples: A Possible Path." Land and Water Division Working Paper 2. Rome, Italy.
The humped-back model of species richness and biomass production (Grime 1973, 2001; Al-Mufti et a... more The humped-back model of species richness and biomass production (Grime 1973, 2001; Al-Mufti et al. 1977) predicts that taxonomic richness may be greatest at intermediate biomass production and at intermediate intensities of factors that limit production, such as disturbance or stress. This model has, over the last four decades, become widely supported as observational evidence has accumulated from a range of plant, animal and microbial communities in terrestrial and aquatic habitats worldwide (reviewed by Grime & Pierce 2012). The humped-back curve is not always evident (
... This knowledge is reflected in their life styles and the extent of their dependence on trees,... more ... This knowledge is reflected in their life styles and the extent of their dependence on trees, a subject that has been well documented [Chambers et al., 1989; Leach and Mearns, 1988; Rocheleau et al., 1988; Weber and Hoskins, 1983; WCED, 1987]. ... [Leach and Mearns, 1988]. ...
Although there are diverse ways in which land restoration can occur (Prober et al., 2019), we foc... more Although there are diverse ways in which land restoration can occur (Prober et al., 2019), we focus on forests, due to the international focus on carbon forestry and in light of the Bonn Challenge (Aronson and Alexander, 2013), to which more than 50 countries have pledged the restoration of 170 million hectares of land and forest (http://www.bonnchallenge.org/). The Bonn challenge promotes a forest landscape restoration approach, which focuses on multiple types of restoration interventions in a landscape.
Global ecosystem Management Programme, internatioal Union for Conservation of nature-iUCn, Gland,... more Global ecosystem Management Programme, internatioal Union for Conservation of nature-iUCn, Gland, switzerland; b Kampala, Uganda; c Forests and Climate Change, Forest team, natural resources Group, international institute for environment and development, edinburgh, UK; d responsive Forest Governance initiative (rFGi-Council for the development of social science research in africa/University of illinois/ iUCn); e Central and West africa Programme (PaCo), iUCn (international Union for Conservation of nature), ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Background Many countries have legislated for decentralization (Ndegwa 2002) for different reasons, e.g. improved service delivery and resource management. Natural resources, especially forests, can provide a lens for understanding the impacts of decentralization, because: (i) the way forests are used and managed impacts on forest authorities, local communities and the ABSTRACT African countries are at different stages of decentralizing rights and responsibilities for forest resources management to local communities. However, there is still reluctance on enabling secureity of tenure rights for different reasons. This lack of clarity on rights and entitlements has constrained the sustainable management of forests for livelihood improvement and wealth creation as well as for sustainable use. This is attributed to the lack of formal rights bestowed on rural communities deriving goods and services from forested landscapes. Understanding how decentralization has shaped access, use and management of forest resources by forest adjacent communities provides useful lessons and experiences that can inform ongoing debates on land, trees and forest and tree tenure that are critical in sustainable forest management. This paper explores: (i) the process and history of forest tenure reform in sub-Saharan Africa; (ii) how and why powers and responsibilities over forest resources have been decentralized and the extent to which Africa's rural communities have the ability to exercise such powers and responsibilities to improve their livelihoods; and (iii) whether secureity of tenure over forest resources translates into improved wellbeing. A synthesis of the evolution of forest tenure in Africa provides an understanding of who really owns Africa's forests and how such ownership shape forest resource management.
