Papers by Susan Richardson
Journal of environmental sciences (China), 2017
Lead contamination in the City of Flint, MI has been well documented over the past two years, wit... more Lead contamination in the City of Flint, MI has been well documented over the past two years, with lead levels above the EPA Action Level until summer 2016. This resulted from an ill-fated decision to switch from Detroit water (Lake Huron) with corrosion control, to Flint River water without corrosion control. Although lead levels are now closer to normal, reports of skin rashes have sparked questions surrounding tap water in some Flint homes. This study investigated the presence of contaminants, including disinfection by-products (DBPs), in the hot tap water used for showering in the homes of residents in Flint. Extensive quantitative analysis of 61 regulated and priority unregulated DBPs was conducted in Flint hot and cold tap water, along with the analysis of 50 volatile organic compounds and a nontarget comprehensive, broadscreen analysis, to identify a possible source for the reported skin rashes. For comparison, chlorinated hot and cold waters from three other cities were also...
Environmental science & technology, Jan 21, 2015
The introduction of drinking water disinfection greatly reduced waterborne diseases. However, the... more The introduction of drinking water disinfection greatly reduced waterborne diseases. However, the reaction between disinfectants and natural organic matter in the source water leads to an unintended consequence, the formation of drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The haloacetaldehydes (HALs) are the third largest group by weight of identified DBPs in drinking water. The primary objective of this study was to analyze the occurrence and comparative toxicity of the emerging HAL DBPs. A new HAL DBP, iodoacetaldehyde (IAL) was identified. This study provided the first systematic, quantitative comparison of HAL toxicity in Chinese hamster ovary cells. The rank order of HAL cytotoxicity is tribromoacetaldehyde (TBAL) ≈ chloroacetaldehyde (CAL) > dibromoacetaldehyde (DBAL) ≈ bromochloroacetaldehyde (BCAL) ≈ dibromochloroacetaldehyde (DBCAL) > IAL > bromoacetaldehyde (BAL) ≈ bromodichloroacetaldehyde (BDCAL) > dichloroacetaldehyde (DCAL) > trichloroacetaldehyde (TC...
Environmental Science & Technology, 2006
A survey of disinfection byproduct (DBP) occurrence in the United States was conducted at 12 drin... more A survey of disinfection byproduct (DBP) occurrence in the United States was conducted at 12 drinking water treatment plants. In addition to currently regulated DBPs, more than 50 DBPs that rated a high priority for potential toxicity were studied. These priority DBPs included iodinated trihalomethanes (THMs), other halomethanes, a nonregulated haloacid, haloacetonitriles, haloketones, halonitromethanes, haloaldehydes, halogenated furanones, haloamides, and nonhalogenated carbonyls. The purpose of this study was to obtain quantitative occurrence information for new DBPs (beyond those currently regulated and/or studied) for prioritizing future health effects studies. An effort was made to select plants treating water that was high in total organic carbon and/or bromide to enable the detection of priority DBPs that contained bromine and/or iodine. THMs and haloacetic acids (HAAs) represented the two major classes of halogenated DBPs formed on a weight basis. Haloacetaldehydes represented the third major class formed in many of the waters. In addition to obtaining quantitative occurrence data, important new information was discovered or confirmed at full-scale plants on the formation and control of DBPs with alternative disinfectants to chlorine. Although the use of alternative disinfectants (ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramines) minimized the formation of the four regulated THMs, trihalogenated HAAs, and total organic halogen (TOX), several priority DBPs were formed at higher levels with the alternative disinfectants as compared with chlorine. For example, the highest levels of iodinated THMs-which are not part of the four regulated THMs-were found at a plant that used chloramination with no prechlorination. The highest concentration of dichloroacetaldehyde was at a plant that used chloramines and ozone; however, this disinfection scheme reduced the formation of trichloroacetaldehyde. Preozonation was found to increase the formation of trihalonitromethanes. In addition to the chlorinated furanones that have been measured previously, brominated furanones-which have seldom been analyzed-were detected, especially in high-bromide waters. The presence of bromide resulted in a shift to the formation of other bromine-containing DBPs not normally measured (e.g., brominated ketones, acetaldehydes, nitromethanes, acetamides). Collectively, -30 and 39% of the TOX and total organic bromine, respectively, were accounted for (on a median basis) bythe sum of the measured halogenated DBPs. In addition, 28 new, previously unidentified DBPs were detected. These included brominated and iodinated haloacids, a brominated ketone, and chlorinated and iodinated aldehydes.
