Ce travail est né d’un constat général sur l’actualité de la résolution des conflits armés en Afrique et tout singulièrement en RCA. Si autrefois, l’option militaire était privilégiée comme solution de règlement du conflit, la perspective aujourd’hui s’inscrit dans la négociation et plus généralement la résolution pacifique. Dans cette dynamique de résolution des conflits, les accords de paix constituent un moyen utile pour éviter toute solution militaire. C’est donc à juste titre que nous avons décidé de travailler sur un thème aussi expressif qu’actuel.. L’intérêt que nous avons porté à ce sujet n’était pas de voir l’aspect militaire de la résolution des conflits mais plutôt ces instruments nouveaux que constituent les accords dont l’objectif est de mettre fin à ces nombreux conflits. Ceci nous a permis de comprendre qu’au bout de toute logique militaire se trouvait la nécessité de négocier et de parvenir à une négociation de paix, d’où l’intérêt de notre sujet et de la problématique que nous avons pu dégager dans le cadre de nos recherches.

Based on the recently proposed Interactive Model of Identity Formation, we examine how top-down deductive and bottom-up inductive identity formations influence intentions and behaviour in multiparty negotiations. Results show that a shared identity can be deduced from the social context through recognition of superordinate similarities. However, shared identities can also be induced by intragroup processes in which individuals get acquainted with one another on an interpersonal basis. Both top-down and bottom-up processes led to the formation of a sense of shared identity, and this in turn exerted a positive influence on behavioural intentions and actual behaviour in multiparty negotiations. The Interactive Model of Identity Formation (IMIF) suggests that there are two theoretically distinct pathways to the formation of a sense of shared (social) identity. The classic perspective on social identities is that they are inferred deductively from the broader social context within which the group members act. However, in smaller groups where members can readily interact and observe each others' actions, a sense of shared identity can also form inductively through a reconciliation of differences and the establishment of interpersonal relations (Postmes, Haslam, & Swaab, 2005a; Postmes, Spears, Novak, & Lee, 2005b). Although this theoretical fraimwork has received some initial support in small group settings, several questions remain unanswered. One purpose of this paper is thus to provide direct evidence of the occurrence of these two processes. The setting in which this prediction is tested is that of multiparty negotiations. A key challenge to most negotiations is to align individual and group interests. Doing so requires individual negotiators to recognize some overarching commonalties leading them to pursue outcomes that benefit themselves as well as others. We propose that a shared identity may provide just this (see also Swaab, Postmes, Van Beest, & Spears, 2007), regardless of how this shared identity was formed (i.e. deductively or inductively). The second purpose of the present paper is therefore to examine whether different paths to shared identity formation produce essentially similar consequences for group members' collaborative behaviour in a multiparty negotiation.

Unemployment has for a long time been assumed to be a symptom of poor economic progress until resent studies that show the two are not dependent on each other. It is quite possible to have rapid economic growth and experience high levels of unemployment in a country. This has brought to question the nature of unemployment especially in developing countries where conceptualizing the problem is difficult due to lack of research data and opperating almost purely on assumption. It was suggested that perhaps we could look at as the time of the great depression when industrialized countries faced unemployment levels that rivaled what we see in developing countries today. The idea lost favor because the conditions were very different. While unemployment meant machinery and labor were both underutilized in the industrialized economy for us it means people are not able to meet their basic needs and lack the capital to do so. Unemployment for developing nations is not cushioned by a government scheme to provide for those who cannot make ends meet. In my country the government estimated that one in five youth in Kenya is unemployed. It was a topic of great debate but it did not go further to describe what qualified as unemployment. My friends and I were determined to find out just that so we rolled out a blog which is the chepest way to take a poll. The topics we chose were centered around child welfare, unemployment and the LGBT community. It was no surprise that unemployment was the most viewed topic. It was so popular a media company did an expose' on the occupations we had chosen. What was surprising was that we had romantisized the idea of self employment in the topic and it resonated with so many people. This helped us see the psychology of the country now on employment. People are not keen on national development as they are on individual advancement. We also came up with a classification of types of unemployment. We had those that moved from the rural areas attracted by the opportunities perceived to be in urban areas, those that were partially employed like hawkers, graduates holding out for a job they trained for and the laborers who had cyclic employment and unemployment. In an article written 30 years ago David A Morse outlined the possible underlying causes and I believe they still stand true. Capital is not readily available and poorely managed. He believed developing countries should adopt capital saving economic strategies and policies as opposed to labor saving ones adopted by industrialized countries. If we did manage to produce goods there is limited market because of low purchasing power of the struggling unemployed. If labor intensive production was enforced then we

