Jump to content

Garlic

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from 🧄)
For other uses, see Garlic (disambiguation).
"Stinking rose" redirects here. For the restaurant, see The Stinking Rose.

Garlic
Allium sativum, known as garlic, from William Woodville, Medical Botany, 1793.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Amaryllidaceae
Subfamily: Allioideae
Genus: Allium
Subgenus: A. subg. Allium
Species:
A. sativum
Binomial name
Allium sativum
Synonyms
Synonymy
  • Allium arenarium Sadler ex Rchb. 1830 not L. 1753
  • Allium controversum Schrad. ex Wild.
  • Allium longicuspis Regel
  • Allium ophioscorodon Link
  • Allium pekinense Prokh.
  • Porrum ophioscorodon (Link) Rchb.
  • Porrum sativum (L.) Rchb. 1830 not (L.) Mill. 1768

Garlic (Allium sativum) is a species of bulbous flowering plant in the genus Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive,[2] Welsh onion, and Chinese onion.[3] It is native to Central Asia, South Asia and northeastern Iran.[4][5] It has long been used as a seasoning and culinary ingredient worldwide, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, including also use as a traditional medicine. It was known to ancient Egyptians[6] and other ancient cultures for which its consumption has had a significant culinary cultural impact, especially across the Mediterranean region and across parts of Asia.[7][8][9] It is produced globally but the largest producer is China which produced 73% of the world's supply of garlic in 2021. There are two subspecies and hundreds of varieties of garlic.

Description

[edit]

Garlic is a perennial flowering plant that is native to Central Asia, South Asia and northeastern Iran.[4][10] and grows from a bulb. It has a tall, erect flowering stem that grows up to 1 m (3 ft). The leaf blade is flat, linear, solid, and approximately 1.25–2.5 cm (0.5–1.0 in) wide, with an acute apex. The plant may produce pink to purple flowers from July to September in the Northern Hemisphere. The bulb has a strong odor and is typically made up of 10 to 20 cloves. The cloves close to the center are symmetrical, and those surrounding the center can be asymmetrical. Each clove is enclosed in an inner sheathing leaf surrounded by layers of outer sheathing leaves.[11] If garlic is planted at the proper time and depth, it can be grown as far north as Alaska.[12] It produces hermaphroditic flowers. It is pollinated by butterflies, moths, and other insects.[13]

Chemistry

[edit]

Fresh or crushed garlic yields the sulfur-containing compounds allicin, ajoene, diallyl polysulfides, vinyldithiins, and S-allylcysteine, as well as enzymes, saponins, flavonoids, and Maillard reaction products when cooked, which are not sulfur-containing compounds.

The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids (cytosol).[14] The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to react over time.[15]

Among alliums, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onion, shallot, or leeks.[15] Although many humans enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant.[16]

A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo-transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.[16] Allicin, along with its decomposition products diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide, are major contributors to the characteristic odor of garlic, with other allicin-derived compounds, such as vinyldithiins and ajoene.[2]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Identification of the wild progenitor of common garlic is difficult due to the sterility of its many cultivars, which limits the ability to cross test with wild relatives.[citation needed][a] Genetically and morphologically, garlic is most similar to the wild species Allium longicuspis, which grows in central and southwestern Asia.[19][20][21] However, because A. longicuspis is also mostly sterile, it is doubtful that it is the ancestor of A. sativum.[19] Other candidates that have been suggested include A. tuncelianum, A. macrochaetum, and A. truncatum, all of which are native to the Middle East.[19]

Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized. The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "field garlic" of Britain are members of the species A. ursinum, A. vineale, and A. oleraceum, respectively. In North America, A. vineale (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and Allium canadense (known as "meadow garlic", "wild garlic", or "wild onion") are common weeds in fields.[22] So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek (A. ampeloprasum) and not a true garlic. Single clove garlic (also called pearl or solo garlic) originated in the Yunnan province of China.

Subspecies and varieties

[edit]

There are two subspecies of A. sativum,[23] ten major groups of varieties, and hundreds of varieties, or cultivars.

  • A. sativum var. ophioscorodon (Link) Döll, called Ophioscorodon or hardneck garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic, and purple stripe garlics. It is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G.Don.
  • A. sativum var. sativum, or softneck garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, and creole garlic.

