1. Family policy and maternal employment in the Czech transition: a natural experiment. (2017). Mangarella, Alzbeta ; Mullerova, Alzbeta .
   In: Journal of Population Economics.
   RePEc:spr:jopoec:v:30:y:2017:i:4:d:10.1007_s00148-017-0649-9.

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2. Mind the employment gap: an impact evaluation of the Czech multi-speed parental benefit reform. (2016). Mangarella, Alzbeta.
   In: EconomiX Working Papers.
   RePEc:drm:wpaper:2016-30.

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3. What effect does increasing the retirement age have on the employment rate older women? Empirical evidence from retirement age hikes in Hungary during the 2000s. (2014). Cseres-Gergely, Zsombor.
   In: Budapest Working Papers on the Labour Market.
   RePEc:has:bworkp:1403.

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4. Female Labour Supply in the Czech Transition: Effects of the Work-Life Conciliation Policies. (2014). Mangarella, Alzbeta.
   In: EconomiX Working Papers.
   RePEc:drm:wpaper:2014-50.

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5. Towards a More Inclusive Labour Market in Hungary. (2012). Kierzenkowski, Rafa.
   In: OECD Economics Department Working Papers.
   RePEc:oec:ecoaaa:960-en.

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6. Assessing changes of the Hungarian tax and transfer system: A general-equilibrium microsimulation approach. (2012). Katay, Gabor ; Kiss, Áron ; Benczur, Peter.
   In: MNB Working Papers.
   RePEc:mnb:wpaper:2012/7.

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7. Chapter 5: The Hungarian Crisis. (2012). Vives, Xavier ; Valentinyi, Akos ; Sturm, Jan-Egbert ; Sinn, Hans-Werner ; Saint-Paul, Gilles ; Hassler, John ; Corsetti, Giancarlo ; Calmfors, Lars.
   In: EEAG Report on the European Economy.
   RePEc:ces:eeagre:v::y:2012:i::p:115-130.

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1. [Manuscript.] Gere, Ilona and Szellő, János (2006) A foglalkoztatási rehabilitáció fejlesztésének iránya és eszközrendszere, II. rész. [Directions of development and tools of employment rehabilitation programmes. Part II.] Munkaügyi Szemle, November, pp. 31–35.
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2. [Research report.] Lakatos, Judit (1996) Visszatérés a munkaerőpiacra a gyermekgondozási idő letelte után. [Returning to the labour market after parental leave.] Statisztikai Szemle, Vol. 74. No. 7.
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3. [The achievements of Cserehát settlements] Conference Proceedings, Budapest, May 11, 2007, www. cserehat.hu.
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4. [The decline and restructurig of Roma employment between 1984 and 1994.] Közgazdasági Szemle, No. 5. pp. 406–443.

5. 1. THE IMPACT OF ACTIVE LABOUR MARKET PROGRAMMES (ALMPs), 2001–2006 Thischapterpresentsanevaluationoftheimpactofactivelabourmarketprogrammes in the period between 2001–2006. It is based on existing information sources, official documents and statistical analyses.
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6. 1.1. Trends in ALMPs spending The Labour Market Fund (LMF) has been the source of funding for passive andactivelabourmarketpoliciessinceJanuary1,1996.Itsmain,though,not only, source of revenue are the contributions paid by employers and employees.
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7. 1.2. Changes in the total and average number of participants in ALMPs Table 2 shows that on average 2.6 per cent of the economically active population benefited from different individual active labour market policies in 2001.In2006thisfigurewasonly1.5percent.Thisleadstotwoconclusions. On the one hand, the unemployment rate would have been proportionately higher had jobless or redundant workers not received preventive or active support. On the other hand, the role of active policies in mitigating labour market tensions decreased in a period when unemployment started to grow. This aggravated tensions on the labour market instead of alleviating them by exerting an anti-cyclical effect on labour market processes.
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8. 1.4.3. Wage subsidy Based on the number of beneficiaries wage subsidy was the third most important active labour market measure. It helped 48,000 people in 2001 and 33,000peoplein2006tofindwork.Theshareofbeneficiarieswithinthetotal numberofparticipantsinALMPswasbetween15–17percent.Nevertheless as regards the average number of participants, wage subsidy has had the largest share of beneficiaries with over 25 per cent since 2004.
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9. 1.4.4. Young entrants’ schemes Young entrants’ schemes had a fairly stable average number of participants that increased from 7 to 8 thousand. This made up 6.8 per cent of the total average participation in 2001, and increased to 12.6 per cent in 2006. This increase was largely the result of a decline in the total number of participants in ALMPs.
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10. 13Employmentsupportfortemporary agency work was made available by 31/2004. (XII.21.) MoEL regulation. Due to the lack of interest (there were no applications in 2005) it was not justified to keep the scheme. The labour market reintegration of disadvantaged groups can be adequately promoted by other employment aid schemes as well.
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11. 2.) Government Regulation, 14/2005 (IX. 2.) MoEL Regulation, 26/2005(XII.27.)MoEL regulation. evaluation of active labour market programmes... 167 Accreditation is open to all employers as defined by the Labour Code regardless of the number of employees, however with the following two conditions regarding the type of certificate and the number of employees: 1. The basic certificate cannot be issued for firms where the number of disabled workers is at least 20 or more and where this represents at least 40 per cent of the total workforce. 2. The advanced-level (and provisional) certificate can only be issued to businesses with not less than 50 workers, at least 50 per cent of which are disabled.
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12. 2.1.1. Wage subsidy Prior to January 1, 2007 employers could receive different discount rates on wage and SI-contributions for a variety of target groups. This is the measure 6 The Parliament adopted Act CXIII of 2006 on the amendment of Act IV of 1991 on the Promotion of Employment and ProvisionforUnemploymenton December11,2006.Thenewact entered into force on January 1, 2007. The amendment mainly concernedtheconditionsofemploymentsubsidies.
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13. 2.3. Reduction of compulsory contributions to promote the employment of disadvantaged people TheStartProgrammelaunchedonOctober1,2005coversallyoungentrants undertheageof25years– under30yearsforgraduatesofhighereducation – who finished (or interrupted) their studies and who take up employment for thefirsttime.18 Employerswhohiretheseyoungentrantsareeligibleforasub17 –13/2007.(III.28.)Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour regulation on the Jurisdiction of Regional Job Centres.
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14. 2.4.2. Accreditation system Businesses employing disabled workers must, since July 1, 2007,22 be accredited in order to be eligible for employment support. This is basically an assessment procedure that is initiated by the firm in order to demonstrate its competence to carry out employment rehabilitation and thus be eligible for employment support. At the end of the assessment procedure businesses can be awarded basic, rehabilitation or advanced-level certificates based on the number of disabled workers and quality of rehabilitation activities. The basic certificate is valid for 5 years, the rehabilitation certificate for 3 years and the advanced-level certificate for 2 years. The latter allows the organisation to use the term “sheltered firm”.
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15. 20ActLXXXIVof2007onthe Rehabilitation Allowance, in force from January 1, 2008 21 Legislative proposal No.
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16. 3. CONCLUSION The system of active labour market programmes has recently undergone significant changes in Hungary. This paper has given an overview of the main trends, experiences and impact of active labour market programmes between 2001–2006 and it has presented the most important changes introduced in 2007.
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17. 5. Short-Term Labour Market Projection Surveys – FSZH PROG At the initiative and under the co-ordination of the National Employment and Social Office (and its legal predecessors), the PES conducted the so called short term labour market survey since 1991, twice a year, in March and September. The survey uses an enormous sample, it contains over 4,500 employers.
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18. 6. Wage Survey Database – FSzH BT The National Employment and Social Office (and its legal predecessors) has conducted since 1992, once a year,arepresentativesurveytoinvestigateindividual wages and earnings. The survey uses an enormous sample and is conducted at the request of the Ministry of Social Policy and Labour (formerly: Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Social and Family Affairs). The reference month of data collection is the month of May in each year, but for the calculation of the monthly average of irregularly paid benefits (beyond the base wage/salary), the total amount of such benefits received during the previous year is used. In the competitive sector, they data collection initially only covered companies of over 20 persons; it wasincumbentonallcompaniestoprovideinformation, butthesampleincludesonlyemployeesbornon certain dates in any month of any year.
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19. 9Pointe)ofGovernmentregulation 177/2005. (IX. 2.) 10AccordingtopointbofArticle 5 (3) of Commission regulation (EC) No. 2204/2002 workers must be entitled to continuous employment for a minimum of 12 months, which is most likely if subsidy is received for thewholeofthisperiod.Theregulation can be interpreted that workersareentitledto12month subsidised employment. New regulation of wage subsidy mária frey 156 According to the rules on the cumulation of subsidy,11 the ceiling of the wage subsidy – combined with subsidies from any other community or national sources – cannot exceed: – 100 per cent of the total wage cost of workers in any given period (i.e. month, year etc.), and – the equivalent of 5 million Euros in any 3-year-period.
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20. A decreasing proportion (recently around 80 per cent) of unemployed people taking up employment after labour market training could use the new knowledge and skills in the job. The rate is similar for both recommended andapprovedtrainingprogrammes.Itcanbeseenasclearlynegativethatone fifth of the beneficiaries of these programmes financed by the decentralised labour market budgets found jobs where the new knowledge and skills were notnecessary.Thissuggeststhatafairlylargenumberofpeoplewhoprobably 2 For example Programmes 1.1 and “Take a step forward!” in theHumanResourcesDevelopment Programme. The second had14,000participants,halfof them jobless persons with only primary education, in the 15 months between January 2006 and March 2007. mária frey 148 would be able to find a job anyway because they have marketable knowledge, also take part in labour market training.
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21. Értékelési jelentés. [Monitoring the progress of the EQUAL community programme in Hungary. Evaluation report.] Budapest, Progress Consult. references 133 Rácz, Kata (2003) Elhúzódó átmenet. A megélhetési stratégiák változása Kálmánházán. [Lengthy transition. Changes in subsistence strategies in the village of Kálmánháza.] Szociológiai Szemle, No. 1. pp. 100–117.
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22. According to follow-up studies 60–65 per cent of people from wage subsidy schemes are employed by the same employer 3 months following the end of the required employment period.4 The rate of people who are awarded a permanent contract markedly decreased from the 70 per cent observed in the mid-1990s. This is explained by changes in the composition of beneficiaries; amovetowardsmoredifficult-to-placeunemployedpeoplewhowereincreasingly the explicit target group of these programmes. The follow-up studies explored the views of employers on whether the subsidy administered by the county job centres had helped them to pursue their objectives (Table 12).
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23. Acemoglu, D. and Shimer, R. (1999) Efficient unemploymentinsurance. JournalofPoliticalEconomy,Vol. 107. No. 5. pp. 893–928.
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24. After the accession of Hungary to the EU (01.05.2004.) their is no need to ask for work permits for the citizens (and their family members) from the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and Slovenia, but there is a reporting obligation of the employers for registration when they start to work. The reporting obligation doesn’t refer to the employment of the citizens of the UK, Ireland, Sweden, Cyprus and Malta. The citizens of the other member states of EU-15 in case of certain conditions may obtain „green card” certificate which entitles them to undertake any job in Hungary without work permissions. Source: FSzH, based on the reports of the county Labour Centres.
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25. AlsoMinistryofLabourregulation6 /1996 (VII. 16.) on employment subsidies and crises measures from theLabourMarketFundhadto be brought into line with the act. Its amendment took place on February 17, 2007. evaluation of active labour market programmes... 155 that underwent most fundamental changes. Previous subsidies were either merged into the new scheme, or abolished.
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26. Annual average. Was in use from 1998 to 2005. 4 Annual average. Sources: Tax Authority (APEH) and CSO Welfare Statistics.
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27. Augusztinovics, Mária (ed) (2000) Körkép reform után. Tanulmányok a nyugdíjrendszerről. [After the reforms. Studies on the pension system.] Budapest, Közgazdasági Szemle Alapítvány.
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28. Augusztinovics, Mária and Köllő, János (2007) Munkapiaci pálya és nyugdíj [Employment history and pension], 1970–2020. Közgazdasági Szemle, No. 6. pp. 529–559.

