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Latex allergy

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Latex allergy
Latex medical glove
SpecialtyImmunology

Latex allergy is a medical term encompassing a range of allergic reactions to the proteins present in natural rubber latex.[1] It generally develops after repeated exposure to products containing natural rubber latex. When latex-containing medical devices or supplies come in contact with mucous membranes, the membranes may absorb latex proteins. In some susceptible people, the immune system produces antibodies that react immunologically with these antigenic proteins.[2] Many items contain or are made from natural rubber, including shoe soles, pen grips, hot water bottles, elastic bands, rubber gloves, condoms, baby-bottle nipples, and balloons; consequently, there are many possible routes of exposure that may trigger a reaction. People with latex allergies may also have or develop allergic reactions to some fruits, such as bananas.[3]

Signs and symptoms

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Allergic reactions to latex range from Type I hypersensitivity, the most serious form of reaction, to Type IV hypersensitivity.[4] Rate of onset is directly proportional to the degree of allergy: Type I responses will begin showing symptoms within minutes of exposure to latex, while Type IV responses may take hours or days to appear.[5]

Most commonly, latex allergy presents with hives at the point of contact, followed by rhinitis. The most common physiological reaction to latex exposure is dermatitis at the point of contact, which gives way to soreness, itching, and redness. Angioedema is also a common response to oral, vaginal, or rectal contact.[6]

Symptoms of more severe hypersensitivity include both local and generalized hives; feelings of faintness or impending doom; angioedema; nausea and vomiting; abdominal cramps; rhinitis; bronchospasm; and anaphylaxis. Type IV responses typically include erythema, blistering (forming vesicles and papules), itching, and crusting at the point of contact.[7] This irritant contact dermatitis is considered a nonimmune reaction to latex.[8] The degree of reaction is directly proportional to the duration of exposure, as well as skin temperature.

Among those with a latex allergy, 40% will experience irritant contact dermatitis; 33.1% will experience a Type I allergic reaction; 20.4% will experience Type IV allergic contact dermatitis; and 6.5% will experience both Type I and Type IV symptoms.[9]

Causes

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Occupational exposure

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Central line with latex cap

The prevalence of latex allergy is greater in certain populations with increased exposure and has historically been studied in this context. [10] Specifically, regular and prolonged occupational exposure to latex is a known risk factor for the development of an allergy. [11] Healthcare workers, dental specialists, food service workers, cosmetologists, rubber industry workers, law enforcement personnel, and painters are among some of the highest-risk occupations.[11] It is estimated that the worldwide prevalence of latex allergy in healthcare workers is 9.7%-12.4%.[10]

Latex allergy became a more common problem in healthcare in the 1980s and 1990s with the adoption of universal precautions, which involved frequent use of latex gloves, with the emergence of HIV/AIDs.[10] The rates of latex allergy dropped to 4-7% in the healthcare setting with the widespread introduction of non-powdered latex gloves.[12] On December 19, 2016, the FDA officially banned the use of powdered gloves in the US healthcare setting, citing the unnecessary burden of potential injury due to allergy. [13] General latex avoidance protocols have been put in to place in healthcare settings in the US and many other developed countries with the switch to nitrile gloves.[11][12] However, latex exposure in healthcare settings in developing countries from latex gloves or latex components of medical devices such as urinary catheters, dialysis ports, or vial stoppers, remains a significant concern.[11][12]

Alternative latex exposure

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While most reported allergic reactions to latex have occurred in medical settings, non-healthcare workers show similar levels of latex antibodies, suggesting that they are sensitized to natural rubber latex through other sources, both inside the home and as medical patients.[14] In particular, individuals with chronic health concerns that lead to repeated surgeries or catheterizations thus experience greater exposure to latex allergens and may develop an allergy.[15] Outside of hospital environments, latex allergy may develop in amateur and professional athletes whose sports equipment includes natural rubber, such as swimsuits or running shoes. Rubber basketballs, in particular, may lead to contact dermatitis on the hands and fingertips.[16] The sensitization to latex in athletes may be accelerated by the use of topical analgesics and other agents that diminish the skin barrier and increase contact.[17] It has also been hypothesized that young children may develop a latex allergy due to exposure in the home and school environment from objects such as rubber balloons, boots, gloves, and toys.[18][19]