There are at least 120 cultivars originating from Central Asia, making it the main center of garlic biodiversity.[24]

Flower head
Italian garlic

Some garlics have protected status in the UK and the EU,[25] including:

Name Source
Aglio Rosso di Nubia (Red Garlic of Nubia) Nubia-Paceco, Provincia di Trapani, Sicily, Italy
Aglio Bianco Polesano Rovigo, Veneto, Italy (PDO)
Aglio di Voghiera Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna, Italy (PDO)
Ail blanc de Lomagne Lomagne in the Gascony, France (PGI)
Ail de la Drôme Drôme, France (PGI)
Ail rose de Lautrec, a rose/pink garlic Lautrec, France (PGI)
Ail violet de Cadours Cadours, France (PDO)
Ajo Morado de Las Pedroñeras, a rose/pink garlic Las Pedroñeras, Spain (PGI)
金鄕大蒜 Jīn Xiāng Dà Suàn China (PGI)
Taşköprü Sarımsağı Turkey (PDO)

Etymology

[edit]

The word garlic derives from Old English, garlēac, meaning gar (spear) and leek, as a 'spear-shaped leek'.[26]

Ecology

[edit]

Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases. Garlic plants are said to repel rabbits and moles.[3] The California Department of Food and Agriculture conducts a certification program to assure freedom from nematode and white rot disease caused by Stromatinia cepivora, two pathogens that can both destroy a crop and remain in the soil indefinitely once introduced.[20] Garlic may also suffer from pink root, a typically non-fatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red;[27] or leek rust, which usually appears as bright orange spots.[28] The larvae of the leek moth attack garlic by mining into the leaves or bulbs.[29]

Botrytis neck and bulb rot is a disease of onion, garlic, leek and shallot. Botrytis allii and Botrytis aclada cause this disease in onion and Botrytis porri causes it in garlic. According to the University of California,

Initial symptoms usually begin at the neck, where affected tissue softens, becomes water-soaked, and turns brown. In a humid atmosphere, a gray and feltlike growth (where spores are produced) appears on rotting scales, and mycelia may develop between scales. Dark-brown-to-black sclerotia (the resting bodies of the pathogen) may eventually develop in the neck or between scales.[30]

Cultivation

[edit]
Garlic for sale in a market in France

Garlic is easy to cultivate and may grow year-round in mild climates.[28] While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually by planting individual cloves in the ground.[20] In colder climates, cloves are best planted about six weeks before the soil freezes. The goal is to have the bulbs produce only roots and no shoots above the ground.[31] Harvest is in late spring or early summer.

Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, and is hardy throughout USDA climate zones 4–9. When selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, will also increase bulb size. Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels.[20]

There are different varieties of garlic, most notably split into the subspecies of hardneck garlic and softneck garlic.[28] The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small, tightly packed cloves.[28]

Garlic scapes are removed to focus all the garlic's energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked.[32][33]

Garlic grown without the process of vernalization

Propagation

[edit]

The method of propagating garlic from planting cloves is called division. Asexual propagation of garlic for production purposes requires cool temperatures that can vary depending on the cultivar. Hardneck varieties require long cold temperature exposure where as softneck varieties thrive in milder climates. This cold climate is required for the process of vernalization, a form of stratification of the cloves necessary for the development of multiple-clove bulbs.[34] Solo garlic is the result of garlic grown without the process of vernalization.

Production

[edit]
Garlic production – 2021[35]
Country Millions
of tonnes
 China 20.5
 India 3.2
 South Korea 0.8
 Bangladesh 0.5
 Egypt 0.3
 Spain 0.3
World 28.2

In 2021, world production of garlic was 28 million tonnes, with China alone accounting for 73% of the total.[35]

  • Bulbs (top-setting, grown in lieu of flowers)
    Bulbs (top-setting, grown in lieu of flowers)
  • Garlic, from The Book of Health, 1898, by Henry Munson Lyman
    Garlic, from The Book of Health, 1898, by Henry Munson Lyman
  • Alliin, a sulfur-containing compound found in garlic.
    Alliin, a sulfur-containing compound found in garlic.


Adverse effects and toxicology

[edit]

The scent of garlic is known to linger upon the human body and cause bad breath (halitosis) and body odor.[11] This is caused by allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs[2] (and from there to the mouth, causing garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath.[36] Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward.[36] Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective.[36] Garlic breath is allegedly alleviated by eating fresh parsley.[37]

When eaten in quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in the sweat and breath for the following day. This is because garlic's sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming AMS, which cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.[2]

Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (i.e., acidity, heat) the sulfur-containing compound alliin reacts with common amino acids to make pyrroles, clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings.[38][39] These rings can be linked together into polypyrrole molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (like chlorophyll, a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat.[40] Upon cutting, similar to a color change in onion caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds,[41] garlic can turn green.[42][43]

The green, dry "folds" in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent. The sulfur compound allicin, produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic,[11] produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene, allyl polysulfides, and vinyldithiins.[2] Aged garlic lacks allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine.

