ABSTRACT Prior research on co-operation and competition has established that co-operative goal re... more ABSTRACT Prior research on co-operation and competition has established that co-operative goal relationships with government units are beneficial to business enterprises operating in China. We report a quantitative study, conducted in Shanghai and based on 119 paired responses by government officials and business managers, which sought to establish the antecedents of co-operative business–government goal relationships. We found that business enterprises in China that were represented by managers with favorable attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility were considered by government officials as more inclined to engage in reflexivity, i.e. to hold open discussions with them about organizational objectives and procedures, with a view to mutual adjustment and improvement. Greater reflexivity was, in turn, more likely to lead to business–government relationships based on co-operative rather than independent or competitive goals. Given the considerable importance of business–government relationships in China, these findings imply that concern for corporate social responsibility (CSR) may be advantageous for firms there, and we discuss how the HRM function may contribute to development of suitable CSR policies, projects and practices, to greater reflexivity, and to the increased likelihood of establishing co-operative goals.
Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2014
Researchers have used various concepts to understand the conditions and dynamics by which conflic... more Researchers have used various concepts to understand the conditions and dynamics by which conflict can be managed constructively. This review proposes that the variety of terms obscures consistent findings that open-minded discussions in which protagonists freely express their own views, listen and understand opposing ones, and then integrate them promote constructive conflict. Studies from several traditions also suggest that mutual benefit relationships are critical antecedents for open-minded discussion. This integration of research findings identifies the skills and relationships that can help managers and employees deal with their increasingly complex conflicts. Research is needed to deepen our understanding of the dynamics of open-minded discussion and the conditions that promote it as well as when open-mindedness is inappropriate. Training studies can test and show how the model of open-minded discussion supported by mutual benefit relationships can be applied in cross-cultur...
This chapter proposes that the theory of cooperation and competition can help understand, develop... more This chapter proposes that the theory of cooperation and competition can help understand, develop and manage interdependence within and between organizations to facilitate these reforms and contribute to Chinese society and people. We also argue that the theory does not impose Western values and practices, but that Chinese people can use the theory to help them express their values and beliefs and develop their practices so that they are appropriate and effective for them and for their society
ABSTRACT The possibility of opportunistic behavior where partners pursue their self-interests wit... more ABSTRACT The possibility of opportunistic behavior where partners pursue their self-interests with guile threatens relationships, disrupts work accomplishment, and frustrates future collaboration in the supply chain. This study hypothesizes that opportunism is not just the result of people’s pursuit of self-interests but depends on how they consider their self-interests are related to each other. When partners believe that their goals are competitively or independently rather than cooperatively related, they are more likely to pursue their self-interests opportunistically. Data were developed from 86 face-to-face interviews in Beijing, Nanchang, and Guangzhou, China, from representatives who described specific incidents of supply chain collaboration with their partners. Structural equation modeling results supported the model that competitive and independent goals but not cooperative ones induced opportunism that frustrated relationships, work productivity, confidence in future collaboration, and innovation in the supply chain.
Teams are increasingly recognized as critical for strategy, innovation, and other key organizatio... more Teams are increasingly recognized as critical for strategy, innovation, and other key organizational activities. This study used the theory of cooperation and competition to identify conditions that promote student team effectiveness in Hong Kong university undergraduate strategic management courses. Results from 70 teams across 12 classes indicate that groups with cooperative goals engaged in the open-minded constructive controversy; teams with independent goals avoided open discussion. Teams with a high level of constructive controversy rated themselves as effective; these teams also were rated as giving high quality presentations as measured by instructors’ marks but this result was not statistically significant. These results suggest that structuring cooperative teams can help students perform well in the classroom and may help prepared them to work in the emerging team organization.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 2000
This paper argues that developing productive relationships is an essential capability of effectiv... more This paper argues that developing productive relationships is an essential capability of effective leaders. Research both in the East and the West has demonstrated that managers who develop effective relationships motivate and inspire employees to solve problems and perform effectively. It is widely recognized that leadership is a performing art, not an intellectual pursuit. Our argument, however, is that theory can guide leadership practice. Indeed, leaders can be credible by the consistent use of a theory to develop their relationships with individual employees and among employees. The particular ways that they apply the theory will depend upon the employees, the situation, and themselves. This paper first reviews the theory of cooperation and competition and then briefly summarizes research support. The second part of the paper explores major ways that managers and employees can apply the theory to develop productive work relationships.
