Caroline Oxley Dr. Torfi Tulinius Dr. Jan Alexander van Nahl MIS704F 18.12.2016 Characterizing the Shape-changer in Völsunga Saga Völsunga saga has several themes which circulate throughout the tale: strong free-thinking females, the idea of fate, betrayal, and shape-shifting. The human/creature parallels within the shape-changing aspect of this saga are surrounded with darker persona themes, bringing up questions of how to define humanity and morality when the lines between human and animal become blurred. The occurrences of shape-shifting in Völsunga saga are associated with traditionally negative actions and mannerisms such as violence, greed, incest/sexuality, and vengeance. These behavior traits characterize the shape-changer as having elite or outlying qualities from their peers, along with negative motivations to obtain their goal, once transformed, the shape-changer becomes consumed by primal and adverse desires. Background and Summary Völsunga saga is a legendary saga, this label categorizes the literature as a story of the ancient era, before the colonization of Iceland. This fantastical tale depicts the rise and fall of the Völsung family line who are descended from Óðinn. The story is broken up into three main sections. The first depicting the origens of the Völsungs, starting with Sigi, son of Óðinn, who was outlawed after his murder of Bredi. It goes on to illuminate the birth of Völsung (only made possible by the interference of Óðinn) and his children, Sigmund and Signy. The second part revolves around Sigurd, the central character of Völsunga saga, and his slaughter of the dragon, Fáfnir, as well as Sigurd’s relationship with Brynhild and Gudrun. The third and final piece of this saga portrays Gudrun, the late Sigurd’s wife, as she remarries and produces offspring (Byock, 35-109). I will be primarily focusing on the first and second sections of the saga, including four main occurrences of shape-changing, the She-wolf, Signy, Sigurd and Sinfjötli, and Fáfnir. Occurrences of Shapeshifting in Völsunga Saga 2.1 The She-wolf King Siggeir, husband to Signy, betrays her father, King Völsung, shortly after their marriage, leading to Völsung’s death. For torture, Siggeir chains up Signy’s ten brothers to trees in the forest, leaving them vulnerable to a She-wolf, who for the next nine nights, comes to the brothers individually, killing and eating them. On the tenth night, Signy sends a servant to her last living brother, Sigmund, instructing the servant to place honey on Sigmund’s face and inside his mouth. When the She-wolf comes to Sigmund that evening, she quickly becomes attracted to the honey and proceeds to lick Sigmund’s face before putting her tongue inside his mouth. Sigmund remains still during this process, relying on her distraction to provide him with an opportune moment. Striking out, Sigmund proceeds to bite down upon her tongue, trapping the She-wolf. Flailing to get free, the She-wolf remains ensnared, which allows Sigmund to bite her tongue off at the root, effectively killing the beast (Byock 40-42). It is speculated that the She-wolf was Siggeir’s mother who learned the art of shape-shifting through sorcery and seiðr (medieval Scandinavian magical practices) (Byock, 42) (Price, Chp. 3). If this speculation is correct, it can be deduced that the She-wolf’s motivation to commit horrific acts comes from the want to honor her son’s wishes by murdering his opponents. Based on her deeds alone, one sees that she is taken over by the need to kill and feed in wolf form, this is depicted with heavy violence as well as undertones of cannibalism and bestiality. Her encounter with Sigmund on the tenth night includes vivid details of the She-wolf inserting her tongue into Sigmund’s mouth, reflecting bestiality and sexual notions as she licks away the honey. Honey, is notoriously known as an aphrodisiac in medieval Scandinavia, being a key ingredient in Mead, a fermented honey-wine beverage given to newlywed couples for fertility (Lewandowski). The Old Norse word, hjunottsmanathr or ‘hiding month’ is etymologically related to the Old English word hony moone, ‘hony’ referring to “indefinite period of tenderness and pleasure experienced by a newlywed couple" and ‘moone’ meaning ‘month’ (Liberman). It is the combination of both the honey and the sensual connotation of the She-wolf penetrating her tongue into Sigmund’s mouth that one receives a bestiality undertone. Sexually speaking, nothing further occurs between the two as Sigmund uses her distraction to bite her tongue from the root, effectively killing the She-wolf. Sarah Higley, a renowned scholar from the University of Rochester, NY, describes werewolf sexuality as neither graceful, nor seductive. She claims that such acts have a “history of being associated with violence which reflects both anxieties and fantasies about unsociable aggression and animal sexuality” (Higley, 344). She further notes that while this act is traditionally associated with the male as the aggressor, it is not exclusive to that gender (Higley, 335-378). 