Mutation Research-genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 2004
A battery of in vitro short-term tests revealing different genetic end-points was set up in order... more A battery of in vitro short-term tests revealing different genetic end-points was set up in order to study surface-water genotoxicity after disinfection with different biocides: sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and peracetic acid (PAA). The surface water both before and after disinfection was concentrated by adsorption on C18 silica cartridges and the concentrates containing non-volatile organics were divided into
Environmental Science & Technology, 1996
Chemosphere, 2014
Potential impacts of the International Ballast Water Management Convention are discussed. Chemica... more Potential impacts of the International Ballast Water Management Convention are discussed. Chemical ballast water treatment effectively reduces the risk of aquatic species invasions. Oxidative water treatment forms disinfection by-products that may harm humans and marine biota. The established risk assessment disregards multiple exposures and long-term sub-lethal effects. Holistic assessment of ballast water management needs to cover many additional factors.
Water Research, 2004
The aim of this study was to evaluate the formation of toxic and genotoxic compounds in surface d... more The aim of this study was to evaluate the formation of toxic and genotoxic compounds in surface drinking waters treated with two widely used disinfectants, sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and chlorine dioxide (ClO(2)), and a new disinfectant, peracetic acid (PAA). For this purpose a pilot plant was set up to add these biocides continuously to pre-filtered lake water flowing into three different basins. During three seasonal experiments, short-term in vivo tests (with plant, fish and molluscs) and in vitro tests (with bacteria, yeast and human cells) were carried out to evaluate the formation of genotoxic disinfection by-products (DBPs). Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to identify DBPs produced during the different treatments, microbiological analyses were performed to test the biocidal activity of the disinfectants, and chemical analyses were carried out to evaluate the quality of the water. The pilot drinking water plant under study was useful in studying the toxicity and genotoxicity of disinfected drinking water with this combined chemical/biotoxicological approach. This paper describes the setting up of the pilot plant and sets out/reports the results of the microbiological and chemical analyses.
Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 2007
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when disinfectants (chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide,... more Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when disinfectants (chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, or chloramines) react with naturally occurring organic matter, anthropogenic contaminants, bromide, and iodide during the production of drinking water. Here we review 30 years of research on the occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of 85 DBPs, 11 of which are currently regulated by the U.S., and 74 of which are considered emerging DBPs due to their moderate occurrence levels and/or toxicological properties. These 74 include halonitromethanes, iodo-acids and other unregulated halo-acids, iodo-trihalomethanes (THMs), and other unregulated halomethanes, halofuranones (MX [3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone] and brominated MX DBPs), haloamides, haloacetonitriles, tribromopyrrole, aldehydes, and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and other nitrosamines. Alternative disinfection practices result in drinking water from which extracted organic material is less mutagenic than extracts of chlorinated water. However, the levels of many emerging DBPs are increased by alternative disinfectants (primarily ozone or chloramines) compared to chlorination, and many emerging DBPs are more genotoxic than some of the regulated DBPs. Our analysis identified three categories of DBPs of particular interest. Category 1 contains eight DBPs with some or all of the toxicologic characteristics of human carcinogens: four regulated (bromodichloromethane, dichloroacetic acid, dibromoacetic acid, and bromate) and four unregulated DBPs (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, MX, and NDMA). Categories 2 and 3 contain 43 emerging DBPs that are present