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Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum
Title page of the book, showing an engraved image of an eagle poised atop a globe flanked by two serpents and the Latin motto, "In virtute, et fortuna"
Title page of the first Latin edition, bearing Rouillé's emblem[a] and motto.[b] "D.MEM.S." is an abbreviation for Dis Memoribus Sacrum.[2]: 189 [c]
AuthorGuillaume Rouillé (debated)[2]: 208–209 
IllustratorGeorges Reverdy[3]
Language
  • Latin
  • French
  • Italian (1553)
Spanish (1561)
Subject
PublisherGuillaume Rouillé
Publication date
1553
Publication placeKingdom of France
Media typePrint
Pages
  • 172 (part I)
  • 247 (part II)
OCLC716696497
TextPromptuarium Iconum Insigniorum at Internet Archive

Prima [et Secunda] pars Promptuarii iconum insigniorum à seculo hominum, subiectis eorum vitis, per compendium ex probatissimis autoribus desumptis.[d] (Latin for 'The First [and Second] Part of the Storehouse of Images of the More Notable Men from the Beginning of Time, with Their Biographies Subjoined, Taken in Abbreviated Form from the Most Approved Authors.'), often abbreviated as Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum or Promptuarium Iconum,[e] is an iconographic compilation of woodcut portraits published in 1553 by Guillaume Rouillé, a French merchant-publisher active in early modern Lyon's book trade. Originally released in Latin, French, and Italian editions, the book features portrait engravings in a medallion format, arranged in a primarily chronological order from Old Testament figures and Greco-Roman deities through mid-16th-century contemporaries. Many of these portraits are fictitious, relying on Rouillé's physiognomic interpretations and the engraver's artistic license. While the engraver is unnamed in the text, bibliographer Henri-Louis Baudrier later attributed the portraits to the artist Georges Reverdy [fr].

The book is divided into two sections: Prima pars ('First Part'), covering figures predating Christ, and Pars secunda ('Second Part'), documenting individuals from the Christian era onward. Published as a single volume, these sections maintain separate pagination systems. The first editions each contained 828 portraits with accompanying biographical summaries, though the textual authorship remains debated. The book's commercial success led to subsequent editions in multiple languages, which included a Spanish edition in 1561. The 1577 French edition expanded the collection with approximately 100 additional engravings, placing greater emphasis on Renaissance humanist scholars. The portraits overall emulate ancient coinage designs, yet they lack the numismatic detail required for scholarly reference. Rouillé's aim was to distill complex histories into standardized imagery and concise narratives, so that the past was made accessible for a general audience. The compilation influenced European iconographic collections over the following decades, shaping their portrayal of historical figures from the latter half of the 16th century well into the 17th.

Contents

[edit]
Woodcut portraits of Paris and Helen of Troy, in a round format with the names in circular inscriptions inside the portrait edge. There is a biographical text in Latin below them.
Paris (left) and Helen of Troy, with biographical text in Latin below, on page 48 of the Prima pars ('First Part') of Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum. The text dates Helen's abduction to Anno Mundi 2768 and Ante Christum natum 1194.[f]

The book features 828 portraits in its earliest editions.[9]: 366 [10]: 237  The portraits follow a standardized medallion format, each encircled by a decorative border with the subject's name inscribed curvilinearly along its inner edge. Most portraits are arranged in pairs per page, accompanied by concise biographical summaries below. Many of these paired portraits depict individuals in relationships, regardless of marital status or the legitimacy of their union.[5]: 99–101 [2]: 191  In cases of remarriage, subjects occasionally appear multiple times, portrayed alongside different spouses.[2]: 191  In one instance, a same-sex relationship is implicitly indicated between the paired individuals.[2]: 192  An alphabetical index makes the volume function as a biographical dictionary.[5]: 102 

The title page displays Rouillé's printer's mark, which depicts an eagle standing on a globe with serpents on either side.[2]: 189  This iconography adapts a pre-classical emblem that medieval Christians interpreted as representing Christ's victory over Satan.[1]: 94–95  In Rouillé's version, the eagle's position atop the terrestrial sphere suggests worldly, rather than spiritual, dominion.[1]: 95  This symbolic representation is flanked by his Latin motto, In virtute, et fortuna ('In virtue, and [good] fortune'), adapted from Sebastian Gryphius's Virtute duce, comite Fortuna ('With Virtue as guide, Fortuna as companion'), which, in turn, derives from Cicero's letter to Lucius Munatius Plancus. Above the book's title, an ornate cartouche bears the inscription "D. MEM. S.", abbreviating the Latin phrase Dis Memoribus Sacrum ('Sacred to the Revered Memories').[2]: 189 

