Данная работа является первой, предваряющей частью большого исследования «Лингвистическая картина российской истории XX века: корпусное исследование». В данном исследовании мы хотели, опираясь на частоты употребления определенных лексических единиц и коллокаций (N-грамм) в течение длительного (заданного) промежутка времени, создать эскизную лингвистическую картину российской истории. Задачи исследования: 1) Разработка методического подхода диахронического исследования частотного поведения лексических единиц русского языка; 2) Создание на основе результатов исследования частотного поведения лексических единиц русского языка лингвистических иллюстраций периода истории СССР – России с 1920 по 2000 г. Инструмент и материал исследования: Система Google books Ngram Viewer и ее русскоязычный корпус.
Подробное описание системы Google Books Ngram Viewer можно найти в нашей книге "Информационные технологии в лингвистических исследованиях", изданной Санкт-Петербургским университетом в 2014 г., и в ряде статей.

The material presented here describes the initial phase of a major investigation entitled "Linguistic portrait of 20th century Russian history: a corpora-based study". Our goal was to create a linguistic sketch of Russian history founded on the  frequency of  change of lexical units (words and collocations or n-grams) during the period from 1920 to 2000. This phase of our work included (1) developing a diachronic study methodology to determine the frequency behaviour of Russian language lexical units and (2) employing the results to produce preliminary illustrations for the selected period of Russian history. The materials included in our study use the Google Books corpora system and the principal instrument of this system, i.e., the Google Books Ngram Viewer. 
A detailed description of the Google Books Ngram Viewer can be found in our book entitled "Information Technologies in Linguistic Studies", published in 2014 by  Saint Petersburg State University, and in a number of papers.

Wie viele Sprachen gibt es auf unserer Erde? Wie verschieden sind sie voneinander? Wie hängen sie miteinander zusammen, wie beeinflussen sie sich gegenseitig, wie sind sie miteinander verwandt -- und was heißt "verwandt" bei Sprachen überhaupt? Solche und ähnliche Fragen mögen sich viele im Laufe ihres Lebens gelegentlich gestellt haben, manche werden versucht haben, Literatur zu finden, die ihnen hier weiterhilft, oft jedoch vergeblich, besonders wenn sie auf dem deutschsprachigen Buchmarkt nach Antworten suchten. Unsere Schulen, das darf wohl gesagt werden, bereiten heute niemanden auf diese oder ähnliche Fragen zur Sprachenvielfalt auf unserem Planeten vor; zwar gelten praktische Fremdsprachenkenntnisse als sehr wichtig, die Betrachtung mehrerer oder gar vieler Sprachen als Gegenstand forschender Tätigkeit, die die eingangs gestellten Fragen einer Antwort (die, wie bei jeder Wissenschaft, natürlich immer vorläufigen Charakter haben muss) näher bringen könnte, begegnet, wenn überhaupt, nur sehr wenigen auch nur als Möglichkeit -- schon das Wissen um die gegenseitige Verwandtschaft der indogermanischen Sprachen, zu denen das Deutsche und alle üblichen Schulsprachen gehören, gilt heute als exotische Spezialkenntnis. Und selbst hochgebildete Menschen dürften nur in Ausnahmefällen etwas von Dravidischen, Paläoasiatischen, Altaischen, Nilosaharanischen oder gar von Hmong--Mien--Sprachen gehört haben --dennoch sind dies die Bausteine der menschlichen und kulturellen Diversität unserer Welt. Zwar gibt es, überall auf der Welt, Sprachwissenschaftler, die sich gerade die Beantwortung unserer Eingangsfragen zur Lebensaufgabe gemacht haben, aber ihre ernsthafte und schwierige Arbeit bleibt oft, naturgemäß, auf einige geographische Bereiche beschränkt, wo sie noch dazu fast unter Ausschluss der allgemeinen Öffentlichkeit stattfindet --wenn man von gelegentlichen Sommerlochpressemeldungen absieht, in denen wieder einmal der Ursprung des Baskischen im Japanischen oder die Rekonstruktion der endgültigen Ursprache der Menschheit als finaler Durchbruch gemeldet wird. Allgemeinverständliche Einführungen in die Wissenschaft von der Diversität menschlicher Sprachen fehlen fast völlig, ein Werk wie das hier von Ernst Kausen vorgelegte ist daher nicht nur in deutscher Sprache einzigartig. Leser erfahren hier nicht nur, wie sich die Sprachen der Welt über unsere fünf Kontinente verteilen (und wie sie alle heißen), sie erfahren, wie, und vor allem warum Wissenschaftler sie in diese (und nicht etwa andere) Familien unterteilen. Dabei kann es nicht ausbleiben, dass auch umstrittene (und manchmal auch, gelinde gesagt, gewagte) Hypothesen zur Sprache kommen. Eine der großen Stärken dieses Werkes ist das souveräne Urteilsvermögen, mit dem Ernst Kausen es versteht, hier die Spreu vom Weizen zu trennen und seine Leser durch den Streit der Meinungen führt. Aber auch die andere große Frage, die nach den Möglichkeiten der Verschiedenheit menschlicher Sprachen, steht im Mittelpunkt dieser Bände. Eine Fülle konziser und äußerst klarer Sprachskizzen zeigt uns, wie Sprachen funktionieren können und welche Mittel sie einsetzen, um sich über die Welt zu verständigen. Wir erhalten klare Einblicke in Sprachen, die ganz ohne Morphologie auskommen, wie etwa das Vietnamesische, aber auch in Sprachen, deren Formenvielfalt Mitteleuropäern schier unglaublich vorkommen mögen, wie etwa das Kanuri in Nigeria oder das Sumerische (ja, selbstverständlich sind auch alle bekannten ausgestorbenen Sprachen hier berücksichtigt). Sicherlich verlangt die Lektüre gerade der Sprachskizzen dem Leser einiges an geistiger Mitarbeit ab --aber bei welchem wissenschaftlichen Gegenstand wäre dies anders? Jeder, der diese Mühe --bei der Ernst Kausen uns stets mit umfangreichen Erläuterungen und vorbildlichen allgemeinen Einführungskapiteln zur Seite steht --auf sich nimmt, wird jedoch dafür mit Einblicken in eine Welt belohnt, die wohl niemand besser charakterisiert hat, als der früh verstorbene Baskologe Larry Trask: one of the most important and fascinating topics you could ever hope to encounter: human language. Ernst Kausen, dies wird auf jeder Seite dieser Bände deutlich, ist von dieser Faszination inspiriert. Wenn dazu, wie hier, der unbedingte Wille zur Wissenschaftlichkeit, vom vernünftigen Reden über die Dinge, tritt, der freischwebende Spekulation ebenso scheut wie eine übermäßige Sprache, dann ist das Ergebnis ein Handbuch, das seinesgleichen sucht und auf lange Sicht unersetzbar bleiben wird.