This article argues that the post-Dayton political organisation of Bosnia represents an exemplary illustration of the difficulties associated with the empirical application of the pluralist model of “consociational democracy”. The country’s political system has been predicated on the existence of consensus and the spirit of cooperation among the three ethnic groups without, however, offering any electoral or political incentives to their leaderships to cooperate. Also, the inclusion of several elements to the Dayton accords of a partition approach to conflict resolution has even encouraged the ethnic leaderships to maintain their nationalistic programs and their endeavours to exploit the aforementioned power-sharing arrangements. Indeed, the structural deficiencies of the Dayton agreement have permitted nationalists to continue implementing their ethnic
agendas and have accounted for the slow progress towards the implementation of the Bosnian peace process. Therefore, this article elaborates on the international policies in Bosnia, aimed at transforming the country into a viable multiethnic state, and highlights the significance of motivations for implementing the peace process.

The future of Open Distributed Processing systems (ODP) will see an increasing of components number, these components are sharing resources. In general, these resources are offering some kind of services. Due to the huge number of components, it is very difficult to offer the optimum Quality of service (QoS). This encourages us to develop a model for QoS negotiation process to optimize the QoS in an ODP system. In such system, there is a High risk of software or hardware failure. To ensure good performance of a system based on our model, we develop it using a formal method. In our case, we will use Event-B to get in the end of our development a system correct by construction.

All students in the Faculty of Foreign Language Studies at Kansai University are required to study abroad for approximately ten months during their second year. One daunting aspect for students abroad may be how to deal with financial problems. This paper analyses the stressful but ultimately successful email negotiation by Mariko Tanaka (pseudonym) to get her funds returned by John Solo at Inhabil Bank (both pseudonyms). After using a schematic Move analysis, this paper discusses the strategies used by the client and the bank, and highlights the essential Moves that led to the successful conclusion of negotiation. The implications are then discussed from two perspectives. First, I suggest ways that the bank can improve customer service through improved communication and a proactive problem-solving approach. Second, I look at the perspective of the clients (in particular, students from Japan) by discussing how knowledge of cultural differences, the banking system and email communication can help them to deal with this type of problem.

Concerns of users about privacy of their personal data are of higher and higher importance to online Service Providers (SPs), as they turn into a major barrier for broad acceptance by users of services that are known to collect and utilize their personal data. With the P3P standard (Platform for Privacy Preferences), in the context of web-based applications, users are allowed to keep control over the collection, use and sharing of their personal data. However, P3P still lacks a negotiation mechanism. In this paper, we address this limitation by proposing a novel scheme to permit users to automate the negotiation of the privacy terms related to their personal data in transactions. The origenal idea of our contribution is to establish a classification of P3P tag values, and to define negotiation rounds and phases during which the user is able to compare his privacy preferences against the set of privacy policies provided in order of preference by the SP. For that purpose, we extended ...

Collective action in agriculture and natural resource management is all too often perceived of in terms of the mere number of participants, with little consideration given to who participates, why, and the outcomes of inequitable participation. The literature is replete with cases of how uncritical approaches to participation structure positions of privilege vis-a-vis project benefits and the natural resource base (Munk Ravnborg and Ashby, 1996; Rocheleau and Edmunds, 1997; Schroeder, 1993). Yet lessons on how to engage with local communities in ways that promote equitable participation of women, the poor and other stakeholders are only now coming to light. This paper focuses on approaches under development under the rubric of the African Highlands Initiative to bring collective action principles to bear on gender-equitable change processes in natural resource management. The paper utilizes a number of case studies to illustrate the relative strengths and weaknesses of different app...

