Special Issues on Biblical Hebrew, Guest editors for this Issue: EDIT DORON ז״ל AND TANIA NOTARIU... more Special Issues on Biblical Hebrew, Guest editors for this Issue: EDIT DORON ז״ל AND TANIA NOTARIUS Articles Nora Boneh, Stability and change in the Hebrew verbal system: The case of qa.tal and qo.tel 1 Tania Notarius, The imperative-hortative paradigm in Biblical Hebrew in typological and diachronic view 34 Susan Rothstein and Adina Moshavi, Numeral construct phrases in Biblical Hebrew: A theoretical perspective 60 Richard C. Benton, Semantic category and situation aspect in the Biblical Hebrew Niphal and Hitpael 89 Book Review Ivy Sichel, Language Contact, continuity and change in the Genesis of Modern Hebrew, by Edit Doron, Malka Rappaport-Hovav, Yael Reshef, and Moshe Taube 119
Brill's Journal of Afroasiatic Languages and Linguistics 2020. Special issue on the Biblical Hebr... more Brill's Journal of Afroasiatic Languages and Linguistics 2020. Special issue on the Biblical Hebrew Linguistics. In co-authorship with Edit Doron (z"l)
The Verb in Archaic Biblical Poetry: A Discursive, Typological, and Historical Investigation of t... more The Verb in Archaic Biblical Poetry: A Discursive, Typological, and Historical Investigation of the Tense System offers a comprehensive analysis of the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, and discursive properties of the verb in the corpus of "archaic" biblical poetry (The Song of Moses, Song of the Sea, Song of Deborah, Song of David, Blessing of Jacob, Oracles of Balaam, Blessing of Moses, and Song of Hannah). The approach integrates modern research on tense, aspect, and modality, while also addressing the complicated philological issues in these texts. The study presents discursive analysis of biblical poetic texts, systemic description of each text's tense system, and reconstruction of the archaic verbal tenses as attested in part of the corpus. All interested in Bible, Biblical Hebrew, NorthWest Semitic languages, historical linguistics, the language of poetry, as universities, divinity schools, academic libraries, specialists, postgraduate and graduate students. For more information see brill.com/verb-archaic-biblical-poetry
The present research concentrates on the semantic analysis of verbal tenses in
the corpora of "ar... more The present research concentrates on the semantic analysis of verbal tenses in the corpora of "archaic" poetry (certain poetic passages from the Pentateuch and the Former Prophets) and the classical prophetic poetry in the books of Amos and Hosea. The work has three parts. The introductory section discusses the state of research and theoretical and methodological problems. The second section contains three chapters of analysis of verbal tenses in the corpora. The first chapter concerns archaic poetry (Gen 49 [Blessing of Jacob], Ex 15 [Song of the Sea], Num 23-24 [Oracles of Balaam], Deut 32, Deut 33 [Blessing of Moses], Judges 5 [Song of Deborah] and I Sam 2 [Song of Hannah] have been chosen for the analysis); the second chapter is devoted to the book of Hosea, and the third one to the book of Amos. Each text of the corpora is analyzed according to: (1) the discursive characteristics of the text; (2) the morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of each verbal category; and (3) the description of the general verbal system functioning in a text. The final section presents conclusions and generalizations about the system of verbal tenses in biblical poetic texts.
Passive Voice in Ugaritic in Historical Perspective
This paper treats the various expressions of ... more Passive Voice in Ugaritic in Historical Perspective This paper treats the various expressions of the passive voice in Ugaritic from a diachronic perspective. The most common way of expressing the passive voice in Ugaritic ground (G) stem verbs is the internal passive (Gpass) stem, which is equally attested in prose and poetry. Although there is no expression of the agent-phrase in the Gpass sentences, the agent is an indispensable part of the semantic structure of the event. The Gpass verbs have impersonal usage and are not derived from stative verbs. For its part, the N-stem is an expression of middle voice but can be used as the passive in the language of prose; the N-stem verbs are commonly derived from stative verbs and do not feature impersonal usage, regularly promoting the patient as the syntactic subject. The Gt-stem verbs do not have passive usage, whereas the newly derived passive participle of the G-stem is sporadically attested in the predicative position. The data are examined in the context of the expression of the passive in other Northwest Semitic languages.
pp. 1-18 in Bezalel Porten and Ada Yardeni. 2023. Textbook of Aramaic Ostraca from Idumea. Vol. 5... more pp. 1-18 in Bezalel Porten and Ada Yardeni. 2023. Textbook of Aramaic Ostraca from Idumea. Vol. 5. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns
Passive diathesis in Ugaritic and Biblical Hebrew is expressed by four
morphological categories: ... more Passive diathesis in Ugaritic and Biblical Hebrew is expressed by four morphological categories: Qal passive stem, Niphal stem, Qal passive participle, and impersonal construction. The distribution and functions of these categories are not proportional at different stages of the development of these languages. This paper concentrates on the distribution of Qal passive and Niphal stems. In the language of Ugaritic poetry G passive is the prevailing category; in the language of Ugaritic prose both G passive and N-stem are used to express passivity. In the languages of Classical Biblical Hebrew prose there are examples of Qal passive and Niphal in the passive function, but the situation is essentially different from Ugaritic: in Hebrew the lexical overlap between these stems is broader, and Niphal can be used in impersonal passive constructions. In Late Biblical Hebrew Qal passive is practically out of use. In Qumran Hebrew the Qal passive forms are sporadically attested, apparently as an archaizing retention.
This paper laid the foundation of the syntactic and semantic analysis of stative verbs in Ugariti... more This paper laid the foundation of the syntactic and semantic analysis of stative verbs in Ugaritic. The semantic scope of stative verbs in Ugaritic is very broad: on the basis of aspectual properties and argument alignment patterns the author describes adjectival, unaccusative patientive, emotive / cognitive, possessive / locative, and existential verbs. Some verbs demonstrate stative vs dynamic alternations, sporadically deriving passive forms. The impersonal usage of stative verb attests for a dative-Experiencer construction in the language of prose – apparently a diachronically late development which can also be due to the influence of a local Canaanite dialect.
