The Middle Miocene Climatic Transition (MMCT) was a relatively steady period of climatic cooling that occurred around the middle of the Miocene, roughly 14 million years ago (Ma), during the Langhian stage,[1] and resulted in the growth of ice sheet volumes globally, and the reestablishment of the ice of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS).[2] The term Middle Miocene disruption, alternatively the Middle Miocene extinction or Middle Miocene extinction peak, refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred during this climatic interval. This period was preceded by the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO), a period of relative warmth from 18 to 14 Ma.[3] Cooling that led to the Middle Miocene disruption is primarily attributed CO2 being pulled out of the Earth's atmosphere by organic material before becoming caught in different locations like the Monterey Formation.[4] These may have been amplified by changes in oceanic and atmospheric circulation due to continental drift.[1] Additionally, orbitally paced factors may also have played a role.[5]
Effects
editOne of the primary effects of the climatic cooling that took place during this time period was the growth of the EAIS,[6][4] termed the East Antarctic Ice Sheet Expansion (EAIE).[7] A thermal shift from wet to cold-based glaciers is recorded from the Transantarctic Mountains about 13.94 Ma, reflecting a mean annual temperature drop of 25-30 °C.[8] Significant sections of ice on the Antarctic continent are believed to have started growth at the beginning of the Middle Miocene disruption and continued to expand until about 10 Ma.[9] This growth has been attributed primarily to orbitally paced changes in oceanic and atmospheric currents, with possible amplification by a significant drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide (ppm): atmospheric CO2 fell temporarily from about 300 to 140 ppm as estimated by the relationship between atmospheric levels of CO2 and pH levels in the ocean determined by boron isotopic levels in calcium carbonate.[2] One of the primary indicators for the significant global ice sheet growth is the higher concentration of 18O found in benthic foraminifera from oceanic sediment cores during this time period. During periods of ice sheet growth, the lighter 16O isotopes found in ocean water are drawn out as precipitation and consolidate in ice sheets while a higher concentration of 18O is left behind for foraminifera to utilize.[10] The >180° phase reversal in the 41-kyr obliquity cycle around 14.0 to 13.8 Ma has also been interpreted as a signal of the EAIE.[7]
During the MMCT, the latitudinal precipitation gradient declined in Europe, though it increased during short term warming periods superimposed on the broader cooling trend,[11] whereas the seasonality of mean temperature increased.[12] Global cooling during the MMCT caused aridification in North Africa and South Asia.[13] In the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG), the cessation of kaolin-producing pedogenic processes occurred at the start of the MMCT and has been used as a proxy marker for the end of the MMCO.[14] Southwestern Australia exhibited the most arid conditions it had witnessed over any interval of the Miocene, while northwestern Australia was also hyperarid.[15] In the Qaidam Basin, silicate weathering sharply decreased around 12.6 Ma, indicating a major aridification event.[16]
Suggested causes
editThe primary cause of the cooling that came out of the MMCO was changing atmospheric CO2 levels.[1] Falling CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere has been linked to drawdown of the gas into organic material deposited along continental margins like the Monterey Formation of coastal California, an explanation known as the Monterey Hypothesis.[17] These sites of CO2 drawdown are thought to have been extensive enough to drop atmospheric concentrations in CO2 from about 300 to 140ppm and lead to processes of global cooling that helped in the expansion of the EAIS.[2]
Organic carbon burial on land, evidenced by widespread formation of lignite deposits at this time, also contributed heavily to the reduction in pCO2.[18]
Another hypothesis is that increased silicate weathering of the uplifting Himalayas caused the MMCT, but this is contradicted by geological evidence from the Indus River system.[19]