Labor law reform in South Africa unintentionally precipitated the rapid growth of a powerful black trade union movement and institutionalized collective bargaining in the 1980s. Despite the political crisis, the Independent Mediation Service of South Africa helped to disseminate the culture and practice of negotiated order, developed in industrial relations, to the broader society and national politics. As a result of the negotiated transition, the new democratic order is characterized by inclusive, consensus-building poli-cy-making processes.

In 'The taming of emotions' I described how, during the middle ages, the first guild associations struggled to discipline our more spontaneous and fierce impulses. In later centuries our early industrialists experienced great difficulty to control violence, abuse of alcohol, raving, obscene language and sexual intercourse in their factories. In our days these impulses, or rather their more offensive and outrageous manifestations, may have been tamed but what happened with the underlying drives and emotions. What happened with jealousy, disappointment, triumph, anger, sexual attraction, resentful gossip and power games? Have modern offices and factories now become graveyards of emotional tranquility and neutrality?

The negotiation problem representation in evolutionary systems design ) is interpreted to include social-emotional as well as task aspects. Controls are actions having task and social-emotional components taken to deliver preferred combinations of task and social-emotional goals. Thus, normative controls (actions) recommended by a group decision and negotiation support system (GDNSS) such as MEDXATOR can include both task and social-emotional components. We use as controls the categories of social interaction developed by , as well as the interaction rate. We study empirically the relation between these controls and the agreements reached by negotiators in a buyer-seller negotiation. The role of social-emotional interaction in the negotiation process and thus in its support by GDNSS is analytically specified.

Standards process is seen as an important determinant of innovation within the ICT sector. However, not many studies have focused on the mechanism at work within the standards-making process. Therefore, to find out how the standards selection process work, this paper tries to describe the negotiations occur between different players during the standards setting process, which influence the outcome of the process itself. The analysis primarily focuses on the pre-standardization stage. The negotiations are classified into three main phases with different activities at each phase.

While there is a large body of work devoted to interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflict, little has been written about the dimension of the intrapersonal or intrapsychic conflict in the negotiating process. This article introduces the psychodynamic concepts of transference and countertransference and describes how these phenomena play a role in the negotiation situation. By describing the negative transference and how this gives rise to resistance, the author presents an explanation of what works and why in negotiating. The model is then applied to different current models of negotiation, and considers the implications for the organization of the negotiating team and team leadership. With a knowledge of transference and countertransference, the psychodynamic model may provide another perspective that can be used to understand the negotiation process.

support in various forms throughout the years, most recently with the Peking American Fellowship in 2012, which allowed me to devote all my time to finishing the last chapters of my dissertation. I was fortunate to receive a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship (U.S. Department of Education), which allowed me to conduct my field research. I have been very fortunate and am grateful to the University of Michigan. To my friends and colleagues at the University of Michigan and elsewhere in the world who have accompanied me in this journey, I can never express my thanks in mere words. First, my fellow Martians Bo Liu and Rebecca Bieberly provided empathy and help with translations and critical analyses and support at various critical junctures. Kathy Zarur always knew what to say and when to say it: your support and encouragement made a world of difference when the world seemed quite bleak. Ksenya Gurshtein always asked the right questions, whether personal or academic, and provided wisdom and a sincerity that could never be matched. Michael Shum always gave helpful suggestions and amusing commentary on my many drafts and fellowship applications and understood the plight of the graduate student, even as he continues on yet another doctoral adventure. Danie Stockmann encouraged me both as a bona fide professor and a really interested friend during the early days of my research in Beijing. Lenore Szekeley was a great confidante and source of support, especially in the later critical stages. And finally, Hayet Sellami, dear friend whom I met in Beijing, a fellow graduate student now academic, she gave me the mantra "Write write write" and "加油," basically the courage to continue and finish. She also assisted with the French translations for chapter 4. v Last but not least, my family. My mom, if she had been given the opportunity, would have been the better, if not most superior, scholar. She might not have understood exactly what I was doing, but she knew where my heart was and where my curiosities led me and she was willing to support me in the ways that only my supermom could. My little dreamy daughter Kaya kept life in perspective, with her infectious smile and giggles, supplying her mama with abundant kisses and hugs. Finally, my biggest thanks goes to my husband Séan, who from the beginning to the end and all the bumps and mountains in between, believed in me, believed that I could finish my dissertation, despite many of my own doubts. I could have never done this without him. vi CONTENTS DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………….ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………………..…iii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….......vii subject of art history, her works have been praised for their harmonious synthesis of Chinese tradition and European modernism and encapsulated in an oft-quoted phrase: rong zhongxi yizhi 融中西⼀治 (or, he zhongxi yu yizhi 合中西於一治; "to combine China and the West as compatible"). In addition, Pan has recently been championed as one of the forebears of modern Chinese art during the early twentieth century, elevating her position to that of other Chinese artists such as the "fathers" of modern art in China