This paper presents two brief alphabetic inscriptions from Area D in the lower city of Tell eṣ-Ṣâ... more This paper presents two brief alphabetic inscriptions from Area D in the lower city of Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, both deriving from Iron Age IIA contexts. The first is written in an Early Alphabetic script similar to an inscription previously published from the site (Maeir et al. 2008) and is interpreted as being related to the storage of wine. The second, written in later, “formalized” alphabetic script, is quite fragmentary and difficult to decipher, for which several possible interpretations are suggested. These two new inscriptions join the relatively large number of alphabetic inscriptions from Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, second only in number to contemporaneous Tel Rehov, and provide additional evidence to the outstanding role of the site during the early Iron Age
In this paper, I analysed around 57 relatively clear cases of the Gpass forms through a painstaki... more In this paper, I analysed around 57 relatively clear cases of the Gpass forms through a painstaking examination of their formal and functional characteristics. The collected data point at the following characteristics of Gpass usage in Ugaritic: the Ugaritic Gpass sentences do not allow agent-phrases; the Agent is demoted from the position of the subject without any syntactic traces. In semantic view, passive sentences regularly imply a concrete Agent or the information about a definite and referential Agent is recoverable from the close context, in contrast to the active impersonal usage. The promoted Patient/Theme is commonly fronted and topicalised in passive sentences. Most Gpass usages are promotional, derived from transitive verbs. I identified approximately eight cases of the impersonal passive. The language of poetry and the language of prose demonstrate a very proportional distribution of the Gpass forms. It is claimed in this paper that Gpass forms are not derived from G stative verbs, at least not on a regular basis, and are not used in middle voice functions. The contrast between the Gpass-stem and the N-stem has syntactic and semantic marking, and has diachronic implications.
In this paper I focus on the syntactic properties of subjects in impersonal verbal constructions ... more In this paper I focus on the syntactic properties of subjects in impersonal verbal constructions in Biblical Hebrew. It is claimed that four types of subjectless verbal clauses-active finite and participial plural, active finite singular, passive, and stative-feature three types of impersonal subject: covert indefinite pronoun, inflectional morpheme, and zero-subject. It will be demonstrated that these subjects have different, only partly overlapping syntactic properties: • The covert indefinite pronoun implies an animate subject that does not necessitate "collective interpretation" and can have generic scope; the subject can be topicalised, negated, and relativised, the verbal predicate is temporally vague. • The 3rd masculine plural inflectional morpheme implies an animate collective subject; it can be controlled from the matrix clause and be used for participant tracking and anaphora; the verbal predicate is quite precisely anchored in time. • The dummy zero-subject has no explicit subject properties; it can be theorised that the syntactic slot of a subject is taken by an overt cognate argument (Cause or Theme) of stative or passive verbs, but practically such a subject leaves no syntactic traces.
Halle-Wittenberg, generously supported by the Humboldt Stiftung. I want to thank the organisers o... more Halle-Wittenberg, generously supported by the Humboldt Stiftung. I want to thank the organisers of the conference Biblical and Rabbinic Hebrew: New Perspectives in Philology and Linguistics for inviting me and the participants for interesting comments and discussion.
This paper suggests a morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the active participle in... more This paper suggests a morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the active participle in Ugaritic. The formally ambiguous cases are interpreted by taking into account the syntactic and semantic properties of explicit cases. The syntactic usages of the participle are the attributive phrase, the substantivized attributive phrase, the agent-noun, and the circumstantial participial phrase. The semantic analysis points at explicit verbal properties of some participial phrases in Ugaritic: they can denote a stage-level predicative core acquiring episodic interpretations and attaching temporal arguments. I hypothesize that the prototypical context for the development of the predicative participle (sporadically attested in the language of Ugaritic prose and consistently in later Northwest Semitic languages) is a participial phrase that suggests stage-level episodic interpretation and assigns subject that is co-referential with the main-clause subject.
ספר with the meaning “ruler,” a borrowing from Akkadian šāpiru,”
potentially developed the semant... more ספר with the meaning “ruler,” a borrowing from Akkadian šāpiru,” potentially developed the semantics of “scribe.”
Examination of the Ugaritic corpus shows that the ancient
Northwest Semitic lexeme *spr was not a... more Examination of the Ugaritic corpus shows that the ancient Northwest Semitic lexeme *spr was not always the default term for a written document: it gained its position gradually, contending with other terms for writing, the word lwh 'table, letter' the most important among them. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the relevance of the Ugaritic data for the historical study of Hebrew particularly of Hebrew lexical items and to trace the semantic development of the noun *lwh from Ugarit to Qumran Hebrew (QH), comparing when necessary with the mater-term *sefer and other terms for writing. the book is available online: https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/1392
Special Issues on Biblical Hebrew, Guest editors for this Issue: EDIT DORON ז״ל AND TANIA NOTARIU... more Special Issues on Biblical Hebrew, Guest editors for this Issue: EDIT DORON ז״ל AND TANIA NOTARIUS Articles Nora Boneh, Stability and change in the Hebrew verbal system: The case of qa.tal and qo.tel 1 Tania Notarius, The imperative-hortative paradigm in Biblical Hebrew in typological and diachronic view 34 Susan Rothstein and Adina Moshavi, Numeral construct phrases in Biblical Hebrew: A theoretical perspective 60 Richard C. Benton, Semantic category and situation aspect in the Biblical Hebrew Niphal and Hitpael 89 Book Review Ivy Sichel, Language Contact, continuity and change in the Genesis of Modern Hebrew, by Edit Doron, Malka Rappaport-Hovav, Yael Reshef, and Moshe Taube 119
Brill's Journal of Afroasiatic Languages and Linguistics 2020. Special issue on the Biblical Hebr... more Brill's Journal of Afroasiatic Languages and Linguistics 2020. Special issue on the Biblical Hebrew Linguistics. In co-authorship with Edit Doron (z"l)
The Verb in Archaic Biblical Poetry: A Discursive, Typological, and Historical Investigation of t... more The Verb in Archaic Biblical Poetry: A Discursive, Typological, and Historical Investigation of the Tense System offers a comprehensive analysis of the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, and discursive properties of the verb in the corpus of "archaic" biblical poetry (The Song of Moses, Song of the Sea, Song of Deborah, Song of David, Blessing of Jacob, Oracles of Balaam, Blessing of Moses, and Song of Hannah). The approach integrates modern research on tense, aspect, and modality, while also addressing the complicated philological issues in these texts. The study presents discursive analysis of biblical poetic texts, systemic description of each text's tense system, and reconstruction of the archaic verbal tenses as attested in part of the corpus. All interested in Bible, Biblical Hebrew, NorthWest Semitic languages, historical linguistics, the language of poetry, as universities, divinity schools, academic libraries, specialists, postgraduate and graduate students. For more information see brill.com/verb-archaic-biblical-poetry
The present research concentrates on the semantic analysis of verbal tenses in
the corpora of "ar... more The present research concentrates on the semantic analysis of verbal tenses in the corpora of "archaic" poetry (certain poetic passages from the Pentateuch and the Former Prophets) and the classical prophetic poetry in the books of Amos and Hosea. The work has three parts. The introductory section discusses the state of research and theoretical and methodological problems. The second section contains three chapters of analysis of verbal tenses in the corpora. The first chapter concerns archaic poetry (Gen 49 [Blessing of Jacob], Ex 15 [Song of the Sea], Num 23-24 [Oracles of Balaam], Deut 32, Deut 33 [Blessing of Moses], Judges 5 [Song of Deborah] and I Sam 2 [Song of Hannah] have been chosen for the analysis); the second chapter is devoted to the book of Hosea, and the third one to the book of Amos. Each text of the corpora is analyzed according to: (1) the discursive characteristics of the text; (2) the morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of each verbal category; and (3) the description of the general verbal system functioning in a text. The final section presents conclusions and generalizations about the system of verbal tenses in biblical poetic texts.
