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The first post in our miniseries on genetics introduces the study of genes and how they're passed from parents to children. Genes are segments of DNA—the blueprints for our bodies—that provide instructions for making important molecules. The vast majority of DNA is the same among all people, but small differences affect appearance and health.

ACTIVITY

Print one copy per student of the DNA origami worksheet [PDF] from the National Human Genome Research Institute. After students have read the blog post, distribute the worksheets and scissors, and have students follow the directions to create a 3D DNA molecule. You may find it helpful to show this step-by-step instructional video.

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Family members often share some traits but not others. The combination of similarities and differences largely results from how people inherit and express genes. This post discusses how DNA passes from parents to children and how the instructions in genes lead to observable traits, such as physical features and health conditions.

ACTIVITY

After students read this post, divide them into small groups and assign each group one of the questions about genetics and human traits. Allow each group to read their assigned selection and then report back to the larger class with the answer. Some of the questions don’t have direct “yes” or “no” answers, but students should try to explain the answer provided in the reading selection.

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Researchers learn about human genes through a variety of tools and techniques, such as DNA sequencing and genome editing. In addition to investigating human DNA, scientists use these tools and techniques to study the DNA of other organisms. Thanks to similarities across the genomes of living things, this research has helped us to better understand human health and disease and to learn about unique traits of other organisms.

ACTIVITY

After students read the blog post, explain that scientists must extract DNA from cells to study it. Although DNA extraction may sound like a complicated process, your students can try a version of it themselves! Pass out instructions and materials for the strawberry DNA extraction activity from the National Human Genome Research Institute, and have students conduct the experiment independently or in small groups. (Be sure to gather the supplies beforehand for this experiment.)

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Our genetics miniseries covers the basics of the field—from how people inherit genes to how researchers study them. This quiz, the final post in the series, tests how much students have learned. Can they answer all six questions correctly?

ACTIVITY

After students read the three previous posts in the genetics miniseries, have them test their knowledge with this interactive quiz. They can receive and share their results by clicking the “Finish” button at the bottom of the quiz. Review the correct answers as a class.

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You know the phrase “reduce, reuse, recycle” to save the planet? Our cells take that to heart to care for our bodies: Their efficiency reduces waste, their enzymes are reusable, and they recycle as much of their garbage as possible. But while our cells are excellent stewards of our bodies, sometimes they do have trash. They have systems in place to ensure they get the most out of their trash, but sometimes these systems go awry and cause diseases like Alzheimer's.

ACTIVITY

After reading the post to learn how cells reduce, reuse, and recycle, explore the site from the National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) with different ways you can practice the 3 Rs of waste management. Have a class discussion about implementing some these techniques either as a class at school or individually at home. For a more advanced activity, check out NIEHS’ Climate Change and Human Health lesson plans, or other environment and human health curriculum materials found on our STEM teaching resources website.

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In the 1980s, researchers discovered odd, repeating sequences in the genomes of certain bacterial species, later named CRISPR sequences. Now, scientists use the CRISPR-Cas9 system in the laboratory as a gene-editing tool to improve our understanding of human biology, and medical doctors can use it to treat some diseases, like sickle cell disease.

ACTIVITY

Have students independently read the blog post either in class or for homework the night before. Afterward, lead the class through the "What Is CRISPR?" Kahoot! quiz from the National Institutes of Health (grades 9-12). Discuss the correct and incorrect answers as a class.

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Do you find yourself frustrated when trying to convert between measuring units while baking? Find out how many ounces are in a cup and other measurement morsels—like what baking soda does to your chocolate chip cookies and why you (and scientists in the lab) need to be accurate in your measurements.

ACTIVITY

Have students have read the post about the importance of accurate measurements, both in the kitchen and the chemistry lab. Then, assign categories from the National Institute of Standards and Technology's “How Do You Measure It?” web series to either individual or pairs of students. Once they’ve read about how to measure the age of a tree, the “heat” of a pepper, the acidity of the ocean, the age of fossils, or any of the other measurement topics, have them report back to the class.

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Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages from one nerve cell to another and sometimes to muscles or glands. These chemicals help our bodies perform vital functions, such as breathing, sleeping, feeling pain and emotions, moving our limbs, and many others. This post describes how neurotransmitters work and how changes in their levels can contribute to, or help treat, disease.