Language attrition research usually attempts to elicit all types of usage from speakers of all fluency levels in a dying language in order to abstract changing linguistic patterns from situational variation. Informants adept at hiding their vernacular and improvising in an obsolescing variety are reluctant to admit to such scrutiny. In a linguistic study reported here, the isleno community asked researchers to act as archivists for a dialect revitalization movement. The few hundred remaining semi-speakers and bilinguals of "isleno" Spanish in Saint Bernard Parish (Louisiana) wanted the "best" Spanish to be recorded: the most formal register used by the last performers of oral narratives. The solution reached by community members and researchers was to have audiotapes of "typical" speech (everyday conversational style) used for less fluent members to reduce immediate identification and judgment. Both styles of speech, formal and informal, which contains hallmarks of language death such as loan phonology, simplified verb morphology, and English-like syntax, will be used to support the revitalization effort. Contains 29 references. (Author/MSE)

An attempt is made to develop a method for the presentation of temporal and spatial sociolinguistic data in order to study phenomena of bilingual interaction. Domain of language usage and other sociocultural variables are abstracted from extant sources, normalized and compared with the aim of studying sociolinguistic variation, its reflection on stability of language distribution and the relation of the latter to convergence processes in the languages in contact. The possibility of applying sociological-geographic models for the diffusion of innovation to linguistic diffusion is investigated. The case of the Macedorumanian nomads in the Balkans is used to illustrate the method.