Spina bifida

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People with spina bifida often have latex allergies. Up to 68% of children with this condition will have a reaction to latex.[20] The mechanism of this association between spina bifida and latex allergy is not clearly defined. However, spina bifida patients may become sensitized to latex early in life as they often require frequent surgeries and medical procedures that involve exposure to latex products. [21]

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People who have latex allergy also may have or develop an allergic response to some plants and/or products of these plants (such as fruits). This is known as latex-fruit syndrome.[22] Fruits (and seeds) involved in this syndrome include banana, avocado, chestnut, kiwifruit, mango, passionfruit, fig, strawberry, papaya, apple, melon, celery, potato, tomato, carrot, and soy. The proteins in these fruits are similar to latex proteins. Hevein-like protein domains [23] are a possible cause for allergen cross-reactivity between latex and banana[24] or fruits in general.[25]

Natural rubber latex contains several conformational epitopes located on several enzymes such as Hev b 1,[26] Hev b 2,[27] Hev b 4,[28] Hev b 5[29] and Hev b 6.02.[30][31]

FITkit is a latex allergen testing method for quantification of the major natural rubber latex specific allergens: Hev b 1, Hev b 3, Hev b 5, and Hev b 6.02.[32]

Prevention

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The most effective form of primary prevention towards latex sensitization is limiting or completely avoiding contact with latex, particularly among children with risk factors such as spina bifida.[33][34] The limitation of powdered latex glove use in hospital settings has also proven an effective primary prevention strategy among adult health care workers,[35] and as secondary prevention for sensitized individuals.[36][37]

Epidemiology

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Latex allergy is uncommon in the general population, at least compared to high-risk groups such as hospital workers and spina bifida patients. Estimates suggest a worldwide prevalence of around 4.3% among the general population.[38] Between 1% and 6% of the general population in the United States has latex allergy; assays of antibody levels in the blood suggest that 2.7 million to 16 million Americans are affected by some form of latex sensitivity.[39] Females are approximately three times as likely as males to have latex allergies.[40] Possible risk factors for the female population include increased employment in high-risk occupations and enhanced histamine release caused by female hormones.[41]

Alternatives

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Alternatives to latex include:

The first polyurethane condoms, designed for people with latex allergies, were produced in 1994.

Some people are so sensitive that they may still have a reaction to replacement products made from alternative materials. This can occur when the alternative products are manufactured in the same facility as latex-containing products, leaving trace quantities of natural rubber latex on the non-latex products.[44]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Safety and Health Topics | Latex Allergy". Osha.gov. Retrieved 2014-07-31.
  2. ^ "Allergy to Latex Rubber". American Dental Association.
  3. ^ Taylor, J.S. & Erkek, E. (2004). "Latex allergy: diagnosis and management". Dermatologic Therapy. 17 (4): 289–301. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04024.x. PMID 15327474. S2CID 24748498.
  4. ^ Sussman, Gordon L.; Tarlo, Susan; Dolovich, Jerry (June 5, 1991). "The Spectrum of IgE-Mediated Responses to Latex". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 265 (21): 2844–2847. doi:10.1001/jama.1991.03460210090035. PMID 2033741. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  5. ^ Hamilton, Robert G. (May 2002). "Diagnosis of natural rubber latex allergy". Methods. 27 (1): 22–31. doi:10.1016/S1046-2023(02)00048-8. PMID 12079414. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  6. ^ Turjanmaa, K.; Alenius, H.; Mäkinen-Kiljunen, S.; Reunala, T.; Palosuo (1996). "Natural rubber latex allergy". Allergy. 51 (9): 593–602. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1996.tb04678.x. ISSN 0105-4538. PMID 8899110. S2CID 9316811.
  7. ^ Reddy, Sumana (January 1, 1998). "Latex Allergy". American Family Physician. 57 (1): 93–100. PMID 9447217. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  8. ^ Hepner, David L.; Castells, Mariana C. (April 2003). "Latex Allergy: An Update". Anesthesia & Analgesia. 96 (4): 1219–1229. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000050768.04953.16. PMID 12651689. S2CID 2753609. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  9. ^ Heese, A.; Peters, K. P.; Koch, H. U. (January 1, 1997). "Type I allergies to latex and the aeroallergenic problem". The European Journal of Surgery Supplement. 579 (579): 19–22. PMID 9195178. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  10. ^ a b c Nucera, Eleonora; Aruanno, Arianna; Rizzi, Angela; Centrone, Michele (2020-09-28). "Latex Allergy: Current Status and Future Perspectives". Journal of Asthma and Allergy. 13: 385–398. doi:10.2147/JAA.S242058. ISSN 1178-6965. PMC 7532063. PMID 33061465.
  11. ^ a b c d Parisi, Claudio A.S.; Kelly, Kevin J.; Ansotegui, Ignacio J.; Gonzalez-Díaz, Sandra Nora; Bilò, Maria Beatrice; Cardona, Victoria; Park, Hae-Sim; Braschi, Maria Chiara; Macias-Weinmann, Alejandra; Piga, Mario A.; Acuña-Ortega, Natalhie; Sánchez-Borges, Mario; Yañez, Anahí (2021-07-28). "Update on latex allergy: New insights into an old problem". The World Allergy Organization Journal. 14 (8): 100569. doi:10.1016/j.waojou.2021.100569. ISSN 1939-4551. PMC 8335653. PMID 34386153.
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  17. ^ Ventura, M. T.; Dagnello, M.; Matino, M. G.; Di Corato, R.; Giuliano, G.; Tursi, A. (April 2001). "Contact dermatitis in students practicing sports: incidence of rubber sensitisation". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 35 (2): 100–102. doi:10.1136/bjsm.35.2.100. PMC 1724305. PMID 11273970. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
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  22. ^ Brehler, R.; Theissen, U.; Mohr, C.; Luger, T. (1997). "'Latex-fruit syndrome': frequency of cross-reacting IgE antibodies". Allergy. 52 (4): 404–10. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb01019.x. PMID 9188921. S2CID 27995880.
  23. ^ Diaz-Perales, A.; Sanchez-Monge, R.; Blanco, C.; Lombardero, M.; Carillo, T.; Salcedo, G. (2002). "What is the role of the hevein-like domain of fruit class I chitinases in their allergenic capacity?". Clinical & Experimental Allergy. 32 (3): 448–54. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2222.2002.01306.x. hdl:10553/128107. PMID 11940077. S2CID 26003685.
  24. ^ Mikkola, Jari H.; Alenius, Harri; Kalkkinen, Nisse; Turjanmaa, Kristiina; Palosuo, Timo; Reunala, Timo (1998). "Hevein-like protein domains as a possible cause for allergen cross-reactivity between latex and banana". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 102 (6): 1005–12. doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(98)70339-2. PMID 9847442.
  25. ^ Wagner, S.; Breiteneder, H. (2001). "The latex‒fruit syndrome". Biochemical Society Transactions. 30 (6): 935–40. doi:10.1042/BST0300935. PMID 12440950. S2CID 9053520.
  26. ^ Chen, Zhiping; Cremer, Reinhold; Posch, Anton; Raulf-Heimsoth, Monika; Rihs, Hans-Peter; Baur, Xaver (1997). "On the allergenicity of Hev b 1 among health care workers and patients with spina bifida allergic to natural rubber latex". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 100 (5): 684–93. doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(97)70174-X. PMID 9389300.
  27. ^ Barre, Annick; Culerrier, Raphaël; Granier, Claude; Selman, Laetitia; Peumans, Willy J.; Van Damme, Els J.M.; Bienvenu, Françoise; Bienvenu, Jacques; Rougé, Pierre (2009). "Mapping of IgE-binding epitopes on the major latex allergen Hev b 2 and the cross-reacting 1,3β-glucanase fruit allergens as a molecular basis for the latex-fruit syndrome". Molecular Immunology. 46 (8–9): 1595–604. doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2008.12.007. PMID 19185347.
  28. ^ Kolarich, Daniel; Altmann, Friedrich; Sunderasan, Elumalai (2006). "Structural analysis of the glycoprotein allergen Hev b 4 from natural rubber latex by mass spectrometry". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. 1760 (4): 715–20. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2005.11.012. PMID 16403599.
  29. ^ Beezhold, Donald H.; Hickey, Vicky L.; Slater, Jay E.; Sussman, Gordon L. (1999). "Human IgE-binding epitopes of the latex allergen Hev b 5". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 103 (6): 1166–72. doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70194-6. PMID 10359901.
  30. ^ Reyes-López, César A; Hernández-Santoyo, Alejandra; Pedraza-Escalona, Martha; Mendoza, Guillermo; Hernández-Arana, Andrés; Rodrı́guez-Romero, Adela (2004). "Insights into a conformational epitope of Hev b 6.02 (hevein)". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 314 (1): 123–30. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.12.068. PMID 14715255.
  31. ^ Pedraza-Escalona, Martha; Becerril-Luján, Baltazar; Agundis, Concepción; Domínguez-Ramírez, Lenin; Pereyra, Ali; Riaño-Umbarila, Lidia; Rodríguez-Romero, Adela (2009). "Analysis of B-cell epitopes from the allergen Hev b 6.02 revealed by using blocking antibodies". Molecular Immunology. 46 (4): 668–76. doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2008.08.282. PMID 18930549.
  32. ^ Koh, D.; Ng, V.; Leow, Y-H.; Goh, C.L. (2005). "A study of natural rubber latex allergens in gloves used by healthcare workers in Singapore". British Journal of Dermatology. 153 (5): 954–9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06820.x. PMID 16225605. S2CID 32823071.
  33. ^ Niggemann, Bodo (October 26, 2010). "IgE-mediated latex allergy – An exciting and instructive piece of allergy history". Pediatric Allergy and Immunology. 21 (7): 997–1001. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2010.01006.x. PMID 20977498. S2CID 8236367. Retrieved December 30, 2021.
  34. ^ Nieto, Antonio; Mazón, Angel; Pamies, Rafael; Lanuza, Amparo; Muñoz, Alberto; Estornell, Francisco; García-Ibarra, Fernando (March 1, 2002). "Efficacy of latex avoidance for primary prevention of latex sensitization in children with spina bifida". The Journal of Pediatrics. 140 (3): 370–372. doi:10.1067/mpd.2002.122732. PMID 11953738. S2CID 11967651. Retrieved December 30, 2021.
  35. ^ Allmers, Henning; Schmengler, Jörg; Skudlik, Christoph (August 2002). "Primary prevention of natural rubber latex allergy in the German health care system through education and intervention". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 110 (2): 318–323. doi:10.1067/mai.2002.126461. PMID 12170275.
  36. ^ Allmers, Henning; Brehler, Randolph; Chen, Zhipping; Raulf-Heimsoth, Monika; Fels, Hubert; Bauer, Xaver (November 1998). "Reduction of latex aeroallergens and latex-specific IgE antibodies in sensitized workers after removal of powdered natural rubber latex gloves in a hospital". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 102 (5): 841–846. doi:10.1016/s0091-6749(98)70026-0. PMID 9819303. Retrieved December 30, 2021.
  37. ^ Ruëff, F.; Thomas, P.; Reißig, G.; Przybilla, B. (April 1998). "Natural rubber-latex allergy in patients not intensely exposed". European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 53 (4): 445–449. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1998.tb03921.x. PMID 9574891. S2CID 27245106. Retrieved December 30, 2021.
  38. ^ Wu, Miaozong; McIntosh, James; Liu, Jian (March 20, 2016). "Current prevalence rate of latex allergy: Why it remains a problem?". Journal of Occupational Health. 58 (2): 138–144. doi:10.1539/joh.15-0275-RA. PMC 5356959. PMID 27010091.
  39. ^ Neugut, Alfred I.; Ghatak, Anita T.; Miller, Rachel L. (January 8, 2001). "Anaphylaxis in the United States: An Investigation Into Its Epidemiology". Archives of Internal Medicine. 161 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1001/archinte.161.1.15. PMID 11146694. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  40. ^ Tomazic, Vesna J.; Withrow, Thomas J.; Fisher, Benjamin R.; Dillard, Sharon F. (August 1992). "Latex-associated allergies and anaphylactic reactions". Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology. 64 (2): 89–97. doi:10.1016/0090-1229(92)90185-Q. PMID 1643748. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  41. ^ Warshaw, Erin M. (July 1998). "Latex allergy". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 39 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1016/S0190-9622(98)70397-4. PMID 9674393. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  42. ^ "Why do polyisoprene condoms work as latex allergy condom choices?". Std.about.com. Archived from the original on 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2014-07-31.
  43. ^ Anderson, Christopher D.; Daniels, Eric S. (2003). Emulsion Polymerisation and Latex Applications. iSmithers Rapra. ISBN 9781859573815.
  44. ^ a b "Don't be Misled by 'Latex Free' Claims". FDA. March 30, 2015.
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