The work comprises two chronological sections: Prima pars ('First Part') and Pars secunda ('Second Part'). Though maintaining separate pagination, these sections typically appear bound as a single volume.[5]: 99  Christ's birth, dated to the year 3962 after the biblical world creation, serves as the dividing point.[11] The Prima pars catalogs figures from the pre-Christian era, documenting their major biographical events through dual dating systems: Anno Mundi ('in the year of the world'), derived from Genesis's creation narrative, and Ante Christum natum ('before Christ [was] born'), equivalent to the BC designation.[10]: 238 [12][13] Opening with a portrayal of Adam and Eve as elderly figures,[2]: 190  the Prima pars documents Old Testament personalities, including patriarchs, prophets, and monarchs such as Abraham, Noah, Jeremiah, Nimrod, and Ahab. The section incorporates various pagan deities and mythological figures—among them Janus, Osiris, Theseus, the Minotaur, the Amazonian Queens, Vesta, Romulus, and Helen of Troy—demonstrating the Renaissance humanist integration of classical and Judaic traditions.[1]: 95  Historical figures from pre-Christian civilizations—such as Zoroaster, Pythagoras, Thales of Miletus, Sappho, Julius Caesar, and Pericles—are interspersed throughout.[5]: 101 [10]: 238 [2]: 197 

The Pars secunda covers figures from the Christian era through the mid-16th century, spanning the post-Christ Roman Empire, the Middle Ages, and Rouillé's contemporary period. The first Latin edition's Pars secunda is titled Promptuarii iconum pars secunda incipit à Christo nato, perpetuam ducens seriem ad usque Christianissimũ Francorum regem Henricum hoc nomine secundum, hodie feliciter regnantem.[g][10]: 236  This section opens with a title page depicting the Nativity of Jesus. The work then presents Christ in an enlarged medallion distinguished by a cross-shaped halo, incorporating both Hebrew text and the Latin inscription Christus Rex Venit in Pace, Deus homo Factus est ('Christ the King came in peace, God became man').[2]: 196  The biographical scope includes Judas Iscariot, Pontius Pilate, most Roman emperors, Attila the Hun, the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the early Ottoman sultans, and post-classical literary figures such as Dante Alighieri. Holy Roman Emperors from Charlemagne through Charles V are represented, alongside contemporary royals including Edward VI of England, Margaret of Valois, and Catherine de' Medici.[10]: 238 [14] Notable among the section's portraits is a rare triple arrangement depicting Emperor Hadrian, his wife Vibia Sabina, and his companion Antinous.[2]: 192  Another distinctive example shows Anne of Brittany twice: first with her initial husband Charles VIII of France, wearing a ceremonial wreath, then with her second husband Louis XII, attired in the French hood.[2]: 191 

Iconographic bases and authorship

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Portrait books—collections of woodcut engravings featuring both authentic and imagined portraits of notable figures from diverse historical periods and regions—achieved widespread circulation in 16th-century Europe.[5]: 95  Guillaume Rouillé, a prominent merchant-publisher in Lyon's book trade by the mid-16th century,[1]: 72  recognized and capitalized upon the portrait book genre's commercial viability, as did many other publishers of the period.[5]: 98 [10]: 235  Merchant-publishers of this era operated without owning printing presses; however, they maintained proprietary collections of printing materials and, for those engaged in illustrated book production, extensive holdings of plates and woodcuts.[1]: 73  Rouillé's adoption of the medallion portrait format derived from the 1517 publication Illustrium imagines ('Images of the famous') by Italian Renaissance humanist Andrea Fulvio, which presented 204 busts of historical figures engraved in the style of ancient coins.[15]: 700,702  In the preface of Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum, Rouillé acknowledges including fictitious images of individuals said to have lived before the biblical Flood or prior to the invention of painting and engraving, wryly noting that this choice helped him avoid accusations of circulating counterfeit currency. He admits to exercising artistic license in creating these portraits, while emphasizing that they were based on physiognomic interpretations of the subjects' deeds, customs, personalities, and presumed geographical origins.[16] Physiognomy, the study of facial features and their relationship to character and personality, was an established scholarly discipline in Rouillé's time.[17] This approach extended to the book's portraits of historical figures lacking credible iconographic references.[16]

Rouillé and the engraver erroneously based the portrait of Alexander the Great (pictured) on a depiction of Athena from a Macedonian gold stater coin.[18]

The remaining portraits in the book were derived from a diverse array of source materials. Rouillé and the engraver responsible drew upon paintings,[3] earlier published portrait books,[5]: 99  as well as select numismatic, sigillographic, and intaglio collections available to them.[10]: 259  Their interpretation of numismatic imagery led to several documented errors. For example, they based the portrait of Alexander the Great on the obverse of a Macedonian gold stater depicting the goddess Athena, mistakenly identifying her depiction as that of the Macedonian ruler.[18] Another misattribution involved identifying Rhodian silver didrachms as the thirty pieces of silver given to Judas Iscariot for his betrayal of Christ,[h] reflecting a widespread medieval belief. Conversely, Rouillé and the engraver accurately employed numismatic imagery for the portrayals of Demetrius I Poliorcetes and Mithridates VI Eupator.[5]: 101  The portraits of French monarchs were reproduced from two sources: Les Anciennes et modernes genealogies des Roys de France ('The ancient and modern genealogies of the Kings of France'), a 1528 work by French poet and historian Jean Bouchet [fr],[15]: 704–705  and Epitome gestorum LVIII regum Franciae ('Epitome of the deeds of the 58 kings of France'), published in 1546 by Lyonnais bookseller Balthazar Arnoullet [fr; it].[5]: 99  Most of the early Caesars' portraits were sourced from Imperatorum et Caesarum vitae ('Lives of Emperors and Caesars'), a 1534 work by German historian Johannes Huttich [de].[5]: 101 

The portrait engraver remains unnamed in the text. In the 19th century, Lyonnais bibliographer and jurist Henri-Louis Baudrier attributed the engravings to Georges Reverdy, noting the technical excellence of their execution.[3] At the time of the book's creation, Reverdy worked in Lyon and had established a reputation comparable to that of Hans Holbein the Younger.[15]: 700  Some of the engravings appear to have been either modeled after or created in collaboration with the Dutch painter Corneille de Lyon, as evidenced by stylistic similarities in certain contemporary portraits, such as that of Margaret of Valois, Duchess of Berry.[5]: 99 [20] The authorship of the book's textual content remains debated. Rouillé did not explicitly claim authorship, and the dedication to Margaret of Valois in the first French edition bears only the initials "G.R.", which could refer to either Rouillé or Reverdy. An alternative hypothesis suggests that Charles Fontaine [fr], a 16th-century French poet and translator, either authored or translated into French the textual content from the first Latin edition of Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum.[2]: 208 

Publication history

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Guillaume Rouillé frequently published multilingual editions of works he deemed to have international appeal, distributing them across Europe through a network of familial connections.[5]: 98  Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum was first published in Lyon in 1553 in three languages: Latin, French (titled La première [et seconde] partie du promptuaire des médailles des plus renommées personnes qui ont été depuis le commencement du monde: avec brieve description de leurs vies et faicts, recueillie des bons auteurs.[i]), and Italian (titled Prima parte [& parte seconda] del Prontuario de le Medaglie de più illustri, & fulgenti huomini & donne, dal principio del Mondo infino al presente tempo, con le lor vite in compendio raccolte.[j]). The French and Italian editions became known by their shortened titles, Promptuaire des medalles and Prontuario de le medaglie, respectively.[9]: 365  Each edition carried a dedication: the Latin edition to Henry II of France, the Italian to Queen Catherine de' Medici, and the French to Margaret of Valois, Duchess of Berry.[1]: 89  These strategic royal dedications served as a promotional mechanism for the publication.[10]: 235  Subsequent editions were released over the following years: the second, third, and fourth French editions in 1576–1581, 1577, and 1581; the second and third Latin editions in 1578 and 1581; and the second Italian edition in 1577–1578.[9]: 365  The 1577 French edition demonstrates a historiographical shift through its expanded inclusion of Renaissance humanist scholars, with an emphasis on legal and medical theorists such as François Douaren and Andreas Vesalius.[21] This revised publication incorporated approximately 100 new portraits, focusing predominantly on Rouillé's contemporaneous intellectuals.[5]: 101  Among the supplementary material in the appendix were portraits of foundational medical authorities Hippocrates and Galen.[21]

A Spanish translation, titled Promptuario de las medallas de todos las más insignes varones que ha habido desde el principio del mundo, was undertaken by the Valencian theologian and translator Joan Martí Cordero [ca].[22] The dedication, dated September 8, 1558, was composed at the Université catholique de Louvain during Cordero's tenure as a student. It was addressed "[...] al muy alto y muy poderoso señor don Carlos, por la gracia de Dios, Príncipe de las Españas ('[...] to the very high and very powerful lord Don Carlos, by the grace of God, Prince of the Spains')", referring to Prince Carlos of Asturias, the heir apparent of King Philip II of Spain.[22] Rouillé published this Spanish edition in 1561.[9]: 365 [5]: 206 

Reception

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Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum achieved commercial success during its publication period.[10]: 235  The work became one of the most frequently documented numismatic texts in library inventories of Spanish artists and collectors in the 16th and 17th centuries.[10]: 265  However, despite incorporating many coin-derived portraits and adhering to numismatic artistic conventions, the book did not conform to rigorous academic or numismatic reference standards, as evidenced by its omission of critical numismatic details, notably the reverse sides of the source coins.[15]: 722  The work instead prioritized general accessibility, presenting historical narratives and distinctive visual contents for a non-specialist readership.[5]: 101  Multiple iconographic collections produced in Europe throughout the latter half of the 16th century and into the 17th century drew upon and replicated elements from Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum. Its influence stemmed partly from Rouillé's skillful integration of heterogeneous source materials and his selection of portrait subjects that departed from established iconographic conventions of the period.[10]: 263–264 

Portrait of Aristotle from Insignium aliquot virorum icones (1559), Jean de Tournes's derivative work of Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum

A contemporary response from within the Lyonnais publishing industry to Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum emerged in 1559 with Jean de Tournes's Insignium aliquot virorum icones ('Images of Some Notable Men'), a derivative work using a nearly identical medallion portrait format. De Tournes, a leading figure in the regional publishing scene alongside Rouillé, introduced this publication at a reduced price point, offering a more limited selection of biographical portraits than Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum. Lacking commercial impact comparable to that of its predecessor, this work did not proceed beyond its first edition.[5]: 174 

The French physician and numismatist Antoine Le Pois [la] provided an early scholarly assessment of Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum in his posthumously published 1579 work Discours sur les médailles et gravures antiques ('Discourse on Antique Medals and Engravings'). Le Pois's analysis emphasized the value of the work's historical abridgements while expressing reservations regarding its fictitious portraits.[5]: 93  Julian Sharman, the 19th-century author of The Library of Mary Queen of Scots, described Rouillé's work as "not one of much numismatic interest"; however he added that the portrait book had been "pronounced to be one of the marvels of early wood-engraving".[23] In her 2006 essay, art historian Ilaria Andreoli commented on Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum: "Rouillé's ambition is [...] to speak to the eyes [...] thanks to which the reader will be able to peer into the features and hear them speak, as if they were actors' masks".[10]: 264 

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ An eagle poised atop a globe flanked by two serpents, symbolizing worldly triumph[1]: 94–95 
  2. ^ In virtute, et fortuna (Latin for 'In virtue, and [good] fortune')[1]: 95 
  3. ^ transl. 'Sacred to the Revered Memories'
  4. ^ Prima pars Promptuarii [...] is the title of the book's first part, so the inclusion of the second part has been indicated by adding et Secunda ('and second'), as practiced by—for example—the Bonhams Skinner auction house.[4] The two parts are typically bound into a single volume, although they maintain separate pagination.[5]: 99 
  5. ^ 19th-century Lyonnais bibliographer Henri-Louis Baudrier abbreviated the Latin edition title as Promptuarium iconum,[6] while Italian painter and antiquarian Riccardo Nobili shortened it as Promptuarium iconum insigniorum a seculo hominum in his 1922 text.[7] The noun promptuarium (Latin for 'storehouse' / 'repository') was a term medieval authors often used to name their lexicographical works.[8] Art historian John Cunnally [wikidata] speculated that Rouillé picked such a term because thesaurus, which would have been a more common term for a portrait book, had been used by Jean de Tournes—who was Rouillé's primary rival in the Lyonnais publishing business—for another portrait book's title.[5]: 98 
  6. ^ Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain:

    transl. Paris, also called Alexander, was the son of Priam and Hecuba. His father ordered him to be exposed because his mother, while pregnant, had dreamed that she had given birth to a burning torch. However, Hecuba, moved by maternal affection, ensured that he was raised by shepherds on Mount Ida. As a young man, he loved Oenone, by whom he fathered Idaios and Daphnis. Finally recognized and accepted by his parents, [Paris] undertook a mission to Greece to demand the return of Hesione, where he abducted Helen and brought her to Troy in the year 2768 of the world, 1194 years before the birth of Christ, during the first year of Agamemnon's reign. As a result, the war between the Greeks and the Trojans broke out. Herodotus writes that [Paris] abducted her despite resistance, and conquered Sparta, thereby deserving to receive her from her husband. Paris killed Achilles with an arrow but was himself killed in turn by Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. Herodotus, Book 2. Dares and Dictys Cretensis.

    — Page 48 of Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum, Latin edition (1553)
  7. ^ transl. The Second Part of the Storehouse of Images begins from the Nativity of Christ, continuing the unbroken sequence up to the Most Christian King of France, Henry II, who now reigns prosperously.
  8. ^ According to an account in the Gospel of Matthew 26:15 in the New Testament.[19]
  9. ^ transl. The First [and Second] Part of the Storehouse of Medals of the Most Renowned People Who Have Lived Since the Beginning of the World: with a Brief Account of Their Lives and Deeds, Compiled from Esteemed Authors.
  10. ^ transl. The First Part [& Second Part] of the Handbook of Medals of the Most Illustrious and Eminent Men and Women, from the Beginning of the World to the Present Time, with a Concise Account of Their Lives Compiled.

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Davis, Natalie Zemon (1966). "Publisher Guillaume Rouillé, Businessman and Humanist". In Schoeck, Richard J. (ed.). Editing Sixteenth-Century Texts: Papers Given at the Editorial Conference, University of Toronto October 1965. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781487582128. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023. Retrieved October 29, 2024 – via Academia.edu.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Dubu, Jean (1988). "Le Promptuaire des medalles de Gvillavme Roville". In Possenti, Antonio; Mastrangelo, Giulia (eds.). Il Rinascimento a Lione: atti del congresso internazionale (Macerato, 6–11 Maggio 1985) [The Renaissance in Lyon: Proceedings of the International Congress (Macerata, May 6–11, 1985)] (in French and Italian). Edizioni dell'Ateneo. OCLC 24229343.
  3. ^ a b c Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Baudrier, Henri-Louis; Baudrier, Julien; Tricou, Georges (1912) [1895]. Bibliographie lyonnaise: recherches sur les imprimeurs, libraires, relieurs et fondeurs de lettres de Lyon au XVIe siècle par le Président Baudrier, publiées et continuées par J. Baudrier [Bibliography of Lyon: Research on the printers, booksellers, bookbinders, and founders of letters in Lyon in the 16th century by President Baudrier, published and continued by J. Baudrier] (in French). Vol. 9. Lyon: Librairie ancienne d'Auguste Brun. p. 207. OCLC 6966263. Retrieved December 29, 2022 – via Internet Archive.
  4. ^ "Fine Books & Manuscripts – 2730B: 269. Rouillé, Guillaume (c. 1518–1589) Prima [et Secunda] Pars Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum a Seculo Hominum". Bonhams Skinner. May 31, 2014. Archived from the original on September 19, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2024.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Cunnally, John (1999). Images of the Illustrious: the Numismatic Presence in the Renaissance. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691016689. Retrieved August 29, 2023 – via Internet Archive.
  6. ^ Baudrier, Henri-Louis; Baudrier, Julien; Tricou, Georges (1912) [1895]. Bibliographie lyonnaise: recherches sur les imprimeurs, libraires, relieurs et fondeurs de lettres de Lyon au XVIe siècle par le Président Baudrier, publiées et continuées par J. Baudrier [Bibliography of Lyon: Research on the printers, booksellers, bookbinders, and founders of letters in Lyon in the 16th century by President Baudrier, published and continued by J. Baudrier] (in French). Vol. 9. Lyon: Librairie ancienne d'Auguste Brun. p. 204. OCLC 6966263. Retrieved December 29, 2022 – via Internet Archive.
  7. ^ Nobili, Riccardo (1922). "VIII. Imitation, Plagiarism, and Faking". The Gentle Art of Faking: A history of the methods of producing imitations & spurious works of art from the earliest times up to the present day. London: Seeley Service & Co. Ltd. p. 93. Archived from the original on September 14, 2024. Retrieved September 14, 2024 – via Project Gutenberg.
  8. ^ Stein, Gabriele (2014) [1985]. "12. The Promptuarium parvulorum". The English Dictionary Before Cawdrey. Lexicographica. Series Maior. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. p. 91. doi:10.1515/9783111664873. ISBN 9783484309098.
  9. ^ a b c d Kluczek, Agata A. [in Polish] (2018). "Klodia Metelli w rzymskiej tradycji literackiej i nowożytnej tradycji numizmatycznej, czyli uwagi na kanwie książki Agnieszki Dziuby Klodia Metelli. Literacki portret patrycjuszki, Wydawnictwo KUL, Lublin 2016, ss. 320" [Clodia Metelli in the Roman Literary Tradition and Modern Numismatic Tradition, i.e. Remarks Based on Agnieszka Dziuba's Book "Klodia Metelli. Literacki portret patrycjuszki", KUL Publishing House, Lublin 2016, pp. 320]. Res Historica (in Polish). 45. Lublin: Maria Curie-Skłodowska University: 359–371. doi:10.17951/rh.2018.45.359-371. ISSN 2082-6060. S2CID 240165655. Archived from the original on June 20, 2023. Retrieved October 25, 2024.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Andreoli, Ilaria (2006). "La storia 'in soldoni': il Promptuaire des medalles di Guillaume Rouillé" [History 'in a nutshell': Guillaume Rouillé's Promptuaire des medalles]. In Rozzo, Ugo; Gabriele, Mino (eds.). Storia per parole e per immagini [History in words and pictures] (in Italian). Udine: Forum. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023. Retrieved December 29, 2022 – via Academia.edu.
  11. ^ Rouillé, Guillaume (1581) [1553]. SECONDA PARTE DEL PRONTVARIO DELLE MEDAGLIE, LA QVALE comincia dà la natiuità del nostro Saluatore GIESV CHRISTO, & continoua insino al Christianissimo Rè di Francia & di Pologna, HENRICO III. di nome, il quale al presente regna felicemente [The second part of the Handbook of Medals begins with the birth of Christ, leading a continuous series to the most Christian king of France and Poland, Henry III, who reigns happily to this day.] (in Italian). Lyon: Guillaume Rouillé. p. 3. OCLC 1050826580. Archived from the original on August 19, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2022 – via Digital Libraries Connected.
  12. ^ "Anno mundi". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on December 6, 2023. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
  13. ^ Eames, Christopher (April 13, 2023). "B.C./A.D. or B.C.E./C.E.?". Armstrong Institute of Biblical Archaeology. Archived from the original on March 1, 2024. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
  14. ^ Milwright, Marcus (2017). "The martyred sultan: Tuman Bay II in André Thevet's Les vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustrés". Word & Image. 33 (1): 14. doi:10.1080/02666286.2016.1228279. S2CID 164672006.
  15. ^ a b c d Perkinson, Stephen (2002). "From an 'Art De Memoire' to the Art of Portraiture: Printed Effigy Books of the Sixteenth Century". Sixteenth Century Journal. 33 (3). doi:10.2307/4144020. JSTOR 4144020.
  16. ^ a b Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Rouillé, Guillaume (1553). "Gulielmus Rovillius lectori" [Guillaume Rouillé to the reader]. Prima pars Promptuarii iconum insigniorum à seculo hominum, subiectis eorum vitis, per compendium ex probatissimis autoribus desumptis [The first part of the storehouse of images of the more notable men from the beginning of time, with their biographies subjoined, taken in abbreviated form from the most approved authors.] (in Latin and Ancient Greek). Lyon: Guillaume Rouillé. OCLC 716696497. Retrieved August 25, 2023 – via Internet Archive. Cæterùm ne quis lege Cornelia nos falsi arguat, quod commentitias, seu factitias quasdam figuras velut adulterina numismata in publicum sparserimus: concedatur confessioni venia: εις το γαρ αδυνατον ουτις αναρτωται. Priscorum enim hominum qui ante diluvium, & ante inventas pingendi, & scalpendi artes vixisse memorantur. Ut Adæ, Abrahæ, & Patriarcharum εικωνας non negamus à nobis fuisse per imaginationem effictas: & cum nullum haberemus Prototypum ex descripta eorum Natura, moribus, ætate, regione & rebus gestis φανταστικως fuisse conformatas. [However, lest anyone accuse us of falsification according to the Lex Cornelia—that we have scattered false or invented images like counterfeit coins among the public: let pardon be granted to our confession (for no one is bound to do the impossible). For in the case of the men of ancient times who are said to have lived before the Flood and before the invention of the arts of painting and carving, for example Adam, Abraham, and the Patriarchs, their images we do not deny have been created by us imaginatively: and since we had no model, the images have been shaped from the description of their nature, from their manners, age, region, and deeds, by imagination.]
  17. ^ Martin, John Jeffries; Bragagnolo, Manuela (2024). "Physiognomy and Visual Judgment in Medieval and Early Modern Europe". Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies. 54: 1–7. doi:10.1215/10829636-10948440.
  18. ^ a b Chatzidakis, Michail (2010). "Ciriacos Numismata und Gemmae. Die Bedeutung der Münz- und Gemmenkunde für die Altertumsforschungen des Ciriaco d'Ancona" [Ciriaco's Numismata and Gemmae. The Importance of Numismatics and Gemology for the Archeology of Ciriaco d'Ancona]. Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz (in German). 54 (1). Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florenz: 40. ISSN 0342-1201. JSTOR 41414764. [...] eben ein solches Bild der behelmten Athena von einer mazedonischen Goldmünze als Vorlage für sein Alexanderporträt [...]
  19. ^ Matthew 26:15
  20. ^ Dubois de Groër, Anne (1996). Corneille de La Haye, dit Corneille de Lyon (1500/1510–1575) [Corneille de La Haye, known as Corneille de Lyon (1500/1510–1575)] (in French). Paris: Arthena. p. 47. ISBN 2-903239-21-5. Archived from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2022 – via Google Books. [...] Georges Reverdy [...] n'en était pas l'unique auteur mais que Corneille en avait exécuté un certain nombre.
  21. ^ a b Rajchenbach-Teller, Élise (2012). "De «ceux qui de leur pouvoir aydent et favorisent au publiq» Guillaume Rouillé, libraire à Lyon" [Of 'those who use their power to help and encourage the public': Guillaume Rouillé, bookseller in Lyon]. In Bénévent, Christine; Charon, Anne; Diu, Isabelle; Vène, Magali (eds.). Passeurs de textes: Imprimeurs et libraires à l'âge de l'humanisme [Couriers of Texts: Printers and Booksellers in the Age of Humanism] (in French). Paris: École Nationale des Chartes. pp. 99–116. doi:10.4000/books.enc.533. ISBN 9782357231108. Archived from the original on February 27, 2023. Retrieved August 16, 2023 – via OpenEdition Books.
  22. ^ a b Lluís Martos, Josep (January–June 2015). "Juan Martín Cordero en Flandes: Humanismo, mecenazgo e imprenta" [Juan Martín Cordero in Flanders: Humanism, patronage and printing]. Revista de Filología Española (in Spanish). 95 (1). Madrid: Spanish National Research Council: 85–87. doi:10.3989/rfe.2015.04. hdl:10045/48808. ISSN 0210-9174.
  23. ^ Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Sharman, Julian (1889). The Library of Mary Queen of Scots, with an historical introduction and a rare portrait of the queen. London: Elliot Stock. pp. 152–153. OCLC 4700578. Archived from the original on August 19, 2023. Retrieved December 29, 2022 – via HathiTrust Digital Library.
  24. ^ Trentinella, Rosemarie (October 2003). "Roman Portrait Sculpture: Republican through Constantinian". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved October 27, 2024.
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