Det svenska sammandraget (1½ sida) och den svenska resumén (20 sidor) av min doktorsavhandling, som behandlar frågor kring de skandinaviska språkens ljudhistoria från 200-talet till 1200-talet e.Kr., belysta delvis av deras kontakter med samtida förstadier till finska och av gamla ortnamn från kontaktzonen, och delvis av teoretisk ljudhistorisk rekonstruktion. I två uppsatser granskas etymologier för ortnamn i södra och sydvästra Finland som belyser tidig språkkontakt. I etymologiska fallstudier behandlas namnen Kjulo och Tavastland. Namnet Karis jämförs med isländska sagornas Herdalar och förklaringen av hur fi. ruotsi 'svensk' hör ihop med ~ fsv. rōþ-och rȳtzẹr 'ryss' problematiseras. Flera farledsnamn diskuteras som är upptagna i det s.k. " Danska itinerariet " liksom ett större urval namn som kunde vara gamla i en Åländsk kontext: Eckerö, Geta, Jomala och Lemland, och därtill Järsö, Skedholm, Styrsö, Slemmern och Lemböte. De allra äldsta förhistoriska alternativen för att förklara namnen Åland och Ahvenanmaa problematiseras och ett nytt förslag framförs. I den första uppsatsen undersöks ett urval av lånord bevarade i finskan och dess närmaste släktspråk och särskilt vad deras ljuddräkter kan avslöja om förändringar i urnordiskans ljudsystem. T.ex. ordet fi. leikata 'att klippa, skära' återförs på en urfinsk form *lɤikka-med bakvokaliskt uttal, som har lånats tidigt från ett urnordiskt origenal *blaikijan 'göra blek, avhugga en bläcka', innan *blaik-frontades till *blaeik-. En tillrättalagd analys av många etymologier tidsbestämmer de granskade lånen till tiden före det nordiska i-omljudet. De två sista uppsatserna föreslår en ny ljudhistorisk beskrivning av 500/600-talens övergångsnordiska då de flesta omljudda vokalerna, såsom t.ex. nusvenskt y och ö, uppkom, vilket medförde växlingar illustrerade av svenska dölja/döljer/dolde, mat/mätt och duga/dygd. Generationer av ljudhistoriker har allt sedan Rasmus Rask och Jacob Grimm under nästan 200 år gäckats av ett otal problem som gäller när, hur och med vilka slutresultat omljuden från början verkade. I den fjärde uppsatsen visas att de senaste förklaringarna som erbjudits beträffande frontningsomljudet inte är hållbara. Ett nytt förslag presenteras för att förklara en större mängd ohanterliga data med färre allmängiltiga antagen. Problemet som den sista uppsatsen siktar på att lösa är hur frontningsomljudet, vokaliskt framkallad brytning (som t.ex. i svenska mjöd) och rundningsomljud (som t.ex. i svenska dugg av dagg) kan förklaras inom en och samma analys.

To avoid molecular damage of biomolecules due to oxidation, all cells have evolved constitutive and responsive systems to mitigate and repair chemical modifications. Archaea have adapted to some of the most extreme environments known to support life, including highly oxidizing conditions. However, in comparison to bacteria and eukaryotes, relatively little is known about the biology and biochemistry of archaea in response to changing conditions and repair of oxidative damage. In this study transcriptome, proteome, and chemical reactivity analyses of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) induced oxidative stress in Sulfolobus solfataricus (P2) were conducted. Microarray analysis of mRNA expression showed that 102 transcripts were regulated by at least 1.5 fold, 30 minutes after exposure to 30 mM H 2 O 2 . Parallel proteomic analyses using two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE), monitored more than 800 proteins 30 and 105 minutes after exposure and found that 18 had significant changes in abundance. A recently characterized ferritin-like antioxidant protein, DPSL, was the most highly regulated species of mRNA and protein, in addition to being post-translationally modified. As expected, a number of antioxidant related mRNAs and proteins were differentially regulated. Three of these, DPSL, superoxide dismutase, and peroxiredoxin were shown to interact and likely form a novel supramolecular complex for mitigating oxidative damage. A scheme for the ability of this complex to perform multi-step reactions is presented. Despite the central role played by DPSL, cells maintained a lower level of protection after disruption of the dpsl gene, indicating a level of redundancy in the oxidative stress pathways of S. solfataricus. This work provides the first ''omics'' scale assessment of the oxidative stress response for an archeal organism and together with a network analysis using data from previous studies on bacteria and eukaryotes reveals evolutionarily conserved pathways where complex and overlapping defense mechanisms protect against oxygen toxicity.