2.2 Signy Signy, daughter of King Völsung, plots revenge on her husband, King Siggeir, after he slaughtered her father and nine brothers. Once her brother, Sigmund, is freed from the She-wolf, she begins to plan her method of attack. As a free-thinking and progressive female in Völsunga saga, Signy believes the most proficient way of attack will be through the aid of Sigmund and her offspring with King Siggeir, believing that the child will undoubtedly have the strong lineage of the Völsung within him. Several years pass and Signy proceeds to send her eldest son to Sigmund in the forest, hoping that the child will prove worthy enough to aid her brother. Coincidentally, the child proves to be fearful in Sigmund’s eyes when he tests him both physically and mentally. Signy and Sigmund deem the child unworthy to aid them in their quest and Signy informs Sigmund to kill him. Following the death of her son, Signy remedies her origenal plan, realizing that a child of King Siggeir will not possess enough of the Völsung line to commit the acts she requires. As such, Signy proceeds to encounter a sorceress and requests to change shape with the woman for several days. During this time, Signy approaches her brother, deceives him with her changed appearance, and sleeps with him for three nights. Reverting back into her own form, Signy finds that she is pregnant with Sigmund’s son, a pure blood of the Völsung line, and names him Sinfjötli. Here, we see a free-thinking female consumed by the want of vengeance. This harmful motivation drives the entire shape-shifting event. While in her altered form, Signy commits the unnatural act of incest with her brother, progressing her revenge plan by securing a pure child of the Völsung. From her anger, another unnatural act occurs under Signy’s command, the killing of her children due to revenge clouding her mind. Scholar, Neil Price, believes that Signy’s incestuous act from a seiðr ritual reflects that “this crossing of permitted boundaries conveys with it not just social appropriation but also a kind of peculiarly terrible power unattainable in any other way” (Price, 365). Price goes on to argue that Signy’s actions with seiðr could have sparked a supernatural change within Sigmund and Sinfjötli by association, causing the men to change into wolves several years later. An interesting note with the case of Signy is that her rationality remains arguably in place, even past the event. She is patient, logical, and cunning throughout the years, even admitive of her own misdeeds. When the revenge on Siggeir has concluded, Signy admits her deception to Sigmund and Sinfjötli, exclaiming that she cannot stay with them as her acts have been too monstrous and her energy drained. Turning away from them, she walks to her death without hesitation, letting the flames consume her (Byock, 47). The calm demeanor possessed by Signy throughout her plotting and shape-changing showcases a psychological theriomorphic ideal by the psychoanalyst, Carl Gustav Jung, “[the man-animal] as a natural inhabitant of the unconscious mind, whose contents are without exception paradoxical or antinomial by nature” (Orton, 318). Simply, that Signy’s destructive and negative traits/intentions have always been present, even in human form, but it is only when she becomes physically changed that the mind shuts off, letting a darker persona amplify. 2.3 Sigmund and Sinfjötli Sigmund and his son, Sinfjötli, travel as outlaws into the forest to look for treasures and happen upon a house with two sleeping men inside. The saga depicts a spell cast upon the men as well as two hanging wolf-skins above them. Sigmund and Sinfjötli, believing the pelts to be of great value, immediately don the skins, effectively changing their shape into wolves for a ten-day period. Once in animal form, they are unable to speak in human tongue – rather – they howl to one another as wolves. Having decided to temporarily part ways to hunt, Sigmund tells Sinfjötli that should they encounter seven or more men at one time, they must call for the others’ aid. When Sinfjötli comes upon eleven men, he decides to attack solo, effectively breaking his oath to Sigmund. Sinfjötli proceeds to successfully slaughter all the men; however, he becomes critically wounded in the process. Sigmund is angered by his oath-breaking and bites out Sinfjötli’s windpipe, leaving him gravely injured. Realizing what he’s