Some people suffer from allergies to garlic and other species of Allium.[2] Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and, in rare cases, anaphylaxis.[11] Garlic-sensitive people show positive tests to diallyl disulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan, and allicin, all of which are present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants, including onions, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.[citation needed]

Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing a small area of skin using a low concentration of garlic.[44] On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged.[11] In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.[45]

The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown.[11] Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.[46]

Some breastfeeding mothers have found, after consuming garlic, that their babies can be slow to feed, and have noted a garlic odor coming from them.[11][47]

If higher-than-recommended doses of garlic are taken with anticoagulant medications, this can lead to a higher risk of bleeding.[11][48] Garlic may interact with warfarin,[11] saquinavir, antihypertensives, calcium channel blockers, the quinolone family of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications.[47] The American Veterinary Medical Association considers garlic to be toxic to pets.[49]

Garlic, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy623 kJ (149 kcal)
33.06 g
Sugars1 g
Dietary fiber2.1 g
0.5 g
6.36 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
17%
0.2 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
8%
0.11 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.7 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
12%
0.596 mg
Vitamin B6
73%
1.2350 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
3 μg
Choline
4%
23.2 mg
Vitamin C
35%
31.2 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
14%
181 mg
Iron
9%
1.7 mg
Magnesium
6%
25 mg
Manganese
73%
1.672 mg
Phosphorus
12%
153 mg
Potassium
13%
401 mg
Sodium
1%
17 mg
Zinc
11%
1.16 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water59 g
Selenium14.2 μg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[50] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[51]

Uses

[edit]

Because of sulfur compounds circulating in blood, consumed garlic may act as a mosquito repellent, although there is no scientific evidence of its efficacy.[52]

Nutrition

[edit]

In the typical serving size of 1–3 cloves (3–9 grams), raw garlic provides no significant nutritional value, with the content of all essential nutrients below 10% of the Daily Value (DV). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw garlic contains some micronutrients in rich amounts (20% or more of the DV), including vitamins B6 (73% DV) and C (35% DV), and the dietary mineral, manganese (73% DV). Per 100 gram serving, raw garlic is a moderate source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins, thiamin and pantothenic acid, as well as the dietary minerals, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, and zinc.

The composition of raw garlic is 59% water, 33% carbohydrates, 6% protein, 2% dietary fiber, and less than 1% fat.

Culinary

[edit]
Garlic bulbs and cloves for sale at the Or Tor Kor market in Bangkok
A garlic bulb

Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment.

The garlic plant's bulb is the most commonly used part of the plant. With the exception of the single clove types, garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw or cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.[53] The distinctive aroma is mainly due to organosulfur compounds including allicin present in fresh garlic cloves and ajoene which forms when they are crushed or chopped. A further metabolite allyl methyl sulfide is responsible for garlic breath.[54][55][56][57]

Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The leaves and flowers (bulbils) on the head (spathe) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavor than the bulbs,[3] and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Immature garlic is sometimes pulled, rather like a scallion, and sold as "green garlic".[58] When green garlic is allowed to grow past the "scallion" stage, but not permitted to fully mature, it may produce a garlic "round", a bulb like a boiling onion, but not separated into cloves like a mature bulb.[59]

Green garlic imparts a garlic flavor and aroma in food, minus the spiciness. Green garlic is often chopped and stir-fried or cooked in soup or hot pot in Southeast Asian (i.e. Vietnamese, Thai, Myanmar, Lao, Cambodian, Singaporean), and Chinese cookery, and is very abundant and low-priced. Additionally, the immature flower stalks (scapes) of the hardneck are sometimes marketed for uses similar to asparagus in stir-fries.[20]

Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the "skin" covering each clove and root cluster. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses, though in Korea immature whole heads are sometimes prepared with the tender skins intact.[60] The root cluster attached to the basal plate of the bulb is the only part not typically considered palatable in any form.

An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling olive oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. Garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Korea, heads of garlic are heated over the course of several weeks; the resulting product, called black garlic, is sweet and syrupy, and is exported to the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia.

Garlic may be applied to different kinds of bread, usually in a medium of butter or oil, to create a variety of classic dishes, such as garlic bread, garlic toast, bruschetta, crostini, and canapé. The flavor varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion, tomato, or ginger.

Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than the cloves. They are often used in stir frying or braised like asparagus.[33] Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables.

Garlic powder is made from dehydrated garlic and can be used as a substitute for fresh garlic, though the taste is not quite the same. Garlic salt combines garlic powder with table salt.

Regions

[edit]
Garlic crushed using a garlic press

Garlic is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, Eastern Europe and parts of Latin America.[61] Latin American seasonings, particularly, use garlic in sofritos and mofongos.[62]

Oils can be flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables, meats, breads, and pasta. Garlic, along with fish sauce, chopped fresh chilis, lime juice, sugar, and water, is a basic essential item in dipping fish sauce, a highly used dipping sauce condiment used in Indochina. In East and Southeast Asia, chili oil with garlic is a popular dipping sauce, especially for meat and seafood. Tuong ot toi Viet Nam (Vietnam chili garlic sauce) is a highly popular condiment and dip across North America and Asia.