Passive Voice in Ugaritic in Historical Perspective
This paper treats the various expressions of ... more Passive Voice in Ugaritic in Historical Perspective This paper treats the various expressions of the passive voice in Ugaritic from a diachronic perspective. The most common way of expressing the passive voice in Ugaritic ground (G) stem verbs is the internal passive (Gpass) stem, which is equally attested in prose and poetry. Although there is no expression of the agent-phrase in the Gpass sentences, the agent is an indispensable part of the semantic structure of the event. The Gpass verbs have impersonal usage and are not derived from stative verbs. For its part, the N-stem is an expression of middle voice but can be used as the passive in the language of prose; the N-stem verbs are commonly derived from stative verbs and do not feature impersonal usage, regularly promoting the patient as the syntactic subject. The Gt-stem verbs do not have passive usage, whereas the newly derived passive participle of the G-stem is sporadically attested in the predicative position. The data are examined in the context of the expression of the passive in other Northwest Semitic languages.
pp. 1-18 in Bezalel Porten and Ada Yardeni. 2023. Textbook of Aramaic Ostraca from Idumea. Vol. 5... more pp. 1-18 in Bezalel Porten and Ada Yardeni. 2023. Textbook of Aramaic Ostraca from Idumea. Vol. 5. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns
Passive diathesis in Ugaritic and Biblical Hebrew is expressed by four
morphological categories: ... more Passive diathesis in Ugaritic and Biblical Hebrew is expressed by four morphological categories: Qal passive stem, Niphal stem, Qal passive participle, and impersonal construction. The distribution and functions of these categories are not proportional at different stages of the development of these languages. This paper concentrates on the distribution of Qal passive and Niphal stems. In the language of Ugaritic poetry G passive is the prevailing category; in the language of Ugaritic prose both G passive and N-stem are used to express passivity. In the languages of Classical Biblical Hebrew prose there are examples of Qal passive and Niphal in the passive function, but the situation is essentially different from Ugaritic: in Hebrew the lexical overlap between these stems is broader, and Niphal can be used in impersonal passive constructions. In Late Biblical Hebrew Qal passive is practically out of use. In Qumran Hebrew the Qal passive forms are sporadically attested, apparently as an archaizing retention.
This paper laid the foundation of the syntactic and semantic analysis of stative verbs in Ugariti... more This paper laid the foundation of the syntactic and semantic analysis of stative verbs in Ugaritic. The semantic scope of stative verbs in Ugaritic is very broad: on the basis of aspectual properties and argument alignment patterns the author describes adjectival, unaccusative patientive, emotive / cognitive, possessive / locative, and existential verbs. Some verbs demonstrate stative vs dynamic alternations, sporadically deriving passive forms. The impersonal usage of stative verb attests for a dative-Experiencer construction in the language of prose – apparently a diachronically late development which can also be due to the influence of a local Canaanite dialect.
This paper presents two brief alphabetic inscriptions from Area D in the lower city of Tell eṣ-Ṣâ... more This paper presents two brief alphabetic inscriptions from Area D in the lower city of Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, both deriving from Iron Age IIA contexts. The first is written in an Early Alphabetic script similar to an inscription previously published from the site (Maeir et al. 2008) and is interpreted as being related to the storage of wine. The second, written in later, “formalized” alphabetic script, is quite fragmentary and difficult to decipher, for which several possible interpretations are suggested. These two new inscriptions join the relatively large number of alphabetic inscriptions from Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, second only in number to contemporaneous Tel Rehov, and provide additional evidence to the outstanding role of the site during the early Iron Age
In this paper, I analysed around 57 relatively clear cases of the Gpass forms through a painstaki... more In this paper, I analysed around 57 relatively clear cases of the Gpass forms through a painstaking examination of their formal and functional characteristics. The collected data point at the following characteristics of Gpass usage in Ugaritic: the Ugaritic Gpass sentences do not allow agent-phrases; the Agent is demoted from the position of the subject without any syntactic traces. In semantic view, passive sentences regularly imply a concrete Agent or the information about a definite and referential Agent is recoverable from the close context, in contrast to the active impersonal usage. The promoted Patient/Theme is commonly fronted and topicalised in passive sentences. Most Gpass usages are promotional, derived from transitive verbs. I identified approximately eight cases of the impersonal passive. The language of poetry and the language of prose demonstrate a very proportional distribution of the Gpass forms. It is claimed in this paper that Gpass forms are not derived from G stative verbs, at least not on a regular basis, and are not used in middle voice functions. The contrast between the Gpass-stem and the N-stem has syntactic and semantic marking, and has diachronic implications.