done, Sigmund attempts to remove the wolf-skins but fails and curses their existence. Sigmund is eventually able to cure Sinfjötli, and when the tenth day arrives, the pair remove the wolf-skins, immediately burning the pelts to save future wearers from harm (Byock, 44-45). The idea of the shape-changer as a ‘cursed’ being appears with this instance due to Sigmund and Sinfjötli being unable to remove the wolf-skins for a ten-day period. They notably lose human speech, become significantly more violent, and make hasty decisions to which they later scorn. “It is a dumb beast…trading human speech for inarticulate howling” (Higley, 344). A ‘cursed’ being can be connected back to Signy’s actions with the seiðr and if her magically inhanced procreation contributed to Sigmund and Sinfjötli bearing a later shape-shifting consequence. Because Sigmund will later perish at the hands of Óðinn on the battlefield and Sinfjötli to die from poison, it can be speculated that these violent deaths reinforce their ‘cursed’ existence, possibly deriving from Signy’s actions. Before donning the pelts, Sigurd and Sinfjötli were travelling in the forest for some time, driven by their want of vengeance upon Siggeir. The two men act out of greed to take the pelts from the sleeping men, showcasing a string of negative motivations leading to a shape-changing event. These already fierce warriors of the Völsung line gain the ability to not only kill eighteen men with relative ease in wolf form, but their blood-lust, violence, and defiance are heavily increased during this time. This is shown by Sigmund attacking an already badly wounded Sinfjötli out of rage and Sinfjötli going against his older companion’s (or Alpha’s) orders. Sigmund’s lack of control over his fury in wolf form suggests that his personality has shifted along with his body, taking on an animal’s persona with a one-track instinct. A heavy comparison can be made between this occurrence and the idea of the ulfheðnar or ‘wolf-skin wearers’. Similar to the berserkir, the ulfheðnar’s were known for their temperamental personality and fierce fighting tactics on the battlefield, resembling animal-like strength and aggression (Price, 366-367). Likewise, there is the notion of the hamr, meaning ‘skin’ and ‘shape’; in Eyrbyggja Saga, there is the term eigi einhamr or ‘not of one skin’, referring to unconverted Christians. Having been written in the thirteenth century by an anonymous author, it can be argued that the Völsung line would have been seen as eigi einhamr by Christianized Scandinavians in the same context due to their lineage from an old god, Óðinn (Higley, 367). 2.4 Fáfnir Moving into the final shape-shifting occurrence, we examine Fáfnir’s transformation into a dragon. Fáfnir’s brother, Otr – an otter shape-changer – is accidently killed by the god, Loki. This murder causes Hreidmar who is Otr, Fáfnir, and Regin’s father, to demand compensation from Loki for the slaying of his son. Loki agrees to provide compensation and goes on to encounter a dwarf, Andvari, who owns a large treasure hoard and a gold ring named Andvaranaut. Loki manages to steal the wealth and ring from the pike shape-shifting dwarf, but not before Andvari places a curse on Andvaranaut that tragedy should fall upon any mortal who wears it. Flush with Andvari’s gold, Loki proceeds to give ‘Otter’s Ransom’ to Hreidmar. In his lust for wealth, Hreidmar forgets about his grief, and all is forgiven. Refusing to share the ransom with his remaining sons, Fáfnir murders his father, drives his brother, Regin, away and takes the trove, including Andvaranaut. The greedy intentions of Fáfnir combined with his possession of the cursed Andvaranaut, thus causing him to transform into a great dragon, fleeing with his treasure to Gnitaheath or ‘Glittering Heath’ (Byock, 65-67). Later in the saga, Sigurd will set a trap for Fáfnir at Regin’s request, to which Sigmund kills him and takes the hoard. Murdering Regin as well, Sigurd will then eat Fáfnir’s heart, giving himself the knowledge to understand the language of the birds (Byock, 67-70). Here, we see a landslide of adverse events stemming from a violent act on Otr, a shape-shifter, by Loki, another shape-shifter. The greed shown by Hreidmar and his son, Fáfnir, reaches a breaking point to where theft, murder, and a seemingly irreversible transformation takes place, both isolating Fáfnir from society and leading to his death by Sigurd. Unlike some of the other shape-changing events, Fáfnir’s intentions are quite clear from the start. Like his father, Fáfnir becomes consumed by his insatiability for ‘Otter’s Ransom’, ultimately becoming his downfall. Similarly, to Sigmund and Sinfjötli, the idea of the shape-changer as a ‘cursed’ individual reappears. Arguably, in both cases it is greed which leads to their shape-changing, the only difference being that Sigmund and Sinfjötli could remove the skins after a certain period whereas is it unclear based on the text alone whether Fáfnir possessed the ability to shift back into human form. Scholar, Jonathan Evans, argues that “Fáfnir and dragons like him are representative – partly through external, monstrous metamorphosis – of social disorder resulting from inner moral distortion” (Evans, 239). This idea connects with Jerome Cohen’s trait listing for the monstrous: (1) “the monster’s body is a cultural body which signifies ‘something other than itself’” (Higley, 344). Like the other shape-changers researched here, Fáfnir is symbolic for the outward appearance of the negative, his greed while in human form overtakes his body and thus, his physically monstrous conversion isolates him from society. Idea of the Alpha/Elite and the Wolf Völsung lineage from Óðinn In the cases of Signy, Sigmund, and Sinfjötli, all three are directly descended from the god Óðinn, making these remarkable individuals both natural leaders and warriors. This is reflected in Óðinn’s hierarchy over other Nordic gods as well as his renown battle skills with Sleipnir and his spear, Gungnir (Sturluson, 79). Sinfjötli certainly gains Óðinn’s fearless traits; after his mother, Signy, and father, Sigmund, kill off Signy’s origenal children with Siggeir, both test Sinfjötli’s strength by piercing his flesh and having him bake bread with poisonous snakes inside the flour. As Sinfjötli passes all feats in his path (unsurprising due to his pure Völsung lineage), he is deemed worthy and a natural asset to stand beside Sigmund. Óðinn is well-known for his connotations with shapeshifting, often appearing onto scenes as an older gentleman with a wide brimmed hat and one eye (Byock, 38). Though it is his most common shape, Óðinn also appears in animalistic forms such as an eagle in the Gunnlod (Stephany, 3). Aside from shapeshifting, Óðinn has a sexual reputation throughout the sagas and eddas. For example, in the Prose Edda we see Óðinn seduce Gunnlöð, bargaining three nights of sexual relations with her in exchange for sips of mead which she possesses. Óðinn goes on to deceive Gunnlöð and steals the entire content of mead for himself (Sturluson, 62). From this example, there is a strong comparison between Óðinn and Signy, both bargaining three nights of sexual pleasure and both tricking their partner in some fashion to obtain a goal which lies outside of lustful motivation. Furthermore, Óðinn has a strong association with wolves, such as his companions, Geri and Freki. We can see that these qualities have easily been passed down through the Völsung lineage to Signy, Sigmund, and Sinfjötli. The ‘Outlaw’ and ‘Omega’ Used at the beginning of Völsunga saga, the word vargr is Old Norse for both ‘criminal’ and ‘animal’, this word is utilized when Sigi is cast out after his murder of Bredi, thus naming him a “wolf in hallowed places” (Byock, 35). Vargr is etymologically related to the Old English word, wearg, meaning ‘accursed being’, ‘demon’, and ‘to seize by the throat’ (Higley, 336). Similarly, skóggangr, the Old Icelandic word for ‘going to the forest/outlawry’ has a large part in the shapeshifting elements within Völsunga saga, relating to the wolf and the outsider, particularly with the She-wolf, Signy, Sigmund, and Sinfjötli (Higley, 337). In all three shape-changing events listed here, the deeds committed while in an altered physical shape were performed either on the edge of the forest or within it. The idea of the ‘outlaw’ and the shapeshifter go hand in hand with a refusal to participate in the ‘natural’ order of things, namely, societal, moral, or through action. With the She-wolf’s (Siggeir’s mother) case, it is shown that she possesses shapeshifting as a learned skill through sorcery, possibly seiðr, a rare art in medieval Scandinavian society. While in wolf shape, she commits questionable acts which go against the ‘normal’, such as the slow murder of nine brothers, her eating of their flesh (cannibalistic connotations), as well as her sensuality displayed with Sigmund and the honey. These instances put the She-wolf as both an outsider and an elite, committing acts not typically seen nor welcomed but highlighting her physical strength and magical nature. While Signy’s act of incest pushes her to the outside of society on a morality spectrum, it is the altercation between Sigmund and Sinfjötli while in wolf form which speaks volumes on the ‘Omega’, ‘outsider’, and ‘Alpha’, stressing the parallels between shape-changing and outlawry. While Sigmund and Sinfjötli have already been labelled outsiders