29. Augusztinovics, Mária et al (2002) The Hungarian Pension System Before and After the 1998 Reform. In Fultz, E. (ed) Pension Reform in Central and Eastern Europe. Budapest, ILO.
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30. Average of headcount at the end of the month. Includes the pre-pension allowance (1998–2002) and the school leavers’ allowance (1990–1996). 2
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31. Börsch-Supan,A.,Kohnz,S.andSchnabel,R.(2001) Micro Modelling of Retirement Decisions in Germany.
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32. Bódis, Lajos, Galasi, Péter, Micklewright, John and Nagy, Gyula (2005) Munkanélküli-ellátás és hatásvizsgálatai Magyarországon. [Unemployment benefits and their effects in Hungary.] KTI Books, No. 3. Budapest, MTA KTI.
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33. Berger, L. M., Hill, J. and Waldfogel, J. (2005) Maternity leave, early maternal employment and child healthanddevelopmentintheUS.TheEconomicJournal, 115. (February), F29–F47.
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34. Bewley, H., Dorsett, R. and Haile, G. (2007) The impact of Pathways to Work. Department for Work and Pensions Research Report, No. 435, June 14.
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35. Bloom,D.andMichalopoulus,C.(2001)HowWelfare and Work Policies Affect Employment and Income. A Synthesis of Research. Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation. New York–Oakland.
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36. Blyth, B. (2007) Pathways to work performance summary. DWP. http://www.dwp.gov.uk/asd/workingage/ pathways2work/pathways_perf_0507.pdf.
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37. Bozóki, András (1993) Racionalizálható-e a csoda? Könyvek a rendszerváltásról. [Can one rationalize a miracle? Books on the regime change.] Politikatudományi Szemle, Vol. 2 No. 3 pp. 165–188.
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38. brahám,rpádandKertesi,Gábor(1998)Regional unemployment rate differentials in Hungary 1990– 1995: The changing role of race and human capital. In: Halpern, L. and Wyplosz, Ch. (eds) Hungary: Towards a market economy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 351–376.

39. Bullock, H., Mountford, J. and Stanley, R. (2001) BetterPolicy-Making.PolicyStudiesDirectorate,Centre for Management and Policy Studies, Cabinet Office, London.2001November.http://www.policyhub. gov.uk/docs/betterpolicymaking.pdf.
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40. Burniaux, J., Duval, R. and Jaumotte, F. (2004) Coping with Ageing: A Dynamic Approach to Quantify the Impact of Alternative Policy Options on Future Labour Supply in OECD Countries. OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 371. OECD Publishing.

41. Busch, Irén (2006) Az ügyfelek kategorizálásának előrehaladása az ország kísérleti kirendeltségein. [Progress with using a screening tool at selected job centres in Hungary.] Munkaügyi Szemle, No. 7–8 pp. 63–65.
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42. Cabinet (1999) Professional policy making for the twenty first century. Report by the Strategic Policy Making Team, Cabinet Office, London, September. http:// www.policyhub.gov.uk/docs/profpolicymaking.pdf.
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43. Cabinet (1999a) Modernising Government. White Paper.
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44. Certain employers have been motivated to get the advanced-level certificate since 2006 (to qualify for certain subsidy schemes). However accreditation became a requirement for all employers applying for a subsidy as of July 1, 2007.
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45. Consumer price index* Unemployment rate 1989 100.7 95.0 100.3 101.1 99.7 98.2 117.0 … 1990 96.5 90.7 95.9 94.8 94.3 97.2 128.9 … 1991 88.1 81.6 95.1 105.5 93.0 92.6 135.0 … 1992 96.9 84.2 101.0 92.4 98.6 90.3 123.0 9.8 1993 99.4 103.9 86.9 120.9 96.1 93.8 122.5 11.9 1994 102.9 109.7 116.6 114.5 107.2 98.0 118.8 10.7 1995 101.5 104.6 108.4 96.1 87.8 98.1 128.2 10.2 1996 101.3 103.2 104.6 105.5 95.0 99.1 123.6 9.9 1997 104.6 111.1 129.9 126.4 104.9 100.1 118.3 8.7 1998 104.9 112.5 122.1 124.9 103.6 101.4 114.3 7.8 1999 104.2 110.4 115.9 114.3 102.5 103.2 110.0 7.0 2000 105.2 118.1 120.8 121.7 101.5 101.0 109.8 6.4 2001 103.8 103.6 104.0 107.7 106.4 100.3 109.2 5.7 2002 103.5 102.8 105.1 105.9 113.6 100.1 105.3 5.8 2003 102.9 106.4 110.1 109.1 109.2 101.3 104.7 5.9 2004 104.6 107.4 115.2 118.4 98.9 99.4 106.8 6.1 2005 104.1 107.1 106.1 111.5 106.3 100.0 103.6 7.2 2006 103.9 110.1 112.6 116.8 103.5 100.7 103.9 7.5 *
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46. Corden, A., Nice, K. and Sainsbury, R. (2005) Incapacity Benefit Reforms Pilot. Findings from a longitudinal panel of clients. Research Report, No. 259, July references 129 2005.http://www.dwp.gov.uk/asd/asd5/rports20052006 /rrep259.pdf.
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47. Cserehát (2007) A Kisközösségek sikerei a Csereháton.
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48. Cseres-Gergely, Zsombor (2007) A magyarországi munkapiac a rendszerváltás utáni 15 évben – stilizált tények áramlási adatok alapján. [The Hungarian labour market in the 15 years following the regime change – stylized facts, flow data] Budapest, MTA KTI. [Manuscript.] Cserne, Péter (2001) Csontos László: Ismeretelmélet, társadalomelmélet,társadalomkutatás.[LászlóCsontos: Epistemology, social theory and research.] Szociológiai Szemle, No. 2. pp. 113–119.
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49. Cseres-Gergely,Zsombor(2005)Inactivemiddle-aged peopleandhouseholds:incentivesandconstraints.Ministry of Finance Working Papers, 13, May.
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50. Csontos,László(1995)Fiskálisillúziók,döntéselméletés azállamháztartásirendszerreformja.[Fiscalillusions, decision theory and the reform of the central budget.] Közgazdasági Szemle, No. 12. pp. 1118–1135.

51. Cyprus2 350,Cyprus pound 600 2004.06. 362 631 2005.04. 362 631.44 2005.04.
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52. D9/D1D5/D1D9/D5 statistical data 216 Table 6.11: Average earnings in the national economy by ownership groups, broken down to manual and non-manual workers, by genders, HUF/capita/month, 2006 Forms of control Manual Non-manual Together male female together male female together male female together 100 % foreign ownership 167,589 113,238 143,930 465,583 295,267 378,630 267,632 187,165 230,375 Foreign majority 181,016 114,566 160,362 436,121 287,671 358,998 285,117 222,416 259,122 Domestic majority 140,456 101,049 130,438 353,189 237,000 292,978 199,803 175,787 191,323 100% domestic ownership 110,057 85,133 103,104 243,124 166,078 201,988 141,880 124,152 135,456 Unknown 135,634 97,911 125,711 298,819 208,334 252,319 179,089 155,116 170,649 Total 124,095 94,558 115,024 312,353 205,772 256,217 174,565 147,838 164,308 Source: FSzH-BT.
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53. Dávid, Andrea, Móricz, Rita and Szauer, Csilla (2007)Ígéretesgyakorlatok.Foglalkozásirehabilitációs példák Magyarországon. [Promising practices. Employment rehabilitation in Hungary.] Budapest, Fogyatékosok Esélye Közalapítvány.
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54. Darvas, gnes and Tausz, Katalin (2002) A gyermekek szegénysége. [Child poverty.] Szociológiai Szemle, No. 4. pp. 95–120.
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55. Data collection also covered companies of 10-19 since 1995, and companies of 5-9 have been covered since 2000, where the companies actually involved in data collection are selected at random (ca. 20 per cent) and the selected ones have to provide information about all their full-time employees. Data on basic wages and earnings structure can only be retrieved from these surveys in Hungary, thus it is practically these huge, annually generated databases that can serve as the basis of the wage reconciliation negotiations conducted by the social partners. In the budgetary sector all budgetary institutions provide information, regardless of their size, in a way that the decisive majority of the local budgetary institutions – the ones that are included in the TAKEHcentralpayrollaccountingsystem-provide fully comprehensive information, and the remaining budgetary institutions provide information only abouttheiremployeeswhowerebornoncertaindays (regarded as the sample).
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56. Data has only been collected on the professional members of the armed forces since 1999.
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57. Davies H., Nutley, S. and Walter, I. (2003) Evidence based policy and practice: cross sector lessons from the UK. ESRC UK Centre for Evidence Based Policy and Practice. Queen Mary, University of London, Working Paper, No. 9.
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58. Dickens, S., Mowlam, A. and Woodfield, K. (2004) Incapacity Benefit Reforms. Early findings from qualitative research. National Centre for Social Research.
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59. Due to the altered conditions, the relative cost/person of wage subsidy has increased considerably, and the measure has become very expensive. The 11 Support for the employment of disadvantaged workers can be awarded according to the provisionsofCommissionRegulation (EC) No 2204/2002 of 12 December 2002. Thus support should be awarded taking into account the rules on the cumulation of aid in articles 8(4) and 9(2).
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60. DWP (2003) Pathways to work. Helping people into employment. TheGovernment’sresponseandactionplan.London, Department for Work and Pensions, June.
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61. DWP (2006) Green paper. A new delivery of Pathways to Work (focusing on Incapacity Benefit recipients). London, Department for Work and Pensions.
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62. Elemzésekarejtettgazdaságmagyarországiszerepéről, 2.[COMECONmarketsandblacklabour – Hungary, 1999. Studies on the role of the hidden economy in Hungary.] Budapest, MTA KTI.
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63. Ellwood, D. T. (2000) Anti-poverty policy for families in the next century: from welfare to work – and worries. Journal of Economic Perspective, Vol. 14. No. 1. pp. 187–198.