In some cuisines, the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer. Laba garlic, prepared by soaking garlic in vinegar, is a type of pickled garlic served with dumplings in northern China to celebrate the Chinese New Year.[2]

Garlic is essential in Middle Eastern and Arabic cooking, with its presence in many food items. In the Levant, garlic is traditionally crushed together with olive oil, and occasionally salt, to create a Middle Eastern garlic sauce called Toum (تُوم; meaning "garlic" in Arabic). While not exclusively served with meats, toum is commonly paired with chicken or other meat dishes such as shawarma. Garlic is also a key component in some hummus varieties, an Arabic dip composed of chickpeas, tahini, garlic, lemon juice, and salt.

Lightly smoked garlic is used in British and other European cuisine. It is particularly prized for stuffing poultry and game, and in soups and stews.

Emulsifying garlic with olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce skordalia. Crushed garlic, oil, and water produce a strong flavored sauce, mujdei. Blending garlic, almond, oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco. Tzatziki, yogurt mixed with garlic and salt, is a common sauce in Eastern Mediterranean cuisines.

Culinary history

[edit]

Numerous cuneiform records show that garlic has been cultivated in Mesopotamia for at least 4,000 years.[19] The use of garlic in China and Egypt also dates back thousands of years.[2][19] Well-preserved garlic was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (c. 1325 BC).[19] It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes (Virgil, Eclogues ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters, The Superstitious Man).[63]

Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) but has been a common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe.[64] Translations of the c. 1300 Assize of Weights and Measures, an English statute generally dated to the 13th century, indicate a passage as dealing with standardized units of garlic production, sale, and taxation—the hundred of 15 ropes of 15 heads each[65]—but the Latin version of the text may refer to herring rather than garlic.[66]

Storage

[edit]
String of garlic

Domestically, garlic is stored warm [above 18°C (64°F)] and dry to keep it dormant (to inhibit sprouting). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or grappes. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the refrigerator.[67] Commercially, garlic is stored at 0°C (32°F), in a dry, low-humidity environment. Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached.[20]

Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavored oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling which may include rancidity and growth of Clostridium botulinum.[68] Acidification with a mild solution of vinegar minimizes bacterial growth.[68] Refrigeration does not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil, requiring use within one month to avoid bacterial spoilage.[68] Garlic is also dried at low temperatures, to preserve the enzymatic activity and sold and kept as garlic granules, and can be rehydrated to reactivate it.[69]

Stored garlic can be affected by Penicillium decay known as "blue mold" (or "green mold" in some locales), especially in high humidity.[70] Infection may first appear as soft or water-soaked spots, followed by white patches (of mycelium) which turn blue or green with sporulation.[71] As sporulation and germination are delayed at low temperature, and at −4 °C are inhibited entirely,[72] in refrigerated cloves one may only see the white mycelium during early stages. Penicillium hirsutum[73] and Penicillium allii[74] are two of the predominant species identified in blue mold.

Medical research

[edit]

Cardiovascular

[edit]

As of 2016, clinical research found that consuming garlic produces only a small reduction in blood pressure (4 mmHg),[75][76][77][78] and there is no clear long-term effect on hypertension, cardiovascular morbidity or mortality.[77] A 2016 meta-analysis indicated there was no effect of garlic consumption on blood levels of lipoprotein(a), a biomarker of atherosclerosis.[79]

Because garlic might reduce platelet aggregation, people taking anticoagulant medication are cautioned about consuming garlic.[46][80][81]

Cancer

[edit]

Two reviews found no effect of consuming garlic on colorectal cancer.[82][83] A 2016 meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies found a moderate inverse association between garlic intake and some cancers of the upper digestive tract.[84]

Common cold

[edit]

A 2014 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the common cold.[85] Other reviews concluded a similar absence of high-quality evidence for garlic having a significant effect on the common cold.[46][86]

Harvesting garlic, from Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century (Bibliothèque nationale de France)

Folk medicine

[edit]

Garlic has been used for traditional medicine in diverse cultures such as in Korea, Egypt, Japan, China, Rome, and Greece.[11][46] In his Natural History, Pliny gave a list of conditions in which garlic was considered beneficial (N.H. xx. 23). Galen, writing in the second century, eulogized garlic as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams' Paulus Aegineta, p. 99). Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), discussed it as a palliative for the heat of the sun in field labor. In the 17th century, Thomas Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and William Cullen's Materia Medica of 1789 found some dropsies cured by it alone.[63][87]

Other uses

[edit]

The sticky juice within the bulb cloves is used as an adhesive in mending glass and porcelain.[3] An environmentally benign garlic-derived polysulfide product is approved for use in the European Union (under Annex 1 of 91/414) and the UK as a nematicide and insecticide, including for use in the control of cabbage root fly and red mite in poultry.[88]

In culture

[edit]

Garlic is present in the folklore of many cultures. In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation in folk medicine.[46] Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward against demons, werewolves, and vampires. To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.[89][90]