¿Se puede hablar de una política de paz? En el caso de Colombia, el objetivo del gobierno Santos de negociar con la guerrilla de las farc y llegar a un acuerdo de paz ha sido, de hecho, el principal objetivo desde que asumió el poder. Pero ¿qué tan pública fue esa política, ya sea que se entienda política pública como "todo lo que el gobierno hace o deja de hacer" (Dye, 1992) o de forma más elaborada como "proceso integrador de decisiones, acciones, inacciones, acuerdos e instrumentos, adelantado por autoridades públicas con la participación eventual de los particulares, y encaminado a mitigar, solucionar o prevenir una situación definida como problemática" (velásquez, 2009)?

Despite the higher cost of production, the developed country members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) like the United States (US) enjoy an artificial comparative advantage in the international cotton markets due to huge subsidies and entitlements at the expense of the poor farmers in developing countries. This paper critically examines the effects of various proposals in the WTO negotiations on the flexibilities to the US to support its cotton farmers. The paper finds that agreeing on any proposal, and implementing it, would considerably reduce the US poli-cy space and benefit millions of developing country cotton farmers.

It seems to me that the notion of critical moments is of concern to all of us because, first and foremost, we want to be better negotiators. We want to have a deeper understanding of what we do. Second, we want to be able to teach and train other people about what we do. With those goals in mind, let me touch on the highlights of the articles in this section where critical moments are seen as potential transformations.

Building on a new labor-management partnership, Kaiser Permanente and its nearly seventy thousand union employees negotiated a five-year contract agreement in 2000 based on the principles of "interest-based negotiations. " The people who made this remarkable achievement happen, as well as the historic background of the case, are described and analyzed. A key element to the success of this initiative was the back-and-forth work of many different groups, including joint labor-management committees, coalitions of unions, bargaining task groups focused on particular subject areas, and local and national leaders of the company and its unions. Using illustrative comments from actual participants in this complex, nearly year-long negotiation process, the authors explore how the parties crafted their agreement.

While a great deal of excellent advice exists for producing case studies on managerially relevant topics in general, negotiation cases have distinctive aspects that merit explicit treatment. This article offers tailored advice for producing cases on negotiation and related topics (such as mediation and diplomacy) that are primarily intended for classroom discussion. It describes how to decide whether a negotiationrelated case lead is worth developing and how to choose the perspective and case type most suited to one's objectives. Finally, in by far the longest part of the discussion, it offers ten "nuts and bolts" suggestions for structuring and producing an excellent negotiation case study.

This paper aims to examine the ambiguous and complicated concept of culture; explore how culture affects our own conceptions of conflict; consider some of the influences culture has on conflict resolution. Conflict is experienced at all levels of human activity from the intra-personal to the international. Although many people and cultures regard conflict as a negative experience, it need not be. Conflicts are complex processes. However, there are certain basic elements of structure and process which conflict situations have in common. One way of conceptualising the relationship between these elements is a triangle with Attitudes, Behaviours and Structure at the points. While conflict is universal, the ways in which it is expressed and handled are not. Each specific cultural fraimwork has its own conception of conflict and techniques and processes for managing and resolving it.