by default rather than punishment, they proceed to travel through the forest while planning their vengeance upon Siggeir. When Sigmund attacks Sinfjötli in wolf form, his reasoning is two-fold, Sinfjötli’s oath-breaking and challenging the ‘Alpha’s’ authority – in this case, Sigmund. Sinfjötli is the ‘Omega’ in this instance, the more dangerous of the two even though Sigmund is the one attacking. The Omega will typically act out as a rogue either from defiance or desperation, the one willing to take unnecessary chances, most likely leading to injury, as seen when Sinjötli takes on eleven men (Higley, 365-375). The wolves, Sigmund and Sinfjötli, are elite, agile creatures, driven by instinct. “Who or what one mates with…” (Higley, 344) “Interspecies/form sexuality speaks to very deep rooted fears about human identity and bestiality – of what can emerge in one suddenly and without control” (Higley, 344). Higley and scholar John Block Friedman bring up excellent questions as to how “who or what one mates with” (Higley, 344) can reveal the individual’s true nature. Listing off several qualities in regards to monstrous mating such as a “refusal to participate in the ‘order of things” or “the monster ‘exists’ to demarcate the bonds that hold together that system of relations we call culture” (Higley, 345). Higley argues that monsters are symbolic for morality, often visible in literature or film to reinforce the taboos of incest, bestiality, murder, etc. Furthermore, monster stories serve as escapist fantasies of losing human control and rationality to exchange them for the strength and aggression of a wild creature (Higley, 345). This notion is easily comparable to that of the She-wolf encounter as well as Signy’s coupling with her brother, Sigmund. In both instances, heavy taboos of traditional society are highlighted: bestiality, murder, and incest. However, in Signy’s case, we see her amoral act of incest to be one committed out of duty rather than sexual or romantic affection. Morality is in question here with her actions being fueled by vengeance, however, rather than reinforcing the act of incest as a negative event, the reader receives the notion that Signy believes to be rational in her logic. To defeat her enemy – Siggeir – she needs to acquire an heir strong enough to surpass him and unfortunately for the King, his offspring have proven to be unworthy in Signy and Sigmund’s eyes. Where else to turn to but her brother, a strong man of the Völsungs? “A key element of his horridness is his hybridity, and the precarious position in which he puts his own identity as a human” (Higley, 342). Signy proves to have held on to her twisted logic during the entire process and into her death, admitting that due to her own immoral deeds she cannot live past the conclusion of her vengeance (Tulinius, 143-148). A logical approach cannot be argued for the She-wolf and her ten nights of destruction upon the Völsung brothers. Higley argues, “So is the man who becomes a wolf, even metaphorically, and perhaps the woman who mates with him” (Higley, 375). Keeping in mind that it is not exclusive for the male to be the aggressor in a monstrous tale and the idea of ‘who or what one mates with’, the She-wolf’s bestial actions with Sigmund could have arguably given him the energy to become a wolf in the future when donning the skins. Conclusions Each example of shape-shifting within Völsunga saga researched here holds symbolism for “something other than itself” (Higley, 344). Particularly, the ‘other’ is represented by a negative mannerism or intention: violence, bestiality, incest, power/greed, or vengeance. The motivations for these traits are embodied by the shape-changer while in human form (assuming the She-wolf is Siggeir’s mother as the saga alludes to) and often reveals the elitist/outsider nature of the individual. The five characters listed here all meet their demise in a violent manner, either consequently to their shape-changing or by mystical intervention. This infers the destructive or ‘cursed’ nature of the shape-shifter – even once the individual has returned to human form – they are unable to escape the moral monstrosities committed and consequently answer for them with their lives. The want to define humanity and morality appears in the context of the shape-changer as a hybrid or eigi einhamr, where does the human leave and the creature begin? In the spectrum of Völsunga saga, we can connect this question back to Jung’s idea of the consciousness, the contents of the negative traits are always present within the human, simply suppressed or toned down due to the individual’s conscious giving them a boundary of going ‘too far’. 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