ACTIVITY

Download the “Connect the Neurons!” teacher guide from BrainU, found on our STEM teaching resources website. After students read the blog post, have them complete the activities from the guide. Students will pretend to be neurons and transfer cotton ball "neurotransmitters" among themselves to model communication between nerve cells. (Note: The activities in this guide are designed for grades 5–8. For lower or higher grades, you may consider modifying the activities or selecting one of the other BrainU lesson plans.)

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Symbiotic relationships are everywhere in nature and help species survive through interactions with one another. This post describes the different types of symbiosis and how symbiotic relationships can affect human health.

ACTIVITY

After students read the blog post, ask them to draw an example found in nature or in the human body for one of the types of symbiotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. You can divide the class into thirds and assign each relationship or allow the students to choose which one they investigate. They may need to do some research online to find examples beyond those described in the post. Instruct them to identify which species benefit from or are harmed by the relationship.

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RNA is an essential molecule for life. It helps translate the instructions of DNA into proteins. Researchers study RNA, looking for ways to use it to develop medicines, vaccines, and tests for certain diseases. This post tests RNA knowledge.

ACTIVITY

Have students take the quiz in the post and share their results. For a more in-depth activity, have them choose one of the questions to investigate further by reading the blog post linked in its answer.

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Metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions our bodies use to build up and break down molecules to keep us alive and healthy. Our cells must constantly balance many metabolic pathways. If these pathways are disrupted, serious diseases can occur.

ACTIVITY

Prepare for this activity that’s from our teaching resources website, which looks at how saliva helps digest the food we eat. You’ll need a few materials prepared beforehand, but most should be easy to get. Have students read the blog post. Discuss as a class how metabolism is an important function in our bodies. Ask students where they think metabolism begins, and then reveal that as soon as food touches our mouths, saliva begins metabolizing it. Follow the steps outlined in the activity to examine how saliva breaks down crackers. It’s metabolizing enzymes in saliva that begin the breakdown of the cracker!

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A common question in science is, “What can I do to keep our planet healthy?” Replacing traditional plastic with biodegradable plastic is one way to reduce the impact of plastic on the earth. Sometimes, plastic utensils or paper plates have a small logo indicating that they’re biodegradable. Materials that are biodegradable can be broken down into their building blocks by microorganisms such as bacteria, which extract the energy stored inside those small units.

ACTIVITY

Have students read the post and then take a careful look at the infographic at the bottom from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that shows 10 simple activities you can do to help protect the earth. As a class, talk through each of them and ask the students to choose one to focus on in their homes and daily lives. You could even choose one to focus on in the classroom.

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A microbiome is the collection of all the microbes—including bacteria, viruses, and fungi—that live in a certain environment. Much of the human microbiome is made up of friendly microbes that we rely on to keep us healthy. Disruptions to the microbial communities in our bodies can cause disease.

ACTIVITY

After reading the post, dive deeper into the microbiome as a class using the lesson plan from the University of Washington Genome Sciences Education Outreach, found on our STEM teaching resources website. Students will learn about how a healthy microbiome is a diverse, complex ecosystem and how the foods they eat affect their microbiome—both positively and negatively.

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The first post in our miniseries on immunology introduces the immune system, which protects you from microbes that could cause infection. One important aspect of the immune system is its ability to remember the microbes it has seen before. This phenomenon, called immune memory, is a key part of vaccine science.

ACTIVITY

After students have read the post, compare and contrast the innate and adaptive immune systems together as a class.

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The second post in our immunology miniseries is all about diseases related to the immune system. The immune system’s job is to protect us from infectious intruders, but it sometimes gets confused and attacks the wrong cells, reacts to harmless substances, or fails to respond to intruders effectively.

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In our third post in the immunology miniseries, we talk about immunologists, who are researchers and doctors who study the immune system or treat patients with immune-related diseases. Learn more about the NIGMS grantees we’ve highlighted on Biomedical Beat who study the immune system.

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Throughout our immunology miniseries, we introduce the many functions and components of the immune system and highlight NIGMS-supported researchers who study immunology. For the final post, test your knowledge with a quiz.