As well significant changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, alterations to ocean circulation brought about major climatic and biotic changes. Oceanic circulation changes that took place during the MMCT are defined by increases in Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) production, the halting of saline water delivery to the Southern Ocean from the Indian Ocean, and additional North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) production.[10] The reduction in water transport from the warm Indian Ocean to the cool Southern Ocean is believed to be responsible for the increase in AABW production.[20] The Tethys Seaway is believed to have closed around this time, exacerbating the disruptions of ocean circulation patterns that caused the MMCT.[1] The cooling of the Southern Ocean was coupled to the growth of the EAIS.[21]
An additional suggested cause for the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to a shift from a solar insolation cycle that is obliquity dominated to one that is dominated by eccentricity (see Milankovitch cycles). This change would have been significant enough for conditions near the Antarctic continent to allow for glaciation.[5]
Extinction event
editThe Middle Miocene disruption is considered a significant extinction event and has been analyzed in terms of the importance of there being a possible periodicity between extinction events. A study from David Raup and Jack Sepkoski found that there is a statistically significant mean periodicity (where P is less than .01) of about 26 million years for 12 major extinction events. There is debate whether this potential periodicity is caused by some set of recurrent cycles or biologic factors.[22]
A sharp drop in carbonate production, known as the Miocene Carbonate Crash (MCC), occurred during the early Tortonian, shortly after the cooling event; this event is generally regarded to have been induced by the changes in thermohaline circulation resulting from the Middle Miocene disruption.[23] Changes in the intensity and seasonality of the Indian monsoon have been suggested to have brought about this change in ocean circulation.[24] Another hypothesis for the crash involves the shrinkage and shoaling of the Central American Seaway, limiting water mass exchange between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.[25] Evidence for this event is known from the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Mediterranean Sea, suggesting the decline of carbonate-producing marine organisms was a global phenomenon.[23]
One of the other primary effects of the climatic cooling during the Middle Miocene was the biotic impact on terrestrial and oceanic lifeforms. A primary example of these extinctions is indicated by the observed occurrence of Varanidae, chameleons, Cordylidae, Tomistominae, Alligatoridae, and giant turtles through the Miocene Climatic Optimum (18 to 16 Ma) in Central Europe (45-42°N palaeolatitude). This was then followed by a major and permanent cooling step marked by the Mid Miocene disruption between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma. Two crocodilians of the genera Gavialosuchus and Diplocynodon were noted to have been extant in these northern latitudes prior to the permanent cooling step, but then became extinct between 14 and 13.5 Ma.[26] Another indicator that would lead to extinctions is the conservative estimate that temperatures in the Antarctic region may have cooled by at least 8o C in the summer months 14 Ma. This Antarctic cooling, along with significant changes in temperature gradients in Central Europe as indicated by Madelaine Böhme's study on ectothermic vertebrates, provide evidence that plant and animal life needed to migrate or adapt in order to survive.[27]
References
edit- ^ a b c d Hamon, N.; Sepulchre, P.; Lefebvre, V.; Ramstein, G. (28 November 2013). "The role of eastern Tethys seaway closure in the Middle Miocene Climatic Transition (ca. 14 Ma)". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2687–2702. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2687H. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2687-2013. ISSN 1814-9332. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ a b c Pearson, Paul N.; Palmer, Martin R. (2000). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years". Nature. 406 (6797): 695–699. Bibcode:2000Natur.406..695P. doi:10.1038/35021000. PMID 10963587. S2CID 205008176.
- ^ Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J.W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (1 April 2021). "Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years". Earth-Science Reviews. 215: 103503. Bibcode:2021ESRv..21503503S. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503. S2CID 233579194. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
- ^ a b Shevenell, Amelia E.; Kennett, James P.; Lea, David W. (17 September 2004). "Middle Miocene Southern Ocean Cooling and Antarctic Cryosphere Expansion". Science. 305 (5691): 1766–1770. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1766S. doi:10.1126/science.1100061. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 15375266. S2CID 27369039.