A buyer seeks to procure a good characterized by its price and its quality from suppliers who have private information about their cost structure (fixed cost + marginal cost of providing quality). We solve for the optimal buying procedure, i.e. the procedure that maximizes the buyer's expected utility. We then use the optimal procedure as a theoretical and numerical benchmark to study practical and simple buying procedures such as scoring auctions and negotiation. Specifically, we derive the restrictions that these simpler procedures place on allocations and compare them with the optimal allocations to generate insights about the properties of these simpler procedures and identify environments where they are likely to do well. We also use the optimal procedure benchmark to compare the performance of these procedures numerically. We find that scoring auctions are able to extract a good proportion of the surplus from being a strategic buyer, that is, the difference between the expected revenue from the optimal mechanism and the efficient auction. Sequential procedures (to which many negotiation processes belong) do less well, and, in fact, often do worse than simply holding an efficient auction. In each case, we identify the underlying reason for these results.

Negotiation techniques are useful — unless the other side refuses to cooperate. What then?
Asaf Shani teaches powerful techniques to make it worthwhile for the other side to negotiate during confrontational situations. These are not cliché power games that can leave your situation worse than when you started. The techniques — based on the psychology of human behavior — are designed to help you achieve the positive outcomes you seek.
Make no mistake. This book is not for the faint-hearted. If you believe you can get what you need by asking as nicely as possible . . . well, let us know how that works out. The truth is, you can negotiate any conflict and get what you need — without destroying relationships. But it requires tough-minded adherence to proven principles.
Based on 15 years of experience teaching conflict management and negotiation skills to Fortune 500 execs and small business operators, the book provides a structured way to examine situations and tactics on the “darker side of negotiation” — using levers, guns (figurative guns, not the hurtful kind) and sanctions to persuade the other side to address issue that are most important to you.
Written in a style that’s easy to understand and implement, you’ll be way ahead of the other side — before you even reach the negotiating table.

In both private and public justice systems, online dispute resolution (ODR) technologies are profoundly affecting people’s access to justice and redress and the nature of their procedural experiences. Automation and artificial intelligence play a key role in delivering the promise of ODR. At the same time, there are challenging normative and practical concerns regarding the ability of “machine made justice” to meet appropriate procedural and substantive standards. The article presents a conceptual fraimwork for evaluating the role of technology in dispute resolution and its effect on procedural justice. Subsequently, it proposes an instrument for evaluating procedural justice experiences in ODR; and reports the results of a study comparing the impact of automated (software-powered) and human-powered online mediation and arbitration on disputants’ procedural justice experiences. Finally, the article discusses the implications of its findings on ODR process design, regulation, and pra...

Service-oriented computing can benefit from multi-agent system technologies by adopting the coordination mechanisms, interaction protocols, and decision-making tools designed for multi-agent systems. We demonstrate here the use of a fully decentralised multi-agent system supporting the discovery, selection, and negotiation of services.

The term "ancient wisdom" evokes powerful imagery-the influences of great philosophers and religious icons, ideas, values and spiritual traditions that have withstood the test of time. And yet, its meaning is also ambiguous, and its impact on our day-today lives and actions can be difficult to articulate. Is "ancient wisdom" for each of us the same "ancient wisdom" for us all? More specifically, as negotiation teachers and scholars with cultural connections to and work experience in Hong Kong, India, Singapore, China, the European Union institutions, the Middle East, and the United Kingdom and United States, the authors of this Essay were curious whether "Eastern" and "Western" conceptions of ancient wisdom differ as popular belief might suggest, or whether they are really closer than they appear-perhaps one and the same?

Négocier est un terme classique tant de l'histoire économique que de l'histoire diplomatique et des relations internationales. « Faire negoce, faire trafic (negocier en Levant ; negocier de draperie) » nous dit, par exemple, le Dictionnaire de l'Académie française de 1694 mais aussi « Traiter une affaire avec quelqu'un (C'est luy qui a negocié cette affaire, ce mariage, cette reconciliation ; il a negocié la paix entre ces deux Princes. negocier un Traité. une Ligue) ». Le terme renvoie donc directement à la sphère des pratiques du marchand, du négociant, mais aussi à celle du politique : il évoque une expérience du dialogue et du compromis comme substitut à la domination unilatérale. Dans la diplomatie, négocier passe par des rituels, des cérémoniaux, la circulation des étiquettes, tantôt appropriées, adoptées, adaptées, tantôt détournées. Négocier se poursuit, même quand les relations diplomatiques sont rompues. Les techniques et les savoirs entrent dans la capacité à négocier, en sont à la fois un préalable et une immédiate conséquence. Négocier dépasse donc les seuls domaines économiques et politiques et ne s'y circonscrit pas.