Researchers have shown that the effectiveness of leaders depends to a great extent on their capac... more Researchers have shown that the effectiveness of leaders depends to a great extent on their capacity to develop productive teamwork among followers. This study proposes that servant leadership, as it emphasizes service to others, team consensus, and the personal development of individuals, lays the groundwork for effective coordination among team members so that together they serve their customers. The study collected data from 113 customer service teams from a sample of consumer electronics retailing firms in Beijing, China. Our findings indicate that to the extent that they have servant leaders, teams are able to discuss their disagreements, frustrations, and difficulties directly and work out solutions for the benefit of the team and their customers. These results provide support to the notion that improving the capacity to manage conflict cooperatively can be a useful means for servant leaders to enhance teamwork and customer service in China and perhaps in other countries as well.
International Journal of Conflict Management, 2015
Purpose – This study aims to examine the conditions that help businesses develop confidence in th... more Purpose – This study aims to examine the conditions that help businesses develop confidence in their government regulators. Businesses are dependent upon governments and subject to their regulations. This study proposes that businesses and governments that confirm each other’s social face have the relationship that helps businesses become confident in their government regulators. It also uses the theory of cooperation and competition to identify when they confirm social face. Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected in Shanghai, China, from government bodies and business organizations from diverse industries. One hundred forty-six pairs of government officials and business managers provided us data for our analysis. Findings – Structural equation analysis suggests that cooperative, but not competitive or independent, goals provide the foundation for mutual confirmation of social face that in turn results in business confidence that the government is competent, caring and re...
ABSTRACT Regulations are often thought to be impediments to collaboration between governments and... more ABSTRACT Regulations are often thought to be impediments to collaboration between governments and businesses; however, governments and businesses are increasingly forming partnerships to help them negotiate regulation issues and more broadly work together. This study argues that governments, by exercising transformational leadership, lay the foundation for the cooperative approach, in contrast to the competitive and avoiding approaches, to conflict management that in turn results in effective partnerships. Findings from 146 pairs of government regulators and business support the hypothesis, though the evidence for the ineffectiveness of avoiding conflict was not statistically significant. Specifically, structural equation analysis results support the model that transformational leadership fosters cooperative approach to conflict and reduces competitive conflict management that in turn result in respectful, effective partnerships that develop industries.
ABSTRACT Prior research on co-operation and competition has established that co-operative goal re... more ABSTRACT Prior research on co-operation and competition has established that co-operative goal relationships with government units are beneficial to business enterprises operating in China. We report a quantitative study, conducted in Shanghai and based on 119 paired responses by government officials and business managers, which sought to establish the antecedents of co-operative business–government goal relationships. We found that business enterprises in China that were represented by managers with favorable attitudes toward ethics and social responsibility were considered by government officials as more inclined to engage in reflexivity, i.e. to hold open discussions with them about organizational objectives and procedures, with a view to mutual adjustment and improvement. Greater reflexivity was, in turn, more likely to lead to business–government relationships based on co-operative rather than independent or competitive goals. Given the considerable importance of business–government relationships in China, these findings imply that concern for corporate social responsibility (CSR) may be advantageous for firms there, and we discuss how the HRM function may contribute to development of suitable CSR policies, projects and practices, to greater reflexivity, and to the increased likelihood of establishing co-operative goals.
Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2014
Researchers have used various concepts to understand the conditions and dynamics by which conflic... more Researchers have used various concepts to understand the conditions and dynamics by which conflict can be managed constructively. This review proposes that the variety of terms obscures consistent findings that open-minded discussions in which protagonists freely express their own views, listen and understand opposing ones, and then integrate them promote constructive conflict. Studies from several traditions also suggest that mutual benefit relationships are critical antecedents for open-minded discussion. This integration of research findings identifies the skills and relationships that can help managers and employees deal with their increasingly complex conflicts. Research is needed to deepen our understanding of the dynamics of open-minded discussion and the conditions that promote it as well as when open-mindedness is inappropriate. Training studies can test and show how the model of open-minded discussion supported by mutual benefit relationships can be applied in cross-cultur...