at moderate levels (sub-to low-mg/L): category 2 contains 29 of these that are genotoxic (including chloral hydrate and chloroacetaldehyde, which are also a rodent carcinogens); category 3 contains the remaining 14 for which little or no toxicological data are available. In general, the brominated DBPs are both more genotoxic and carcinogenic than are chlorinated compounds, and iodinated DBPs were the most genotoxic of all but have not been tested for carcinogenicity. There were toxicological data gaps for even some of the 11 regulated DBPs, as well as for most of the 74 emerging DBPs. A systematic assessment of DBPs for genotoxicity has been performed for $60 DBPs for DNA damage in mammalian cells and 16 for mutagenicity in Salmonella. A recent epidemiologic study found that much of the risk for bladder cancer associated with drinking water was associated with three factors: THM levels, showering/bathing/swimming (i.e., dermal/inhalation exposure), and genotype (having the GSTT1-1 gene). This finding, along with mechanistic studies, highlights the emerging importance of dermal/ inhalation exposure to the THMs, or possibly other DBPs, and the role of genotype for risk for drinking-water-associated bladder cancer. More than 50% of the total organic halogen (TOX) formed by chlorination and more than 50% of the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) formed by ozonation has not been identified chemically. The potential interactions among the 600 identified DBPs in the complex mixture of drinking water to which we are exposed by various routes is not reflected in any of the toxicology studies of individual DBPs. The categories of DBPs described here, the identified data gaps, and the emerging role of dermal/inhalation exposure provide guidance for drinking water and public health research. #
Medical Mycology, 2009
We report a case of fungal peritonitis from which a novel Candida species was isolated. Phylogene... more We report a case of fungal peritonitis from which a novel Candida species was isolated. Phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences from the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the D1/D2 domains of the large subunit (LSU) rRNA gene show that the Candida species is distinct from, but related to, the human pathogenic species, C. parapsilosis, C. orthopsilosis, C. metapsilosis, C. tropicalis, C. albicans, and C. dubliniensis. Candida subhashii M. Groenewald, Sigler et Richardson sp. nov. is described.
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2008
Epidemiological and animal toxicity studies have raised concerns regarding possible adverse healt... more Epidemiological and animal toxicity studies have raised concerns regarding possible adverse health effects of disinfection by-products (DBPs) found in drinking water. The classes and concentrations of DBPs are influenced by the choice of disinfection process (e.g., chlorination, ozonation) as well as source water characteristics (e.g., pH, total organic carbon, bromide content). Disinfected waters were found to contain more than 500 compounds, many of which remain unidentified. Therefore, a "whole-mixture" approach was used to evaluate the toxic potential of alternative disinfection scenarios. An in vivo developmental toxicity screen was used to evaluate the adverse developmental effects of the complex mixtures produced by two different disinfection processes. Water was obtained from East Fork Lake, Ohio; spiked with iodide and bromide; and disinfected either by chlorination or by ozonation/postchlorination, producing finished drinking water suitable for human consumption. These waters were concentrated approximately 130-fold by reverse osmosis membrane techniques. To the extent possible, volatile DBPs lost in the concentration process were spiked back into the concentrates. These concentrates were then provided as drinking water to Sprague-Dawley rats on gestation days 6-16; controls received boiled, distilled, deionized water. The dams (19-20 per group) were allowed to deliver and their litters were examined on postnatal days (PD) 1 and 6. All dams delivered normally, with parturition occurring significantly earlier in the ozonation/postchlorination group. However, no effects on prenatal survival, postnatal survival, or pup weight were evident. Skeletal examination of the PD-6 pups also revealed no treatment effects. Thus, approximately 130-fold higher concentrates of both ozonated/postchlorinated and chlorinated water appeared to exert no adverse developmental effects in this study.
Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry, 2005
Four highly-fluorinated alkyl and aryl chloroformates, including 2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5-octafluoro-1pent... more Four highly-fluorinated alkyl and aryl chloroformates, including 2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5-octafluoro-1pentyl chloroformate (OFPCF), 2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorobenzyl chloroformate (PFBCF), , and 2-(2,3,4,5,6pentafluorophenoxy)-ethyl chloroformate (PFPECF), were synthesized and tested as reagents for the direct water derivatization of polar and hydrophilic analytes. The goal of this research was to develop an optimal derivatizing agent to aid in the identification of highly polar ozonation drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) that are believed to be missed with current analytical procedures. The chemical properties (reactivity, selectivity, derivatization products, and their chromatographic and spectral features) for the four chloroformates were investigated using a set of highly polar standard analytes, including malic and tartaric acids, hydroxylamine, valine, 2-aminoethanol, resorcinol, 1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene, and 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. Upon derivatization, the analytes were extracted from the aqueous solvent and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS) in the electron capture negative ionization (ECNI) mode. Positive chemical ionization (PCI)-MS was used for confirmation of molecular ions that were weak or absent in ECNI mass spectra. Of the four derivatizing reagents tested, OFPCF showed the best performance, with good reaction efficiency, good chromatographic and spectroscopic properties, low detection limits (10 -100 fmol), and a linear response more than two orders of magnitude. Further, the entire procedure from raw aqueous sample to ready-to-inject hexane solutions of the derivatives requires less than 10 min. PFBCF showed ideal applicability for derivatizing aminoalcohols and aminoacids. The two chloroformates with the highest intrinsic stability (TDFOCF and PFPECF) failed to derivatize some of the analytes. Finally, the OFPCF derivatizing agent was tested with simulated ozonated drinking water (aqueous fulvic acid treated with ozone), and three highly polar reaction by-products were determined. (J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2005, 16, 803-813)
Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 1999
Using a combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography/infrar... more Using a combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography/infrared spectroscopy (GC/IR) spectroscopic techniques, chemical contaminants and their hydrolysis products were identified in well water sampled in connection with a suspected childhood cancer cluster located in Dover Township, Ocean County, New Jersey. The drinking water contamination resulted from the leaching of industrial waste chemicals from drums that were disposed of at the site known as Reich Farm. Contaminants identified include dinitrile-tetralin compounds, known as 'trimers,' that are by-products of a polymerization process widely used by several polymer manufactures during the 1970s and 1980s (and still used today). Also identified were 'trimer' hydrolysis products, formed by the hydrolysis of their nitrile groups to amides. These industrial contaminants were not present in any of the mass or IR spectral library databases, and their identification required unconventional spectroscopic methods (including high resolution mass spectrometry, chemical ionization mass spectrometry, and IR spectroscopy), along with scientific reasoning and interpretation. It is currently not known whether these chemical contaminants are responsible for the childhood cancers observed in this area.
Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 2011
Cosolvent flushing is a technique that has been proposed for the removal of hydrophobic organic c... more Cosolvent flushing is a technique that has been proposed for the removal of hydrophobic organic contaminants in the subsurface. Cosolvents have been shown to dramatically increase the solubility of such compounds compared to the aqueous solubility; however, limited data are available on the effectiveness of cosolvents for field-contaminated media. In this work, we examine cosolvent flushing for the removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil from a former manufactured gas plant (FMGP). Batch studies confirmed that the relationship between the soil-cosolvent partitioning coefficient (K(i)) and the volume fraction of cosolvent (f(c)) followed a standard log-linear equation. Using methanol at an fc of 0.95, column studies were conducted at varying length scales, ranging from 11.9 to 110 cm. Removal of PAH compounds was determined as a function of pore volumes (PVs) of cosolvent flushed. Despite using a high f(c), rate and chromatographic effects were observed in all the columns. PAH effluent concentrations were modeled using a common two-site sorption model. Model fits were improved by using MeOH breakthrough curves to determine fitted dispersion coefficients. Fitted mass-transfer rates were two to three orders of magnitude lower than predicted values based on published data using artificially contaminated sands.