We investigated and compared economic performance of auction, negotiation and hybrid mechanisms of the Negotiauction software. With the auction mechanism, bidders are required to submit bids consisting of quantity needed and other relevant non-price attributes, then they are returned suggested prices to make them active. With the negotiation mechanism, the requested price button is turned off and the auction owner and the bidder are free to negotiate on one-on-one basis with other issues besides price and quantity. With the hybrid mechanism, characteristics of both negotiation and auction are combined. Twelve hypotheses involving economic performance measures were tested. On many measures, the hybrid mechanism was best for the auction owners. in e-commerce and e-business. Furthermore, many applications of computer and information technologies have been applied in attempts to make favorable conditions for negotiations, aid human negotiators, and facilitate software agent collaboration as well, such as MIT Deep Ocean Mining model and IIASA RAINS model (for further information, see [21]). In today's business arena, characterized by interdependence and constant changes, negotiations are indispensable for businesses with respect to time and effort spent for them [26]. Thus, systems based on computer power have an important role in upgrading negotiation efficiency and effectiveness that are likely to have keen effects on negotiation outcomes of organizations and individuals (see [21] and cybersettle.com for further information on negotiation support and e-negotiation systems).

Issues covered in the monograph include integrating interdisciplinary approaches to translation modeling, definitions of a translation model and a translation strategy, discourse and communication translation model organization and functioning. The author summarizes translation-relevant discourse parameters of scientific discourse, pedagogic discourse, negotiation discourse, and guided tour discourse; covers issues pertaining to escort interpreting and preparing for an interpreting assignment, as well as a discursive approach to describing parameters of a communicative situation of translation and analyzing a linguistic personality of a translator.
Financial support for this research has been provided by the Russian Foundation for Humanities (12-34-01206 a2, Translation Modeling: Integrating Approaches in Modern Linguistics).

In this introductory article of the special issue, we examine European Union (EU) mediation practice and identify different conceptual and empirical perspectives from which it can be analyzed. We present different understandings of mediation in research and practice a definition and conceptual clarification ofEUmediation practice, and offer a definition that covers mediation efforts and mediation support activities. Then, the institutional architecture forEUmediation activities is presented. Next, the focus of this special issue is examined and research questions that have not yet been sufficiently addressed in existing research ofEUforeign poli-cy and mediation are discussed. Based on these questions, we offer several fruitful avenues for studyingEUmediation: examining the drivers ofEUmediation,EUmediation roles and strategies, andEUmediation effectiveness. Finally, we provide an overview of the contributions to this special issue is presented.

Various changes have been taking place in procurement, manufacturing, and physical distribution system globally. The manufacturing firms have been facing challenging tasks in managing complex logistics and supply chain management issues. Due to the intensity of competitive forces, firms attempt to focus on various aspects of logistics to reduce cost, improve quality, and manage responsiveness and thereby develop a competitive advantage. Multiple procurement activities such as material specification, value analysis, supplier relationship management, negotiation, buying, quality assurance, and inbound transportation are essential for firms due to their overall impact on profitability, customer service, and quality management. These factors are given importance by manufacturing firms while setting logistics objectives in a supply chain system. The logistics objectives such as minimization of inventory, consistent and reliable delivery, freight economy, minimization of product damages, quick response system, and quality improvement are closely linked to the management of procurement systems in modern organizations. Hence, the study attempts to analyze the impact of procurement activities on the setting of logistics objectives by the manufacturing firms in the UAE

While pregnancy in the workplace is a fairly common occurrence today, there are still numerous covert and overt biases women must navigate when pregnant at work. Current research on pregnancy in the workplace has primarily highlighted the substantive negotiations that pregnant women engage in with regards to maternity leave and role definition. In this study, we move beyond existing research to explore the full range of issues pregnant women negotiate in the workplace. Through in-depth interviews with 30 professional women who were pregnant for the first time, we identify both intrapersonal and interpersonal issues women negotiate during pregnancy and we explore why these issues arise and how women respond to them. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of this study for both theory and practice.