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The first post in our pharmacology miniseries gives an overview of the research-based science situated at the intersection of chemistry, biology, and medicine. Pharmacologists explore how molecules and bodies interact, and their research can have major impacts to how we understand human health and how clinicians treat patients.

ACTIVITY

Before having students read the post, ask them what they know about the areas of chemistry, biology, and medicine. Then ask them to imagine a scientist who would use all three of those areas in their work. Did they come up with someone who makes and designs medicines? Pharmacologists study how bodies and molecules interact. Some develop new medicines to target specific health issues, some use molecules as tools to study the body, and some work directly with patients and their doctors to optimize their treatment. Once the students read the post, discuss as a class the different roles of pharmacologists. Encourage students who find this career interesting to explore it more and see what’s required to become a pharmacologist (college degree, then a Ph.D.).

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The second post in our pharmacology miniseries introduces pharmacokinetics, the study of how the body acts on a medicine. The post follows a medicine entering the body, finding its therapeutic target, and eventually leaving the body to answer the common question, “What happens to medicine in your body?”

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The third post in our pharmacology miniseries introduces pharmacodynamics, the study of how medicines act in the body. Most medicines bind to molecular targets, which results in their therapeutic effects. In this post, we explore how medicines act at different targets or directly upon the immune system and how pharmacologists help determine dosages that maximize a medicine’s effectiveness while minimizing side effects.

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The final post in our pharmacology miniseries discusses some areas of pharmacology that NIGMS-funded researchers study and puts your knowledge to the test with a quiz.

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Are any of your students particularly enamored with science? This post, the first in our new miniseries on becoming a scientist, lays out the different levels of education and training that scientists may have, from an undergrad degree to a Ph.D. and even postdoctoral work.

ACTIVITY

Citizen science projects use the hands, eyes, and minds of the public to help conduct scientific research. They’re great opportunities to get young students excited about and involved in science. Review the available citizen science opportunities listed on the NASA and General Service Administration websites, and choose one to lead students through during an after-school club or on a field trip. Alternatively, review the project as a class and have students complete the activity at home with their families. Most projects only require a computer or a smartphone application. Review your findings as a group.

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There are many job options for students who love science and want to immerse themselves in it. This post highlights some of those options, such as being a biomedical science writer or a researcher at a university or private company.

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For the final post in our miniseries on becoming a scientist, we’re revisiting some advice NIGMS-funded researchers have for students who are interested in a science career path. Check out the full Q&As with these researchers if you missed them.

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Anesthesia is a medical marvel that keeps patients from feeling pain. If you’ve ever had a surgery or even a minor procedure, you’ve probably benefited from it! In this post, we dive into the different types of anesthesia, its history, the way it works, and NIGMS-supported research on it.

ACTIVITY

Have students read the post and infographic to learn more about anesthesia and its history and how it keeps us from feeling pain. Then look at the list of NIGMS-funded anesthesia research at the end of the post and engage students in class discussion, asking them which they would study if they were an anesthesia researcher. For more advanced exploration, divide students into groups, assigning each an NIGMS-funded anesthesia research topic from the list. Have the groups discuss why their topic is important to the broader scope of physical/mental health and wellness. Then have each group share their thoughts with the rest of the class.

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Did you know that some cells in our bodies use electricity to carry information? These nerve cells, or neurons, are fundamental for how we interact with our environment. In this post, we explore the role of nerve cells and describe NIGMS-supported research on them.

Nerve cells allow us to feel pain (among other things), and anesthetics, as described in Pathways, prevent us from feeling pain.

ACTIVITY

The post outlines how your brain detects and reacts to something dangerous (for example, a thorn). Divide the class into groups of five to seven students and have each group form a line from one side of the room to the other. The students at the head of the line will act as the brain of the group, the student at the back of the line will be the neuron that senses the trigger, and the ones in between will be the neurons that carry the message. Without telling the entire group, assign each sensing neuron an environmental factor that would trigger a reaction, like a hot stove, a missing rung on a ladder, an unexpected step on muddy ground, a sharp edge, etc. Have the sensing neurons “transmit” their message to the next neuron in line without speaking or touching. Each student (neuron) in line receives the message with their eyes (dendrites), interprets the message with their brain (cell body, nucleus), and then transmits it to the next student with their own body (axon). Once the message makes it to the front of the line, the student acting as the brain can say it out loud. The first group to successfully transmit their message to the brain wins.

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Computers and mathematical methods are increasingly important tools for studying biology. In this post, we share the stories of a medical doctor who aims to use these tools to predict sepsis and a computer scientist who applies them to understand cell development pathways.

Pathways discusses machine learning as a possible way to discover a definitive biomarker for pain. This post explains how scientists use computers to study biological processes.

ACTIVITY

Before students read the post, engage them in a quick freewrite about what they think machine learning means and how it’s used in science. After they’ve read the post, have them compare and discuss what they wrote with what they learned and now think of the topic.

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This quiz features eye-catching, purple-hued images paired with questions that test your knowledge of basic science concepts. The images were captured using some of the techniques described in Pathways.

ACTIVITY

Have students test their knowledge of cells and science concepts by taking the quiz. For a more in-depth activity, have students look up their selected answers in our glossary. For any incorrect answer, have them define that term and compare it to the correct term.

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Anne Carpenter, Ph.D., has developed software for analyzing images of cells that can identify signs of diseases and potential medicines to treat them. Thousands of researchers, including many at pharmaceutical companies, have adopted her computer program. Dr. Carpenter never imagined this achievement when she started her journey in science as a biologist without any computer science training.

Both this post and Pathways describes tools used for imaging microscopic biological structures such as cells.

ACTIVITY

The blog post discusses how cells affected by disease sometimes have features that visibly differ from their healthy counterparts. Dr. Carpenter’s Cell Painting tool visualizes these differing features in cells that include the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, plasma membrane, Golgi, and part of the cytoskeleton. Have students search for photos of these structures in our image and video gallery and/or identify a disease that affects one of these structures.

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Since 1971, the Protein Data Bank has served the scientific community as an open-access resource of 3D protein structures. To celebrate 50 years as a key resource in the community, we spotlight an educational board game that simulates the process of determining a protein’s structure. Knowing the structures of proteins and other biological molecules helps scientists understand their roles in human health and disease and leads to the discovery of new and more effective medications.

Researchers use many imaging techniques in determining protein (and other macromolecular) structures. Some of these techniques are described in Pathways, and others are introduced in this post.

ACTIVITY

After reading the post, divide students into small groups to play PDB50: The Game simulating how researchers identify macromolecular structures.

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The glowing, twisting cells in this video look just like a bubbling lava lamp, but they actually show a step of egg cell development.

The video was taken using a confocal laser scanning microscopy (sometimes shortened to just “confocal microscopy”), one of the techniques mentioned in the Pathways timeline (1970s).

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Did you know that there are many kinds of microscopes? Each offers its own advantages to researchers studying the tiny components of life, but all of them can capture eye-catching images.

The images in this post were taken using some of the imaging techniques described in Pathways.

DISCUSSION

Using the captions in the slideshow pictures, discuss what cell parts or phenomena the images are showing and why scientists might be studying them.

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Microscopic structures can vary greatly in size. The largest objects that we view through microscopes are about 10 million times larger than the smallest!

The relative sizes in the microscopic world described in Pathways can be difficult to conceptualize. This post describes an interactive tool to view these relative sizes.

ACTIVITY

Use the Cell Size and Scale interactive supported by our Science Education Partnership Award program to illustrate how cells, viruses, proteins, and more measure up. One of the largest objects on the scale is a grain of rice. Start the lesson by giving each student a grain of rice to hold as they think about how small each object on the scale really is. Give the students a list of some of the items shown on the scale and ask them to place them in order from largest to smallest. Then, either as a group or individually, have them slide the scale from the largest items to the smallest atom to see how well they did.

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Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem where bacteria develop the ability to fend off the antibiotics we use to fight them. Infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria are difficult to treat and can be deadly. This post explains how bacteria become resistant to antibiotics and what you can do to help prevent that from happening—topics that Pathways also explores.

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Test your knowledge of bacterial infections with this quiz, using examples from some of the scientists we’ve featured on the blog who explore new ways to fight antibiotic resistance. This post and Pathways discuss antibiotic resistance.

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Microbes often form organized communities called biofilms. Some are useful to people, but others cause disease. Many NIGMS-supported researchers study biofilms and are developing ways to combat those that can threaten your health.

Pathways describes antibiotic-resistant superbugs, and this post describes biofilms, which are also antibiotic resistant.

DISCUSSION

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The effects of bacteria on our bodies range from helpful to life threatening. But regardless of their relationship to us, many species of bacteria can be surprisingly stunning.

This post shows pictures of bacteria, and Pathways is all about bacteria and superbugs.

ACTIVITY

Have each student (or group of students) choose one of the four bacteria shown in the post to research. (To make this activity more difficult, have them search our image and video gallery for types of bacteria not found in this post.) Have them write 2-3 sentences about the bacterium, including what type of bacteria it is, where it’s commonly found, what diseases it can cause, which of those diseases can be treated with medicine, and what versions of drug-resistant superbugs are known or common.

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Compounds that plants, fungi, bacteria, and animals produce can sometimes help people as well. In fact, many medicines, molecules used in research, and other useful compounds originated in nature.

Natural products are a source for new antibiotics that may help us fight antibiotic-resistant bacteria and superbugs.

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Circadian rhythms are your internal timekeepers—they control daily activities such as when you go to sleep and wake up. When they fall out of sync with your environment, you may feel groggy and have trouble focusing.

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Research organisms such as fruit flies and mice help scientists better understand basic biological processes and develop treatments for human diseases. This interactive quiz tests your knowledge of these important creatures.

Much of what we know about circadian rhythms in humans was first discovered in research organisms.

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When circadian rhythms are disrupted—for instance, by the beginning or ending of daylight saving time that occurs each March and November—we often feel “off” until our bodies adjust. But for some people, this adjustment never happens. Nobel laureate Michael W. Young, Ph.D., describes his current research on circadian rhythms and delayed sleep phase disorder in a short video interview.

The scientist interviewed in this post, Dr. Michael W. Young, was awarded the 2017 Nobel Prize for his research on circadian rhythms.

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Thomas Lozito, Ph.D., has been fascinated by lizards since he was about 4 years old. He now researches how they regrow their tails in hopes of unlocking secrets that could ultimately improve human healing. Within the next 10 years, Dr. Lozito aims to take his research a step closer to humans by enabling a mouse to regenerate its tail.

Both this post and Pathways feature Dr. Lozito and his research on regeneration.

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Do you know which tissues and organs the human body can regenerate? How about which animals can regrow entire limbs? Our quiz will test your knowledge of regeneration and regenerative medicine.

This post quizzes how much you know about regeneration, the topic of Pathways.

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Alejandro Sánchez Alvarado, Ph.D., is making exciting discoveries in the field of regenerative medicine. For the last 2 decades, NIGMS has supported the work of his laboratory in studying flatworms to uncover the genetic and developmental basis of regeneration. In a short video interview, Sánchez Alvarado describes his research findings and how they might impact our health.

Both this post and Pathways feature Alejandro Sánchez Alvarado, Ph.D., and his work in regenerative medicine.

DISCUSSION

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Have you ever wondered how scientific discoveries are made? Scientists follow the scientific method when they ask questions about the world around them. They perform experiments, analyze their results, and draw conclusions based on the results.

Pathways introduces the important role that scientists play in understanding the world around us, and all scientists use the scientific method as they make discoveries—which is explained in this post.

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We regularly interview scientists to hear about their research and what led them to where they are in their careers. Check out our Q&As with:

• Evolutionary biologist William Ratcliff
• Biomolecular engineer Markita Landry
• Bioengineer César de la Fuente
• Organic chemist Elizabeth Parkinson
• Biochemist Alexis Komor
• Medicinal inorganic chemist Eszter Boros
• Immunoengineer Caroline Jones
• Clinician-scientist Faheem Guirgis
• And more in our Being a Scientist category

We also have posts highlighting some of the researchers featured in Pathways, including Computational biologist Melissa Wilson and Geneticist Michael Young.

Pathways discusses the importance of basic science, and these posts highlight researchers who study different fields of basic science.

DISCUSSION