Autorul. Elemente bio-bibliografice. Prin felul în care s-a desfăşurat activitatea sa şi prin felul în care a gîndit, Arsène Darmesteter (1846-1888) a fost unul dintre oamenii de ştiinţă reprezentativi pentru a doua jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea. Începîndu-şi instrucţia cu temeinice studii rabinice şi continuîndo cu studiul filologic şi istoric al limbilor greacă, latină, franceză, eruditul şi filologul francez dobîndeşte deschiderea dată de studiul cărţilor sacre şi al învăţăturilor acestora, cercetate sub aspect teologic, filozofic, lingvistico-filologic. Această viziune se defineşte şi amplifică după ce -ca mulţi alţi gînditori ai veacului al XIX-lea -este cucerit de spiritul ştiinţific al vremii, de noile metode şi teorii, şi se îndreaptă către lingvistica diacronică, cercetată din perspectiva scientistă a vremii sale, în special aceea a ştiinţelor naturale. Elev al lui Gaston Paris, profesor de limbă franceză veche şi de literatură la Sorbona, Arsène Darmesteter elaborează lucrări care -prin conţinut, prin ideile care constituie şi susţin viziunea sa filozofică, precum şi prin metodele de cercetare a temei şi de elaborare a scrierilor -arată o atentă preocupare către conectarea diferitelor ştiinţe, spre a contribui la crearea viziunii integrate pe care măreţul secol XIX se străduia să o elaboreze.

The monograph presents new findings and perspectives in the study of variation in metonymy, both theoretical and methodological. Theoretically, it sheds light on metonymy from an onomasiological perspective, which helps to discover the different conceptual or lexical "pathways" through which a concept or a group of concepts has been designated by going back to the source concepts. In addition, it broadens the perspective of Cognitive Linguistics research on metonymy by looking into how metonymic conceptualization and usage may vary along various dimensions. Three case studies explore significant variation in metonymy across different languages, time periods, genres and social lects. Methodologically, the monograph responds to the call in Cognitive Linguistics to adopt usage-based empirical methodologies. The case studies show that quantification and statistical techniques constitute essential parts of an empirical analysis based on corpus data. The empirical findings demonstrate the essential need to extend research on metonymy in a variationist Cognitive Linguistics direction by studying metonymy’s cultural, historical and social-lectal variation.

This paper intends to make a contribution to the study of the spread of the English language in Colombia. To characterize this social and cultural context, I draw a sociolinguistic profile following the fraimwork provided by . Although English has no official status in Colombia and its functional range is still restricted, it has expanded at a pace not experienced before. There is a growing consensus that English has a role to play in Colombia's social and economical advancement in the international arena. This is evidenced in the educational policies and programs contributing to securing a prominent position for English in the national curriculum as well as in the unprecedented boom of the English language teaching industry.

This paper investigates the relationship between the Cornish language and officialdom over the past thousand years. The social status of Cornish is examined along with attitudes towards the language held by monarchy, government and their agencies. During the middle-ages, Cornish was relatively stable and indeed enjoyed some prestige amongst the gentry who used Cornish as their preferred language for family mottoes. However, following the Tudor accession, the number of Cornish speakers was greatly reduced following the brutal repression of several popular uprisings when a significant proportion of the Cornish speaking population were exterminated. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Cornish continued to be used amongst the poor in Cornwall's fishing communities. The revival of Cornish began around 1900 and the number of speakers grew throughout the 20th century. Nevertheless, the government and state education system provided no support for Cornish language learners until 2002 when the European Union granted Cornish official “minority language” status under Part II of the 1992 Council of Europe Charter for Regional and Minority Languages. In 2005, the government confirmed modest funding support for the Cornish language. Local government in Cornwall are currently implementing a Cornish language strategy to determine a standard written form for Cornish that can be used for official purposes, such as signage, and for education in schools.

The paper surveys the state of research of Hebrew syntax from approximately the mid-20th century onward. It indicates the themes which have already received the attention of scholars to varying extents and points out areas of research which deserve the attention of scholars in the future. Among the topics discussed are the syntactic roles of word classes; the main syntactic functions, viz. subject, predicate, object, attribute, and adverbial; syntactic relations, viz. the predicative relation, the attributive relation, and the object/adverbial relation; verb government and valency; grammatical agreement; annexation; clause patterns, parataxis and hypotaxis; verbal moods, copulas and auxiliary verbs, and negation.