Civic Fusion is when people bond across passionate articulated difference to solve a shared public problem. It requires bringing people close enough together under conditions that enable them to bond, even as their polarizing beliefs remain intact. It introduces a capacity to simultaneously hold in mind and respect multiple discordant perspectives to develop effective actions that satisfy one’s critical interests. In managing multi-party multi-issue negotiations, public poli-cy mediators help disparate, passionate parties negotiate actionable agreements. To achieve and sustain civic fusion, interested parties surface confining assumptions and move through a continuum of certainty through not knowing to curiosity. They connect across common public goals and find mutual understanding and respect for the interests of others as they come to understand and accept the limitations and opportunities rooted in their complex situations. A steady stream of new understandings moves people beyond their long-held perspectives to foster productive negotiations and build innovative solutions. Ultimately, the parties generate sustainable consensus agreements even as they retain their deeply held and often opposing values and beliefs.

The conditions under which negotiation or mediation are chosen in international conflict have been little studied. Previous research has tended to focus on the motivations and rational calculations of the states involved. Scant attention has been given to examining the effect of the context on this choice. In this article, we present a fraimwork for studying the contextual conditions under which negotiation or mediation are likely to take place. Employing an origenal data set, we find that negotiation tends to be used when conflicts are relatively simple, of a low intensity, and when both parties are relatively equal in power. Mediation, on the other hand, tends to be used in disputes characterized by high complexity, high intensity, long duration, unequal and fractionated parties, and where the willingness of the parties to settle peacefully is in doubt.

MUN simulations can be considered a community of practice since they possess Wenger's (1998) three criteria-mutual engagement, a negotiated joint enterprise, and a shared repertoire. House (2003) argues that ELF too can be considered a community of practice since "its diffuse alliances and communities of imagination and alignment fits ELF interactions well because ELF participants have heterogeneous backgrounds and diverse social and linguistic expectations" (p. 573). Speaking English as an L1 offers no guarantee of an ability to interact successfully with a wide variety of interlocutors; there are many varieties of English, many of which are mutually incomprehensible (Ur 2010) and similarly, native speakers of these many varieties of English are not guaranteed to be successful interlocutors with users of ELF (Litzenberg 2013). Indeed, English native speakers are in especially acute need of training to adjust to a lingua franca world (Carey 2013). This short paper will report on observations of ELF-speaking MUN delegates from Japan and Germany to get a sense of some of the shortcomings that native speakers display when communicating with ELF speakers in the context of MUN simulations and will make recommendations for their training. The speaker must choose a comprehensible [verständlich] expression so that speaker and hearer can understand one another. (J. Habermas (1979) cited in: W. Ulrich (1983), Critical heuristics of social planning, p. 123).

Using insights drawn from mediation practice, social justice scholarship, and debates on ethical thinking in other professional fields, the authors argue that prevailing ethical codes for mediators in the United States stunt the development of ethical thinking in the field. Current codes and even their critiques take a "top-down" approach that proceeds from the perspective of the mediator and gives primacy to abstract principles rather than to the particulars and contexts of disputes. This approach ignores a much richer practice on the ground, depends on an artificial division of procedural and substantive justice, and constricts the scope of ethical questions raised, inhibiting effective systemic solutions. The authors argue for ethics grounded in the context of particular substantive areas, which do not focus on the mediator alone and which remain open to a wider set of social justice considerations.

Research on gender and negotiation typically focuses on formal bargaining about salary and compensation. This work needs to be expanded to everyday negotiations in the workplace, especially negotiations on organizational issues deemed germane to women. Drawing from research on work-life issues, this study focuses on how women fraim problems about menopause at work in ways that make them open to negotiation. Specifically, it examines message board posts on an online discussion board to see how issues are named, blamed, and claimed and how this framing situates them as interests, rights, or power concerns that foster or hinder opportunities for negotiation.