This chapter proposes that the theory of cooperation and competition can help understand, develop... more This chapter proposes that the theory of cooperation and competition can help understand, develop and manage interdependence within and between organizations to facilitate these reforms and contribute to Chinese society and people. We also argue that the theory does not impose Western values and practices, but that Chinese people can use the theory to help them express their values and beliefs and develop their practices so that they are appropriate and effective for them and for their society
ABSTRACT The possibility of opportunistic behavior where partners pursue their self-interests wit... more ABSTRACT The possibility of opportunistic behavior where partners pursue their self-interests with guile threatens relationships, disrupts work accomplishment, and frustrates future collaboration in the supply chain. This study hypothesizes that opportunism is not just the result of people’s pursuit of self-interests but depends on how they consider their self-interests are related to each other. When partners believe that their goals are competitively or independently rather than cooperatively related, they are more likely to pursue their self-interests opportunistically. Data were developed from 86 face-to-face interviews in Beijing, Nanchang, and Guangzhou, China, from representatives who described specific incidents of supply chain collaboration with their partners. Structural equation modeling results supported the model that competitive and independent goals but not cooperative ones induced opportunism that frustrated relationships, work productivity, confidence in future collaboration, and innovation in the supply chain.
Teams are increasingly recognized as critical for strategy, innovation, and other key organizatio... more Teams are increasingly recognized as critical for strategy, innovation, and other key organizational activities. This study used the theory of cooperation and competition to identify conditions that promote student team effectiveness in Hong Kong university undergraduate strategic management courses. Results from 70 teams across 12 classes indicate that groups with cooperative goals engaged in the open-minded constructive controversy; teams with independent goals avoided open discussion. Teams with a high level of constructive controversy rated themselves as effective; these teams also were rated as giving high quality presentations as measured by instructors’ marks but this result was not statistically significant. These results suggest that structuring cooperative teams can help students perform well in the classroom and may help prepared them to work in the emerging team organization.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 2000
This paper argues that developing productive relationships is an essential capability of effectiv... more This paper argues that developing productive relationships is an essential capability of effective leaders. Research both in the East and the West has demonstrated that managers who develop effective relationships motivate and inspire employees to solve problems and perform effectively. It is widely recognized that leadership is a performing art, not an intellectual pursuit. Our argument, however, is that theory can guide leadership practice. Indeed, leaders can be credible by the consistent use of a theory to develop their relationships with individual employees and among employees. The particular ways that they apply the theory will depend upon the employees, the situation, and themselves. This paper first reviews the theory of cooperation and competition and then briefly summarizes research support. The second part of the paper explores major ways that managers and employees can apply the theory to develop productive work relationships.
Researchers have shown that the effectiveness of leaders depends to a great extent on their capac... more Researchers have shown that the effectiveness of leaders depends to a great extent on their capacity to develop productive teamwork among followers. This study proposes that servant leadership, as it emphasizes service to others, team consensus, and the personal development of individuals, lays the groundwork for effective coordination among team members so that together they serve their customers. The study collected data from 113 customer service teams from a sample of consumer electronics retailing firms in Beijing, China. Our findings indicate that to the extent that they have servant leaders, teams are able to discuss their disagreements, frustrations, and difficulties directly and work out solutions for the benefit of the team and their customers. These results provide support to the notion that improving the capacity to manage conflict cooperatively can be a useful means for servant leaders to enhance teamwork and customer service in China and perhaps in other countries as well.
International Journal of Conflict Management, 2015
Purpose – This study aims to examine the conditions that help businesses develop confidence in th... more Purpose – This study aims to examine the conditions that help businesses develop confidence in their government regulators. Businesses are dependent upon governments and subject to their regulations. This study proposes that businesses and governments that confirm each other’s social face have the relationship that helps businesses become confident in their government regulators. It also uses the theory of cooperation and competition to identify when they confirm social face. Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected in Shanghai, China, from government bodies and business organizations from diverse industries. One hundred forty-six pairs of government officials and business managers provided us data for our analysis. Findings – Structural equation analysis suggests that cooperative, but not competitive or independent, goals provide the foundation for mutual confirmation of social face that in turn results in business confidence that the government is competent, caring and re...
ABSTRACT Regulations are often thought to be impediments to collaboration between governments and... more ABSTRACT Regulations are often thought to be impediments to collaboration between governments and businesses; however, governments and businesses are increasingly forming partnerships to help them negotiate regulation issues and more broadly work together. This study argues that governments, by exercising transformational leadership, lay the foundation for the cooperative approach, in contrast to the competitive and avoiding approaches, to conflict management that in turn results in effective partnerships. Findings from 146 pairs of government regulators and business support the hypothesis, though the evidence for the ineffectiveness of avoiding conflict was not statistically significant. Specifically, structural equation analysis results support the model that transformational leadership fosters cooperative approach to conflict and reduces competitive conflict management that in turn result in respectful, effective partnerships that develop industries.
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Papers by Alfred Wong