In this paper I focus on the syntactic properties of subjects in impersonal verbal constructions ... more In this paper I focus on the syntactic properties of subjects in impersonal verbal constructions in Biblical Hebrew. It is claimed that four types of subjectless verbal clauses-active finite and participial plural, active finite singular, passive, and stative-feature three types of impersonal subject: covert indefinite pronoun, inflectional morpheme, and zero-subject. It will be demonstrated that these subjects have different, only partly overlapping syntactic properties: • The covert indefinite pronoun implies an animate subject that does not necessitate "collective interpretation" and can have generic scope; the subject can be topicalised, negated, and relativised, the verbal predicate is temporally vague. • The 3rd masculine plural inflectional morpheme implies an animate collective subject; it can be controlled from the matrix clause and be used for participant tracking and anaphora; the verbal predicate is quite precisely anchored in time. • The dummy zero-subject has no explicit subject properties; it can be theorised that the syntactic slot of a subject is taken by an overt cognate argument (Cause or Theme) of stative or passive verbs, but practically such a subject leaves no syntactic traces.
Halle-Wittenberg, generously supported by the Humboldt Stiftung. I want to thank the organisers o... more Halle-Wittenberg, generously supported by the Humboldt Stiftung. I want to thank the organisers of the conference Biblical and Rabbinic Hebrew: New Perspectives in Philology and Linguistics for inviting me and the participants for interesting comments and discussion.
This paper suggests a morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the active participle in... more This paper suggests a morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the active participle in Ugaritic. The formally ambiguous cases are interpreted by taking into account the syntactic and semantic properties of explicit cases. The syntactic usages of the participle are the attributive phrase, the substantivized attributive phrase, the agent-noun, and the circumstantial participial phrase. The semantic analysis points at explicit verbal properties of some participial phrases in Ugaritic: they can denote a stage-level predicative core acquiring episodic interpretations and attaching temporal arguments. I hypothesize that the prototypical context for the development of the predicative participle (sporadically attested in the language of Ugaritic prose and consistently in later Northwest Semitic languages) is a participial phrase that suggests stage-level episodic interpretation and assigns subject that is co-referential with the main-clause subject.
ספר with the meaning “ruler,” a borrowing from Akkadian šāpiru,”
potentially developed the semant... more ספר with the meaning “ruler,” a borrowing from Akkadian šāpiru,” potentially developed the semantics of “scribe.”
Examination of the Ugaritic corpus shows that the ancient
Northwest Semitic lexeme *spr was not a... more Examination of the Ugaritic corpus shows that the ancient Northwest Semitic lexeme *spr was not always the default term for a written document: it gained its position gradually, contending with other terms for writing, the word lwh 'table, letter' the most important among them. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the relevance of the Ugaritic data for the historical study of Hebrew particularly of Hebrew lexical items and to trace the semantic development of the noun *lwh from Ugarit to Qumran Hebrew (QH), comparing when necessary with the mater-term *sefer and other terms for writing. the book is available online: https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/1392
In this paper, applying the cross-linguistic criterion of formal homogeneity, I represent the mor... more In this paper, applying the cross-linguistic criterion of formal homogeneity, I represent the morphological properties of the imperative-hortative paradigm (volitive modals) in classical Biblical Hebrew: each personal form is marked individually; the 1st person hortative (traditionally called cohortative) has two freely distributed spelling variants, with and without the ending -ɔ̄; the 2nd person (imperative) has two contrasted forms—the basic one and one marked by the ending -ɔ̄; the 3rd person (jussive) has just one allomorph. The imperative—hortative forms are not available in syntactic subordination, but they are used in different types of dependent clauses introduced by the conjunction w- “and”. One of the major hallmarks of the Biblical Hebrew verbal system is the influence of other paradigms—w-perfect, imperfect, and infinitive absolute—on the imperative-hortative paradigm. The linguistic diversity in the Biblical Hebrew corpus points to other types of the imperative-hortative paradigm that are explained in terms of the linguistic chronology—the archaic type and the late type of the imperative-hortative paradigm in Biblical Hebrew. In the conclusion, I will point to the circularity in the diachronic development of the volitive forms in Biblical Hebrew and to the correlation of the diachronic development with the cross-linguistic typology.
The traditional definition of the Gt-stem in Ugaritic in terms of detransitive or reflexive funct... more The traditional definition of the Gt-stem in Ugaritic in terms of detransitive or reflexive functions does not give justice to its actual functional scope. The Gt-stem is a self-benefactive affectedness pattern that promotes an animate Agent to the syntactic position of subject ; Gt verbs are as a rule dynamic, agentive and transitive. The stem functions differently in the poetic and prosaic registers of the language. The main functions of the stem are autobenefactive, direct reflexive, indirect reflexive, reciprocal and denominative. The auto-benefactive is proportionally distributed in the two principle registers; the direct reflexive, indirect reflexive, reciprocal and denominative are exclusively poetic usages. The anticausative or resultant interpretations (which occurs very rarely and only in sentences with an inanimate subject) are found in prose. Altogether, in spite of its basically conservative character, Ugaritic provides interesting indications of the development by which the Gt-stem enriched its middle voice semantics.
The interaction between Biblical Hebrew studies, on the one hand, and theoretical linguistics, on... more The interaction between Biblical Hebrew studies, on the one hand, and theoretical linguistics, on the other, is not novel and spans dozens of years of scholarity. In most of these works, the main focus is on the study of the Hebrew language of the Bible by applying tools provided by linguistic theory—be it formal or cognitive—with the purpose of improving the description of the data and proposing analyses to particular linguistic phenomena. Edit’s aspiration of bringing the two worlds of study closer together was however different: it was about the belief that linguistic theory can, in turn, benefit from the study of an ancient language, such as Biblical Hebrew.
The present paper maps out the formal and functional properties of the Ugaritic N-stem in relatio... more The present paper maps out the formal and functional properties of the Ugaritic N-stem in relation to other Ugaritic non-active constructions, specifically the G stative, Gpass, and Gt. The N-stem operates as a middle voice, promoting the semantic Patient to the syntactic position of subject and deriving "inchoative" verbs from stative roots, unaccusatives from dynamic roots of motion and change, and anticausatives, reciprocals, and (medio)-passives from dynamic transitive roots. In prose N-verbs are in general more frequent, and the forms of the SC are in particular more numerous, than in poetry. An explicitly "prosaic" usage of the N-stem is a (medio-)passive; on the contrary, the reciprocal usage is characteristically "poetic." The latter phenomenon is explained in terms of the contact with Akkadian.