64. EVALUATION OF ACTIVE LABOUR MARKET PROGRAMMES BETWEEN 2001–2006 AND THE MAIN CHANGES IN 2007 Mária Frey evaluation of active labour market programmes... 137 From January 1, 2007 the system of active labour market programmes has undergonefundamentalchange.Thereforeitisjustifiedtooverviewtheexperiences of the system between 2001–2006. The first part of the current paper summarizes the findings of a related study1 and the second part presents the changes introduced in 2007.
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65. Fazekas, Károly (2001) Az aktív korú állástalanok rendszeres szociális segélyezésével és közcélú foglalkoztatásával kapcsolatos önkormányzati tapasztalatok. [Municipal social assistance programmes and public work schemes for the active-age jobless.] Budapesti Munkagazdaságtani Füzetek, BWP No. 09.
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66. Fazekas, Károly (2002) A tartós munkanélküliek rendszeres szociális segélyezése és önkormányzati közfoglalkoztatása Magyarországon, 2000–2001. [Social assistence and municipal public work schemes for the long-term unemployed in Hungary, 2000–2001.] Budapesti Munkagazdaságtani Füzetek, BWP No. 6.
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67. Ferge, Zsuzsa and Tausz, Katalin (2002) Social Security in Hungary – a Balance Sheet after Twelve Years. Social Policy and Administration, Vol. 36. No. 2. pp. 176–199.
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68. Figure 1: Number of ALMP-participants, rate of participants in ALMPs within the economically active population, 2001–2006 UnemployedpeoplecanparticipateinALMPsforshorterandlongerperiods.
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69. Figure 6.3: The percentage of low paid workers by gender 10 15 20 25 30 TogetherFemalesMales wages 215 Table 6.10: The dispersion of gross monthly earnings by gender, ratios of decile 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Males and females together D9/D5 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 D5/D1 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.2 1.8 2.0 2.0 D9/D1 3.6 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.9 4.1 4.8 4.7 Males D9/D5 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.5 2.6 2.7 D5/D1 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.4 1.8 2.1 2.0 D9/D1 3.6 4.0 4.0 4.5 5.1 4.5 5.4 5.4 Females D9/D5 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.1 D5/D1 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.7 1.9 1.9 D9/D1 3.3 3.6 3.7 3.7 4.1 3.7 4.2 4.0 Source: FSzH-BT. Figure 6.4: The dispersion of gross monthly earnings 1 2 3 4 5
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70. Figure 7.1: Full time studens as a percentage of the different age groups 0 20 40 60 80 100 2003 1993 2221201918171615 Age statistical data 220 Table 7.2: Pupils/students entering the school system, by level of education Year Primary school Vocational school Secondary school College and university 1980 171,347 60,865 57,213 17,886 1989 128,542 91,767 84,140 20,704 1990 125,665 87,932 83,939 22,662 1993 125,679 76,977 87,657 35,005 1994 126,032 77,146 87,392 37,934 1995 123,997 65,352 82,665 42,433 1996 124,554 58,822 84,773 44,698 1997 127,214 53,083 84,395 45,669 1998 125,875 39,965 86,868 48,886 1999 121,424 33,570 89,184 51,586 2000 117,000 33,900a 90,800a 54,100a 2001 112,144 34,210 92,393 56,709 2002 112,345 33,497 94,256 57,763 2003 114,020 33,394 92,817 59,699 2004 101,021 32,645 93,469 59,783 2005 97,810 33,114 96,181 61,898 2006 95,954 32,732 95,989 61,231 a Estimated data. Note: Excludes special schools. Source: OM STAT.
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71. Figure 8.1: Number of registered vacancies and registered unemployed 0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000Number of registered unemployedNumber of vacancies 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 statistical data 224 Table 8.2: Firms intending to increase/decrease their staff* Year Intending to decrease Intending to increase Year Intending to decrease Intending to increase 1993 I. 34.7 23.6 1999 I. 25.8 39.2 II. 28.5 22.3 II. 28.8 35.8 1994 I. 24.5 29.1 2000 I. 24.4 41.0 II. 21.0 29.7 II. 27.2 36.5 1995 I. 30.1 32.9 2001 I. 25.3 40.0 II. 30.9 27.5 II. 28.6 32.6 1996 I. 32.9 33.3 2002 I. 25.6 39.2 II. 29.4 30.4 II. 27.9 35.4 1997 I. 29.6 39.4 2003 I. 23.6 38.5 II. 30.7 36.8 II. 32.1 34.3 1998 I. 23.4 42.7 2004 30.0 39.8 II. 28.9 37.1 2005 25.3 35.0 * In the period of the next half year after the interview date, in the sample of FH PROG. Source: FSzH PROG.
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72. Figuresrevealthatthelabourmarketbudgetincreasedbynearly50percent between 2000–2006, however its share in the GDP remained around one per cent – that is approximately half of the EU Member States’ average. The share of active measures, services and programmes within the labour market budget fluctuated: it was 28.4 per cent in 2000, 40.8 per cent in 2002, 33.7 per cent in 2004 and 38.9 per cent in 2006.
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73. Firle, Réka and Szabó, PéterAndrás (2007)TargetingandlaboursupplyeffectoftheRegularSocialAssist -ance. Working Papers in Public Finance No. 18.
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74. Flint, C. (2007) Secretary of State Caroline Flint’s reply to Mr Clappison’s interpellation. July 23, 2007: Column 733W: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ cm200607/cmhansrd/cm070723/text/70723w0021. htm.
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75. FMM(2006)Esélyésértékteremtésközmunkaprogramokkal 2006 – átfogó értékelés. [Public works programmes as a means of increasing opportunities and welfare in 2006 – a comprehensive evaluation] Budapest, Ministry for Labour.
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76. FollowingtheregionalstructureofthePES,theEmploymentActalsoamended the rules on previous county (Budapest) labour councils with effect from January 1, 2007. It ordered the setting up of seven labour councils linked to the jurisdiction of the seven regional job centres. The election of new members is set out in Act XIX of 2007 which also amends the relevant section (Paragraph 12) of the Employment Act. The new rules entered into force on April 1, 2007, and the election of new members took place in May 2007. The secretarial tasks of the regional labour councils are carried out by regional job centres.
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77. For the period of between 1991 and 1996, the register also contains the stock and flow data of the recipients of school leavers’ unemployment benefit.
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78. Frazis, H. J., Robinson, E. L., Evans, T. D. and Duff, M. A. (2005) Estimating gross flows consistent with stocks in the CPS. Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 128 No. 9. pp. 3–9.
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79. Frey, B. S. and Stutzer, A. (1999) Measuring PreferencesbySubjectiveWell -being.JournalofInstitutional and Theoretical Economics, 155 pp. 755–778.
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80. Frey, Mária (2001) A nők munkapiaci helyzete. [Women and the labour market] Budapest, Central Statistical Office, January, p. 39.
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81. Frey, Mária (2002) A gyermeknevelési támogatásokat igénybe vevő és a családi okból inaktív személyek foglalkoztatásának lehetőségei és akadályai. Összefoglaló a HU9918-13 PHARE-program keretében végzett statisztikai kutatás zárótanulmányából. [The employment prospects of people who participate in family support schemes or are inactive for family reasons. Summary of the final report of the HU9918-13 PHARE quantitative research project.] Budapest.
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82. From 2002, includes 13th month’ benefit as well. 3
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83. From 2005 the surveys are conducted in cooperation with the Institute for Analyses of the Economy and Entrepreneurship of the Hungarian Chamber of Industry and Commerce. Since then the main results are available on the internet also in the form of an interactive database.
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84. From 2006: jobseekers’ benefit, jobseekers’ assistance and jobseekers’ ratio. Source: FSzH REG.
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85. FRSZ(2006)HungarianResearchreportonpeoplewithdisability and employees with changed capacity for work. in focus 130 October 16, 2006. Szombathely, Foglalkozási Rehabilitációs Szolgálat.
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86. Gábos, András (2003) A családtámogatási rendszer termékenységihatásai –kutatásieredményekmagyaradatokon [Thefertilityeffectsofthefamilysupportsystem – research results based on Hungarian data], In: Gál RóbertIván(ed)Apákésfiúkésunokák.[Fathers,sons and grandsons.] Budapest, Osiris, pp. 66–83.
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87. Gábos,András,Gál,RóbertIvánandKézdi,Gábor (2005) Fertility effects of the pension system and other intergenerational transfers. Paper prepared for the 5th InternationalWorkshopoftheProjectonIntergenerational Equity (PIE), Tokyo, March 10–12.
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88. Galasi, Péter (ed) (2003) Labour – The Supply Side. In Focus. In: Fazekas Károly (ed) The Hungarian Labour Market. Budapest, MTA KTI.
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89. Galasi, Péter, Lázár, György and Nagy Gyula (2003) Az aktív foglalkoztatáspolitikai programok eredményességét meghatározó tényezők. [Factors determining the success of active labour market programmes. ] Budapest, OFA Kht.
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90. Galasi,PéterandNagy,Gyula(2003)Amunkanélküli -ellátás változásainak hatása a munkanélküliek segélyezéséreéselhelyezkedésére. [Theeffectofchanges in the unemployment benefit system on take-up and reemployment probabilities.] Közgazdasági Szemle, 7–8 pp. 608–634.

91. Gere, Ilona (1997) A nyugdíjazás mint a munkanélküliség megelőzésének, levezetésének eszköze. [Pensions as a means to reducing unemployment.] Munkaügyi Szemle, Vol 41. No. 10. pp. 13–16.
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92. Gere, Ilona (2000) A megváltozott munkaképességű emberek bekapcsolása a munka világába. [Employment rehabilitation for people with reduced work capacity. ] Ministry of Welfare and Family Affairs, Budapest.
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93. Gregg, P. and Waldfogel, J. (2005) Symposium on Parental Leave, Early Maternal Employment, and Child Outcomes. Introduction. Economic Journal, 115. February, F1–F6.
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94. Gregg,P.,Washbrook,E.,Propper,C.andBurgess,S. (2005) The Effects of a Mother’s Return to Work Decision on Child Development in the UK. Economic Journal, 115. February, F48–F80.
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95. Gyukits, György (2000) A romák egészségügyi ellátásának szociális háttere [The social background of health care services for the Roma population.] In: Horváthgota,LandauEditandSzalaiJúlia (eds) Cigánynak születni. [Roma by birth.] Budapest, Új Mandátum, pp. 471–489.
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96. Hablicsek, László (2000) Kísérlet a roma népesség előreszámítására 2050-ig [An attempt at Roma population projection up to the year 2050.] In: Horváth gota, Landau Edit and Szalai Júlia (eds) Cigánynak születni. [Roma by birth.] Budapest, Új Mandátum, pp. 243–276.
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97. Harcsa, István, Kovách, Imre and Szelényi, Iván (1998) Price of privatization in Hungarian agriculture.
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98. Havasi, Éva (2005) A transzferjövedelmek szerepe a szegénység csökkentésében. [The role of social transfers in reducing poverty.] Esély, No. 4. pp. 66–86.
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99. Heckman, J. (1979) Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error. Econometrica, Vol. 47. No. 1. pp. 152–161.
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100. Hefop (2005) A társadalmi beilleszkedés elősegítése a szociális területen dolgozó szakemberek képzésével, valamint a szociális és munkaügyi szolgáltatások együttműködési modelljének kidolgozásával című, Az Európai Szociális Alapból finanszírozott HEFOP 2.2.2-05/1. számú központi program. [Training social workers and developing a model of co-operation between social and employmet services in an effort to assist social rehabilitation. Programme No. HEFOP 2.2.2-05/1 funded by the European Social Fund.] Budapest, Szociálpolitikai és Munkaügyi Intézet–Foglalkoztatási és Szociális Hivatal. https://www.szmi. hu/kozpontiprogram/.
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101. Herczog, Mária (2007) A koragyermekkori nevelés. Az oktatási és gyermekesély-kerekasztal számára készült tanulmány, [Early years child care. Paper for the education and child welfare round table] http://magyarorszagholnap. hu.
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102. Hoem, J. M. (2005) Why does Sweden have such high fertility ? Max Planck-Institut für Demografische Forschung, MDIPR Working Paper, 2005–009. Berlin, April.

103. Ignits, Györgyi and Kapitány, Balázs (2006) A családtámogatásokalakulása: célokéseszközök.[Family support schemes: objectives and tools.] Demográfia, Vol. 49. No. 4. pp. 383–401.
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104. ILO Flexicurity papers 2004/2. Budapest, International Labour Office.
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105. In addition to the Employment Act, other acts (on personal income tax, corporateandcapitalreturntax,healthcarecontribution)alsograntreduced contributions and tax reliefs that are related to the employment and training of job seekers, disadvantaged people, and people with a disability. Linked to the Start Card, universal contribution reductions are also available from the Labour Market Fund as of November 2005.
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106. In: Iván Szelényi (ed) Privatizing the Land, London, Routledge, 1998, pp. 235–7.
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107. Including pre-retirement age pension, artists’ penson, pre-pension, and miners’ pension up to 1997. Note: Includes new pension claims granted during the year. Data are from the records of the National Pension Fund and therefore do not cover pensions of separate funds of the national railways (MV), the armed forces and the police.
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108. Istanbul... (2007) Istanbul Declaration. Issued by international organisations participating in Measuring the Progress of Societies: World Forum on Statistics, Knowledge and Policy (European Commission, OECD,OrganisationoftheIslamicConference,Unitreferences 131 edNations,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme, World Bank). Istanbul, June 30.
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109. It should also be kept in mind that besides the decentralised Employment Sub-Fund budget, other sources also supported training programmes.2 AccordingtoTable7jobfindingratesofunemployedpersonsleavingtraining programmes did not reach 50 per cent in any of the years between 2001– 2005. Training organised for workers proved to be the most effective: on average 9 out of 10 participants succeeded in staying in their job. However this type of training concerned only one tenth of the beneficiaries of training.
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110. It should be noted in advance that the active labour market programmes in this analysis include instruments defined by the Employment Act and administered by the county job centres (until the end of 2006), such as labour markettraining,wagesubsidy,businessstart-upsubsidiesfortheunemployed, public work etc. These were the dominant schemes to tackle unemployment in the nineties, however their relevance has been diminishing since 2000 when new labour market services and programmes were introduced that are better designed than these individual measures to help alleviate the complex problems of the long-term unemployed and inactive people. However, even the basic information is lacking to assess the impact of labour market services, and complex labour market programmes are so diverse that even if they were evaluated, general conclusions could not be drawn.
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111. Ithasbeenshownthat the labour market budget increased by nearly 50 per centbetween2000–2006,howeveritsshareintheGDPremainedaroundone per cent – that is approximately half of the EU Member States’ average. The share of active measures, services and programmes within the labour market budget fluctuated between 28.4 and 40.8 per cent. The number of participants of active labour market programmes shrank from 2.6 per cent in 2001 to 1.5 per cent of the economically active population in 2006.
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112. Its rate for employers has been set at 3 per cent of the gross wage paid to the employer since January 1, 1999. Employees pay 1.5 per cent of their gross wagesinceSeptember1,2006(previouslyithadbeen1percent).Theamount of money collected in this way substantially exceeds the amount paid out for benefits (low level subsidy for a limited number of unemployed people) and tightly controlled spending on ALMPs.
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113. Józan, Péter (2001) A századvég népesedési viszonyai és a századelő valószínű demográfiai forgatókönyve Magyarországon. [Population at the end of the 20th century and demographic expectations for the beginning of the 21st.] Nemzeti Kutatási és Technológiai Hivatal, Budapest.
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114. Jahoda, M., Lazarsfeld, P. F. and Zeisel, H. (2002) Marienthal: The Sociography of an Unemployed Community. New Jersey, Transaction Publishers.
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115. January 1th. Recalculated on the basis of Population Census 2001. Source: KSH.
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116. Juhász, Ferenc (ed) (2004) Irányelvek a funkcióképesség, a fogyatékosság és a megváltozott munkaképesség véleményezéséhez. [Guidelines for assessing disability and work capacity.] Egészségügyi, Szociális és Családügyi Minisztérium–Országos Egészségpénztár, Budapest Kertesi, Gábor (2000) A cigány foglalkoztatás leépüléseésszerkezetiátalakulása1984és1994között.
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117. Köllő, János (2006) Workplace Literacy Requirements and Unskilled Employment in East-Central and Western Europe – Evidence from the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS). Budapest Working Papers on the Labour Market, BWP No. 07.
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118. Köllő, János (2007) Leszakadók – Kétkezi munka és munkanélküliség a rendszerváltás után. [Left behind – Manual labour and unemployment after the regime change.]Budapest,MTAKözgazdaságiIntézet.[Manuscript. ]
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119. Köllő, János and Nacsa, Beáta (2005) Flexibility and Security in the Labour Market: Hungary’s Experience.
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120. Kézdi, Gábor (2004) Az aktív foglalkoztatáspolitikai programok hatásvizsgálatának módszertani kérdései. [Methods of evaluating the success of active labour marketprogrammes.]BudapestiMunkagazdaságtani Füzetek, BWP No. 02.
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121. Kézdi, Gábor (2005) Education and earnings. In: Varga Júlia (ed) The Hungarian Labour Market 2004. Budapest, MTA KTI–OFA, pp. 31–49.

122. Kézdi, Gábor and Köllő, János (2000) Életkor szerinti kereseti arányok a rendszerváltás előtt és után. [Earnings ratios by age before and after the regime change.] In: Király Júlia, Simonovits András and Száz János (eds) Racionalitás és méltányosság. [Reason and equity] Budapest, Közgazdasági Szemle Alapítvány.
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123. Kósa, Zsigmond, Széles, György, Kardos, László, Kósa,Karolina,etal.(2007)AComparativeHealth Survey of the Inhabitants of Roma Settlements in Hungary. American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 97. No. 5. pp. 853–859.
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124. Kertesi, Gábor and Köllő, János (2002) Labour DemandwithHeterogeneousLabourInputsaftertheTran -
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125. Kertesi,Gábor(2004)TheemploymentoftheRoma:Evidence from Hungary. Budapest Working Papers on the Labour Market, BWP 2004/01.
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126. Kertesi,GáborandKöllő,János(1997)Reálbérekés kereseti egyenlőtlenségek, 1986–1996, bérszerkezet átalakulása Magyarországon, I. rész. [Real wages and earnings inequalites, 1986–1996, changes in the wage structure in Hungary. Part I.] Közgazdasági Szemle, No. 7–8. pp. 612–634.

127. Koltayné Kóródi, Tünde (2002) Eligibility Requirements for the Unemployment Insurance Benefit. In: Fazekas Károly (ed) The Hungarian Labour Market 2001. Budapest, MTA Közgazdaságtudományi Kutatóközpont–Országos Foglalkoztatási Közalapítvány, pp. 181–186.

128. Kornai,János(1983)Ellentmondásokésdilemmák.[Contradictions and dilemmas.] Budapest, Magvető.
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129. Kovácsy, Zsombor (2005) The occurrence and quality of information on impact assessments in proposals to the government on draft acts in Hungary. [Manuscript.] Köllő, János (2001) A járadékos munkanélküliek álláskilátásai 1994 és 2001 tavaszán. [Re-employment chances of unemployment benefit recipients in the springof1994and2001.]BudapestiMunkagazdaságtani füzetek, BWP No. 07.
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130. Krolify(2004)Acélszervezetekkörébenkészültkérdőíves felmérés eredményei. Empirikus elemzés az Országos Foglalkoztatási Közalapítvány megbízásából. [The results of a questionnaire survey among sheltered workshops. Empirical analysis commissioned by the Hungarian Employment Fund.] Krolify Vélemény- és Szervezetkutató intézet, October.
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131. Labour market training evaluation of active labour market programmes... 147 Theaveragenumberofparticipantsinlabourmarkettraininghalved(decreased from 27,000 to 13,000), and the total number reduced (from 91,000 to 47,000) in 2001–2006. Nevertheless, according to the average number of participants this was the active measure that reached the most unemployed people – with the exception of the year 2005. As regards the selection of participants, it emerges that mostly those were involved in training who were likely to succeed based on their previous education and who had good chances of finding a job after the completion of the course.Neverthelesstheshareofthosewhorequiredenhancedeffortsandresourceinput (bothbythemselvesandtheirinstructors)toimproveintermsof employability was fairly high, especially in the recommended training courses.
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132. Lackó, Mária (2000) Egy rázós szektor: a rejtett gazdaság és hatásai a poszt-szocialista országokban háztartásiáram -felhasználásra épülő becslések alapján. [A tricky sector: the hidden economy and its effects in post-socialist countries. An analysis of household electricity consumption.] Budapest, TRKI–KTI.
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133. Laki, László (1997) A háztájizás tegnap és ma. [Home farming – past and present.] Szociológiai Szemle, No. 1. pp. 39–63. in focus 132 Laky, Teréz (2005) Munkahely-teremtési támogatások. [Job creation schemes.] In: Köllő János (ed) A magyar foglalkoztatáspolitika átfogó értékelése az Európai Foglalkoztatási Stratégia kontextusában, az elmúlt öt év tapasztalataialapján.[Hungarianemploymentpolicy in the context of the European Employment Strategy: the experiences of the past 5 years.] KTI–SZMM Report Chapter 5, pp. 61–67.
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134. Layard, R. (2005) Happiness. Lessons from a New Science. London, Allen Lane (Penguin Books), p. 310.
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135. Lelkes, Orsolya (2006a) Tasting Freedom: Happiness, religion and economic transition. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization. Elsevier, vol. 59(2), pp. 173–194 Lelkes, Orsolya (2006b) Social Exclusion in CentralEastern Europe. Concept, Measurement and Policy Interventions. Working Paper, European Centre for Social Welfare Policy and Research, Vienna, and International Labour Office, Geneva.

136. London, The Stationery Office. http://www.cabinetoffice. gov.uk/moderngov/whtpaper Carneiro, P. and Heckman, J. (2003) Human Capital Policy. NBER Working Paper, 9495.
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137. Lumisdale, R. L., Stock, J. H. and Wise, D. A. (1990) Three models of retirement: computational complexity versus predictive validity. NBER Working Paper, No. 3558.

138. Marked data are reweighted on the basis of the 2001 Population Census. 2001 serves as a “Janus year”.
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139. Micklewright, J. and Nagy, Gyula (2005) Job Search Monitoring and Unemployment Duration in Hungary: Evidence from a Randomised Control Trial. Budapest Working Papers on the Labour Market, BWP No. 09.

140. Moffitt, R. A. (2002) Welfare Programs and Labour Supply. In: Auerbach A. J. and M. Feldstein (eds) Handbook of Public Economics. Amsterdam.
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141. Moffitt, R. A. (ed) (2003) Means-tested welfare programs in the US. Chicago, University of Chicago Press– NBER.
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142. Molnár, György (2005) Az adatállomány és a rotációs panel. [Data and the rotation panel.] In: Kapitány Zsuzsa, Molnár György and Virág Ildikó (eds) Háztartásokatudás-ésmunkapiacon.[Householdson the knowledge and labour markets.] Budapest, MTA KTI. KTI Könyvek, No. 2.
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143. Molnár, György and Kapitány, Zsuzsa (2006) Mobilitás, bizonytalanság és szubjektív jóllét Magyarországon. [Mobility,insecurityandsubjectivewellbeing in Hungary.] Közgazdasági Szemle, Vol. 53. No. 10. pp. 845–872.

144. Monthly averages of the whole years, in 2007: the average of January-October.
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145. Mortensen, D. and Pissarides, C. (1999) Unemployment responses to skill-biased shocks. Economic Journal, 109. pp. 242–265.
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146. Neidell, M. J. (2000) Early Parental Time Investments in Children’s Human Capital Development. Effects of Time in the First Year on Cognitive and Non-cognitive Outcomes.WorkingPaper,No.806.LosAngeles,University of California.
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147. Net earnings for the whole economy (including the public sector). Data on the private sector cover firms with more than 19 employees before 1999, and more than 4 employees thereafter * Preliminary.
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148. Non-manual workers are persons with occupations classified by the ISCO-88 in major groups 1-4., manual workers are persons with occupations classified in major groups 5-9. since 1st January 1994.
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149. Note: The data refer to full-time employees in the budget sector and firms employing at least 20 workers (1989–94), at least 10 workers (1995–99) and at least 5 workers (2000–), respectively.
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150. Note: Till 1999 updated figure based on 1990 population census since 2000 based on 2001 population census. ‘Employed ’ includes conscripts and working pensioner. Data on students for 1995–97 have been estimated using projected population weights. ‘Other inactive’ is a residual category.
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151. OECD (2005) Pensions at a Glance. Public Policies Across OECD Countries. Paris, OECD.
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152. OECD (2006) Starting Strong II. Early Childhood Education and Care. Paris, OECD.
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153. OECD (2007a) Economic Survey of Hungary 2007: Improvingreconciliationbetweenworkandfamily, available at http://oecd,org/document/29/.
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154. OECD (2007b) Regulatory management capacities of member states of the European Union that joined the union on 1 May 2004. SIGMA Paper, No. 42.
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155. Oros, Iván and Schindele, Miklós (1977) Időmérleg a háztáji és kisegítő gazdaságokban. [Time budget on home farms and ancillary farms.] Statisztikai Szemle, No. 8–9.
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156. Orsovai, Szilvia, Palotai, Ilona and Pálinkó, Éva (2000) A közhasznú munka haszna. [The utility of public work schemes] Munkaügyi Szemle, No. 12. pp. 37–43.
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157. OSI (2005) Rights of People with Intellectual Disabilities. Access to Education and Employment, Monitoring Report: Hungary. Budapest, Open Society Institute.
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158. Otlakán, Krisztián (2007) Diszkriminálnak-e a hazai munkáltatók? [Do Hungarian employers discriminate ?] I–II. Munkaügyi Szemle, March, pp. 25–28; and April, pp. 32–36.
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159. Parlament (2006) Costs of Pathways to work and resources for the reform programme. Select Committee on Work and Pensions. Third Report, May 6.
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160. Pauka, Tibor and Tóth, Ildikó (2003) A magyar népesség egészségi állapotának változásai 1979 és 2001 közöttamorbiditásiadatoktükrében.[Changesinthe healthoftheHungarianpopulationbetween1979and 2001: Morbidity data.] Budapest, CSO.
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161. Previous year = 100 Source: Employment: 1989–1991: KSH MEM; 1992–: KSH MEF. Other data: KSH.
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162. Progress (2005) Az EQUAL közösségi kezdeményezés magyarországi programjának folyamatos értékelése.
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163. Public work evaluation of active labour market programmes... 149 Table 9: The distribution of public workers according to types of activities and rate of continued employment (%) Type of activity 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Community infrastructure 77.7 77.6 78.9 77.3 80.4 76.6 Health and social care 7.1 6.9 6.9 7.6 6.1 7.2 Culture and education 4.4 4.6 4.3 4.7 4.1 5.3 Other 10.8 10.9 9.9 10.4 9.4 10.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Continued employment 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.3 0.9 1.1 Source: Employment and Social Office.
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164. Ram, B., Abada, T. and Hou, F. (2004) The Effects of Early Maternal Employment on Children’s Cognitive Outcomes: The Canadian Experience. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Boston, April 1–3.
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165. Remák, Edit, Gál, Róbert Iván and Németh, Renáta (2006) Health and morbidity in the accession countries. Country report – Hungary. ENEPRI Research Report, No. 28, November.
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166. Riddell, S., Banks, P. and Tinklin, T. (2005) Disability and Employment in Scotland: A Review of the Evidence Base. Edinburgh, Scottish Executive Social Research.
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167. Ruhm, C. (1998) Parental leave and child health. NBER Workin Paper, No. 6554.

168. Ruhm, C. (2005) Maternal Employment and Adolescent Development. IZA Discussion Paper, No. 1673.

169. Sándor,János(2004)Mortalitás.Népegészségügyijelentés. Szakértői változat. [Mortality: Population health report. Expert’s version.] Budapest, Johan Béla Epidemiológiai Központ.
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170. Scharle, gota (2002) Eligibility Criteria for Unemployment Benefits in Advanced Countries. In: Fazekas Károly (ed) The Hungarian Labour Market. Budapest, MTA KTI, pp. 147–150.
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171. Scharle, gota (2007) The effect of welfare provisions on female labour supply in Central and Eastern Europe. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis, No. 9. pp. 157–174.
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172. See Table 8.2. Figure 8.2: Firms intending to increase/decrease their staff 20 25 30 35 40 2005200420032002200120001999199819971996199519941993 Intending to increaseIntending to decrease labour demand indicators 225 Table 8.4: Firms activating new capacities* – per cent Year Building only Building and/or machinery Total Year Building only Building and/or machinery Total 1992 I. … 10.2 10.2 1999 I. 4.7 20.5 25.2 II. 3.0 11.4 14.4 II. 5.2 20.9 26.1 1993 I. 3.4 14.1 17.5 2000 I. 4.6 21.1 25.7 II. 3.0 14.7 17.7 II. 4.4 23.9 28.3 1994 I. 3.6 17.7 21.3 2001 I. 4.0 21.9 25.9 II. 4.1 17.4 21.5 II. 4.7 22.9 27.6 1995 I. 4.2 18.4 22.6 2002 I. 3.4 22.6 26.0 II. 4.4 18.8 23.2 II. 3.3 22.8 26.1 1996 I. 3.6 20.2 23.8 2003 I. 3.4 21.9 25.3 II. 4.2 19.5 23.7 II. … … … 1997 I. 3.9 19.2 23.1 2004 5.3 30.2 35.5 II. 4.7 21.1 25.8 2005 n.a. n.a. n.a. * In the period of the next half year after the interview date, in the sample of FH PROG. Source: FSzH PROG.
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173. See: Table 3.7. Source: KSH MEF. employment 183 Table 4.1: Employed Year 1000 prs 1992 = 100 Annual changes Employment ratio1 1980 5,458.2 133.7 … 65.3 1990 4,880.0 119.5 … 59.0 1991 4,520.0 110.7 –7.4 54.4 1992 4,082.7 100.0 –9.7 49.0 1993 3,827.0 93.7 –6.3 45.8 1994 3,751.5 91.9 –2.0 44.8 1995 3,678.8 90.1 –1.9 43.9 1996 3,648.2 89.4 –0.8 43.6 1997 3,646.4 89.3 0.0 43.6 1998 3,697.8 90.6 1.4 44.3 1999 3,811.4 93.4 3.1 45.7 2000 3,849.1 94.3 1.0 46.2 2001 3,859.5 94.5 0.3 … 2001a 3,883.3 95.1 0.3 45.6 2002a 3,883.7 95.1 0.0 45.6 2003a 3,921.9 96.1 1.2 46.2 2004a 3,900.4 95.5 –0.5 45.8 2005a 3,901.5 95.6 0.0 45.7 2006a 3,930.1 96.3 0.7 46.0 1 Per cent of the population above 15 year. a
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174. Semjén, András and Tóth, István János (2002) Unofficial economic activities and fiscal discipline in Hungary as mirrored in the consecutive enterprise surveys on tax behaviour. MT–DP. No. 11.
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175. Senik, C. (2005) Income Distribution and Well-being: What Can We Learn from Subjective Data? Journal of Economic Surveys, Vol. 19. No. 1. pp. 43–63.

176. Serbia 5,395 new dinars 73 2004.02. 5,395 73 2004.02. 8,004 96.44 2006.05.
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177. Sik, Endre (2000) Kgst-piacok és feketemunka – Magyarország1999.
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178. Simonovits, András (2008) The pay-as-you-go system and the permanent reform: the first pillar. Chapter 4. In: Gál, Róbert Iván, Iwasaki, I. and Széman, Zsuzsa (eds) Assessing Intergenerational Equity. Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó.
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179. Simonyi, gnes (1995) Munka nélkül. [Out of work.] Szociológiai Szemle, No. 1. pp. 55–70.
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180. Since 1997 the system has also contained the recip*
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181. Since 1999 serious methodology changes: people whose last contact with employment office was more then two months before the interview were excluded. Source: KSH MEF.
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182. Since 2006 it is called Jobseekers’ Register instead of Unemployment Register.
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183. Since 2006: Jobseekers’ Benefit Register. description of the main data sources 247 ients of pre-retirement unemployment benefit. In addition to headcount data, the benefit register can also monitor the average duration of the period of benefit allocation and the average monthly amount of the benefits allocated. The key data regarding benefits were published by the National Employment and Social Office in the monthly periodical Labour Market Situation.
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184. Since 2006: jobseekers’ benefit. ** Since 2006: jobseekers’ assistance. a Together with the number of regular social allowance recipients. b Recipients of job search assistance benefit included. Note: October. The percentage ratios refer to the combined number of the registered unemployed and program participants.
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185. Since 2006: registered jobseekers instead of registered unemployed. Note: The denominator of the regitered unemployment rate is the economically active population on 1st January of the previous year, which comes from KSH MEM. Source: Registered unemployed: FSzH REG; LFS unemployed: KSH MEF.
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186. Slovakia 13.0 2.8 5.1 62.7 33.8 3.6 Slovenia 16.7 9.2 17.3 55.3 35.1 9.7 EU–25 15.4 18.8 14.9 70.3 24.7 5.0 Source: Employment in Europe, 2007. international comparison 241 Table 13.3: Monthly statutory minimum wage rates, Full-time adult employees, aged 23+* Country 2004 2005 2006 In local currency In euros Date effective1 In local currency In euros Date effective1 In local currency In euros Date effective1 Belgium 1,317.5 2004.02. 1,234 2005.06. 1,234.21 2005.06.
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187. Source: CSO Welfare systems 2006; CSO Welfare statistics.
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188. Source: FSzH. statistical data 204 Table 5.12: The ratio of those who are employed among the former participants of ALMPs* Active labour market programmes 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Suggested training programmes 44.5 46.3 46.8 46.8 48.4 45.4 43.3 43.0 45.5 43.8 41.1 Accepted training programmes 50.2 51.1 51.5 50.0 52.0 49.3 45.8 46.0 45.6 51.4 50.9 Retrainig of those who are employed 92.8 90.4 94.7 94.8 94.9 94.2 92.7 93.3 92.1 90.4 .. Support for self-employment 90.2 88.1 91.7 90.5 89.4 89.2 90.7 89.6 90.7 89.6 86.4 Wage subsidy programmes 70.1 66.3 59.1 59.7 62.3 59.7 62.9 62.0 64.6 62.6 62.3 Work experience programmes – 65.7 59.1 55.8 57.9 64.5 66.9 66.1 66.5 66.8 66.6 Further employment programme – 72.1 75.1 68.5 73.8 71.6 78.4 78.2 71.5 70.9 65.0 * Three months after the end of programmes. Source: FSzH.
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189. Source: FSzH. statistical data 208 Table 5.22: Unemployment rate of population aged 15–74 by level of education, males Year Primary school or less Vocational school Secondary school College; university Total 1993 20.3 15.0 9.7 2.9 13.5 1998 14.6 9.1 5.9 2.2 8.5 1999 14.3 8.2 5.0 1.5 7.5 2000 13.4 7.7 4.8 1.6 7.0 2001a 13.6 6.4 4.3 1.2 6.3 2002a 14.1 6.2 4.0 1.4 6.1 2003a 13.6 6.6 3.9 1.6 6.1 2004a 14.3 6.4 4.1 1.7 6.1 2005a 15.6 7.4 4.9 2.3 7.0 2006a 17.3 7.0 5.2 2.7 7.2 a
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190. Source: Labour Market Fund Management Department, Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour. mária frey 140 It has already been pointed out that the number of labour-market interventions falling outside the scope of the Employment Act is increasing, and as a consequence the share of the Employment Sub-Fund within the broader active labour market measures is shrinking. It stood at 88.6 per cent in 2000, but it was only 79.8 per cent in 2006. The other clear trend is the increasing share of the central budget within the Employment Sub-Fund: 12.3 per cent in 2000 and 22 per cent in 2006. This centralisation was most marked in 2002 when 15,000 million Forints were spent on compensating the additional costs of employers in labour intensive sectors arising from the increase in the statutory minimum wage. Since 2003 a substantial share of the Employment Sub-Fund has been spent on job-creation schemes that were re-incorporated in the Employment Act.
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191. Source: Yvette Szabó: Leszázalékolt számítás, HVG, May 26, 2007. p. 88. mária frey 168 2.4.3. National Institute for Rehabilitation and Social Assessment On the basis of the National Institute for Medical Assessment, the National Institute for Rehabilitation and Social Assessment was set up as of July 2007. Itstasksincludetheassessmentoftheextentofimpairment,vocationalworking ability, fitness for rehabilitation, and possible directions and length of rehabilitation. It carries out the assessment of disability pension claims. It provides comprehensive rehabilitation services.
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192. Sources: Public Employment Service: Labour Market Report, 2001. CSO: Welfare systems 2007, Welfare Statistics, Yearbook of Demographics. social welfare 237 Table 12.3: Pensions* Year Allowance for disability, minor disability, regular and temporary allowance for health impairment Disability pension Old age pension average monthly amount (HUF) average number of recipients average monthly amount (HUF) average number of recipients average monthly amount (HUF) average number of recipients 1990a 7,885 126,442 6,222 542,803 6,450 1,461,687 1995 8,580 222,731 13,758 718,011 15,009 1,600,349 2000 15,018 240,299 29,217 762,514 33,258 1,671,090 2001 16,731 243,254 32,381 772,286 37,172 1,667,945 2002 18,981 242,201 37,369 789,544 43,368 1,664,062 2003 21,469 246,289 43,185 799,966 50,652 1,657,271 2004 22,983 250,122 48,180 806,491 57,326 1,637,847 2005 24,601 251,854 52,259 808,107 63,185 1,643,409 2006 26,132 243,128 56,485 806,147 69,145 1,658,387 * Data for January of the given year. a
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193. Stock, J. H. and Wise, D. A. (1988) Pensions, the optionvalue of work and retirement. NBER Working Paper, No. 2686.

194. SZ (2002) A foglalkoztatást elősegítő támogatások felhasználásának ellenőrzése. Az llami Számvevőszék 0226.számújelentése.[Monitoringtheuseofemployment subsidies. Report No. 0226 of the State Audit Office.] Budapest, July 2002.
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195. Szabó,JózsefandBokor,Sándor(2006)“Zsilip”képzési és foglalkoztatási program. A hátrányos helyzetű csoportokreintegrációjánakelősegítése.[The“Ecluse” training and employment programme. The reintegration of disadvantaged groups. ] Munkaügyi Szemle, No. 5. pp. 31–34.
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196. Szakolczai, György (2005) A rendszerváltás és a politikai váltógazdaság demográfiai hatásai, [The demographic effects of the regime change and the succession of short-lived policies.] Demográfia, Vol. 48. No. 3–4. pp. 254–279.
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197. Szalai, Júlia (2007) Nincs két ország? Társadalmi küzdelmekazállami (túl)elosztásértarendszerváltásutániMagyarországon. [Twocountries?Fightsforcentral (over)redistribution following the regime change in Hungary.] Budapest, Osiris.
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198. Tárkányi, kos (2002) A családpolitika változásának hatásai a termékenységre Közép-Európában. [The fertility effects of changes in family support policy in Central Europe.] Demográfia, Vol. 45. No. 1. pp. 48–79.
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199. Tóth, István György (1997) Evaluating Hungarian Incomes Inequalities. The role of labor markets and in focus 134 social policies. Acta Oeconomica, Vol. 48. No. 3–4. pp. 415–445.
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200. Tóth, István György (2005) Jövedelemeloszlás. Gazdasági rendszerváltozástól az uniós csatlakozásig. [Incomedistribution: Fromtheeconomic regimechange to EU accession.] Budapest, Századvég Kiadó.
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201. Table 10.2: Employed in their present job since 0–6 months 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Hungary 8.2 8.5 6.8 7.2 6.3 6.6 7.2 6.8 7.0 6.7 Source: MEF, IV. quarterly waves. industrial relations 235 Table 11: Strikes Year Number of strikes Number of involved persons Hours lost (in thousands) 1991 3 24,148 76 1992 4 1,010 33 1993 5 2,574 42 1994 4 31,529 229 1995 7 172,048a 1,708a 1996 8 4,491 19 1997 5 853 15 1998 7 1,447 3 1999 5 16,685 242 2000 5 26,978 1,192 2001 6 21,128 61 2002 4 4,573 9 2003 7 10,831 19 2004 8 6,276 116 2005 11 1,425 8 2006 16 24,670 52 a Teachers strikes number partly estimated.
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202. Table 11: Participants in wage subsidy schemes Indicator 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Number of people completing the programme, persons 16,470 17,711 19,196 17,612 15,539 Response ratio 75.0 76.6 75.4 75.4 75.5 In employment at follow-up, % 59.7 62.9 62.0 64.6 62.6 Source: Monitoring data of the Employment and Social Office.
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203. Table 12.2: Unemployment befenits and average earnings Year Insured unemployment benefit and other non-means tested benefits1 Means tested unemployment assistance2 Net monthly earnings, HUF3 average monthly amount (HUF) average number of recipients average monthly amount (HUF) average number of recipients men women together 1990 3,845 30,302 3,209 46,823 11,226 9,455 10,371 1995 11,891 182,788 6,590 234,411 28,831 24,283 26,637 2000 22,818 131,665 14,656 162,245 60,319 50,562 55,650 2001 25,677 119,210 14,749 142,001 69,910 59,059 64,750 2002 30,113 114,934 14,869 132,895 82,745 72,036 77,770 2003 34,762 107,226 15,010 138,127 94,612 84,632 89,906 2004 37,107 109,654 15,864 144,853 98,101 87,710 93,233 2005 39,593 111,732 16,991 158,565 108,139 98,625 103,727 2006 43,344 109,095 23,771 160,426 110,951* 1
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204. Table 1givesanoverviewofunemployment-relatedspendingbrokendown by main categories in the period of 2000–2006. Measures were categorized as “active” or “passive” based on their scope. Passive measures include both contribution-based benefits and allowances such as the income-replacement allowance that is currently being phased out or the regular social welfare allowance paid by local governments and financed from the LMF. Among the ALMPs community service work – organised by the municipalities for regular social assistance recipients – can also be found, as well as all other LMFfunded measures that serve to prevent unemployment or assist in the return to work.
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205. Table 2: Unemployment rate, activation rate and the share of ALMP-participants within the economically active population Year Activation rate* (%) Participation in ALMPs** (as % of economically active population) Unemployment rate based on the number of registered unemployed*** (%) 2001 19.4 2.6 8.9 2002 20.0 2.1 8.4 2003 19.8 2.1 8.3 2004 16.7 1.8 8.7 2005 14.9 1.7 9.4 2006 13.8 1.5 10.0 * The number of beneficiaries of ALMPs divided by the sum of the same number and the number of registered unemployed. ** The number of beneficiaries of ALMPs divided by the number of economically active population as of the previous year January 1. *** Unemployment rate based on official registration data in January of each year. Source: Employment and Social Office, Labour Market Survey by the Central Statistical Office, Labour Force Indicators by the Central Statistical Office.
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206. Table 6.12: Average earnings of manual workers in the national economy by staff size-categories and ownership groups, HUF/capita/month, 2006 Ownership ratio Over 1000 Between 301–100 Between 51–300 Between 21–50 Between 10–20 Between 5–9 Total 100 % foreign ownership 144,469 148,112 138,641 144,707 142,788 112,388 143,930 Foreign majority 196,140 134,587 137,156 127,011 89,886 101,289 160,362 Domestic majority 145,880 131,635 126,570 103,361 111,330 87,360 130,438 100% domestic ownership 135,713 114,454 101,805 92,935 82,460 74,844 103,104 Unknown 136,232 117,984 112,414 111,539 99,565 95,480 125,711 Total 144,868 126,051 110,337 97,048 85,107 76,157 115,024 Source: FSzH-BT.
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207. Table 6.13: Average earnings of non-manual workers in the national economy by staff size-categories and ownership groups, HUF/capita/month, 2006 Ownership ratio Over 1000 Between 301–100 Between 51–300 Between 21–50 Between 10–20 Between 5–9 Total 100 % foreign ownership 353,184 374,489 398,921 394,981 364,991 443,293 378,630 Foreign majority 372,439 368,502 350,252 315,052 245,225 225,358 358,998 Domestic majority 281,705 301,743 345,566 234,412 126,997 167,404 292,978 100% domestic ownership 246,084 250,076 197,528 157,862 150,449 140,981 201,988 Unknown 254,323 266,055 230,175 272,264 186,844 217,123 252,319 Total 295,801 298,682 252,296 189,749 174,222 172,790 256,217 Source: FSzH-BT.
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208. Table 6.4: The composition of full-time employees and average earnings in the economy by gender and level of education in 2006 Level of education Males Females Together Female/ male earnings ratio Composition Average earning Composition Average earning Composition Average earning % HUF/person, month % HUF/person, month %
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209. Table 6.6: The composition of full-time employees and average earnings in the competitive sector by gender and level of education in 2006 Level of education Males Females Together Female/ male earnings ratio Composition Average earning Composition Average earning Composition Average earning % HUF/person, month % HUF/person, month %
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210. Table 6.8: National agreements on wage guidelines, previous year = 100* Year ÉT Recommendation Actual indexes Minimum Maximum Public sector Corporate sector 1992 113.0 128.0 120.1 126.6 1993 110.0–113.0 125.0 114.4 125.1 1994 113.0–115.0 121.0–123.0 127.0 123.4 1995 – – 110.7 119.7 1996 113.0 124.0 114.6 123.2 1997 114.0 122.0 123.2 121.8 1998 113.5 116.0 118.0 118.5 1999 112.0 115.0 119.2 114.8 2000 108.5 111.0 112.3 114.2 2001 … … 122.9 116.3 2002 108.0 110.5 129.2 113.3 2003 4.5 % real wage growth 117.5 108.9 2004 107.0 108.0 100.4 109.3 2005 106.0 112.8 106.9 2006 104.0 105.0 * Gross average wage increase: recommendations by the Interest Reconciliation Council (ÉT).
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211. Table 7: Job finding rates after completing labour market training* Year Recommended training Approved training Total training for unemployed persons Training for workers 2001 45.4 49.3 47.0 94.2 2002 43.3 45.8 44.4 92.7 2003 43.0 46.0 44.4 93.3 2004 45.5 45.6 45.5 92.1 2005 43.8 51.4 46.2 90.4 * The proportion of those in employment in the third month after completing training. Source: Monitoring data by the Employment and Social Office.
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212. Table 8: Proportion of training-related jobs in total jobs Form of training 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Recommended 82.2 80.7 79.9 80.2 78.4 Approved 86.5 84.6 82.0 81.9 81.3 Training of workers 98.3 96.8 98.4 99.0 99.6 Source: Monitoring data by the Employment and Social Office.
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213. Table 8.3: Firms expecting increasing/decreasing orders* Year Orders Year Orders increasing decreasing increasing decreasing 1993 I. 31.8 36.0 1999 I. 38.7 21.9 II. 35.9 33.0 II. 42.2 20.2 1994 I. 38.7 24.8 2000 I. 38.9 18.3 II. 45.6 21.7 II. 49.1 14.9 1995 I. 40.9 23.8 2001 I. 44.1 16.2 II. 47.2 20.7 II. 44.4 19.1 1996 I. 39.8 24.4 2002 I. 39.5 18.8 II. 45.5 21.0 II. 40.2 19.5 1997 I. 42.7 19.4 2003 I. 36.2 22.3 II. 47.5 16.7 II. 49.0 13.8 1998 I. 46.1 15.2 2004 38.2 20.5 II. 47.5 18.0 2005 n.a. n.a. *
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214. Tahin, Tamás, Jeges, Sára and Lampek, Kinga (2000) Az iskolai végzettség és az egészségi állapot változása követéses vizsgálat alapján. [A longitudinal study of education and health.] Demográfia, No. 43. pp. 305–334.
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215. Tamási,Ildikó(2005)Az50évenfelülimunkanélküliek elhelyezkedésének elősegítése. Központi munkaerőpiaci program Nógrád megyében. [Helping unemployed people over the age of 50 return to work. A central labour market programme in Nógrád county.] Munkaügyi Szemle, No. 9. pp. 43–45.
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216. Tanaka, S. (2005) Parental Leave and Child Health Across OECD Countries. The Economic Journal, 115. February, F7–F28.

217. Tardos,Katalin(1998)Atartósmunkanélküliekegészségromlása. [Health decline in long-term unemployment. ] In: Hanák Katalin and Neményi Mária (eds) Szociológia–emberközelben.[Sociologywithahuman touch.] Budapest, Új Mandátum.
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218. Terrel, K. and Sorm, V. (1998) Labor market policies and unemployment in the Czech Republic. Working Papers, No. 216. William Davidson Institute, University of Michigan.

219. Terrel, K., Erbenova, M. and Sorm, V. (1998) Work incentiveandothereffectsofsocialassistanceandunemploymentbenefitpolicyintheCzechRepublic. Empirical Economics, Vol. 23. No. 1–2. pp. 87–120.

220. The act was adopted on June 27, 2005 and entered into force on October 1, 2005. Branch offices providing labour market services Regional job centres and regional labour councils mária frey 162 sidy for 2 years. The subsidy is a universal discount on the compulsory contributions paid by employers. As a result, the employer pays 15 per cent as their contribution on the wage in the first year, and 25 per cent in the second year. The discount can be used for wages of up to 150 per cent of the minimum wage for new entrants under 25 years, or in the case of under-30-graduates from higher education for up to 200 per cent of the minimum wage.
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221. The detailed data of unemployment benefit recipients have been available from the benefit register since January 1989. The first two years had a different benefit allocation system, and the current system, which has been modified several times since then, was implemented by the Employment Act of 1991 (Act IV).
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222. The Employment SubFund available directly for the employment offices decreased The total and average number of participants in ALMPs decreased siginficantly evaluation of active labour market programmes... 141 Therefore, statutory active labour market policies reached a diminishing share of actual or potential unemployed in the period studied. The so-called activation rate, that compares the number of participants in ALMPs with the sum increased by the number of registered unemployed, stood around 20 per cent in the early 2000s, then fell to 16.7 by 2004, 14.9 by 2005 and 13.8 per cent in 2006.
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223. The number of people who benefited from the reimbursement of contributions was over 10,000 until 2005. This represented around 5 per cent of the totalnumberofparticipantsinALMPs.In2006thetotalandaveragenumber of participants nearly halved because the measure was replaced by a new, universal contribution reduction scheme administered by the Tax and Financial Control Administration Office. The shortcoming of this is that it does not give priority to disadvantaged people and thus might also increase regional labour market disparities because businesses in better-off regions might take up this universal subsidy for contributions disproportionately and there are no mechanisms to prevent this.
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224. The reimbursement of employment-related contributions was introduced in 1997 to encourage employers to hire people on income-replacement allowance.
     Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
     
225. The statutory active labour market policies reduced the number of unemployed persons to a falling extent year by year: in 2001 the average number of participants in ALMPs was nearly 105 thousand, this figure did not reach 63 thousand in 2006 which indicates a 40-per cent decline (Table 3).
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226. The system of employment rehabilitation has been undergoing significant change since 2005. Important changes were introduced in the employment support of disabled workers. The previous passive aid scheme was replaced by new, active arrangements (wage subsidy, compensation of costs, support for reasonable accommodation in the workplace etc.). The accreditation of rehabilitation enterprises has also been realised.
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227. The total number includes all those who participated in active policies at least for a day in the given period. ** The number of participants in job-creation schemes indicates the number of newly created and filled jobs (in accordance with relevant labour regulations) during the year. *** The scheme was re-designed in 2002. In the earlier version in 2001 participation was very low. Source: Employment Office.
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228. Therefore, the real number of participants in a given measure is considerably higherthantheyearlyaverage.Thetotalnumberofparticipantsincludeseverybody who benefited from ALMPs for at least a day in a given period. Table 4 presents information on this. This shows that the total number of beneficiaries decreased by 30 per cent between 2001–2006. The total number of beneficiaries in ALMPs was three times the average number of participants in the observed period. The specific proportions were heavily influenced by the length of support. When resources started to shrink, counties responded by cutting down the length of time and amount of support.
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229. This scheme changed substantially in July 2006, therefore figures for 2006 are given for the period July-December 2006. 3
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230. United Kingdom pounds sterling 927.32 1,380.54 2006.10. * Where official rates are expressed by the hour or week, they have been converted to monthly rates on the basis of a 40-hour week or 52-week year. Minimum wage figures exclude any 13th or 14th month payments that may be due under national legislation, custom or practice. 1 Minimum wage levels last updated. 2 Unmarried white collar workers only. 3 The terms of this wage order entitle a worker to 13 or 14 monthly payments per year. 4 Starting salary in non-unionised sectors. Iincreases after six months’ service. Rates apply only in six occupations. 5 Unskilled workers only.
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231. Vanhuysse, P. (2006) Divide and Pacify: Strategic Social Policies and Political Protests in Post-Communist Democracies. Budapest, CEU Press.
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232. Verheijen, T. (2006) EU-8 Administrative Capacity in the New Member States: The Limits of Innovation? Report Number: 36930-GLB. Washington, The World Bank.
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233. Waldfogel, J., Han, W. and Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002) The effects of early maternal employment on child cognitive development. Demography, Vol. 39. No. 2. pp. 369–392.
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234. When the income-replacement allowance was phased out in 2000, the scope of the measure was extended to all unemployed persons. Originally the subsidy included full or partial reimbursement of health-care, pension, and unemployment contributions, and later the fixed-sum health care contribution. The take-up of this measure was not high, however it had an important role because the requirements were not as strict as in the case of wage subsidy 5However,theshorttimeperiod isprobablynotadequatetogive a valid feedback on business survival rates. evaluation of active labour market programmes... 153 (for example no continued employment was required). Therefore it could be used for shorter, seasonal employment. This encouraged businesses – especially in agriculture – to regularise short term employment.
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235. Without those unemployed who will get a new job within 30 days; since 2003: within 90 days. a See: Table 3.7. Source: KSH MEF. Figure 5.2: The distribution of unemployed by duration of job search, per cent 0 10 20 30 40 50 200620052004200320022001200019991998199719961995199419931992 per cent >1 year max. 1 month statistical data 196 Figure 5.3: Quarterly flows between labour market status, population between 15–74 years Employment Unemployment Inactivity The data refer to 15–74 aged cohorts observed in the LFS in two consecutive quarters. Red curves: smoothed with fourth degree polinomial.
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236. Wittenberg, J. (1997) Rethinking Political Continuity in East Central Europe. In: Perspectives on Political and Economic Transitions after Communism. Columbia University Graduate Student Conference, February 28–March 1. Institute on East Central Europe, New York.
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237. World Bank (2007) Social assistance in Central Europe and the Baltic States. Discussion Draft for Consultation and Comment. Washington, The World Bank.
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1. Raising the Accuracy of Shadow Economy Measurements. (2021). Pascual, Pedro ; Gomez, Antonio ; Rios, Vicente.
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2. Energy based estimation of the shadow economy: The role of governance quality. (2021). Dergiades, Theologos ; Missiou, Olympia ; Psychoyios, Dimitrios.
   In: The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance.
   RePEc:eee:quaeco:v:80:y:2021:i:c:p:797-808.

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3. Miért kell a nyugdíj-valorizálást és -indexálást pontrendszerrel felváltani?. (2018). Simonovits, Andras.
   In: Közgazdasági Szemle (Economic Review - monthly of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences).
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4. Shadow Economy: Estimation Methods, Problems, Results and Open questions. (2017). schneider, friedrich ; Buehn, Andreas ; Andreas, Buehn ; Friedrich, Schneider .
   In: Open Economics.
   RePEc:vrs:openec:v:1:y:2017:i:1:p:1-29:n:1.

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5. Az elfelejtett nyugdíjdegresszió. (2017). Simonovits, Andras.
   In: Közgazdasági Szemle (Economic Review - monthly of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences).
   RePEc:ksa:szemle:1705.

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6. METHODS TO QUANTIFY THE UNDERGROUND ECONOMY. (2017). Hudea, Oana Simona.
   In: Network Intelligence Studies.
   RePEc:cmj:networ:y:2017:i:10:p:117-121.

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7. Estimating the Size of the Shadow Economy: Methods, Problems and Open Questions. (2016). schneider, friedrich.
   In: Turkish Economic Review.
   RePEc:ksp:journ2:v:3:y:2016:i:2:p:256-280.

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8. Nyugdíjba vonulási szabályok Magyarországon - nyertesek és vesztesek. (2016). Simonovits, Andras ; Tir, Melinda ; Czegledi, Tibor ; Szabo, Endre.
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9. Estimating the Size of the Shadow Economy: Methods, Problems and Open Questions. (2016). schneider, friedrich ; Buehn, Andreas.
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10. Az egyéni munkaerő-piaci aktivitás becslése mikroszimulációs modellkeretben. (2015). Vekas, Peter .
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11. Kísérlet a feketefoglalkoztatás becslésére a be nem jelentett, de a kérdőíves felvételekben megfigyelt munka alapján. (2015). Koll, Janos .
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12. Hossz- és keresztmetszeti egyensúly az életpálya finanszírozásában. (2015). Simonovits, Andras.
    In: Közgazdasági Szemle (Economic Review - monthly of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences).
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13. The Shadow Economy and Shadow Labor Force: A Survey of Recent Developments. (2014). schneider, friedrich.
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14. Alternative views on the origins and impact of the informal economy. (2014). Brosio, Giorgio ; Zanola, Roberto ; Jimnez, Juan Pablo .
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15. Parametrikus nyugdíjreformok és életciklus-munkakínálat. (2013). Varga, Gergely ; Major, Klara .
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16. US shadow economies: a state-level study. (2013). Wiseman, Travis.
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17. Estimating the Size of the Shadow Economy: Methods, Problems and Open Questions. (2013). schneider, friedrich ; Buehn, Andreas.
    In: Economics working papers.
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18. Estimating the Size of the Shadow Economy: Methods, Problems and Open Questions. (2013). schneider, friedrich ; Buehn, Andreas ; Buhn, Andreas .
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19. A magyar nyugdíjrendszer éves hozamrátái. (2012). Simonovits, Andras ; Gal, Robert Ivan .
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20. Deterrence Policy and the Size of the Shadow Economy in Germany: An Institutional and Empirical Analysis. (2011). Schmidt, Andreas J. ; Feld, Lars P. ; Schneider, Friedrich.
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21. Schaufenster Griechenland – was kann aus dem aktuellen Debakel für das soziale Europa gelernt werden?. (2009). Tausch, Arno.
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22. Economic Growth—Human Capital Nexus in Post-Soviet Ukraine, 1989-2009. (2008). Osipian, Ararat.
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23. Járulékfizetés és nyugdíjjogosultság 1997-2006. (2008). Mate, Levente ; Gyombolai, Marton ; Augusztinovics, Maria .
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24. THE HUNGARIAN LABOUR MARKET 2008. (2008). Scharle, Ágota ; Fazekas, Karoly ; Cseres-Gergely, Zsombor.
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25. Экономический рост: образование как фактор производства. (2007). Osipian, Ararat.
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26. Estimation of real GDP and unrecorded economy in Turkey based on environmental data. (2007). Ozkaya, Ata ; Karanfil, Fatih.
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27. Monetary Transmission Mechanism in Central & Eastern Europe: Gliding on a Wind of Change. (2006). MacDonald, Ronald ; Égert, Balázs ; coricelli, fabrizio.
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28. Investment decisions and the soft budget constraint: evidence from Hungarian manufacturing firms. (2006). Stanca, Luca ; Colombo, Emilio.
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29. Monetary Transmission in Central and Eastern Europe: Gliding on a Wind of Change. (2006). gert, Balzs ; MacDonald, Ronald.
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30. Monetary Transmission in Central and Eastern Europe: Gliding on a Wind of Change. (2006). MacDonald, Ronald ; Égert, Balázs ; coricelli, fabrizio.
    In: Focus on European Economic Integration.
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31. Monetary Transmission Mechanism in Transition Economies: Surveying the Surveyable. (2006). MacDonald, Ronald ; Égert, Balázs.
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32. Republic of Lithuania; Selected Issues. (2006). International Monetary Fund, .
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33. A cross-section approach to measuring the shadow economy. (2006). Hudson, John ; Caplanova, Anetta ; Orviska, Marta ; Medved, Jozef.
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34. Price markups and returns to scale in imperfect markets: Bulgaria and Hungary. (2006). Korosi, Gabor ; Halpern, László ; Markov, Nikolay ; Dobrinsky, Rumen.
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35. Investment decisions and the soft budget constraint. (2006). Stanca, Luca ; Colombo, Emilio.
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36. Transition of the Hungarian Labour Market: Age, Skill and Regional Differences. (2005). Fazekas, Karoly.
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37. Shadow economies around the world: what do we really know?. (2005). schneider, friedrich.
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38. Tax Rates and Corruption: Labour-market and Fiscal Effects. Empirical cross-country comparisons on OECD and transition countries. (2004). Lackó, Mária ; Lacko, Maria .
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39. Desigualdad, instituciones e informalidad. (2004). Chong, Alberto ; Mark Gradstein Author-X-Name_First: Mark Author-X-, .
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40. Inequality, Institutions, and Informality. (2004). Chong, Alberto ; Mark Gradstein Author-X-Name_First: Mark Author-X-, .
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41. Corporate performance and market structure during transition in Hungary. (2003). Korosi, Gabor ; Halpern, László.
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42. THE NATURE OF THE UNDERGROUND ECONOMY. SOME EVIDENCE FROM OECD COUNTRIES. (2003). Bovi, Maurizio.
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43. Effects of foreign direct investment on the performance of local labour markets - The case of Hungary. (2003). Fazekas, Karoly.
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44. Is the Completion of EU Single Market Hindered by VAT Evasion?. (2003). Nam, Chang Woon ; Gebauer, Andrea ; Parsche, Ruediger.
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45. Endogenous ownership structure: factors affecting the post-privatisation equity in largest Hungarian firms. (2002). Mickiewicz, Tomasz ; Bishop, Kate ; Filatotchev, Igor.
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46. Direct Foreign Investments And Productivity Growth In Hungarian Firms, 1992-1999. (2001). Sgard, Jerome.
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47. Direct Foreign Investments and Productivity Growth in Hungarian Firms, 1992-1999. (2001). Sgard, Jerome.
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48. Direct Foreign Investments and Productivity Growth in Hungarian Firms, 1992-1999. (2001). Sgard, Jerome.
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49. A kamat, az árfolyam és a forint hátralévő évei. (2001). Tarafas, Imre.
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50. Direct Foreign Investments and Productivity Growth in Hungarian Firms, 1992-1999. (2001). Sgard, Jerome.
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51. Macroeconomic Developments in Hungary and the Accession Process.. (2000). Gács, János.
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52. Ten years of transformation - macroeconomic lessons. (2000). Wyplosz, Charles.
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53. A konvergencia fiskális feltételei és az Európai Unióhoz való csatlakozás. (2000). Halpern, László ; Nemenyi, Judit.
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54. Ten Years of Transformation: Macroeconomic Lessons. (2000). Wyplosz, Charles.
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55. Shadow Economies: Size, Causes, and Consequences. (2000). schneider, friedrich ; Enste, Dominik.
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56. Teilprojekt 2: Macroeconomic Developments in the Candidate Countries with Respect to the Accession Process. (1999). Gacs, Janos ; Palme, Gerhard ; Mayerhofer, Peter.
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57. Informal Sector in Developed and less Developed Countries: A Literature Survey. (1999). Gërxhani, Klarita ; Gerxhani, Klarita .
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58. Do Power Consumption Data Tell the Story? - Electricity Intensity and Hidden Economy in Post-Socialist Countries. (1999). Lackó, Mária ; Laczko, Maria.
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59. Shadow Economies Around the World - Size, Causes, and Consequences. (1999). schneider, friedrich ; Enste, Dominik.
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60. Labour market characteristics and profitability: An econometric analysis of Hugarian exporting firms, 1986-95. (1998). Halpern, László ; Korosi, Gabor .
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