In the foundation myth of the ancient Korean kingdom of Gojoseon, eating nothing but 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of Korean mugwort for 100 days let a bear be transformed into a woman.[91]

In celebration of Nowruz (Persian calendar New Year), garlic is one of the essential items in a Haft-sin ("seven things beginning with 'S'") table, a traditional New Year's display: the name for garlic in Persian is سیر (seer), which begins with "س" (sin, pronounced "seen") the Perso-Arabic letter corresponding to "S".[citation needed]

In Islam, it is recommended not to eat raw garlic prior to going to the mosque. This is based on several hadith.[92][93]

Some Mahāyāna Buddhists and sects in China and Vietnam avoid eating onions, garlic, scallions, chives and leeks, which are known as Wu hun ((Chinese: 五葷; pinyin: Wǔ hūn), 'the five forbidden pungent vegetables').[94]

Because of its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose".

[edit]
  • Chopped garlic
    Chopped garlic
  • Garlic plant
    Garlic plant
  • Harvested garlic left to dry
    Harvested garlic left to dry
  • A garlic bulb
    A garlic bulb
  • Blended garlic confit
    Blended garlic confit

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Fertility restoration in garlic strains have been successful by physiological manipulation in some strains, but there do exist ones that are completely male-sterile due to genetic factors.[17] Hybrids have been experimentally produced.[18]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Allium sativum L". Kewscience; Plants of the World Online; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. Retrieved May 26, 2017.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9.
  3. ^ a b c d "Substance Info: Garlic". All Allergy. Zing Solutions. Archived from the original on June 15, 2010. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  4. ^ a b "Allium sativum L." Plants of the World Online | Kew Science. Retrieved October 31, 2018.
  5. ^ Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 5–6. ISBN 9780854041909.
  6. ^ Cherry, Robin (November 11, 2014). Garlic, an Edible Biography. Boston: Shambhala Publications. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-61180-160-6.
  7. ^ Pellechia, Thomas (2000). Garlic, Wine, and Olive Oil. Booklink. ISBN 978-0-88496-444-5.
  8. ^ Newman, Jacqueline (August 30, 2004). Food Culture in China. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-0-313-08572-7.
  9. ^ Cherry, Robin (November 11, 2014). Garlic, an Edible Biography. Boston: Shambhala Publications. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-61180-160-6.
  10. ^ Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 5–6. ISBN 9780854041909.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Garlic". Drugs.com. December 19, 2022. Retrieved January 20, 2023.
  12. ^ Rader, Heidi; McGuinness, Julianne. "Growing Garlic in Alaska". Cooperative Extension Service. University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
  13. ^ Meredith, Ted Jordan; Drucker, Avram. "Growing Garlic from True Seed". Blogspot: Garlic Analecta. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
  14. ^ Jones, Meriel G.; Hughes, Jill (August 2004). "Biosynthesis of the flavour precursors of onion and garlic". Journal of Experimental Botany. 55 (404): 1903–18. doi:10.1093/jxb/erh138. PMID 15234988.
  15. ^ a b McGee, pp. 310–311
  16. ^ a b Macpherson, Lindsey J.; Geierstanger, Bernhard H.; Viswanath, Veena; Bandell, Michael; Eid, Samer R.; Hwang, SunWook; Patapoutian, Ardem (2005). "The Pungency of Garlic: Activation of TRPA1 and TRPV1 in Response to Allicin" (PDF). Current Biology. 15 (10) (published May 24, 2005): 929–34. Bibcode:2005CBio...15..929M. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.04.018. PMID 15916949. S2CID 163993.
  17. ^ Shemesh-Mayer, E; Ben-Michael, T; Rotem, N; Rabinowitch, HD; Doron-Faigenboim, A; Kosmala, A; Perlikowski, D; Sherman, A; Kamenetsky, R (2015). "Garlic (Allium sativum L.) fertility: transcriptome and proteome analyses provide insight into flower and pollen development". Frontiers in Plant Science. 6: 271. doi:10.3389/fpls.2015.00271. PMC 4411974. PMID 25972879.
  18. ^ Yanagino, Toshiya; Sugawara, Etsuko; Watanabe, Masao; Takahata, Yoshihito (June 2003). "Production and characterization of an interspecific hybrid between leek and garlic". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 107 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1007/s00122-003-1232-1. PMID 12835927. S2CID 11868237.
  19. ^ a b c d e f Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press (published January 11, 2001). p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-850357-6.
  20. ^ a b c d e f Voss, Ronald E. (July 1995). "Small Farm News Archive". UC Davis Small Farm Center. Archived from the original on March 13, 2007. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  21. ^ Salunkhe, D.K.; Kadam, S.S., eds. (March 19, 1998). Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing. Marcel Dekker. p. 397. ISBN 978-0-8247-0105-5.