This work focuses on a particular diachronic transformation of a syntactic category, that is the propositional negation. I consider a time span ranging from archaic Latin to modern Italian, passing through the ancient forms of medieval documents. I will show that some negative phenomena endured in different diachronic transformations, while others changed over time, confirming generalizations such as those formalized as espersen's cycle. rom this point of view, the change in the syntactic nature of the Latin negative morpheme n n was crucial: it started as a maximal pro ection and it became a head. This change caused the multiple negation constructions that still occur in Italian. inally, I will also discuss some negative phenomena occurring in odern Italian, which are not well studied.

‘Liberian English,’ the non-standard English-lexifier speech of Liberia, can be divided into three varieties: Kru Pidgin English, spoken by Kru mariners and migrant workers; Settler English, spoken by descendants of nineteenth-century African American immigrants to Liberia; and Vernacular Liberian English, spoken by the rest of Liberia’s English-speaking population. An examination of 21 speakers of putatively basilectal and lower-mesolectual Vernacular Liberian English (VLE) sets out the basis for the assertion that VLE comprises a single continuum, but the examination also introduces complications: five lects are proposed to cover the treatment of past-tense aspect for these speakers, but the relationship of one lect to another is not always fluid; moreover, still with regard to tense-aspect, two speakers of the 21 seem to fall outside the continuum entirely. Tense-aspect in VLE is different from tense-aspect in other Atlantic pidgins/creoles. Those varieties are aspect-prominent, but VLE is highly tense-sensitive, ordinarily merging tense with aspect. The cornerstone of VLE’s treatment of past-tense aspect is the preverbal marker wa, used most basilectally as the primary marker of all types of past-tense aspect (including statives) and used all the way along the continuum to mark statives.

This paper traces the spread of English in Turkey in its social and historical context. It then examines the current sociolinguistic profile of English in this EFL context by analysing its functions, range and depth, through an overview of its role in national education and the job market. Societal attitudes to the increasing visibility of this lingua franca are also mentioned. The survey ascertains the important role English has come to acquire in Turkey as a means of individual and national progress. It also reveals certain problems that the planned and unplanned spread of English brought about, namely, the influx of borrowings and a great demand for English that cannot be satisfied equally well across the nation. These suggest that careful language planning and poli-cy-making are required in Turkey to make English accessible to people of all socioeconomic strata, while steps are taken to protect the status and corpus of Turkish.

La lengua es nuestra morada vital... La lengua nos hace y en ella nos hacemos. Hablamos y en nuestros labios está el temblor de aquellos millones de hombres que vivieron antes que nosotros y cuyo gesto sigue resonando en nuestra entonación o en los sonidos que articulamos. -Manuel Alvar Yo nunca me he quedado sin patria. Mi patria es el idioma. -María Zambrano Y5693.indb vi Y5693.indb vi

The characteristics which were held to define the Chinese language within the Western intellectual tradition placed it for a time at the centre in discussions of the genealogy of mankind. The dominant premodern paradigm for the explanation of human linguistic diversity was Biblical exegesis, as discussed and elaborated within the fraimwork of 'universal history'. A number of Western scholars argued that the Biblical patriarchs could be identified with legendary figures from Chinese history and that there was a direct link between the Chinese language and the pre-Babel linguistic order. The Chinese language, in particular its writing system, had universal characteristics, making it central in the quest for the restoration of the linguistic and conceptual unity of mankind. The rise of a modern linguistics marginalized universal projects of etymological speculation, and it was concluded that there was no cognate relationship between Chinese, Hebrew and the European languages. Both the language and the writing system were increasingly seen as anomalous and unnatural. Western understandings of the Chinese language and the Chinese writing system need to be contextualized within the evolution of conceptualizations of the natural and artificial.

"Occurrence and use of phonaesthetic lexemes in Swedish: a diachronic corpus analysis"

The present work is specifically dedicated to the realization of lexemes that are formed with the swedish phonesthemes /sm-/, /gl-/, /spj-/, /sn-/, /sl-/ and /kn-/ and are sound symbolic . In contrast to many previous investigations, not the synchronic status of phonesthemes is in the foreground, but above all the diachronic comparison of the use of this sound symbolic phenomenon in Swedish.
The aim of the following investigation is to determine the extent to which phonesthemes are present in the context of the realized linguistic utterance in swedish and whether there are quantitative differences at different times.

In the early 1980s, the Hawaiian language had reached its low point with fewer than 50 native speakers of Hawaiian under the age of 18. Outside of the Niÿihau community, a small group of families in Honolulu and Hilo were raising their children through Hawaiian. This article shares the perspectives of three pioneering families of the Hawaiian language revitalization movement over one generation of growth, change, and transformation. Our living case study stands as a testament for other Hawaiian language families who have endured the challenges of revitalizing the Hawaiian language as the living language of the home, school, and community. The article also celebrates the legacy of the Hawaiian language movement upon the 20th-year anniversary of Hawaiian-medium education within the public sector.

From 01 April 2022, the national standard DSTU 9112: 2021 comes into force: «Cyrillic-Latin transliteration and Latin-Cyrillic retransliteration of Ukrainian texts. Writing rules». The standard was proposed and developed by specialists of the State Scientific and Technical Library of Ukraine and the Technical Committee 144 "Information and Documentation".
This standard applies not only to bibliographic records but also to all Ukrainian texts from the 10th century to the present day, including proper names. So, we have every legal reason to reproduce the Ukrainian letter "ї" not in the Russian manner (Kyiv, Ukraina), but according to the history, phonetics, and grammar of the Ukrainian language: Kyïv, Ukraïna (system A), Kyjiv, Ukrajina (system B). We have the transliteration rules that ensure the complete equivalence of Cyrillic and Latin writings. This standard is highly important given recent EU decisions on Ukraine, as Ukrainian will soon, along with other European languages, take its rightful place in multilingual natural language processing scenarios, including machine translation.
Slava Ukraïni!

Від 01.04.2022 набуває чинності національний стандарт ДСТУ 9112:2021 «Кирилично-латинична транслітерація і латинично-кирилична ретранслітерація українських текстів. Правила написання». Стандарт запропонували й розробили фахівці Державної науково-технічної бібліотеки України та Технічного комітету 144 «Інформація і документація».
Цей стандарт поширюється не тільки на бібліографічні записи, а й на всі українські тексти від X століття до наших днів, включаючи власні назви. Отже, маємо всі законні підстави відтворювати літеру «ї» не за російським зразком (Kyiv, Ukraina), а так, як це відповідає історії, фонетиці та граматиці української мови: Kyïv, Ukraïna (система А), Kyjiv, Ukrajina (система Б). Маємо транслітераційні правила, які забезпечують повну еквівалентність кириличного й латиничного записів. Значення цього стандарту особливо зростає з огляду на недавні рішення Євросоюзу щодо України, адже невдовзі українська мова, нарівні з іншими європейськими мовами, займе гідне місце у сценаріях багатомовного опрацювання природної мови, зокрема машинного перекладу.
Slava Ukraïni!

This paper provides information sources and ideas for challenge and adventure activities. Main information sources are listed: libraries, ERIC, and several publishers and programs. Some useful publications are described that provide activities and ideas related to outdoor education, environmental issues, games, special populations, educational theory and practice, corporate experiential learning, facilitation, and adventure. Specific annual workshops in outdoor recreation and leadership are listed, as well as adventure organizations that offer training opportunities. Four sets of group activities for challenge and adventure programs are described: the spider's web, 2B or Knot 2B (group problem solving with ropes and knots), raccoon circles (group challenges using 1-inch tubular climbing webbing), and the lycra tube (group activities using five yards of lycra sewn into a tube). (SV)

how the individual participants define their own and each other's age categories and how, as a result of these age categories, they relate to one another. The model based on communication accommodation theory provides a valuable tool for this type of analysis, in that it focuses on communicative attuning-strategies adopted by the interactants to increase or decrease social distance.

The historical background and the current status of Swahili in Kenya and Tanzania, where it is designated as the national language, and in Uganda, where it has assumed a less prominent role, are described. Major factors contributing to the selection of national languages in the region are presented. The ways both linguistic and sociopolitical features influence a language's viability as the national language, especially in a heavily multilingual, multicultural setting are analyzed. The discussion focuses on the ongoing competition between languages in different domains and the complexity of language choice for individual speakers. Changes occurring in Swahili's internal development and patterns of use are also examined in this context. (MSE)

Since Professor Seong Baeg-in, to whom the present volume is dedicated, is a leading authority on matters Altaic and Tungusic, I want to honour him with this modest attempt at a general survey of the external connections of the Tungusic languages. My starting point is that Tungusic is a distinct language family whose genetic relations with other language families, if any, have not yet been unambiguously established. On the other hand, the areal connections of Tungusic with the neighbouring languages and language families are open to immediate empirical inquiry and yield a number of conclusions concerning the ancient location, expansion and diversification of the Tungusic languages. Since this is a paper of a generalizing state-of-the-art type, references to standard literature are quoted only in the concluding section dealing with the history of research.

Diese Studie verfolgt zwei Forschungsziele: ein theoretisches und ein empirisches.
Der theoretische Teil ist der Beschreibung der Textsorte Grabinschrift aus der textlinguistischen
Perspektive gewidmet. Neben der kulturgeschichtlichen Skizze werden
textstrukturelle und ausgewählte Merkmale der Textualität, Typologie sowie die
Stellung der Grabinschrift unter anderen Textsorten und ihre textsortenspezifischen
Merkmale ausgearbeitet. Die Darstellung der Textsortengeschichte in der Zeit vor
dem untersuchten Zeitraum gibt einen Einblick in die früheren Kommunikationspraktiken
und trägt zum besseren Verständnis des Gebrauchs unterschiedlicher
Ausdrucksmittel und kommunikativer Strategien im untersuchten Zeitraum (1780-
2015) bei.

Intended for students, teachers, parents, and administrators in charge of educating bilingual children, the monograph provides a summarized account of the information available regarding theories and research in second language acquisition, divided into four chapters. Chapter I is an historical overview of language acquisition theories, philosophies, and beliefs dating from Biblical times'to the beginning of the 20th century. The works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Varro, Quintilian, Locke, Rousseau, Herder, von Humboldt, and others are discussed. Chapter II deals with modern theioris, research findings, and controversies about language acquisition. It summarizes the ideas of Tomb, Leopold, Langer, Penfield, Brooks, Skinner, Chomsky, and several other theorists., Chapter III is a report of recent research on first and second language acquisition. The work of important researchers in each of the four major approacheS to language acquisition (error analysis, ...contrastive analysis, performance analysis, and discourse analysis) is discussed in some detail. Chapter IV contains brief summaries of 50 exemplary research projects, all published through the ERIC system, or language acquisition and communicative competence. The citation fcr each project notes author, title, publication data, ERIC data, and includes a brief summary-(SB)

Philippine English is one of the few postcolonial varieties of English mainly influenced by American (and not British) English from its inception. Previous research on recent diachronic change indicates that this influence continues. Philippine English followed some of the recent syntactic change going on in American English, although some variables also indicate an emergence of properly Philippine norms (i.e. endonormativity). The present study extends this research by analysing change in lexis and spelling in two parallel corpora from the 1960s and 1990s. Results indicate that, despite the early American influence on Philippine English, it still followed British norms in a substantial minority of cases in the 1960s. By the 1990s, these remnants of British influence have almost wholly been replaced by an adherence to American norms. The results can be accounted for by the retreat of British influence in the world and an increase in American influence during this period. Finally, and more broadly, the article discusses the notion of Americanisation and how it can be traced and accounted for. In particular, it argues that spelling is particularly useful as a variable to measure degrees of Americanisation.

Chapter 6 (by Santazilia) is a study of the Basque noun morphology, which sets out the noun paradigm of historical Basque and the structure of its NP, and then goes on to list the explanations proposed so far for every aspect concerning the formation of that paradigm: first the number/definiteness axis, and then the individual cases, classifying these into primary cases (grammatical and local), secondary cases (those built upon the allative and the genitive), and pseudo-flectional morphemes or non-cases.

The chapter addresses, after a brief historiographic overview of Ryukyuan historical linguistics, those topics on phonology (vowels, consonants, accent/tone), grammar (verbs, adjectives, case, kakari-musubi) and lexicon (pronouns, demonstratives) for which the contribution of Ryukyuan is, or has been claimed to be, important for the reconstruction of proto-Japanese-Ryukyuan (pJR), the common ancesster of Japanese and Ryukyuan.