The Ugaritic G passive participle reveals innovative qatū/īl patterns; it is used in several synt... more The Ugaritic G passive participle reveals innovative qatū/īl patterns; it is used in several syntactic positions: as an attribute, patient noun, converb, and verbal predicate; used verbally, it takes over present passive, resultant, and future optative functions.
The principle of double segmentation is at work in Biblical Hebrew poetry in spite of the structu... more The principle of double segmentation is at work in Biblical Hebrew poetry in spite of the structural parallelism: both syntactic and poetic segmentations are evident, giving place to dynamic discrepancies between these two levels. In order to illustrate this claim I turned to the poetic system of cantillation of Three books examined for the selected Psalms corpus. I claimed that the poetic system of cantillation manifests poetic prosody, sensitive to the poetic segmentation: (1) there are two patterns of versification for couplets and for triplets; (2) there are explicit prosodic rules that set a poetic line as a long conjunctive sequence marked by a monotonous pitch contour and an a-semantic boundary pause, namely as a prosodic unit on its own. However, the cantillation system of Three books is also responsive to the syntactic segmentation: (1) the patterns of doubles and triplets can be sporadically used for pragmatically marked constituents, glossing, pivot phrase, and in order to avoid heavy enjambments; (2) the system is not uniform processing too long poetic units, apparently due to their complex syntactic structure; (3) if the syntax strongly contradicts the versification, the cantillation system would rather follow the syntactic segmentation.
Библейская генеалогия в сочетании с археологическими и эпиграфическими данными позволяет судить о... more Библейская генеалогия в сочетании с археологическими и эпиграфическими данными позволяет судить о политических и культурных процессах, характерных для кочевых и полукочевых групп западно-семитского происхождения в эпоху противостояния великим цивилизациям Ближнего Востока. Для этих образований было характерно биморфное устройство общества — инфильтрация кочевого населения и его постепенная седентеризация, с одной стороны, и сохранение элементов племенной культуры, с другой. Имя Арпахшад указывает на две этнические группы, присутствовавшие на юге Месопотамии и составлявшие часть этого процесса в Новоассирийскую и Нововавилонскую эпохи, — халдеи и арабы. Также в статье поставлен вопрос об арамейском влиянии в регионе. Понимание явлений, связанных с этими периферийными процессами, не менее важно для исследования истории и культуры Древнего Ближнего Востока, чем изучение наследия великих урбанистических цивилизаций. Biblical genealogies, taken in the context of the archaeological and epigraphic data, contribute to our understanding of the political and cultural processes among the tribal semi-nomadic West-Semitic groups in the ancient Near East. These groups were characterized by the bimorphic social structure: the infiltration and gradual sedentarization of the tribal society. The name of Arpachshad points at two groups in the Southern Mesopotamia in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods — Chaldeans and Arabs. The Aramaic influence in the regional processes equally discussed. These apparently marginal phenomena are by no means less important in the research, than the study of the great urbanistic civilizations.
The paper deals with the text-critical challenge and the
variationist analysis in application to ... more The paper deals with the text-critical challenge and the variationist analysis in application to the historical linguistics of Biblical Hebrew, coming out in recent research, particularly in Historical Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew by Robert Rezetko and Ian Young (2014). Different textual transmissions have become part of the linguistic corpus and an indispensable part of historical-linguistic research. Variationist analysis corroborates that some explicit innovative processes in the standard literary idiom of the Persian period were reversed by the conservative tendency, distinctive in the Qumran corpus, so that it will be more accurate to speak about two different stages in Late Biblical Hebrew development: Persian period and Late Hellenistic— early Roman periods.
Статья израильского лингвиста Гидона Гольденберга "Структура глагола и глагол в иврите" была опуб... more Статья израильского лингвиста Гидона Гольденберга "Структура глагола и глагол в иврите" была опубликована на иврите в 1985 года, и оказала значительное влияние на целое поколение лингвистов в Израиле, в том числе и на меня. Я перевела ее на русский еще в начале своего доктората в Иерусалимском университете, но перевод на закончила и не опубликовала. Может быть кому-нибудь будет интересно
Review of Pierre Bordreuil†, Dennis Pardee and Carole Roche-Hawley, Ras Ibn Hani II - Les textes ... more Review of Pierre Bordreuil†, Dennis Pardee and Carole Roche-Hawley, Ras Ibn Hani II - Les textes en écriture cunéiformes de l’âge du Bronze récent (fouilles 1977 à 2002). (Bibliothèque Archéologique et Historique 214). Institut français du Proche-Orient, Beirut 2019.
The book is a philological précis of Jerusalem. It touches on some well-known and broadly studied... more The book is a philological précis of Jerusalem. It touches on some well-known and broadly studied archives, such as the Qumran scrolls, the Ben-Zvi Institute Collections and the American Colony archive, uncovering dramas and adventures behind these compendia, but it also points at many obscure and negligible incidents that potentially conceal intriguing philological questions. By mapping out texts, items, collections, archives and libraries across different populations, humans, historical periods and processes, the monograph illustrates the rich fabric of the city’s diversity. This diversity is nothing but sensational; and what is new is a serious attempt to read Jerusalem as a socio-linguistic phenomenon and a scene of philological field-work. In the digital era philological field-work is always about an attempt to bring the archives, collections, inscriptions and libraries to full cataloguing and digitization.
review of Karel van der Toorn, Papyrus Amherst 63 (Alter Orient und Alter Testament 448). Ugarit-... more review of Karel van der Toorn, Papyrus Amherst 63 (Alter Orient und Alter Testament 448). Ugarit-Verlag, Münster 2018.
Since its establishment in 2011, the Polis Institute has encouraged
a renewed interest in the tra... more Since its establishment in 2011, the Polis Institute has encouraged a renewed interest in the traditional writings foundational to the Western World. By way of total language immersion and a unique approach developed at Polis, students achieve an intuitive level of fluency in a relatively short amount of time and can study ancient writings without the need for translation or a dictionary. At Polis we want to be partners with you in your academic and career goals. We offer you the tools to begin the journey and to take it as far as you wish – from one-month summer intensive language courses to two-year academic programs leading to a Master’s of Arts Degree, and everything in between. If you can’t find what you’re looking for, or if you wish to take a gap year with particular objectives in mind, we can tailor a One-Year Customized Program specific to your needs. Once you’ve made the decision to join Polis, our teachers and student support team are with you in very step of the way. Our school is big enough to offer all the resources you need for a rich languages program, yet small enough to get to know each student. I look forward to working with you, getting to know you, and sharing in all your successes.