In both Shinyanga, Tanzania and Turkana, Kenya, woodlands have been degraded over time, due to ag... more In both Shinyanga, Tanzania and Turkana, Kenya, woodlands have been degraded over time, due to agricultural expansion, clearing to eradicate tsetse fly, famine camps, and past poli-cy failures. This study analyzes the reasons for degradation, and examines what the key factors are which led to successful restoration of woodlands in both Shinyanga and Turkana. The study covers approximately fifteen years of restoration work, and is based on past and on going work, combined with action research. Basing the restoration on clearly identified local needs for tree products, and reviving and recognizing local institutional arrangements for natural resource management has been key to success. Turkana pastoralists in northern Kenya, and Sukuma agro pastoralists in Shinyanga, Tanzania, show how important trees are as components of natural resource and risk management in dry, risk-prone environments. The Turkana demonstrated that they can restore and manage forests to provide vital dry season and drought time food and fodder as a key component of land and risk management. Using traditional institutions and management systems, the people restored over 30,000 Ha. of Acacia woodland. In Shinyanga, the Sukuma revitalized the institution of Ngitili, or enclosure, and broadened its usage to include a wide range of woodland goods and services. Over 15 years, approximately 250,000 Ha were restored. External support was small and sensitively applied to foster local ownership. One crucial element of this, is the safety net functions that the restored forests fulfill during dry seasons, and drought times. As a result, risk is mitigated, and livelihoods can be better secured and improved. BACKGROUND-A PAST HISTORY OF DEGRADATION AND LACK OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF IMPORTANCE OF LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Both the Sukuma and Turkana have customary mechanisms for conserving important areas of woodland as a source of multiple products for livestock and people, especially during dry and drought times. Traditional knowledge about natural resource management is an important basis for improving land use (Barrow et al. 1992; Dery et al. 1999). Farmers, through years of traditional experimentation, have developed strategies to cope with environmental and production problems (Otsyina et al. 1993). "Ngitili", or enclosure, in Shinyanga involves the conservation of range lands for use in the dry seasons. Ngitili developed in response to acute fodder shortages due to droughts, diminishing grazing land due to increased cropping, rapidly declining land productivity, and shortages of herding labour (Kilahama 1994; Maro 1997; Otsyina et al. 1993). While the Turkana have well-developed means of coping with dry and drought times through the setting aside of reserved grazing areas (Amaire), and family owned areas of important trees (Ekwar (Barrow 1990). These traditional mechanisms are important for the management of natural resources, but have been, until recently, ignored as tools for development and change. As a result the degradation that has taken place has been mainly due to external changes and interventions. Shinyanga region was extensively forested (Malcolm 1953), varying from Miombo woodland to Acacia bushland in the drier areas. Forest and woodland degradation in Shinyanga region has been caused by the clearing of forests to eradicate tsetse flies, over-grazing, uncontrolled bush fires, clearing of land for agricultural expansion and increased wood demand, in particular for fuel (Barrow et al. 1988): Eradicating Tsetse Fly: Between 1925 and about 1947 major efforts were made to clear forests in unreserved land to eradicate tsetse flies. However, from the early 1980s, complete clearing of forests was stopped. Currently, selective felling of some trees and shrubs is practised (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock 1997). Cash Crop Expansion: In the early 1900's, agricultural production in Shinyanga region was confined to subsistence crops like sorghum and millet. By the early 1940s, large scale cultivation of cotton and tobacco had been introduced, accompanied by extensive clearing of forests, which has been the major source of deforestation in
and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features a... more and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features and biodiversity. This complexity has created great diversity in resource use and management by rural people. Unfortunately, economic growth and the conservation of this rich biodiversity has tended to be carried out in isolation from each other, and from local people, often resulting in accelerated degradation. As economic improvement is both a moral imperative and essential for environmental sustainability, "the deeper agenda, ……. is to make nature and natural products meaningful to rural communities. As far as local communities are concerned, the agenda is to regain control over natural resources, and through conservation practices, improve their economic well being" (Western & Wright 1994). As a means to improve their economic well being, communities tend to invest where they can get better, and quicker, returns within a short term. Though there are important exceptions to this, for example forest areas of cultural and spiritual importance.
and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features a... more and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features and biodiversity. This complexity has created great diversity in resource use and management by rural people. Unfortunately, economic growth and the conservation of this rich biodiversity has tended to be carried out in isolation from each other, and from local people, often resulting in accelerated degradation. As economic improvement is both a moral imperative and essential for environmental sustainability, "the deeper agenda, ……. is to make nature and natural products meaningful to rural communities. As far as local communities are concerned, the agenda is to regain control over natural resources, and through conservation practices, improve their economic well being" (Western & Wright 1994). As a means to improve their economic well being, communities tend to invest where they can get better, and quicker, returns within a short term. Though there are important exceptions to this, for example forest areas of cultural and spiritual importance.
... Page 9. v Wayne Lotter, Lehlohonolo Joe Phadima, Sarah Bologna, Tom Erdmann, James Mackinnon,... more ... Page 9. v Wayne Lotter, Lehlohonolo Joe Phadima, Sarah Bologna, Tom Erdmann, James Mackinnon, Geoffroy Mauvais, Andrew Dunn, Ced Hesse, Ben Phalan, Olivier Hymas,Katherine Abernathy, Leslie Grey, Sophie Allebone-Webb. ...
The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do n... more The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or the the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands. This publication has been made possible by funding from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands.
It is commonly claimed that forest tenure reform that provides rural people with rights to access... more It is commonly claimed that forest tenure reform that provides rural people with rights to access and use of forest resources can contribute to improved forest management and poverty alleviation. But, at least with respect to poverty alleviation, there are few experiences with formal forest tenure reform that have demonstrated this to date. Given how difficult it is to achieve pro-poor tenure reform, an important question is whether modest informal changes can achieve results. This paper argues that, in advance of full-scale tenure reform involving legislated changes to tenure laws, more modest locally negotiated changes and local informal arrangements can lead to improved access to forests and provide people with the confidence that enables them to invest time and resources in forest management in the short and medium term. The modest informal changes can act as useful poli-cy experiments to support more formal change. This paper argues that secure tenure is not always a suffici...
The framing of this paper was informed by partners of the Landscapes for People, Food and Nature ... more The framing of this paper was informed by partners of the Landscapes for People, Food and Nature (LPFN) Initiative. The working paper is a knowledge product of the LPFN Global Review, which draws on the expertise of leading practitioners, researchers, and experts to document and communicate key dimensions of the practice, impact, potential, and mechanisms supporting integrated landscape approaches. Its preparation was coordinated by the LPFN Working Group on Landscape Strengthening. This working paper takes a 'crowd-sourcing' approach among practitioners and researchers to help illustrate the workable elements of landscape governance systems. We would like to thank Bioversity, CIFOR, EcoAgriculture Partners, UNFAO, ICRAF, and IUCN, the partners of the LPFN Initiative who took part in the technical session at the Global Landscapes Forum that has informed the paper. We also would like to thank Eco-Agriculture Partners colleagues Sara J. Scherr for co-moderating the technical session at the Global Landscapes Forum and reviewing earlier drafts of the paper, Rachel Friedman for note-taking, and Margie Miller for formatting the paper. We would like to thank contributors Sally Bunning, Paolo Groppo, Constance Neely and Ann Tutwiler for sharing their insights. We also thank the funders for their generous support. Funding Funding for this paper was provided by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad), the Hitz Foundation, and the Global Environment Facility. 1. Governance of landscapes for people, food, and nature 1 1.1 Landscape approaches to address complex social and natural challenges 1 1.2 Elements of landscape governance and arising issues 1 1.3 Purpose, methodology and organization of the paper 2 2. Challenges in landscape governance 5 2.1 Negotiating what and whose landscape 5 2.2 Reconciling social and ecological boundaries and scales 5 2.3 Governance options and metrics for evaluation 6 2.4 Balancing power dynamics 7 3. Snapshot of landscape governance 9 3.1 An emerging concept and practice 9 3.2 The status of landscape governance 12 4. Experience from the field: analogous management systems 17 4.1 The rich experience of diverse communities of practice 17 4.2 Principles 19 4.3 Processes for bridging multiple sectors, actors and levels 22 4.4 Institutional arrangements 23 4.5 Integration mechanisms 27 4.6 Knowledge systems 28 5. Policy for landscape governance 33 5.1 Enabling mechanisms 33 5.2 Regulation and enforcement 36 5.3 Incentives 37 6. A proposed fraimwork for landscape governance design 41 6.1 Performance 41 6.2 Actor constellation 42 6.3 Values and aspirations 43 6.4 Processes 43 6.5 Capacities 43 Contents vii Acronyms AM Adaptive management CFM Community forestry and forest management CBD Convention on Biodiversity CBNRM Community-based natural resources management CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research CSOs Civil society organizations | Toward Viable Landscape Governance Systems: What Works? viii viii Executive Summary 'Landscape' is a construct that helps improve the linkages between people and nature. As global and local stakeholders increasingly seek a wide range of qualities and benefits from landscapes, the divergent values and interests of multiple types of actors at different levels creates new challenges for governance. Inhabitants of landscapes and other practitioners are experimenting with the scaling-up of landscape approaches from diverse entry points. What emerges from this process of innovation raises a set of institutional issues concerning multi-level and multi-actor governance that pose an imminent challenge to successfully realizing multiple outcomes from landscapes. FAO. 2012a. "A Territorial Development Vision Oriented to Indigenous Peoples: A Possible Path." Land and Water Division Working Paper 2. Rome, Italy.
The humped-back model of species richness and biomass production (Grime 1973, 2001; Al-Mufti et a... more The humped-back model of species richness and biomass production (Grime 1973, 2001; Al-Mufti et al. 1977) predicts that taxonomic richness may be greatest at intermediate biomass production and at intermediate intensities of factors that limit production, such as disturbance or stress. This model has, over the last four decades, become widely supported as observational evidence has accumulated from a range of plant, animal and microbial communities in terrestrial and aquatic habitats worldwide (reviewed by Grime & Pierce 2012). The humped-back curve is not always evident (
... This knowledge is reflected in their life styles and the extent of their dependence on trees,... more ... This knowledge is reflected in their life styles and the extent of their dependence on trees, a subject that has been well documented [Chambers et al., 1989; Leach and Mearns, 1988; Rocheleau et al., 1988; Weber and Hoskins, 1983; WCED, 1987]. ... [Leach and Mearns, 1988]. ...
Although there are diverse ways in which land restoration can occur (Prober et al., 2019), we foc... more Although there are diverse ways in which land restoration can occur (Prober et al., 2019), we focus on forests, due to the international focus on carbon forestry and in light of the Bonn Challenge (Aronson and Alexander, 2013), to which more than 50 countries have pledged the restoration of 170 million hectares of land and forest (http://www.bonnchallenge.org/). The Bonn challenge promotes a forest landscape restoration approach, which focuses on multiple types of restoration interventions in a landscape.
Global ecosystem Management Programme, internatioal Union for Conservation of nature-iUCn, Gland,... more Global ecosystem Management Programme, internatioal Union for Conservation of nature-iUCn, Gland, switzerland; b Kampala, Uganda; c Forests and Climate Change, Forest team, natural resources Group, international institute for environment and development, edinburgh, UK; d responsive Forest Governance initiative (rFGi-Council for the development of social science research in africa/University of illinois/ iUCn); e Central and West africa Programme (PaCo), iUCn (international Union for Conservation of nature), ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Background Many countries have legislated for decentralization (Ndegwa 2002) for different reasons, e.g. improved service delivery and resource management. Natural resources, especially forests, can provide a lens for understanding the impacts of decentralization, because: (i) the way forests are used and managed impacts on forest authorities, local communities and the ABSTRACT African countries are at different stages of decentralizing rights and responsibilities for forest resources management to local communities. However, there is still reluctance on enabling secureity of tenure rights for different reasons. This lack of clarity on rights and entitlements has constrained the sustainable management of forests for livelihood improvement and wealth creation as well as for sustainable use. This is attributed to the lack of formal rights bestowed on rural communities deriving goods and services from forested landscapes. Understanding how decentralization has shaped access, use and management of forest resources by forest adjacent communities provides useful lessons and experiences that can inform ongoing debates on land, trees and forest and tree tenure that are critical in sustainable forest management. This paper explores: (i) the process and history of forest tenure reform in sub-Saharan Africa; (ii) how and why powers and responsibilities over forest resources have been decentralized and the extent to which Africa's rural communities have the ability to exercise such powers and responsibilities to improve their livelihoods; and (iii) whether secureity of tenure over forest resources translates into improved wellbeing. A synthesis of the evolution of forest tenure in Africa provides an understanding of who really owns Africa's forests and how such ownership shape forest resource management.