  22. ^ McGee p. 112
  23. ^ "Allium sativum". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
  24. ^ Kamenetsky, R.; London Shafir, I.; Khassanov, F.; et al. (2005). "Diversity in fertility potential and organo-sulphur compounds among garlics from Central Asia". Biodivers Conserv. 14 (2): 281–295. Bibcode:2005BiCon..14..281K. doi:10.1007/s10531-004-5050-9. S2CID 17749916.
  25. ^ "Agriculture and Rural Development > Agriculture and food > DOOR". European Commission.
  26. ^ "garlic (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
  27. ^ "UC IPM: UC Management Guidelines for Pink Root on Onion and Garlic". Ipm.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  28. ^ a b c d "Garlic". London, UK: The Royal Horticultural Society. 2017. Retrieved January 25, 2017.
  29. ^ Landry, Jean-François (June 2007). "Taxonomic review of the leek moth genus Acrolepiopsis (Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae) in North America". The Canadian Entomologist. 139 (3): 319–353. doi:10.4039/n06-098. ISSN 1918-3240. S2CID 86748199.
  30. ^ Agriculture: Onion and Garlic Pest Management Guidelines: Botrytis Neck and Bulb Rot by the University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources
  31. ^ "October is garlic planting time", Michigan State University Extension, 2011, https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/october_is_garlic_planting_time Accessed Dec. 2019
  32. ^ Tortorello, Michael (September 29, 2010). "The Cult of the Cloves". The New York Times. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
  33. ^ a b Clark, Melissa (June 18, 2008). "A Garlic Festival Without a Single Clove". The New York Times. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
  34. ^ "Garlic Production for the Gardener". extension.uga.edu. Retrieved December 5, 2024.
  35. ^ a b "Garlic production in 2021: Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year (from pick lists)". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  36. ^ a b c "Drinking a glass of milk can stop garlic breath". BBC News. August 31, 2010. Retrieved August 31, 2010.
  37. ^ "garlic". Food Dictionary, Epicurious.com. Archived from the original on May 24, 2012. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  38. ^ Imai, Shinsuke; Akita, Kaori; Tomotake, Muneaki; Sawada, Hiroshi (2006). "Model Studies on Precursor System Generating Blue Pigment in Onion and Garlic". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54 (3): 848–852. doi:10.1021/jf051980f. PMID 16448193.
  39. ^ Cho, Jungeun; Lee, Seung Koo; Patil, B.S.; Lee, Eun Jin; Yoo, Kil Sun (2009). "Separation of Blue Pigments in Crushed Garlic Cloves: The Color-Forming Potential of Individual Amino Acids". Acta Horticulturae (841): 491–494. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.841.66. Archived from the original on August 25, 2018. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
  40. ^ McGee, Harold (December 6, 2006). "When Science Sniffs Around the Kitchen". Curious Cook.
  41. ^ Lee, Eun Jin; Rezenom, Yohannes H.; Russell, David H.; Patil, Bhimanagouda S.; Yoo, Kil Sun (April 1, 2012). "Elucidation of chemical structures of pink-red pigments responsible for 'pinking' in macerated onion (Allium cepa L.) using HPLC–DAD and tandem mass spectrometry". Food Chemistry. 131 (3): 852–861. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.059.
  42. ^ Cho, Jungeun; Lee, Eun Jin; Yoo, Kil Sun; Lee, Seung Koo; Patil, Bhimanagouda S. (January 1, 2009). "Identification of Candidate Amino Acids Involved in the Formation of Blue Pigments in Crushed Garlic Cloves (Allium sativum L.)". Journal of Food Science. 74 (1): C11–C16. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00986.x. ISSN 1750-3841. PMID 19200080.
  43. ^ Lukes, T. M. (1986). "Factors Governing the Greening of Garlic Puree". Journal of Food Science. 51 (6) (published November 1986): 1577. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13869.x. ISSN 1750-3841.
  44. ^ Baruchin, A.M.; Sagi, A.; Yoffe, B.; Ronen, M. (2001). "Garlic burns". Burns. 27 (7) (published November 2001): 781–2. doi:10.1016/S0305-4179(01)00039-0. PMID 11600262.
  45. ^ Garty BZ (1993). "Garlic burns". Pediatrics. 91 (3) (published March 1993): 658–9. doi:10.1542/peds.91.3.658. PMID 8441577. S2CID 44405226.
  46. ^ a b c d e "Garlic". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. December 1, 2022. Retrieved January 20, 2023.
  47. ^ a b Hogg, Jennifer (December 13, 2002). "Garlic Supplements" (PDF). Complementary Medicines Summary. UK Medicines Information, National Health Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 26, 2007. Retrieved July 7, 2007.
  48. ^ Brown, Deanna G.; Wilkerson, Eric C.; Love, W. Elliot (2015). "A review of traditional and novel oral anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy for dermatologists and dermatologic surgeons". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 72 (3) (published March 2015): 524–34. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.10.027. PMID 25486915.