Helvetica Chimica Acta, 2004
ABSTRACT A rapid, safe, and efficient procedure was developed to synthesize, on a small scale, fl... more ABSTRACT A rapid, safe, and efficient procedure was developed to synthesize, on a small scale, fluorinated chloroformates often required to perform analytical derivatizations. This new family of agents allows straightforward derivatization of highly polar compounds (with multiple hydroxy, carboxy, and amino substituents) in the aqueous phase, compatible with GC and GC/MS analysis. A goal of this work was to develop a derivatization procedure that would enable the detection and identification of highly polar disinfection by-products in drinking water.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 1991
By using gas chromatography coupled with low-and high-resolution electron-impact mass spectrometr... more By using gas chromatography coupled with low-and high-resolution electron-impact mass spectrometry, low-and high-resolution chemical ionization mass spectrometry, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, eight straight-chain aldehydes were identified in a water sample taken from the overflow pipe of a municipal sewer line that contained a combination of industrial and domestic sewage. This combination of infrared and mass spectral techniques yielded precise identifications of n-hexanal, n-heptanal, 2-heptenal, n-octanal, 2-octenal, n-nonanal, 2-decenal, and 2undecenal. These findings were significant because few straight-chain aldehydes have been identified in the environment, and all those previously found were saturated.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2004
Halonitromethanes are drinking water disinfection byproducts that have recently received a high p... more Halonitromethanes are drinking water disinfection byproducts that have recently received a high priority for health effects research from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Our purpose was to identify and synthesize where necessary the mixed halonitromethanes and to determine the chronic cytotoxicity and the acute genotoxicity of these agents in mammalian cells. The halonitromethanes included bromonitromethane (BNM), dibromonitromethane (DBNM), tribromonitromethane (TBNM), bromochloronitromethane (BCNM), dibromochloronitromethane (DBCNM), bromodichloronitromethane (BDCNM), chloronitromethane (CNM), dichloronitromethane (DCNM), and trichloronitromethane (TCNM). Low- and high-resolution gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to identify the mixed chloro-bromonitromethanes in finished drinking waters, and analytical standards that were not commercially available were synthesized (BDCNM, DBCNM, TBNM, CNM, DCNM, BCNM). The rank order of their chronic cytotoxicity (72 h exposure) to Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells was DBNM > DBCNM > BNM > TBNM > BDCNM > BCNM > DCNM > CNM > TCNM. The rank order to induce genomic DNA damage in CHO cells was DBNM > BDCNM > TBNM > TCNM > BNM > DBCNM > BCNM > DCNM > CNM. The brominated nitromethanes were more cytotoxic and genotoxic than their chlorinated analogues. This research demonstrated the integration of the procedures for the analytical chemistry and analytical biology when working with limited amounts of sample. The halonitromethanes are potent mammalian cell cytotoxins and genotoxins and may pose a hazard to the public health and the environment.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2004
Iodoacid drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) were recently uncovered in drinking water ... more Iodoacid drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) were recently uncovered in drinking water samples from source water with a high bromide/iodide concentration that was disinfected with chloramines. The purpose of this paper is to report the analytical chemical identification of iodoacetic acid (IA) and other iodoacids in drinking water samples, to address the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of IA in Salmonella typhimurium and mammalian cells, and to report a structure-function analysis of IA with its chlorinated and brominated monohalogenated analogues. The iodoacid DBPs were identified as iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (Z)- and (E)-3-bromo-3-iodopropenoic acid, and (E)-2-iodo-3-methylbutenedioic acid. IA represents a new class (iodoacid DBPs) of highly toxic drinking water contaminants. The cytotoxicity of IA in S. typhimurium was 2.9x and 53.5x higher than bromoacetic acid (BA) and chloroacetic acid (CA), respectively. A similar trend was found with cytotoxicity in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells; IA was 3.2x and 287.5x more potent than BA and CA, respectively. This rank order was also expressed in its genotoxicity with IA being 2.6x and 523.3x more mutagenic in S. typhimurium strain TA100 than BA and CA, respectively. IA was 2.0x more genotoxic than BA and 47.2x more genotoxic than CA in CHO cells. The rank order of the toxicity of these monohalogenated acetic acids is correlated with the electrophilic reactivity of the DBPs. IA is the most toxic and genotoxic DBP in mammalian cells reported in the literature. These data suggest that chloraminated drinking waters that have high bromide and iodide source waters may contain these iodoacids and most likely other iodo-DBPs. Ultimately, it will be important to know the levels at which these iodoacids occur in drinking water in order to assess the potential for adverse environmental and human health risks.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2006
Drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are generated by the chemical disinfection of water... more Drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are generated by the chemical disinfection of water and may pose a hazard to the public health. Previously we demonstrated that iodoacetic acid was the most cytotoxic and genotoxic DBP analyzed in a mammalian cell system. Little is known of the mechanisms of its genotoxicity. The involvement of oxidative stress in the toxicity of iodoacetic acid was analyzed with the antioxidants catalase and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA). lodoacetic acid toxicity was quantitatively measured with and without antioxidants in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA100 and with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. The endpoints included cytotoxicity in S. typhimurium or in CHO cells, mutagenicity in S. typhimurium, and genotoxicity in CHO cells. Neither catalase nor BHA reduced the level of iodoacetic acid induced cytotoxicity in S. typhimurium. In CHO cells neither antioxidant caused a significant reduction in iodoacetic acid induced cytotoxicity. However, in S. typhimurium, BHA or catalase reduced the mutagenicity of iodoacetic acid by 33.5 and 26.8%, respectively. Likewise, BHA or catalase reduced iodoacetic acid induced genomic DNA damage by 86.5 and 42%, respectively. These results support the hypothesis that oxidative stress is involved in the induction of genotoxicity and mutagenicity by iodoacetic acid.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2008
An occurrence study was conducted to measure five iodo-acids (iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic ac... more An occurrence study was conducted to measure five iodo-acids (iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (Z)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, and (E)-2-iodo-3-methylbutenedioic acid) and two iodo-trihalomethanes (iodo-THMs), (dichloroiodomethane and bromochloroiodomethane) in chloraminated and chlorinated drinking waters from 23 cities in the United States and Canada. Since iodoacetic acid was previouslyfound to be genotoxic in mammalian cells, the iodo-acids and iodo-THMs were analyzed for toxicity. A gas chromatography (GC)/negative chemical ionization-mass spectrometry (MS) method was developed to measure the iodo-acids; iodo-THMs were measured using GC/high resolution electron ionization-MS with isotope dilution. The iodo-acids and iodo-THMs were found in waters from most plants, at maximum levels of 1.7 microg/L (iodoacetic acid), 1.4 microg/L (bromoiodoacetic acid), 0.50 microg/L ((Z)-3-bromo-3-iodopropenoic acid), 0.28 microg/L ((E)-3-bromo-3-iodopropenoic acid), 0.58 microg/L ((E)-2-iodo-3-methylbutenedioic acid), 10.2 microg/L (bromochloroiodomethane), and 7.9 microg/L (dichloroiodomethane). Iodo-acids and iodo-THMs were highest at plants with short free chlorine contact times (< 1 min), and were lowest at a chlorine-only plant or at plants with long free chlorine contact times (> 45 min). Iodide levels in source waters ranged from 0.4 to 104.2 microg/L (when detected), but there was not a consistent correlation between bromide and iodide. The rank order for mammalian cell chronic cytotoxicity of the compounds measured in this study, plus other iodinated compounds, was iodoacetic acid > (E)-3-bromo-2-iodopropenoic acid > iodoform > (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid > (Z)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid > diiodoacetic acid > bromoiodoacetic acid > (E)-2-iodo-3-methylbutenedioic acid…
Environmental Science & Technology, 1999
Due to concern over the presence of trihalomethanes (THMs) and other chlorinated byproducts in ch... more Due to concern over the presence of trihalomethanes (THMs) and other chlorinated byproducts in chlorinated drinking water, alternative disinfection methods are being explored. One of the alternative treatment methods currently being evaluated for potential ...
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Papers by Susan Richardson