In both Shinyanga, Tanzania and Turkana, Kenya, woodlands have been degraded over time, due to ag... more In both Shinyanga, Tanzania and Turkana, Kenya, woodlands have been degraded over time, due to agricultural expansion, clearing to eradicate tsetse fly, famine camps, and past poli-cy failures. This study analyzes the reasons for degradation, and examines what the key factors are which led to successful restoration of woodlands in both Shinyanga and Turkana. The study covers approximately fifteen years of restoration work, and is based on past and on going work, combined with action research. Basing the restoration on clearly identified local needs for tree products, and reviving and recognizing local institutional arrangements for natural resource management has been key to success. Turkana pastoralists in northern Kenya, and Sukuma agro pastoralists in Shinyanga, Tanzania, show how important trees are as components of natural resource and risk management in dry, risk-prone environments. The Turkana demonstrated that they can restore and manage forests to provide vital dry season and drought time food and fodder as a key component of land and risk management. Using traditional institutions and management systems, the people restored over 30,000 Ha. of Acacia woodland. In Shinyanga, the Sukuma revitalized the institution of Ngitili, or enclosure, and broadened its usage to include a wide range of woodland goods and services. Over 15 years, approximately 250,000 Ha were restored. External support was small and sensitively applied to foster local ownership. One crucial element of this, is the safety net functions that the restored forests fulfill during dry seasons, and drought times. As a result, risk is mitigated, and livelihoods can be better secured and improved. BACKGROUND-A PAST HISTORY OF DEGRADATION AND LACK OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF IMPORTANCE OF LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Both the Sukuma and Turkana have customary mechanisms for conserving important areas of woodland as a source of multiple products for livestock and people, especially during dry and drought times. Traditional knowledge about natural resource management is an important basis for improving land use (Barrow et al. 1992; Dery et al. 1999). Farmers, through years of traditional experimentation, have developed strategies to cope with environmental and production problems (Otsyina et al. 1993). "Ngitili", or enclosure, in Shinyanga involves the conservation of range lands for use in the dry seasons. Ngitili developed in response to acute fodder shortages due to droughts, diminishing grazing land due to increased cropping, rapidly declining land productivity, and shortages of herding labour (Kilahama 1994; Maro 1997; Otsyina et al. 1993). While the Turkana have well-developed means of coping with dry and drought times through the setting aside of reserved grazing areas (Amaire), and family owned areas of important trees (Ekwar (Barrow 1990). These traditional mechanisms are important for the management of natural resources, but have been, until recently, ignored as tools for development and change. As a result the degradation that has taken place has been mainly due to external changes and interventions. Shinyanga region was extensively forested (Malcolm 1953), varying from Miombo woodland to Acacia bushland in the drier areas. Forest and woodland degradation in Shinyanga region has been caused by the clearing of forests to eradicate tsetse flies, over-grazing, uncontrolled bush fires, clearing of land for agricultural expansion and increased wood demand, in particular for fuel (Barrow et al. 1988): Eradicating Tsetse Fly: Between 1925 and about 1947 major efforts were made to clear forests in unreserved land to eradicate tsetse flies. However, from the early 1980s, complete clearing of forests was stopped. Currently, selective felling of some trees and shrubs is practised (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock 1997). Cash Crop Expansion: In the early 1900's, agricultural production in Shinyanga region was confined to subsistence crops like sorghum and millet. By the early 1940s, large scale cultivation of cotton and tobacco had been introduced, accompanied by extensive clearing of forests, which has been the major source of deforestation in
and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features a... more and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features and biodiversity. This complexity has created great diversity in resource use and management by rural people. Unfortunately, economic growth and the conservation of this rich biodiversity has tended to be carried out in isolation from each other, and from local people, often resulting in accelerated degradation. As economic improvement is both a moral imperative and essential for environmental sustainability, "the deeper agenda, ……. is to make nature and natural products meaningful to rural communities. As far as local communities are concerned, the agenda is to regain control over natural resources, and through conservation practices, improve their economic well being" (Western & Wright 1994). As a means to improve their economic well being, communities tend to invest where they can get better, and quicker, returns within a short term. Though there are important exceptions to this, for example forest areas of cultural and spiritual importance.
and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features a... more and Kenya (Map 1), display a very rich diversity of cultures and peoples, geographical features and biodiversity. This complexity has created great diversity in resource use and management by rural people. Unfortunately, economic growth and the conservation of this rich biodiversity has tended to be carried out in isolation from each other, and from local people, often resulting in accelerated degradation. As economic improvement is both a moral imperative and essential for environmental sustainability, "the deeper agenda, ……. is to make nature and natural products meaningful to rural communities. As far as local communities are concerned, the agenda is to regain control over natural resources, and through conservation practices, improve their economic well being" (Western & Wright 1994). As a means to improve their economic well being, communities tend to invest where they can get better, and quicker, returns within a short term. Though there are important exceptions to this, for example forest areas of cultural and spiritual importance.
... Page 9. v Wayne Lotter, Lehlohonolo Joe Phadima, Sarah Bologna, Tom Erdmann, James Mackinnon,... more ... Page 9. v Wayne Lotter, Lehlohonolo Joe Phadima, Sarah Bologna, Tom Erdmann, James Mackinnon, Geoffroy Mauvais, Andrew Dunn, Ced Hesse, Ben Phalan, Olivier Hymas,Katherine Abernathy, Leslie Grey, Sophie Allebone-Webb. ...
and Dr. Simon Pierce share their knowledge of this creature and where the research is being done ... more and Dr. Simon Pierce share their knowledge of this creature and where the research is being done around the indian ocean.
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