  49. ^ "Household Hazards". American Veterinary Medical Association. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
  50. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on March 27, 2024. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  51. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved December 5, 2024.
  52. ^ Rutledge, C. Roxanne; Day, Jonathan F. (August 8, 2014). "Mosquito Repellents". University of Florida IFAS Extension. Archived from the original on December 19, 2012.
  53. ^ Katzer, Gernot (August 8, 2009). "Garlic (Allium sativum L.)". Retrieved December 2, 2012.
  54. ^ Block E, Ahmad S, Jain MK, Crecely R, Apitz-Castro R, Cruz MR (1984). "(E,Z)-Ajoene: A potent antithrombotic agent from garlic". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 106 (26): 8295–8296. doi:10.1021/ja00338a049.
  55. ^ Block, E (1985). "The chemistry of garlic and onions". Scientific American. 252 (3): 114–119. Bibcode:1985SciAm.252c.114B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0385-114. PMID 3975593.
  56. ^ Block, E (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9.
  57. ^ Ilic D, Nikolic V, Nikolic L, Stankovic M, Stanojevic L, Cakic M (2011). "Allicin and related compounds: Biosynthesis, synthesis and pharmacological activity" (PDF). Facta Universitatis. 9 (1): 9–20. doi:10.2298/FUPCT1101009I.
  58. ^ Thompson, Sylvia (1997). The Kitchen Garden Cookbook. Bantam Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-553-37476-6.
  59. ^ Thompson, Sylvia (1997). The Kitchen Garden Cookbook. Bantam Books. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-553-37476-6.
  60. ^ Amanda. "Glossary of Foods and Food Terms in Korea". Food-links.com. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  61. ^ Meredith, Ted (2008). The complete book of garlic: a guide for gardeners, growers, and serious cooks. Portland: Timber Press. pp. 17–22. ISBN 978-0-88192-883-9. OCLC 172521653.
  62. ^ Root, ZPC (2013). New Orleans con sabor Latino: the history and passion of Latino cooking (Online-Ausg. ed.). Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-62103-984-6.
  63. ^ a b  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Garlic". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 468–469.
  64. ^ Renoux, Victoria (January 1, 2005). For the Love of Garlic: The Complete Guide to Garlic Cuisine. Square One Publishers, Inc. pp. 21–25. ISBN 9780757000874.
  65. ^ Statutes of the Realm, vol. I, London: G. Eyre & A. Strahan, 1810, p. 204
  66. ^ Ruffhead, Owen, ed. (1763a), The Statutes at Large, vol.  I: From Magna Charta to the End of the Reign of King Henry the Sixth. To which is prefixed, A Table of the Titles of all the Publick and Private Statutes during that Time, London: Mark Basket for the Crown, pp. 148–149. (in English) & (in Latin) & (in Norman)
  67. ^ Harris, Linda J. "Garlic: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy" (PDF). University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 9, 2014. Retrieved February 28, 2014.
  68. ^ a b c "Safe Homemade Flavored and Infused Oils". Food Safety Facts. Orono, ME: Cooperative Extension Publications, University of Maine. 2011.
  69. ^ The Science of Garlic and How to Make the Best Garlic Bread | Garlic Bread | What's Eating Dan?
  70. ^ "Bulletin #1206, Blue Mold of Garlic," U. of Maine Cooperative Extension, https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/1206e/ Accessed Dec. 2019
  71. ^ "Penitsyloz (penicillium rot of) garlic. Blue mould in garlic", Penitsyloz garlic. Blue mould in garlic http://www.ukrup.com.ua/en/penitsyloz-garlic-blue-mould-in-garlic/ Accessed Dec. 2019
  72. ^ Bertolini, P.; Tian, S.P. (1996). "Low-temperature biology and pathogenicity of Penicillium hirsutum on garlic in storage". Postharvest Biology and Technology. 7 (1–2): 83–89. doi:10.1016/0925-5214(95)00025-9.
  73. ^ "Low-temperature biology and pathogenic@ of Penicillium hirsutum on garlic in storage ", P. Bertolini, 1995, https://doi.org/10.1016/0925-5214(95)00025-9
  74. ^ "Identification, pathogenicity and distribution of Penicillium spp. isolated from garlic in two regions in Argentina", J.G. Valdez et al., 2009, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2008.01960.x
  75. ^ Ried, Karin; Frank, Oliver R; Stocks, Nigel P; Fakler, Peter; Sullivan, Thomas (June 16, 2008). "Effect of garlic on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Cardiovascular Disorders. 8 (1): 13. doi:10.1186/1471-2261-8-13. PMC 2442048. PMID 18554422. Our meta-analysis suggests that garlic preparations are superior to placebo in reducing blood pressure in individuals with hypertension.
  76. ^ Rohner, Andres; Ried, Karin; Sobenin, Igor A.; Bucher, Heiner C.; Nordmann, Alain J. (March 1, 2015). "A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of garlic preparations on blood pressure in individuals with hypertension". American Journal of Hypertension. 28 (3): 414–423. doi:10.1093/ajh/hpu165. ISSN 1941-7225. PMID 25239480.