- ^ a b Holbourn, Ann; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Schulz, Michael; Erlenkeuser, Helmut (24 November 2005). "Impacts of orbital forcing and atmospheric carbon dioxide on Miocene ice-sheet expansion". Nature. 438 (7067): 483–487. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..483H. doi:10.1038/nature04123. PMID 16306989. S2CID 4406410. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ Langebroek, P. M.; Paul, A.; Schulz, M. (22 October 2009). "Antarctic ice-sheet response to atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> and insolation in the Middle Miocene". Climate of the Past. 5 (4): 633–646. Bibcode:2009CliPa...5..633L. doi:10.5194/cp-5-633-2009. ISSN 1814-9332. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
- ^ a b Tian, Jun; Yang, Mei; Lyle, Mitchell W.; Wilkens, Roy; Shackford, Julia K. (11 March 2013). "Obliquity and long eccentricity pacing of the Middle Miocene climate transition". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 14 (6): 1740–1755. Bibcode:2013GGG....14.1740T. doi:10.1002/ggge.20108. ISSN 1525-2027. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ Lewis, A.R.; Marchant, D.R.; Ashworth, A.C.; Hemming, S.R.; Machlus, M.L. (1 November 2007). "Major middle Miocene global climate change: Evidence from East Antarctica and the Transantarctic Mountains". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 119 (11–12): 1449–1461. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2007)119[1449:MMMGCC]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0016-7606. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ Zachos, James C.; Pagani, Mark; Sloan, Lisa; Thomas, Ellen; Billups, Katharina (27 April 2001). "Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present" (PDF). Science. 292 (5517): 686–693. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..686Z. doi:10.1126/science.1059412. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11326091. S2CID 2365991. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ a b Flower, B. P.; Kennett, J. P. (December 1993). "Middle Miocene ocean-climate transition: High-resolution oxygen and carbon isotopic records from Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 588A, southwest Pacific". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 8 (6): 811–843. Bibcode:1993PalOc...8..811F. doi:10.1029/93pa02196.
- ^ Böhme, Madelaine; Winklhofer, Michael; Ilg, August (1 May 2011). "Miocene precipitation in Europe: Temporal trends and spatial gradients". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. The Neogene of Eurasia: Spatial gradients and temporal trends - The second synthesis of NECLIME. 304 (3): 212–218. Bibcode:2011PPP...304..212B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.09.028. ISSN 0031-0182. Retrieved 11 January 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ^ Bruch, Angela A.; Utescher, Torsten; Mosbrugger, Volker (1 May 2011). "Precipitation patterns in the Miocene of Central Europe and the development of continentality". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. The Neogene of Eurasia: Spatial gradients and temporal trends - The second synthesis of NECLIME. 304 (3): 202–211. Bibcode:2011PPP...304..202B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.10.002. ISSN 0031-0182. Retrieved 11 January 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ^ Zhang, Jian; Hu, Yongyun; Zhu, Chenguang; Flögel, Sascha; Fang, Xiaomin; Sun, Jimin (1 June 2023). "Modeling the effects of global cooling and the Tethyan Seaway closure on North African and South Asian climates during the Middle Miocene Climate Transition". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 619: 111541. Bibcode:2023PPP...61911541Z. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2023.111541. Retrieved 4 July 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ^ Hobbs, Kevin Michael; Parrish, Judith Totman (1 September 2016). "Miocene global change recorded in Columbia River basalt–hosted paleosols". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 128 (9–10): 1543–1554. Bibcode:2016GSAB..128.1543H. doi:10.1130/B31437.1. ISSN 0016-7606. Retrieved 11 January 2024 – via GeoScienceWorld.
- ^ Groeneveld, Jeroen; Henderiks, Jorijntje; Renema, Willem; McHugh, Cecilia M.; De Vleeschouwer, David; Christensen, Beth A.; Fulthorpe, Craig S.; Reuning, Lars; Gallagher, Stephen J.; Bogus, Kara; Auer, Gerald; Ishiwa, Takeshige; Expedition 356 Scientists (5 May 2017). "Australian shelf sediments reveal shifts in Miocene Southern Hemisphere westerlies". Science Advances. 3 (5): e1602567. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E2567G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602567. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 5425240. PMID 28508066.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Bao, Jing; Song, Chunhui; Yang, Yibo; Fang, Xiaomin; Meng, Qingquan; Feng, Ying; He, Pengju (1 February 2019). "Reduced chemical weathering intensity in the Qaidam Basin (NE Tibetan Plateau) during the Late Cenozoic". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 170: 155–165. Bibcode:2019JAESc.170..155B. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.10.018. ISSN 1367-9120. S2CID 133933898. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ Kashiwagi, Hirohiko; Shikazono, Naotatsu (25 October 2003). "Climate change during Cenozoic inferred from global carbon cycle model including igneous and hydrothermal activities". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 199 (3): 167–185. Bibcode:2003PPP...199..167K. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00506-6. ISSN 0031-0182. Retrieved 11 January 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ^ Diester-Haass, Liselotte; Billups, Katharina; Gröcke, Darren R.; François, Louis; Lefebvre, Vincent; Emeis, Kay C. (18 February 2009). "Mid-Miocene paleoproductivity in the Atlantic Ocean and implications for the global carbon cycle". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 24 (1). Bibcode:2009PalOc..24.1209D. doi:10.1029/2008PA001605. ISSN 0883-8305. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ Clift, Peter D.; Jonell, Tara N. (28 April 2021). "Himalayan-Tibetan Erosion Is Not the Cause of Neogene Global Cooling". Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (8). Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4887742C. doi:10.1029/2020GL087742. ISSN 0094-8276. Retrieved 11 January 2024 – via American Geophysical Union.
- ^ Flower, Benjamin P.; Kennett, James P. (1 April 1994). "The middle Miocene climatic transition: East Antarctic ice sheet development, deep ocean circulation and global carbon cycling". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 108 (3): 537–555. Bibcode:1994PPP...108..537F. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(94)90251-8. ISSN 0031-0182. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ Leutert, Thomas J.; Auderset, Alexandra; Martínez-García, Alfredo; Modestou, Sevasti; Meckler, A. Nele (31 August 2020). "Coupled Southern Ocean cooling and Antarctic ice sheet expansion during the middle Miocene". Nature Geoscience. 13 (9): 634–639. Bibcode:2020NatGe..13..634L. doi:10.1038/s41561-020-0623-0. hdl:11250/2735798. ISSN 1752-0908. S2CID 221381641. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ Raup, D. M.; Sepkoski, J. J. (1 February 1984). "Periodicity of extinctions in the geologic past". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 81 (3): 801–805. Bibcode:1984PNAS...81..801R. doi:10.1073/pnas.81.3.801. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 344925. PMID 6583680.
- ^ a b Torfstein, Adi; Steinberg, Josh (14 August 2020). "The Oligo–Miocene closure of the Tethys Ocean and evolution of the proto-Mediterranean Sea". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 13817. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-70652-4. PMC 7427807. PMID 32796882.
- ^ Lübbers, Julia; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Holbourn, Ann E.; Bolton, Clara T.; Gray, Emmeline; Usui, Yoichi; Kochhann, Karlos G. D.; Beil, Sebastian; Andersen, Nils (16 April 2019). "The Middle to Late Miocene "Carbonate Crash" in the Equatorial Indian Ocean". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 34 (5): 813–832. Bibcode:2019PaPa...34..813L. doi:10.1029/2018PA003482. S2CID 146593169. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ Nisancioglu, Kerim Hestnes; Raymo, Maureen; Stone, Peter H. (11 February 2003). "Reorganization of Miocene deep water circulation in response to the shoaling of the Central American Seaway". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 18 (1): 6-1–6-12. Bibcode:2003PalOc..18.1006N. doi:10.1029/2002PA000767. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
- ^ Böhme, Madelaine (November 2001). "The Miocene Climatic Optimum: evidence from ectothermic vertebrates of Central Europe" (PDF). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 195 (3–4): 389–401. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00367-5. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
- ^ Lewis, Adam R.; Marchant, David R.; Ashworth, Allan C.; Hedenäs, Lars; Hemming, Sidney R.; Johnson, Jesse V.; Leng, Melanie J.; Machlus, Malka L.; Newton, Angela E. (5 August 2008). "Mid-Miocene cooling and the extinction of tundra in continental Antarctica". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (31): 10676–10680. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10510676L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0802501105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2495011. PMID 18678903. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
Further reading
edit- Allmon, Warren D.; Bottjer, David J. (2001). Evolutionary Paleoecology: The Ecological Context of Macroevolutionary Change. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10994-9.