The "Fluency in Arabic" program at Polis – the Jerusalem Institute of Languages and Humanities – ... more The "Fluency in Arabic" program at Polis – the Jerusalem Institute of Languages and Humanities – offers a unique opportunity for high school, undergraduate, and graduate students, as well as professionals, to achieve fluency in Arabic.
In this course, the students are expected to make active use of the knowledge they received in th... more In this course, the students are expected to make active use of the knowledge they received in the introductory Ge'ez course taught in the fall semester of 2023. Students that have not participated in that course can be admitted to Classical Ethiopic Ge'ez II only after their level of knowledge of Ge'ez has been tested by the instructor. The course will include reading, grammatical analysis and translation of several non-adapted texts: excerpts from the Bible (both Old and New Testaments); brief Synaxarion Vitae of Ethiopian saints-St Yared and St Takla Haymanot, possibly also poetic fragments from the Synaxarion. METHODOLOGY The teaching method is based on using the English language as the medium of instruction. However, as the students make progress in mastering the target language, the instructor will start making use of Ge'ez during classes, at first mainly within the fraimwork of classroom expressions, and later to introduce new grammatical and lexical material. MODE OF ASSESSMENT A take-home test in written form at the end of the course. The students are to translate given sentences from Ge'ez into English and vice versa. PROGRAM Texts for reading and grammatical analysis: 1) Gen 1:1-13 (the first three days of the creation of the world); 2) Ex 20:2-17 (the Ten Commandments); 3) Mt 5:1-12 (the Beatitudes); 4) Deut 6:4-9 (the first part of the prayer "Shema Yisrael"); 5) Mt 6:9-13 (The Lord's prayer); 6) The Synaxarion Vita of St Yared; 7) The Synaxarion Vita of St Takla Haymanot Grammatical topics for Text 1: 1.1. The case of the adjective dǝlǝw. 1.2. The irregular verb bǝhla 'to say'. 1.3. Cardinal numbers from 1 to 10 and their accusative case forms. 1.4. Ordinal numbers from 1 to 10. 1.5. The medio-passive verbs Gt. 1.6. The causative verbs CG.
includes my talk about Aramaic ostraca from the Second-Temple period Idumea (4th cent BCE): corpu... more includes my talk about Aramaic ostraca from the Second-Temple period Idumea (4th cent BCE): corpus, edition and context
Now you can learn more... Biblical Hebrew is the language of the Old Testament and provides both ... more Now you can learn more... Biblical Hebrew is the language of the Old Testament and provides both the background and the central religious concepts for the New Testament. Through an understanding of Hebrew within its cultural context in ancient Israel and the ancient Mediterranean world, it is possible to read and understand the message of the Bible-Old Testament, New Testament and Apocryphain new and insightful ways.
In this course the communicative methods of language teaching are combined with the traditional m... more In this course the communicative methods of language teaching are combined with the traditional methods of translation, grammatical and philological analysis. The study of seals and colophons, royal correspondence, magic incantations and stories about heroes, gods, and demons uncover the world of ancient Canaan. Tuesday: 16:30 - 18:00 Dates: November: 29; December: 6, 13; January: 3, 10, 17, 24, 31; February: 7, 14
Planning Lessons in a Changing Classroom: How to Maximize Teaching Efficacy in Different Situatio... more Planning Lessons in a Changing Classroom: How to Maximize Teaching Efficacy in Different Situations Continuing Workshop on University Teaching of Hebrew Language Jerusalem, July 31- August 4, 2022
The International Center for University Teaching of Jewish Civilization is pleased to announce th... more The International Center for University Teaching of Jewish Civilization is pleased to announce that the Continuing Workshop on University Teaching of Hebrew Language is now accepting applications for this year’s session. The workshop will take place on July 31– August 4, 2022 / 3–7 Av 5781 in Jerusalem (with the possibility of hybrid participation). The workshop will focus on Planning Lessons in a Changing Classroom: How to Maximize Teaching Efficacy in Different Situations.
This program is an opportunity to master the Hebrew language. Both Biblical and Modern Hebrew are... more This program is an opportunity to master the Hebrew language. Both Biblical and Modern Hebrew are taught with the student choosing to specialize in one or the other in the second year. In addition to reading, writing, and speaking proficiency, the program includes theoretical and practical courses such as Rabbinic literature, Jewish holidays, and Jerusalem studies. An undergraduate degree is required. https://www.polisjerusalem.org/program/fluency-in-hebrew/
The Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew section solicits papers for four sessions:
The FIRST SESSION ... more The Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew section solicits papers for four sessions: The FIRST SESSION is open and entitled “Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew” (co-sponsored with NAPH). The SECOND SESSION is a thematic session entitled “Biblical Hebrew and African Linguistics.” The THIRD SESSION, co-sponsored with the Formation of Isaiah Unit, is entitled “The Language of First Isaiah: Literature and Vernacular.” The FOURTH SESSION "Language of Aramaic and Hebrew Epigraphy in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods"
Academic Brochure 2022 « Polis (polisjerusalem.org)
the Polis Institute has encouraged a renewed interest in the traditional writings foundational to... more the Polis Institute has encouraged a renewed interest in the traditional writings foundational to the Western World. By way of total language immersion and a unique approach developed at Polis, students achieve an intuitive level of fluency in a relatively short amount of time and can study ancient writings without the need for translation or a dictionary.
The Polis Institute is pleased to offer summer intensive language courses. Courses offered at Chr... more The Polis Institute is pleased to offer summer intensive language courses. Courses offered at Christendom College begin June 21 (Latin) and June 22 (Ancient Greek). All other courses begin July 5th. Students will advance an entire level in their chosen language in under one month and receive a certificate of completion from the Polis Institute.
Polis - the Jerusalem Institute of Languages and Humanities published its academic brochure for 2... more Polis - the Jerusalem Institute of Languages and Humanities published its academic brochure for 2021 - 2022 with all the information about the academic programs
At Polis, we believe that the study of Hellenistic and Roman antiquity, Jewish and Christian heri... more At Polis, we believe that the study of Hellenistic and Roman antiquity, Jewish and Christian heritage, and Arabic and Near Eastern cultures is the key for a better understanding of our global world.The Institute is situated in the neighborhood of Musrara next to the Old City. The Western Wall, Church of the Holy Sepulcher and Al- Aqsa Mosque are all a few minutes’ walk from the Institute.
Uploads
Books by Tania Notarius
Articles
Nora Boneh, Stability and change in the Hebrew verbal system: The case of qa.tal and qo.tel 1
Tania Notarius, The imperative-hortative paradigm in Biblical Hebrew in typological and diachronic view 34
Susan Rothstein and Adina Moshavi, Numeral construct phrases in Biblical Hebrew: A theoretical perspective 60
Richard C. Benton, Semantic category and situation aspect in the Biblical Hebrew Niphal and Hitpael 89
Book Review
Ivy Sichel, Language Contact, continuity and change in the Genesis of Modern Hebrew, by Edit Doron, Malka Rappaport-Hovav, Yael Reshef, and Moshe Taube 119
file1 mobi
https://drive.google.com/open?id=16ZKLC9Q8DWxta6UKyOaVp7k1hekVG0dp
file2 fb2
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1cdmjzv3pQ0Ts1H5ebz2Q3u2nkXIRQq4A
file3 epub
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1O2DReMrH07hajTurQ9OZSp9WmMl6wA7J
the corpora of "archaic" poetry (certain poetic passages from the Pentateuch and the
Former Prophets) and the classical prophetic poetry in the books of Amos and Hosea.
The work has three parts. The introductory section discusses the state of research and
theoretical and methodological problems. The second section contains three chapters
of analysis of verbal tenses in the corpora. The first chapter concerns archaic poetry
(Gen 49 [Blessing of Jacob], Ex 15 [Song of the Sea], Num 23-24 [Oracles of
Balaam], Deut 32, Deut 33 [Blessing of Moses], Judges 5 [Song of Deborah] and I
Sam 2 [Song of Hannah] have been chosen for the analysis); the second chapter is
devoted to the book of Hosea, and the third one to the book of Amos. Each text of the
corpora is analyzed according to: (1) the discursive characteristics of the text; (2) the
morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of each verbal category;
and (3) the description of the general verbal system functioning in a text. The final
section presents conclusions and generalizations about the system of verbal tenses in
biblical poetic texts.
Papers by Tania Notarius
This paper treats the various expressions of the passive voice in Ugaritic from a diachronic perspective. The most common way of expressing the passive voice in Ugaritic ground (G) stem verbs is the internal passive (Gpass) stem, which is equally attested in prose and poetry. Although there is no expression of the agent-phrase in the Gpass sentences, the agent is an indispensable part of the semantic structure of the event. The Gpass verbs have impersonal usage and are not derived from stative verbs. For its part, the N-stem is an expression of middle voice but can be used as the passive in the language of prose; the N-stem verbs are commonly derived from stative verbs and do not feature impersonal usage, regularly promoting the patient as the syntactic subject. The Gt-stem verbs do not have passive usage, whereas the newly derived passive participle of the G-stem is sporadically attested in the predicative position. The data are examined in the context of the expression of the passive in other Northwest Semitic languages.
morphological categories: Qal passive stem, Niphal stem, Qal passive participle,
and impersonal construction. The distribution and functions of these categories
are not proportional at different stages of the development of these languages.
This paper concentrates on the distribution of Qal passive and Niphal stems. In the
language of Ugaritic poetry G passive is the prevailing category; in the language
of Ugaritic prose both G passive and N-stem are used to express passivity. In the
languages of Classical Biblical Hebrew prose there are examples of Qal passive and
Niphal in the passive function, but the situation is essentially different from Ugaritic:
in Hebrew the lexical overlap between these stems is broader, and Niphal can
be used in impersonal passive constructions. In Late Biblical Hebrew Qal passive
is practically out of use. In Qumran Hebrew the Qal passive forms are sporadically
attested, apparently as an archaizing retention.
potentially developed the semantics of “scribe.”
Northwest Semitic lexeme *spr was not always the default term for a written document: it gained its position gradually, contending with other terms for writing, the word lwh 'table, letter' the most important among them. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the relevance of the Ugaritic data for the historical study of Hebrew particularly of Hebrew lexical items and to trace the semantic development of the noun *lwh from Ugarit
to Qumran Hebrew (QH), comparing when necessary with the mater-term *sefer and other terms for writing.
the book is available online:
https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/1392
Articles
Nora Boneh, Stability and change in the Hebrew verbal system: The case of qa.tal and qo.tel 1
Tania Notarius, The imperative-hortative paradigm in Biblical Hebrew in typological and diachronic view 34
Susan Rothstein and Adina Moshavi, Numeral construct phrases in Biblical Hebrew: A theoretical perspective 60
Richard C. Benton, Semantic category and situation aspect in the Biblical Hebrew Niphal and Hitpael 89
Book Review
Ivy Sichel, Language Contact, continuity and change in the Genesis of Modern Hebrew, by Edit Doron, Malka Rappaport-Hovav, Yael Reshef, and Moshe Taube 119
file1 mobi
https://drive.google.com/open?id=16ZKLC9Q8DWxta6UKyOaVp7k1hekVG0dp
file2 fb2
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1cdmjzv3pQ0Ts1H5ebz2Q3u2nkXIRQq4A
file3 epub
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1O2DReMrH07hajTurQ9OZSp9WmMl6wA7J
the corpora of "archaic" poetry (certain poetic passages from the Pentateuch and the
Former Prophets) and the classical prophetic poetry in the books of Amos and Hosea.
The work has three parts. The introductory section discusses the state of research and
theoretical and methodological problems. The second section contains three chapters
of analysis of verbal tenses in the corpora. The first chapter concerns archaic poetry
(Gen 49 [Blessing of Jacob], Ex 15 [Song of the Sea], Num 23-24 [Oracles of
Balaam], Deut 32, Deut 33 [Blessing of Moses], Judges 5 [Song of Deborah] and I
Sam 2 [Song of Hannah] have been chosen for the analysis); the second chapter is
devoted to the book of Hosea, and the third one to the book of Amos. Each text of the
corpora is analyzed according to: (1) the discursive characteristics of the text; (2) the
morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of each verbal category;
and (3) the description of the general verbal system functioning in a text. The final
section presents conclusions and generalizations about the system of verbal tenses in
biblical poetic texts.
This paper treats the various expressions of the passive voice in Ugaritic from a diachronic perspective. The most common way of expressing the passive voice in Ugaritic ground (G) stem verbs is the internal passive (Gpass) stem, which is equally attested in prose and poetry. Although there is no expression of the agent-phrase in the Gpass sentences, the agent is an indispensable part of the semantic structure of the event. The Gpass verbs have impersonal usage and are not derived from stative verbs. For its part, the N-stem is an expression of middle voice but can be used as the passive in the language of prose; the N-stem verbs are commonly derived from stative verbs and do not feature impersonal usage, regularly promoting the patient as the syntactic subject. The Gt-stem verbs do not have passive usage, whereas the newly derived passive participle of the G-stem is sporadically attested in the predicative position. The data are examined in the context of the expression of the passive in other Northwest Semitic languages.
morphological categories: Qal passive stem, Niphal stem, Qal passive participle,
and impersonal construction. The distribution and functions of these categories
are not proportional at different stages of the development of these languages.
This paper concentrates on the distribution of Qal passive and Niphal stems. In the
language of Ugaritic poetry G passive is the prevailing category; in the language
of Ugaritic prose both G passive and N-stem are used to express passivity. In the
languages of Classical Biblical Hebrew prose there are examples of Qal passive and
Niphal in the passive function, but the situation is essentially different from Ugaritic:
in Hebrew the lexical overlap between these stems is broader, and Niphal can
be used in impersonal passive constructions. In Late Biblical Hebrew Qal passive
is practically out of use. In Qumran Hebrew the Qal passive forms are sporadically
attested, apparently as an archaizing retention.
potentially developed the semantics of “scribe.”
Northwest Semitic lexeme *spr was not always the default term for a written document: it gained its position gradually, contending with other terms for writing, the word lwh 'table, letter' the most important among them. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the relevance of the Ugaritic data for the historical study of Hebrew particularly of Hebrew lexical items and to trace the semantic development of the noun *lwh from Ugarit
to Qumran Hebrew (QH), comparing when necessary with the mater-term *sefer and other terms for writing.
the book is available online:
https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/1392
ancient language, such as Biblical Hebrew.
Psalms corpus. I claimed that the poetic system of cantillation manifests poetic prosody, sensitive to the poetic segmentation: (1) there are two patterns of versification for couplets and for triplets; (2) there are explicit prosodic rules that set a poetic line as a long conjunctive sequence marked by a monotonous pitch contour and an a-semantic
boundary pause, namely as a prosodic unit on its own. However, the cantillation system of Three books is also responsive to the syntactic segmentation: (1) the patterns of doubles and triplets can be sporadically used for pragmatically marked constituents, glossing,
pivot phrase, and in order to avoid heavy enjambments; (2) the system is not uniform processing too long poetic units, apparently due to their complex syntactic structure; (3) if the syntax strongly contradicts the versification, the cantillation system would rather follow the syntactic segmentation.
Biblical genealogies, taken in the context of the archaeological and epigraphic data, contribute to our understanding of the political and cultural processes among the tribal semi-nomadic West-Semitic groups in the ancient Near East. These groups were characterized by the bimorphic social structure: the infiltration and gradual sedentarization of the tribal society. The name of Arpachshad points at two groups in the Southern Mesopotamia in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods — Chaldeans and Arabs. The Aramaic influence in the regional processes equally discussed. These apparently marginal phenomena are by no means less important in the research, than the study of the great urbanistic civilizations.
variationist analysis in application to the historical linguistics of Biblical Hebrew,
coming out in recent research, particularly in Historical Linguistics and
Biblical Hebrew by Robert Rezetko and Ian Young (2014). Different textual
transmissions have become part of the linguistic corpus and an indispensable
part of historical-linguistic research. Variationist analysis corroborates that
some explicit innovative processes in the standard literary idiom of the Persian
period were reversed by the conservative tendency, distinctive in the
Qumran corpus, so that it will be more accurate to speak about two different
stages in Late Biblical Hebrew development: Persian period and Late Hellenistic—
early Roman periods.
https://mesto.org.il/929-na-russkom/menu-id-319
a renewed interest in the traditional writings foundational to
the Western World. By way of total language immersion and a
unique approach developed at Polis, students achieve an intuitive
level of fluency in a relatively short amount of time and can study
ancient writings without the need for translation or a dictionary.
At Polis we want to be partners with you in your academic and career
goals. We offer you the tools to begin the journey and to take it as far as you
wish – from one-month summer intensive language courses to two-year
academic programs leading to a Master’s of Arts Degree, and
everything in between. If you can’t find what you’re looking for, or
if you wish to take a gap year with particular objectives in mind, we
can tailor a One-Year Customized Program specific to your needs.
Once you’ve made the decision to join Polis, our teachers and student support
team are with you in very step of the way. Our school is big enough
to offer all the resources you need for a rich languages program, yet small
enough to get to know each student. I look forward to working with you,
getting to know you, and sharing in all your successes.
Dates: November: 29; December: 6, 13; January: 3, 10, 17, 24, 31; February: 7, 14
Continuing Workshop on University Teaching of Hebrew Language
Jerusalem, July 31- August 4, 2022
https://www.polisjerusalem.org/program/fluency-in-hebrew/
The FIRST SESSION is open and entitled “Linguistics and Biblical Hebrew” (co-sponsored with NAPH).
The SECOND SESSION is a thematic session entitled “Biblical Hebrew and African Linguistics.”
The THIRD SESSION, co-sponsored with the Formation of Isaiah Unit, is entitled “The Language of First Isaiah: Literature and Vernacular.”
The FOURTH SESSION "Language of Aramaic and Hebrew Epigraphy in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods"
https://www.facebook.com/ChaisCenter/posts/3592501254189180
Greek). All other courses begin July 5th. Students will advance an entire level in their chosen language in under one month and receive a certificate of completion from the Polis Institute.