  77. ^ a b Stabler, Sarah N.; Tejani, Aaron M.; Huynh, Fong; Fowkes, Claire (August 2012). "Garlic for the prevention of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertensive patients". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 8 (8): CD007653. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007653.pub2. PMC 6885043. PMID 22895963.
  78. ^ Varshney, Ravi; Budoff, Matthew J (February 2016). "Garlic and heart disease". The Journal of Nutrition. 146 (2): 416S–421S. doi:10.3945/jn.114.202333. ISSN 1541-6100. PMID 26764327. S2CID 10921034.
  79. ^ Sahebkar, Amirhossein; Serban, Corina; Ursoniu, Sorin; Banach, Maciej (2016). "Effect of garlic on plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials". Nutrition. 32 (1): 33–40. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2015.06.009. ISSN 0899-9007. PMID 26522661.
  80. ^ Rahman, Khalid (November 2007). "Effects of garlic on platelet biochemistry and physiology". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 51 (11): 1335–44. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700058. PMID 17966136.
  81. ^ Borrelli, Francesca; Capasso, Raffaele; Izzo, Angelo A. (November 2007). "Garlic (Allium sativum L.): Adverse effects and drug interactions in humans". Molecular Nutrition and Food Research. 51 (11): 1386–97. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700072. PMID 17918162.
  82. ^ Chiavarini, Manuela; Minelli, Liliana; Fabiani, Roberto (February 1, 2016). "Garlic consumption and colorectal cancer risk in man: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Public Health Nutrition. 19 (2): 308–317. doi:10.1017/S1368980015001263. ISSN 1475-2727. PMC 10270922. PMID 25945653.
  83. ^ Zhu, Beibei; Zou, Li; Qi, Lu; Zhong, Rong; Miao, Xiaoping (December 1, 2014). "Allium vegetables and garlic supplements do not reduce risk of colorectal cancer, based on meta-analysis of prospective studies". Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 12 (12): 1991–2001.e1–4, quiz e121. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2014.03.019. ISSN 1542-7714. PMID 24681077.
  84. ^ Guercio, Valentina; Turati, Federica; La Vecchia, Carlo; Galeone, Carlotta; Tavani, Alessandra (2016). "Allium vegetables and upper aerodigestive tract cancers: a meta-analysis of observational studies". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 60 (1) (published October 14, 2015): 212–222. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201500587. ISSN 1613-4133. PMID 26464065.
  85. ^ Lissiman, Elizabeth; Bhasale, Alice L.; Cohen, Marc (November 2014). "Garlic for the common cold". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11 (11): CD006206. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006206.pub4. PMC 6465033. PMID 25386977.
  86. ^ Allan, G. Michael; Arroll, Bruce (2014). "Prevention and treatment of the common cold: making sense of the evidence". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 186 (3) (published February 18, 2014): 190–9. doi:10.1503/cmaj.121442. PMC 3928210. PMID 24468694.
  87. ^ Cullen 1789, vol.ii. p. 174.
  88. ^ Anwar, Awais; Groom, Murree; Sadler-Bridge, David (June 2009). "Garlic: from nature's ancient food to nematicide" (PDF). Pesticide News. 84 (June): 18–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 28, 2017.
  89. ^ McNally, Raymond T.; Florescu, Radu (1994). In Search of Dracula: The History of Dracula and Vampires. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 120–122. ISBN 978-0-395-65783-6.
  90. ^ Pickering, David (2003). Cassell's Dictionary of Superstitions. Sterling Publishing. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-304-36561-6.
  91. ^ Pettid, Michael J. (2008). Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History. London: Reaktion Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-86189-348-2.
  92. ^ "Hadith – Book of Call to Prayers (Adhaan) – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". Sunnah.
  93. ^ "Hadith – The Book of Mosques and Places of Prayer – Sahih Muslim – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". Sunnah.
  94. ^ "Dictionary :: 荤 in Chinese, Japanese and Buddhism". www.orientaloutpost.com. Retrieved July 24, 2024.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Block, Eric (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-190-9. OCLC 311464092.
  • Cherry, Robin (November 11, 2014). Garlic, an Edible Biography. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-1-61180-160-6.
  • McGee, Harold (2004). "The Onion Family: Onions, Garlic, Leeks". On Food and Cooking (Revised ed.). Scribner. pp. 310–3. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1.
[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
The Wikibook Horticulture has a page on the topic of: Garlic
The Wikibook Ethnomedicine has a page on the topic of: Garlic
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Allium sativum.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garlic&oldid=1263861186"
pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy