IdeologiayDiscurso Vandijk PDF
IdeologiayDiscurso Vandijk PDF
IdeologiayDiscurso Vandijk PDF
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Ideología y discurso. Una introducción multidisciplinaria
Índice
1. Definición de ideología
2
2.6. Los modelos contextuales
4. El racismo
5.1. El significado
5.2. Las estructuras proposicionales
5.3. Las estructuras formales
5.4. La sintaxis de la oración
5.5. Las formas del discurso
5.6. La argumentación
5.6.1. Falacias
5.7. La retórica
5.8. Acción e interacción
Conclusión
Bibliografía
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1. Definición de ideología
Este libro propone una introducción multidisciplinar al concepto de
‘ideología’ y se centra especialmente en la expresión, construcción o
legitimación mediante el discurso de algunas ideologías, como las racistas.
Eléments de Idéologie
Par A.L.C. Destutt-Tracy
Jeunes gens, c' est à vous que je m' adresse ; c' est pour vous sebuls que j'
écris (...)
C' est pour vous preserver de l' un et de l' autre que je veux dans cet écrit,
non pas vous enseigner, mais vous faire remarquer tout ce qui se passe en vous
quand vous pensez, parlez, et raisonnez. Avoir des idées, les exprimer, les
combiner, sont trois choses différentes, mais étroitement liées entre elles. Dans
la moindre phrase ces trois opérations se trouvent : elles sont si mêlées, elles s'
exécutent si rapidement, elles se renouvellent tant de fois dans un jour, dans une
heure, dans un moment, qu' il paraît d’abord fort difficile de débrouiller
comment cela se passe en nous.
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A pesar del gran interés que los estudiosos demostraron respecto al
estudio de la ideología desde la publicación del libro de Destutt de Tracy,
el concepto continúa siendo uno de los más difusos y polémicos de las
ciencias sociales. Por este motivo empezaremos con una definición de lo
que entendemos por "ideología" en este libro.
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prevalecido en las ciencias sociales, que tradicionalmente lo han utilizado
en oposición al conocimiento científico verdadero.
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Así pues, no estamos de acuerdo con los autores que afirman que el
concepto general de ideología no permite un estudio crítico.
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Un ejemplo: las ideologías racistas
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2. La ideología como cognición social
Aún teniendo en cuenta las diferencias entre las diferentes
definiciones de ideología a lo largo de la historia de las ciencias sociales,
cabe destacar que todas tienen en común el hecho de referirse a las ideas o
creencias de colectivos de gente. Resulta extraño pues, que sea este carácter
"mental" central de las ideologías el que haya sido mucho menos estudiado
que las propias funciones políticas o sociales. De hecho, si comparamos los
estudios psicológicos sobre las ideologías, en relación con los que se han
realizado desde las ciencias sociales, nos damos cuenta de que los primeros
son poco frecuentes y generalmente se reducen a estudios sobre las
creencias políticas incluso hoy en día.
Tipos de creencias
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ideologías socialistas y comunistas. También están muy relacionadas con el
sexo (ser hombre o mujer), como demuestran las ideologías feministas o
sexistas, o con la raza y la etnia, en el caso de las ideologías racistas y
antirracistas.
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subjetiva y se forma a partir de experiencias específicas. Sin embargo, ésto
no quiere decir que las ideologías no determinen nuestras creencias
personales. Más adelante veremos que las ideologías influencian las
creencias de la memoria episódica.
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creencias que la gente presupone en la interacción y el discurso diarios, y
por lo tanto, son creencias que no debemos expresar a menos que las
enseñemos o expliquemos a quienes todavía no las conocen, como los
niños o los inmigrantes de otras culturas. El discurso pues, como veremos
más adelante, presupone una gran cantidad de creencias para poder ser
comprensible.
Opiniones y actitudes.
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o actitudes racistas. En el caso de la inmigración, por ejemplo, se da este
fenómeno en las consideraciones sobre la capacidad intelectual de algunas
minorías, el papel de los inmigrantes en el mercado laboral, la relación
entre la inmigración y la delincuencia, etc. Estas actitudes pertenecen a
áreas de la sociedad diferentes y se organizan a través de creencias básicas
sobre las propiedades negativas de los Otros.
Ideologías y valores
Sin embargo, aunque los valores y las normas sean muy generales y
culturalmente aceptados, se aplican en áreas y de maneras diferentes. Por
esta razón la polémica es fundamental, ya que es el punto en el que se
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"traducen" los valores en creencias ideológicas. Por lo tanto, aunque
probablemente todos estamos a favor de la libertad, la libertad de mercado
se defiende en una ideología liberal; la libertad de prensa, en la ideología
profesional de los periodistas; la libertad ante la discriminación, en una
ideología feminista o antirracista. De la misma manera, la igualdad es un
valor predominante en la mayoría de ideologías de oposición, como en el
socialismo, el feminismo y el antirracismo. El individualismo y la
responsabilidad personal son predominantes en las ideologías conservadora
y liberal. Es decir, la interpretación de los valores de manera específica, en
función del grupo y de sus intereses, establece los pilares de las creencias
ideológicas.
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El formato proposicional de las creencias ideológicas
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Por lo tanto, asumimos que las siguientes categorías reflejan unas
categorías fundamentales de la vida y de la identidad del grupo, categorías
que podrían ser buenas candidatas para el esquema que organiza las
ideologías del grupo:
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2.3. De la ideología al discurso y al revés
Al igual que en otras formas de la cognición social, las ideologías
son por definición, bastante generales y abstractas. Deben existir porque se
aplican en un gran abanico de situaciones cotidianas. Por lo tanto, las
ideologías racistas incluyen cómo pensamos nosotros respecto a ellos en
general; los individuos del grupo quizás (o quizás no, en función de las
circunstancias) "aceptarán" estas opiniones generales en situaciones
concretas y por lo tanto en discursos concretos.
Actitudes ideológicas
¿Conocimiento ideológico?
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evidencia científica; mientras que otros verán en el mismo planteamiento
un prejuicio racista basado en unos argumentos equívocos y en una
aplicación engañosa del método científico.
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aceptaba prácticamente todo el mundo, pero que actualmente sólo se asocia
a las creencias ideológicas de un grupo de personas. Contrariamente, lo que
en el pasado era una creencia conflictiva (por ejemplo la forma y la
posición de la tierra) hoy se acepta de forma general como una creencia de
fundamento común.
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La estructura de los modelos mentales
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forman parte de los modelos mentales. Si nosotros nos oponemos a la
inmigración de más gente de África, -que es parte de una actitud anti-
inmigración controlada por una ideología racista-, el modelo mental que yo
como miembro del grupo tengo ante la llegada reciente de inmigrantes
caracterizará opiniones más específicas (en función de la situación)
derivadas de la ideología general.
El conflicto ideológico
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situaciones cotidianas la gente vive, se expresa o actúa de acuerdo con
ideologías diferentes y que estas expresiones o interacciones son únicas.
Los modelos mentales responden a esta unicidad y a la naturaleza
contextual de las opiniones ideológicas expresadas. No obstante, tampoco
hay duda alguna de que en situaciones diferentes, no sólo un actor social,
sino muchos, expresan y utilizan las mismas opiniones u opiniones muy
similares.
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queremos hablar de un hecho, debemos usar el modelo del hecho que
hemos representado. Contrariamente, cuando escuchamos una historia,
construimos un modelo mental (¡el nuestro!) que nos permite entenderla.
En otras palabras, el lenguaje incluye la expresión y la composición de
cómo construimos (o actualizamos) los modelos mentales.
En este sentido, los discursos son como icebergs que sólo expresan
unos cuantos significados (proposiciones) y de los cuales se podría
presuponer mucha más información. Dicha información queda implícita
porque los propios miembros de una misma cultura la proporcionan en la
construcción de sus propios modelos de un hecho. De manera que los
emisores y los receptores de una cultura comparten el mismo fundamento
común, mientras construyen y comprenden el discurso. Es decir:
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actitudes) en común con otros miembros de la misma cultura. El hecho de
conocer a otras personas íntimamente -nuestros padres, hijos, pareja o
amigos- generalmente implica que conocemos el modelo de información
concreto del que disponen. Así pues, también sabemos qué información no
debemos incluir en el discurso.
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Puesto que tanto hablar como escribir son actividades progresivas,
los modelos contextuales deben ser dinámicos. Evolucionan y cambian a
partir de cada palabra, de manera que dan por supuesto todo lo que se ha
afirmado anteriormente y que se convierte automáticamente en parte del
contexto (conocido). Los emisores por lo tanto, adaptan continuamente lo
que afirman a lo que piensan que los receptores ya saben y a los
significados del discurso que construirán en consecuencia. Las relaciones
sociales entre los participantes, la presencia de determinados objetos, el
tiempo y otros elementos de la situación comunicativa cambian y conducen
a modelos contextuales continuamente actualizados.
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Los modelos contextuales y el estilo
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Sin embargo, antes de empezar conviene resumir lo que hemos visto
hasta ahora en un esquema general:
Ideología y Discurso
Situación Social
Discurso/Interacción
Memoria personal/episódica
Representación discursiva
-------------------------------------------------------
Grupo I Grupo II
Conocimiento I Conocimiento II
Actitudes I Actitudes II
Ideología I Ideología II
Common Ground
Actitudes culturales Valores
Cognición social
Estructura social: grupos, instituciones, poder
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3. Las ideologías en la sociedad
Contrariamente a lo que proponen trabajos anteriores en ciencias
sociales, hemos puesto énfasis en el hecho que las ideologías también
tienen una dimensión cognitiva muy importante: debemos estudiarlas como
estructuras representadas en la mente de los miembros de un grupo, igual
que el conocimiento.
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sociales, las instituciones, las organizaciones, los estados y las sociedades
así como sus relaciones, como las de poder, etc. Puesto que un grupo
comparte las ideologías, socialmente hablando sus miembros pertenecen a
un nivel macro de descripción, mientras que las opiniones individuales de
un actor social en un momento dado pertenecen al nivel micro de
descripción.
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etc. Estas formas -a veces muy sutiles- también muestran si consideramos
que alguien nos es igual, inferior o superior. Todas las mujeres reconocen
la forma que tienen algunos hombres de manifestar el sexismo/machismo
sólo con una mirada, el tono de voz, los gestos o la proximidad.
Los grupos
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relativa al grupo y ciertos objetivos comunes que van más allá de una
situación o acontecimiento concretos.
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defenderse o legitimarse en la esfera pública. Deben captarse miembros
nuevos a través de los diferentes tipos de propaganda. Los líderes o
ideólogos quizás han de enseñar y predicar para mantener la ideología viva.
Para favorecer esta labor se utilizan libros y otros medios de comunicación.
Es decir, la ‘vida ideológica’ de un grupo se basa en la organización
compleja de funciones, organizaciones e instituciones y de sus
correspondientes prácticas cotidianas; son un ejemplo las iglesias, los
partidos políticos y los movimientos como el feminista, ecologista, el
pacifista o el movimiento a favor de los derechos humanos.
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o de un programa de televisión se basan en las ideologías de los actores
sociales que participan como miembros de grupos sociales diferentes.
Ideología y poder
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comunicación- controlar las mentes de otras personas. Entonces hablamos
de persuasión o manipulación. Según nuestra teoría cognitiva, esto significa
que el discurso poderoso puede influenciar en la manera en que definimos
un acontecimiento o una situación en nuestros modelos mentales, o en que
representamos la sociedad en nuestro conocimiento, actitudes e ideologías.
El poder necesita una "base de poder", por ejemplo, recursos sociales
escasos como la fuerza, dinero, bienes inmuebles, conocimiento,
información o estatus. Uno de los recursos sociales importantes de gran
parte del poder contemporáneo es el acceso al discurso público. Quien
controle el discurso público, controla indirectamente las mentes (incluidas
las ideologías) de las personas, y, por lo tanto, también sus prácticas
sociales. A menudo, encontramos esta relación entre el poder social, el
discurso, la mente y el control. En un enfoque más crítico del poder,
estamos interesados especialmente en el abuso de poder o dominación, y
cómo las ideologías se pueden utilizar para legitimar este dominio.
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recursos y los objetivos simbólicos o los relacionados con el estilo de vida,
la sexualidad, la salud, etc.
Si las ideologías van dirigidas a los grupos sociales, sería extraño que
también fueran dirigidas a sociedades o culturas enteras al mismo tiempo.
La cuestión es que las ideologías se desarrollan como las formas mentales
de (auto) identificación de un grupo y con frecuencia en relación con otros
grupos. Ésto quiere decir que si no se dan conflictos, objetivos, intereses,
luchas, competencia por los recursos escasos o los simbólicos, las
ideologías no tienen ningún sentido. Es decir, las ideologías sólo tienen
razón de ser dentro de los grupos o entre Ellos y no respecto a la sociedad
en conjunto. Este caso sólo se daría si una sociedad entera se relacionase
con otra, como en el caso de dos países, momento en el que aparecerían las
ideologías nacionalistas.
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4. El racismo
Las ideologías son en cierto sentido objetos mentales, sistemas
compartidos socialmente. Sin embargo, las ideas de un grupo, según
acabamos de analizar, no se dan en un vacío social. Contrariamente, se
originan, se usan y se reproducen como parte inherente de la vida social y
se relacionan con los grupos y movimientos sociales con poder, dominio y
conflictos. Por lo tanto, es imposible entender completamente las
ideologías comunista o socialista sin saber algo sobre la historia de la lucha
de clases y la opresión de los trabajadores en las sociedades capitalistas.
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destino, se encuentran con los peores barrios, edificios y trabajos, si es que
llegan a tenerlos.
El racismo cotidiano
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en los periódicos. El racismo ordinario forma parte de la vida cotidiana de
las minorías de Europa y Norteamérica.
Así pues, las ideologías racistas no son un sistema abstracto que flota
sobre la sociedad europea. Al contrario, se trata de creencias históricas,
sociales y culturales que han arraigado en la mente social de muchos
europeos y que de una manera más o menos sutil controlan sus creencias
sobre los no-europeos. Este tipo de actitudes quedan demostradas por el
hecho de que, por ejemplo, en la actualidad más de dos terceras partes de la
población de la Europa occidental se opone a más movimientos
inmigratorios. Este sentimiento no tiene por qué ser de tipo étnico o racial
(aunque en la práctica suele serlo), tan sólo consiste en un trato despectivo
de los demás que implica una forma de categorización negativa. A través
de las estructuras complejas de la vida cotidiana y de la cultura en Europa,
las personas de descendencia africana y de otras procedencias no-Europeas
son percibidas y evaluadas rutinariamente no sólo como seres diferentes,
sino al margen de la sociedad y conflictivos, cuando no, peligrosos. De esta
manera tan arraigada, las ideologías racistas determinan las actitudes
sociales en muchos dominios de la vida multicultural de Europa y
Norteamérica. Este fenómeno también se da entre los grupos y las
instituciones europeas donde se rechaza el racismo con más fervor: entre
las élites, es decir, en la política, los medios de comunicación, la educación,
la universidad, los tribunales de justicia, los ministerios, etc. Es decir: las
ideologías racistas son fundamentos socialmente compartidos de las
creencias étnicas y raciales que permiten la desigualdad cotidiana definida
como racismo cotidiano. Más adelante veremos como algunos segmentos
de estas ideologías racistas también aparecen en el discurso.
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Resumen. El racismo es un sistema de desigualdad étnica y racial
que las prácticas sociales discriminatorias, incluyendo el discurso,
reproducen en el nivel local (micro) y las instituciones, organizaciones y
relaciones generales entre los grupos reproducen en el nivel global (macro);
desigualdad que las ideologías racistas potencian cognitivamente.
¿Qué estructuras?
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léxico diferente que depende mucho más de qué opinión nos merece
aquella persona; esta opinión depende de nuestra posición ideológica y de
las actitudes que tengamos respecto al grupo y a las personas que
pertenecen al mismo. Dicho de otra forma, debemos buscar las propiedades
del discurso que muestren claramente las variaciones ideológicas de los
modelos contextuales subyacentes, los modelos de acontecimientos y las
actitudes sociales.
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A partir de esta enumeración informal de las ideologías "típicas" y de
su contenido, intentaremos formular la heurística que combina estas
creencias sociales subyacentes con su expresión en el discurso.
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la ideología en los diferentes niveles del discurso, como a continuación
ejemplificamos.
5.1. El significado
Hemos defendido que la ideología, en principio puede aparecer en
cualquier punto del discurso. Sin embargo, el "contenido" ideológico se
expresa más directamente a través del significado del discurso. Puesto que
el significado de las palabras, frases y discursos es extraordinariamente
complejo, seleccionaremos los aspectos más relevantes. Sólo los
caracterizaremos breve e informalmente, sin un resumen extenso de sus
propiedades.
Temas
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En un proyecto de investigación sobre las conversaciones respecto a
las minorías realizada en los Países Bajos y en California, descubrimos que
los temas preferidos por los blancos autóctonos para caracterizar a los
Otros se corresponden con los tres conceptos siguientes:
Diferencia
Desviación,
Transgresión
Amenaza
Implicaciones y suposiciones
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En el análisis ideológico del discurso, hacer explícitos los
significados inferidos de una frase o de un texto es un instrumento muy
importante para el estudio.
Coherencia local
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Por lo tanto, ¿Cuáles son las opciones ideológicas de que disponen
los usuarios del lenguaje en la gestión de la coherencia del discurso?
Evidentemente no demasiadas, porque la cohesión es una condición muy
general del discurso y tanto si se es mujer u hombre, racista o antirracista,
debemos respetar las condiciones básicas de coherencia para aportar cierto
grado significado.
Sinonimia, paráfrasis
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inmigrantes mediante muchas expresiones y descripciones más o menos
sinónimas, pero los significados en el uso y las implicaciones ideológicas
serán diferentes. Por lo tanto, hablar de "extranjeros" en Europa occidental
hoy implica una referencia a las minorías étnicas o a los inmigrantes y no a
los extranjeros "reales". Además, en función del contexto el uso de esta
palabra sonará más negativa que por ejemplo el término "minorías étnicas".
Contraste
Ejemplos e ilustraciones
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parte niega los sentimientos negativos o el racismo respecto a un grupo,
mientras que el resto del discurso afirma aspectos muy negativos de los
otros. La negación en este caso funciona en primer lugar como una forma
de auto-presentación positiva, una forma de mantener las apariencias: los
emisores quieren evitar que los receptores tengan una opinión negativa de
Ellos a causa de lo que dicen sobre los inmigrantes. En los casos en que los
emisores son realmente ambivalentes respecto a sus actitudes ante las
minorías, los receptores generalmente no captan estas negaciones, sino
discursos que son de principio a fin ambivalentes, con partes positivas,
negativas y neutrales.
Negaciones
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positivos, en función de las opiniones subyacentes (representadas en los
modelos mentales). Por lo tanto, en los periódicos británicos más populares
y en el discurso político conservador encontraremos proposiciones como:
"Los refugiados son fraudulentos" y evaluaciones negativas similares sobre
las minorías, los inmigrantes o los refugiados. Tratamos pues, la esencia
del racismo discursivo: la selección de palabras que expresan predicados
negativos subyacentes sobre los Otros.
Actores
Modalidad
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Evidencia
Ambigüedad y vaguedad
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Topoi
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Puesto que la forma "en sí" no tiene significado, su función
ideológica sólo se ejerce conjuntamente con el significado o la
(inter)acción. A partir del cuadrado ideológico que hemos trabajado para
caracterizar al discurso, queda claro que las formas del discurso se
desarrollan para poner énfasis en los significados.
Por otro lado, todas las formas que cambian "en función de"
(dependientes de) alguna característica del contexto, como el escenario o el
rol social, la posición, creencia u opinión de los participantes, en principio
también tendrán una función ideológica. Por ejemplo, la variación entre
"usted" y "tú" se basa en la relación social entre el emisor y el receptor y
por lo tanto se desarrolla ideológicamente. Por lo tanto, una persona blanca
usará la forma familiar "tú" al dirigirse a una persona negra aunque en otra
situación social, quizás habría usado la forma "usted". La manipulación de
este pronombre debe entenderse como una forma de prejuicio y por lo
tanto, una expresión de ideologías racistas subyacentes.
La sintaxis de la oración
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"topicalización" o podemos "degradarlas" si las ponemos al final o incluso
si las omitimos. El orden estándar en inglés y en español consiste en
relacionar los agentes semánticos con los sujetos sintácticos, que
generalmente se hallan en la situación inicial, por ejemplo: "La policía
arrestó a los manifestantes". Si queremos que la policía sea menos
prominente desplazaremos este núcleo hacia al final de la oración mediante
una oración pasiva: "Los manifestantes fueron arrestados por la policía" o
con una oración de relativo que destaque a los manifestantes: "Fue a los
manifestantes a quienes detuvo la policía". De hecho, el agente quizás
queda implícito, como en las oraciones: "Los manifestantes fueron
arrestados". Es decir, de varias formas en las oraciones, el orden de las
palabras marca si el significado que expresamos con ciertas palabras recibe
más o menos énfasis y si este énfasis tiene implicaciones ideológicas.
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expresan el significado más importante. A veces, la información más
importante aparece al final, por ejemplo en el caso de los Resúmenes, las
Conclusiones o las Recomendaciones -pero la idea básica es que la
importancia de la información se relaciona con la importancia del
significado que a la vez se relaciona con la del orden (principio, final, etc.).
Este principio general es ideológicamente relevante.
5.6. La argumentación
Muchos géneros del discurso disponen de estructuras
argumentativas, por ejemplo los editoriales, las cartas al editor, los artículos
de investigación, los debates parlamentarios, etc. Es típico en estos géneros
que los participantes (emisores y receptores) tengan opiniones diferentes e
incluso opuestas. En el discurso argumentativo de estos actos
comunicativos uno o más participantes intentan hacer que su punto de vista
sea más aceptable o creíble formulando "argumentos" que lo sostengan.
Este tipo de discurso convencionalmente se divide en dos grandes
categorías: Argumentos y Conclusión o Punto de partida y Argumentos, en
función de lo que aparezca en primer lugar.
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con la ideología, a menos que asumamos que todas las ideologías (de una
iglesia, partido o movimiento social) también disponen de buenos retóricos.
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Falacias
5.7. La retórica
En este punto nos referimos a las estructuras descritas en la retórica
clásica como "figuras de estilo". Debemos preguntarnos si las aliteraciones,
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las metáforas, los símiles, la ironía, los eufemismos y muchas otros figuras
de estilo son variables ideológicamente. Al revisar los argumentos
anteriores sobre las estructuras formales, como las de la argumentación, no
parece plausible la naturaleza ideológica de la retórica: tanto la izquierda
como la derecha, racistas y antirracistas, hombres y mujeres utilizan todas
las formas de la retórica. El discurso racista se destaca por el uso de los
eufemismos cuando se refiere a la desigualdad étnica, el racismo o la
discriminación, y quizás no lo hace al hablar de las faltas alegadas a los
Otros; depende de las opiniones que formulemos y a quién nos refiramos.
Ésto demuestra lo que se manifiesta igualmente en todos los emisores de
grupos diferentes es el énfasis retórico en nuestros aspectos positivos y los
negativos de los demás. Este punto, sin embargo, hace referencia al
contenido y al significado y no a la forma. Es cierto que todos los grupos
usan metáforas diferentes, como lo harían los nazis (animales sucios, etc.)
para dirigirse a sus opositores y víctimas. Pero ésta es una cuestión
relacionada con el significado, el contenido y la cognición, no con la forma
ni con la elección de una figura de estilo antes que otra.
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En un sentido más amplio de la acción social (las acciones no se
llevan a cabo a través del lenguaje, pero que podrían) existen muchos actos
que forman parte de la definición de dominio: la discriminación,
derogación, marginación, etc. Se asocian al poder y a los grupos de poder
de la sociedad y por lo tanto indirectamente a la ideología de los grupos
dominantes. Debemos destacar que, igual que el significado se relaciona
más directamente con las ideologías, el "contenido" de estos actos está
relacionado con el poder, el dominio y las ideologías: todos los actos que
hemos tratado, son un tipo de abuso de poder. La estructura formal de los
actos de habla y de otros actos sociales no debe realizarse mediante un
discurso que esté relacionado con una ideología.
7. Conclusión
Empezamos este libro introductorio sobre el discurso y la ideología
con una definición multidisciplinar de ideología, según la cual las
ideologías son creencias fundamentales que forman la base de las
representaciones sociales de un grupo. Se representan en la memoria social
57
como "esquemas del grupo" que definen su identidad. Las proposiciones
fundamentales que completan este esquema dirigen la adquisición del
conocimiento y las actitudes del grupo y por lo tanto indirectamente, los
modelos personales que los miembros del grupo forman de los
acontecimientos sociales. Estos modelos mentales son representaciones que
determinan las prácticas sociales de control, incluyendo la producción y
composición del discurso.
58
miembros del grupo, a través de modelos mentales de los acontecimientos
sociales y de las situaciones sociales. Estas representaciones personales de
los acontecimientos finalmente interaccionan (posiblemente también
prestan a equívoco ideológicamente) con los modelos contextuales que los
participantes construyen dinámicamente de una situación comunicativa.
Entonces ambos modelos dan lugar a la producción del lenguaje
ideológico.
59
Finalmente, en el nivel que define el discurso a partir de las
estructuras de los actos de habla locales y globales, como las secuencias de
turno de palabra y las interrupciones, los falsos inicios y las reparaciones,
el acuerdo y el desacuerdo, la explicación de historias y la argumentación y
en resumen la acción y la interacción, las ideologías también operan en el
nivel del "significado", es decir, de aquello que se hace. Las formas
abstractas de habla, debate e interacción suelen ser bastante generales e
independientes de una ideología, pero aquello que se hace y cómo se hace
depende de la pertinencia al grupo y de la ideología.
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Ejemplos
Ahora que ya hemos tratado los aspectos teóricos de las relaciones entre el discurso y la
ideología, debemos centrarnos en los ejemplos. Proceden de un debate del parlamento
británico (Cámara de los Comunes) realizado el 5 de marzo de 1997.
El debate trata de las ayudas a unas categorías específicas de inmigrantes. Precede a este
debate otro debate sobre la situación de algunos distritos de Londres (como Westminster) que
tendrán de pagar los costes extra de la acogida de estos refugiados beneficiarios de las
ayudas. El debate es muy interesante porque muestra varias posturas ideológicas y políticas de
los parlamentarios conservadores y de los laboristas (entonces los laboristas estaban en la
oposición). Por un lado aparece una actitud en contra de los inmigrantes, que asociamos con
una forma de racismo político y por otro, las ideologías humanitarias, antirracistas que
controlan actitudes más moderadas sobre la inmigración.
Para que los ejemplos sean el máximo de prácticos y para la referencia posterior (para facilitar
la búsqueda de las propiedades del discurso por el nombre), no las hemos ordenado en
niveles, como hemos hecho con las estructuras tratadas hasta ahora, sino alfabéticamente. Es
decir, a partir del nombre de la categoría estructural relevante, ya que algunas categorías
pertenecen a varios niveles de análisis. Primero hemos clasificado cada categoría en uno o
más niveles de análisis, hemos resumido la definición (cuando convenía repitiendo parte de la
teoría ya explicada para que no sea necesario volver a la teoría continuamente), hemos
indicado las funciones ideológicas que tiene y hemos puesto ejemplos.
Ya que los ejemplos provienen de un único debate, no hemos podido ilustrar todas las
categorías -de todas formas, para que esta sección sea completa las hemos tratado
igualmente, aunque sea sin poner ejemplos y hemos resumido algunos ejemplos en la
descripción de la categoría aunque no los hayamos mencionado directamente. En la
descripción de una categoría a veces nos referimos a otras categorías, en este caso aparecen
en mayúsculas para que reconozcáis que dicha categoría está definida en otro punto de la lista.
Además de la lista de categorías analíticas ordenada alfabéticamente que nos servirá para
ilustrar las propiedades ideológicas de las estructuras del discurso, esta sección también puede
considerarse como un breve resumen de las propiedades del discurso político (especialmente
parlamentario) y retórico.
Los nombres de los interlocutores de los ejemplos van seguidos de la letra C en el caso de los
conservadores y de L en el de los laboristas. Muchas citas provienen del largo discurso del Sra.
Gorman (conservadora) que tomó la iniciativa del debate. Su discurso populista se centra en el
pobre ciudadano británico, el "contribuyente" víctima de los refugiados extranjeros a quien
describe con términos negativos. De hecho, como veremos en muchas de sus intervenciones y
las de otros conservadores, la estrategia general del discurso se basa en la ideología racista de
presentación positiva de uno mismo y la presentación negativa de los otros, donde nosotros
(los blancos originarios), somos los británicos y ellos los inmigrantes, los refugiados, las
minorías y por extensión, también los que los defienden (en este caso los laboristas y en
concreto la "Loca Izquierda" (the Loony Left).
61
Lista alfabética de las categorías del análisis ideológico
*
( 2 ) (...) an all-party document that pointed out that it was costing about £200 million a
year for those people (Gorman, C).
(...) un documento de todos los partidos señala que estas personas cuestan
aproximadamente 200 millones de libras al año (Gorman, C).
( 3 ) It is wrong that ratepayers in the London area should bear an undue proportion of
the burden of expenditure that those people are causing (Gorman, C).
No está bien que los contribuyentes del área de Londres deban cargar con una
parte excesiva del gasto que generan estas personas (Gorman, C).
( 4 )The problem of supporting them has landed largely on the inner London boroughs,
where most of those people migrate as there is more to do in central London (Gorman,
C).
La carga no sólo se compone del elemento económico, también incluye el social, como
muestran los ejemplos siguientes, aunque siempre se mantiene la implicación financiera:
( 5 ) There are also about 2,000 families, with young children who must be supported
(Gorman, C)
También hay unas 2.000 familias, con niños pequeños que debemos mantener
(Gorman, C).
*
En esta versión preliminar los enlaces al texto original en inglés (ver abajo) NO funcionan.
62
( 6 ) Presumably, if those people are here for long enough under such terms, they will
have to be provided with clothing, shoe leather and who knows what else (Gorman, C)
Es importante destacar que la carga es una postura del discurso en contra de la inmigración
muy "segura", ya que implica que no rechazamos a los inmigrantes por lo que son (color,
cultura u origen), ni por mala voluntad o por otros prejuicios, sino porque no podemos. Por lo
tanto, no nos ha de sorprender que sea un discurso político ampliamente usado en la UE
contra la inmigración y no sólo por parte de la derecha.
( 7 ) There are, of course, asylum seekers and asylum seekers (Gorman, C).
( 8 ) I entirely support the policy of the Gobiernoment to help genuine asylum seekers
(Gorman, C).
( 9 ) ... those people, many of whom could reasonably be called economic migrants and
some of whom are just benefit seekers on holiday, to remain in Britain (Gorman, C)
... estas personas, la mayoría de las cuales podemos llamar con razón
emigrantes económicos, y algunos de los cuales no son más que buscadores
de ayudas sociales de vacaciones que buscan quedarse en Gran Bretaña
(Gorman, C).
( 10 ) The Gobiernoment's reasoning was the same then as it is now: they still talk
about economic migrants and benefit scroungers (Gerrard, L).
( 11 ) But the escalating number of economic and bogus asylum seekers who have
come here, not because of persecution but because of the economic situation in this
country and the benefits it affords them, has caused great concern (Burns, C)
63
refugiados o de las minorías y los interlocutores comparan a los miembros de dentro con los de
fuera del grupo. En el discurso racista, estas comparaciones implican la finalidad negativa de
quienes están fuera del grupo en la comparación, como en el argumento cotidiano: "Si vamos
al extranjero, aprenderemos otro idioma" en un argumento en el que se acusa a los
"extranjeros" de no querer aprender "nuestro" idioma. En el discurso antirracista sobre los
refugiados, las comparaciones favorecen a los excluidos, por ejemplo cuando se afirma que
comparadas con "nuestras" experiencias cotidianas, las de los refugiados son mucho peores.
Igualmente, en el discurso antirracista "nuestro" país quizás se compara de manera negativa (a
diferencia de la hospitalidad en los países de origen de los refugiados). Otra postura
comparativa muy conocida es la de los inmigrantes actuales (refugiados, políticos
antiimmigrantes) con situaciones parecidas del pasado. El rechazo a aceptar refugiados se
compara con el caso de los judíos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Ofrecemos otro ejemplo de
comparación que explica por qué no todos los refugiados hablan de sus experiencias al llegar
al Reino Unido:
( 12 ) Many soldiers who were tortured during the second world war found it difficult to
talk about their experiences for years. That is no different from the position of people
who have been tortured in Iran, Iraq, west Africa or anywhere else. The issue is not
simple. They feel a sense of failure, a sense of humiliation and a sense of defeat.
(Corbyn, L).
64
( 14 ) I suggest that he start to think more seriously about human rights issues.
Suppose he had to flee this country because an oppressive regime had taken over.
Where would he go? Presumably he would not want help from anyone else, because he
does not believe that help should be given to anyone else (Corbyn, L).
Sugiero que empiece a pensar con más seriedad en los derechos humanos.
Suponga que debe dejar su país porque un régimen opresor ha tomado el
poder. ¿Dónde iría? Seguramente no querría la ayuda de los demás, porque
no cree que se deba ayudar a nadie (Corbyn, L).
Incluso si aceptamos el punto de vista del gobierno -cosa que yo no hago- que
sólo una pequeña parte de las personas que piden asilo son refugiados de
verdad, no podemos defender una política que deja indefensos a los refugiados
auténticos (Gerrard, L).
( 1 ) In one case, a man from Romania, who came over here on a coach tour for a
football match--if the hon. Member for Perth and Kinross (Ms Cunningham) would listen
she would hear practical examples--decided that he did not want to go back, declared
himself an asylum seeker and is still here four years later. He has never done a stroke
of work in his life. Why should someone who is elderly and who is scraping along on
their basic income have to support people in those circumstances? (Gorman, C).
65
que mantener a gente en esta situación alguien que ya es mayor y que
sobrevive gracias a una pensión mínima? (Gorman, C).
( 64 ) Let us return to the issues facing people fleeing areas of oppression. Currently if
they arrive here, seek asylum and are refused, they have lost all access to benefits.
They then have to undergo an appeal process, which can take a very long time. During
the appeal process, what on earth are they supposed to do unless they are declared
destitute and consequently supported by a local authority? (Corbyn, L).
Volvamos a los problemas con los que se tiene que enfrentar la gente que
huye de las áreas de opresión. Actualmente, si llegan aquí, solicitan asilo y se
les deniega, han perdido todo acceso a las ayudas. Entonces deben pasar por
un proceso de apelación que puede ser muy largo. Durante este proceso, ¿qué
se espera que hagan a menos que se les considere sin recursos y, por lo tanto,
alguna autoridad asuma su manutención? (Corbyn, L).
( 65 ) Those people came to this country and applied for asylum. Their applications
were refused, and they appealed. They are now living a life of virtual destitution, while
the Hombre Office ponders on what to do for them. Those people stood up for their
communities against an oppressive regime (Corbyn, L).
66
parte del Gobierno respecto a los refugiados. Tanto la empatía por los miembros de dentro o
como por los de fuera del grupo puede generalizarse o aparecer en un ejemplo. Os
proponemos uno de las dos formas de empatía, el segundo también ilustra una forma de
comparación entre el grupo de dentro y el de fuera:
( 21 ) Many of those people live in old-style housing association Peabody flats. They are
on modest incomes. Many of them are elderly, managing on their state pnosion and
perhaps also a little pension from their work. They pay their full rent and for all their own
expenses (Gorman, C).
( 22 ) So far as I am aware, no hon. Member has been woken up by the police at 4 am,
taken into custody with no rights of access to a judicial system, and, with his or her
family, forced to flee into exile for their own safety. It is not an experience that most
British people have had, and we should think very carefully about what a mayor step it
would be to undertake such a journey (Corbyn, L).
( 23 ) According to the magistrates court yesterday, she has cost the British taxpayer
£40,000. She was arrested, of course, for stealing (Gorman).
67
Según anunció ayer el juzgado de paz, esta mujer le ha costado 40.000 libras
al contribuyente británico. La arrestaron, por supuesto, por robo (Gorman).
( 24 ) This morning, I was reading a letter from a constituent of mine (..) (Gorman).
( 25 ) The people who I met told me, chapter and verse, of how they had been treated
by the regime in Iran (Corbyn, L).
La gente con quien me reuní me explicó, con pelos y señales cómo los había
tratado el régimen iraní (Corbyn, L).
( 26 ) The Daily Mail today reports the case of a woman from Russia who has managed
to stay in Britain for five years. According to the magistrates court yesterday, she has
cost the British taxpayer £40,000. She was arrested, of course, for stealing (Gorman,
C).
Hoy el Daily Mail explica el caso de una mujer rusa que ha conseguido
quedarse en Gran Bretaña durante 5 años. Según anunció ayer el juzgado de
paz, esta mujer le ha costado 40.000 libras al contribuyente británico. La
arrestaron, por supuesto, por robo (Gorman, C).
( 27 ) The people who y met told me, chapter and verse, of how they had been treated
by the regime in Iran--of how they had been summarily imprisoned, with no access to
the courts; of how their families had been beaten up and abused while in prison; and of
how the regime murdered one man's fiancee in front of him because he would not talk
about the secret activities that he was supposed to be involved in (Corbyn, L).
Las personas con quien me he reunido, me han explicado con pelos y señales
como les trató el régimen iraní -como les habían encarcelado sumariamente,
sin poder acceder a un tribunal; como les habían pegado y abusado de sus
familias mientras estuvieron en la cárcel y como el régimen había asesinado a
la prometida de un hombre delante de Ellos porque no había querido hablar de
las actividades en las que se suponía que participaba (Corbyn, L).
68
error", cuando los actos negativos de los miembros del grupo se explican directamente,
mientras que los actos negativos de fuera del grupo se explican a partir de las propiedades
inherentes de sus actores (por ejemplo, porque son delincuentes y no puede confiarse en
ellos). Lo contrario es válido en el discurso antirracista, que se centra en las terribles
circunstancias del exilio que ha provocado a menudo -porque no tenían ninguna otra opción-
que los inmigrantes transgredan la ley, como en el ejemplo siguiente:
( 28 ) If one has grown up in Iraq and has always been comopletely terrified of anyone
wearing any type of uniform, it is fairly unlikely that--after managing to steal oneself out
of Iraq, possibly using false documentation, aliases, guides and other measures--one
will trust a person wearing a uniform whom one encounters when first arriving at the
airport. It is more likely that one would first get out of the airport and then think about the
next step (Corbyn, L).
Deberíamos tener una actitud diferente respecto a los refugiados (Corbyn, L).
( 46 ) We should think a bit more seriously about how we treat those people (Corbyn,
L).
( 48 ) It is wrong to force themos into destitution or to throw themos out of the country,
often with no access to lawyers or anyone lose (Corbyn, L).
( 49 ) Europe must stop its xenophobic attitude towards those who seek a place of
sahechoy here and adopt a more humane approach.
Falacias (Fallacies), (Argumentación). Los debates parlamentarios, como cualquier otro tipo
de disputa por puntos de vista y opiniones opuestas, están cargados de infracciones
normativas de la argumentación "correcta", es decir de falacias. Las infracciones surgen de
cualquier elemento del acto argumentativo, como la naturaleza de las premisas, las relaciones
69
entre las mismas y la conclusión, las relaciones entre los emisores y los receptores, etc.
Existen muchos tipos de falacias que no especificaremos aquí; como hemos visto
anteriormente, reclamar el apoyo del punto de vista propio al referirse a una autoridad
(incorrectamente) implica que el punto de vista propio es verdadero porque otros también lo
mantienen. Igualmente, las relaciones entre las premisas y la conclusión pueden ser erróneas
como en una falacia non-sequitur. Examinemos el ejemplo siguiente, en el que la disponibilidad
de trabajo en las ciudades parece ser una condición suficiente para que los refugiados trabajen
ilegalmente:
( 29 ) I am sure that many of them are working illegally, and of course work is readily
available in big cities (Gorman).
( 30 ) We must also face the fact that, even in the case of brutal dictatorships such as
Iraq, we cannot take in all those who suffer (Shaw, C).
70
efectivas. Sucede lo mismo en el caso opuesto, en el que se generalizan las experiencias
negativas de los inmigrantes en sus países o en los países donde emigran para corroborar el
argumento de la empatía y de las políticas que han de ayudarles. Debemos tener en cuenta,
además, que la (sobre)generalización de los actos o acontecimientos negativos es la base de
los estereotipos y del prejuicio. Evidentemente, lo contrario también es válido como parte de la
presentación positiva de uno mismo: se generalizan los actos o políticas actuales consideradas
beneficiosas en la retórica nacionalista, como algo que "Nosotros" siempre hacemos.
Centrémonos en los ejemplos siguientes:
( 31 ) Such things go on and they get up the noses of all constituents (Gorman, C).
Estos hechos continúan pasando y a los electores les hace subirse por las
paredes (Gorman, C).
( 32 ) In the United Kingdom there has been a systemic erosion of peoples' ability to
seek asylum and to have their cases properly determined (Corbyn, L).
( 33 ) If someone has a legitimate fear of persecution, they flee abroad and try to seek
asylum (Corbyn, L).
( 35 ) First, it matters crucially that this country honours, as it always has, its obligations
under the Geneva convention (Wardle, C).
Lo más importante es que este país honre, como siempre lo ha hecho, sus
obligaciones ante la Convención de Ginebra (Wardle, C).
( 44 ) Britain has always honoured the Geneva convention, and has given sanctuary to
people with a well-founded fear of persecution in the country from which they are fleeing
and whose first safe country landing is in the United Kingdom (Wardle, C).
71
Hipérbole (Hyperbole), (Retórica). Como en el caso de la dramatización, las hipérboles son
recursos retóricos y semánticos en la elaboración de significados. En la estrategia general de la
presentación positiva de uno mismo y la negativa de los otros en los debates parlamentarios
sobre los inmigrantes, debemos esperar que las acciones o propiedades negativas atribuidas a
los Otros se expresen de manera hiperbólica (y nuestras acciones negativas en términos
rebajados) y al contrario. A veces, el uso de algunas metáforas ya implica estas hipérboles,
como observamos en el uso que hace la Sra. Gorman "de abrir las compuertas" al referirse a la
llegada de refugiados. Igualmente, para poner énfasis en el largo proceso de gestión de las
solicitudes de asilo en los juzgados, hablará de un proceso "interminable". Por otro lado, los
interlocutores laboristas ponen énfasis en la naturaleza negativa de los regímenes autoritarios,
el Sr. Corbyn los denomina "profundamente opresores"; las condiciones de los refugiados que
llegan de estos países son "repulsivas". Igualmente, en el Parlamento considera que una
pregunta de un parlamentario conservador es "completamente ridícula". Debemos tener en
cuenta, sin embargo, que en todos los recursos que analizamos la interpretación puede
depender de un punto de vista político: lo que es exagerado para un grupo, quizás es
sencillamente la verdad más objetiva y la forma "correcta" de referirse a un tema para otro
grupo.
( 37 ) I am sure that many of them are working illegally, and of course work is readily
available in big cities (Gorman, C).
( 38 ) It is ecually important that abuse of the asylum rules by the large number of
people who make asylum applications knowing that their position as illegal immigrants
has no bearing on the Geneva convention should be debateed openly, so that it is fully
understood and tackled (Wardle, C).
72
( 39 ) ....because there are many attempts at illegal immigration using asylum
techniques, fraudulent documents or other methods (Shaw, C).
73
Hacer referencia a las consecuencias (in)deseables de las políticas actuales
Hacer referencia al momento y al espacio actuales
Hacer referencia al procedimiento parlamentario
Hacer referencia al propio papel de representar un distrito
Hacer una pregunta (retórica)
Incitar colectivamente ("Debemos...")
Interrumpir a un interlocutor
Llamar la atención de otros parlamentarios
Mostrar acuerdo y desacuerdo respecto a otros parlamentarios
Pedir turno de palabra
Rechazar el turno de palabra, ceder la palabra
Recomendar al Gobierno
Recomendar una política, etc.
Recordar algún tema a los parlamentarios
Recordar las obligaciones de los parlamentarios
Responder a una pregunta
Retar a otros parlamentarios
Sugerir una acción a los parlamentarios
Ironía (Irony), (Retórica). Las acusaciones son más efectivas si no se hacen directamente
(acción que violaría la interacción), sino que se suavizan mediante la ironía. En la crítica mutua
y los ataques de los conservadores y los laboristas hay grandes dosis de ironía, aspecto que
caracteriza la auténtica dimensión interactiva del debate. Sin embargo, cuando se habla de los
inmigrantes, la ironía también sirve para criticar a los refugiados, como en el caso de la
expresión "descubrir de repente" en el siguiente ejemplo, ya que implica que un
"descubrimiento tan repentino" sólo puede ser fraudulento, puesto que los inmigrantes ya
sabían desde el principio que venían al país para quedarse.
( 40 ) Too many asylum seekers enter the country initially as family visitors, tourists,
students and business people, and then suddenly discover that they want to remain as
asylum seekers (Shaw, C).
( 50 ) It would open the floodgates again, and presumably the £200 million a year cost
that was estimated when the legislation was introduced (Gorman, C).
Abriría otra vez las compuertas y por lo tanto, aproximadamente los 200
millones de libras anuales en gastos que se calcularon cuando se estableció la
legislación (Gorman, C).
La historia como una lección (History as lesson), (Tópico). Igual que en el caso de la
comparación, con frecuencia es útil en una discusión demostrar que la situación presente
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puede compararse a unos hechos anteriores (positivos o negativos) de la historia. Estas
comparaciones se generalizan al máximo en el tópico las "Lecciones de la historia", la
respuesta argumentativa de las cuales se da por supuesta, como si fuese una ley de la historia:
( 36 ) History shows that unless we stand up for human rights wherever they are
abused around the world, eventually it will come back and our human rights will be
abused (Corbyn, L).
Legalidad (Legality), (Argumentación). Parte de los argumentos que apoyan al punto de vista
que se opone a la inmigración parten de contar con el recurso de la ley y de las regulaciones,
que evidentemente es un argumento estándar (y por lo tanto un tópico) en un cuerpo legislativo
como el parlamento:
( 41 ) (...) there is a procedure whereby people can legitimately become part of our
community (Gorman, C).
(...) existe un procedimiento para que la gente pueda venir legalmente y formar
parte de nuestra comunidad (Gorman, C).
( 42 ) The Asylum and Immigration Act 1996 stated that people whose application to
renuncan in Britain had been turned down could no longer receive the social security
and housing benefit that they had previously enjoyed (Gorman, C).
( 43 ) In order to try to subvert the legislation, a case was recently brought before our
courts and to the High Court which sought to overturn the provisions that the
Gobiernoment intended (Gorman, C).
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un duro para vivir" o "tonterías" para rechazar un argumento o la afirmación de un hecho que
no se considera válida.
Metáfora (Metaphor), (Retórica). Existen pocas figuras retóricas y semánticas tan persuasivas
como las metáforas, también en los debates sobre la inmigración. Los significados abstractos,
complejos, poco familiares, nuevos o emocionales son más familiares y concretos. El uso de la
metáfora estándar (si no tópico) de la "riada" refuerza la idea de la amenaza de una inmigración
que no puede detenerse y que nos "arrastra" a todos. Más que las cifras, la metáfora de la
riada simboliza el peligro de las cantidades letales, igual que en el caso de la metáfora militar
de la "invasión", utilizada para referirse a los "visitantes del extranjero" peligrosos. De esta
forma, la Sra. Gorman avanza los peligros de los cambios en la ley actual diciendo que
"abrirían las compuertas otra vez" y en cuanto los refugiados entren en el país, se les acusará
de fraude, "de exprimir a los contribuyentes", de ser "adictos" a los servicios sociales, (Sra.
Gorman, C). La mayoría de estas metáforas son negativas y por lo tanto se incluyen en la
estrategia global de la descripción negativa de los demás. Éste es el caso cuando las
metáforas se convierten en formas explícitas de derogación, por ejemplo, cuando se denomina
a los refugiados "parásitos" del sistema social (Sra. Gorman, C). Es decir, se asocia a los
inmigrantes con animales sucios y peligrosos o incluso se les considera una amenaza, como
en el caso de los judíos en la propaganda nazi.
Negaciones (Disclaimers), (Significado). Los diferentes tipos de negación son una buena
combinación de la estrategia basada ideológicamente en presentar nuestros aspectos positivos
y los negativos de los demás. Debemos destacar que las negaciones en estos debates
generalmente no expresan ambigüedad en la actitud, cuando se mencionan tanto los aspectos
positivos como los negativos de la inmigración o cuando se sostienen los valores humanitarios
por un lado, pero se afirma que la "carga" de los refugiados va más allá de nuestros medios por
otro. Las negaciones nos lavan la cara porque mencionan Nuestras características positivas,
pero se centran de manera casi exclusiva en Sus características negativas. Por lo tanto
calificaremos la parte positiva de la negación como "Aparente" como en las Negaciones,
Concesiones, Empatía aparentes, etc.:
( 17 ) I understand that many people want to come to Britain to work, but there is a
procedure whereby people can legitimately becomoe parte of our comomunity
(Gorman, C). [Apparent Empathy]
Entiendo que mucha gente quiera venir a Gran Bretaña a trabajar pero existe
un procedimiento para que la gente pueda venir legalmente y formar parte de
nuestra comunidad (Gorman, C). [Empatía aparente]
( 18 ) The Government are keen to help genuine asylum seekers, but do not want them
to be sucked into the racket of evading our immigration laws (Gorman, C). [Apparent
Benevolence]
( 19 ) I did not say that every eastern European's application for asylum in this country
was bogus. However... (Gorman, C) [Apparent Denial]
Yo no he dicho que todas las solicitudes de asilo de los países del Este sean
fraudulentas. Sin embargo... (Gorman, C) [Negación aparente]
( 20 ) Protesters may genuinely be concerned about refugees in detention, but the fact
is that only a tiny proportion of applicants are detained (Wardle, C). [Apparent
Concession].
76
Los que protestan quizás están preocupados de verdad por los refugiados
detenidos, pero el hecho es que sólo una pequeña proporción de los
solicitantes es retenida (Wardle, C). [Concesión aparente].
( 51 ) It is ecually important that abuse of the asylum rules by the large number of
people who make asylum applications knowing that their position as illegal inmigrantes
has no bearing on the Geneva convention should be debateed openly, so that it is fully
understood and tackled. (Wardle, C).
( 52 ) Now they are going to be asked to pay £35 to able-bodied males who have come
over here on a prolonged holiday and now claim that the British taxpayer should support
them (Gorman, C).
Ahora les pedirán que paguen 35 libras a unos hombres llenos de salud que
han venido aquí de vacaciones prolongadas y que ahora afirman que el
contribuyente británico debería mantenerles (Gorman, C).
( 53 ) It is true that, in many cases, they have made careful provision for themosselves
in their old age, have a small additional pnosion as well as their old- age pnosion and
pay all their rent and their bills and ask for nothing from the state. They are proud and
happy to do so. Such people should not be exploited by people who are exploiting the
system (Gorman, C).
77
que sea así. Quienes explotan el sistema no deberían poder explotar a
personas como éstas.
( 57 ) It is wrong that ratepayers in the London area should bear an undue proportion of
the burden of expenditure that those people are causing (Gorman, C).
No está bien que los contribuyentes del área de Londres deban cargar con una
parte excesiva del gasto que generan estas personas (Gorman, C).
( 58 ) £140 million a year, which is a great deal of money to be found from the council
tax budget (Gorman, C).
140 millones de libras, que es mucho dinero para sacarlo de una autoridad
local (Gorman, C).
( 59 ) Why should someone who is elderly and who is scraping along on their basic
incomoe have to support people in those circumstances? (Gorman, C).
¿Por qué tiene que mantener a gente en esta situación alguien que ya es
mayor y que sobrevive gracias a una pensión mínima? (Gorman, C).
78
( 54 ) I entirely support the policy of the Gobiernoment to help genuine asylum seekers,
but...(Gorman, C).
but... (Gorman, C)
Entiendo que mucha gente quiera venir a Gran Bretaña a trabajar, pero...
(Gorman, C).
( 56 ) A lot of brave people in this country have stood up for the rights and needs of
asylum seekers (Corbyn, L).
( 63 ) (...) those people, many of whom could reasonably be called economic migrants
(Gorman, C).
( 60 ) I wonder whether the hon. Genteleman will tell the House what mandate he has
from the British people to share their citizenship with foreigners? (Gill, C).
79
Me pregunto si el hon. Señor explicará a la Cámara si los británicos le han
pedido compartir su ciudadanía con los extranjeros (Gill, C).
( 61 ) It is ecually important that abuse of the asylum rules by the large number of
people who make asylum applications knowing that their position as illegal inmigrants
has no bearing on the Geneva convention should be debateed openly, so that it is fully
understood and tackled. (Wardle, C).
( 66 ) Goodness knows how much it costs for the legal aid that those people invoke to
keep challenging the decision that they are not bona fide asylum seekers (Gorman, C).
Vaya usted a saber cuánto cuesta a la ayuda legal que estas personas piden,
el hecho de continuar poniendo en duda que no son refugiados auténticos
(Gorman, C).
( 68 ) Many of those people live in old-style housing association Peabody flats. They are
on modest incomes. Many of them are elderly, managing on their state pnosion and
perhaps also a little pnosion from their work. They pay their full rent and for all their own
expenses. Now they are going to be asked to pay £35 to able-bodied males who have
come over here on a prolonged holiday and now claim that the British taxpayer should
support them.
80
aquí de vacaciones prolongadas y que ahora afirman que el contribuyente
británico debería mantenerles (Gorman, C).
Las categorías que hemos analizado anteriormente demuestran la realidad del discurso y del
racismo -y del antirracismo- en Europa. Demuestran de qué forma tan poderosa las creencias
basadas en las ideologías de los europeos respecto los inmigrantes condicionan el discurso,
por ejemplo mediante la polarización: Nosotros-Ellos y la estrategia de nuestra presentación
positiva y la presentación negativa de los otros que controla ampliamente todas las
propiedades del discurso racista. El discurso antirracista justamente intenta deshacer parte de
este mal no sólo evitando este discurso, sino utilizando estrategias para dar la vuelta a estas
tendencias. Por ejemplo, en lugar de usar generalizaciones de las propiedades negativas,
arguye que no se puede generalizar o que existen explicaciones para las desviaciones
observadas.
En nuestro breve análisis de las diferentes categorías y de los ejemplos hemos obtenido una
perspectiva de la base ideológica del discurso político (parlamentario) y de sus estructuras y
recursos específicos, así como la importancia del discurso en los aspectos sociopolíticos más
generales sobre la inmigración. En lo que se refiere al sector conservador, observamos la
marginación y criminalización de los inmigrantes y la recomendación de más restricciones
sobre las leyes inmigratorias mediante el juego populista de proteger a "la gente de aquí". Esta
postura resulta especialmente irónica cuando nos damos cuenta de la poca atención que
generalmente prestan los conservadores a los pobres. Un análisis detallado y sistemático de
las estrategias discursivas en los debates parlamentarios descubre también algunas de las
sutilezas del populismo, la política y la realización de políticas.
La definición de las categorías y de los ejemplos también ha demostrado cómo intervienen las
ideologías en el discurso (en este caso político). En términos generales, las categorías que
hemos estudiado no son en sí ideológicas: el populismo, las metáforas o los eufemismos
aparecen tanto en la derecha como en la izquierda. Aún así, algunas estructuras del discurso
son más propias de la derecha y de las posturas racistas, por ejemplo la polarización de la
descripción negativa de los otros, mientras que el discurso humanitario recurre a formas (reales
y no aparentes) de empatía. En términos generales, sin embargo, la ideología básicamente
controla el "contenido" de las estructuras descritas anteriormente.
81
TEXTO ORIGINAL DEL DEBATE PUBLICADO EN HANSARD
Mrs. Teresa Gorman (Billericay): I want to bring to the attention of the House the particular
difficulties faced by the London boroughs because of the problems of asylum seekers.
( 7 ) There are, of course, asylum seekers and asylum seekers. ( 8 ), 54 ) I entirely support the
policy of the Government to help genuine asylum seekers, but to discourage the growing
number of people from abroad who come to Britain on holiday, as students or in some other
capacity and, when the time comes for them to leave, declare themselves to be in need of
asylum.
The matter was adequately dealt with by the Social Security Committee report on benefit for
asylum seekers, which was ( 2 ) an all-party document that pointed out that it was costing about
£200 million a year ( 63 ) for those people, ( 9 ) many of whom could reasonably be called
economic migrants and some of whom are just benefit seekers on holiday, to remain in Britain. (
3 , 57 ) It is wrong that ratepayers in the London area should bear an undue proportion of the
burden of expenditure that those people are causing.
( 17 , 55 ) I understand that many people want to come to Britain to work, but ( 41 ) there is a
procedure whereby people can legitimately become part of our community. People who come
as economic migrants are sidestepping that.
( 13 )The Government, with cross-party backing, decided to do something about the matter. ( 42
) The Asylum and Immigration Act 1996 stated that people whose application to remain in
Britain had been turned down could no longer receive the social security and housing benefit
that they had previously enjoyed. That is estimated to have cut the number of bogus asylum
seekers by about a half.
It is a great worry to me and many others that the Opposition spokesman for home affairs
seems to want to scrap the legislation and return to the previous situation. I would consider that
extremely irresponsible. ( 50 ) It would open the floodgates again, and presumably the £200
million a year cost that was estimated when the legislation was introduced would again become
part of the charge on the British taxpayer.
( 43 ) In order to try to subvert the legislation, a case was recently brought before our courts and
to the High Court which sought to overturn the provisions that the Government intended. ( 18 )
The Government are keen to help genuine asylum seekers, but do not want them to be sucked
into the racket of evading our immigration laws.
The judges effectively, although not directly, overturned the decision that the Act produced and
said that those who declare themselves destitute must be given assistance under the National
Assistance Act 1948. ( 4 ) The problem of supporting them has landed largely on the inner
London boroughs, where most of those people migrate as there is more to do in central London.
( 29 , 37 ) I am sure that many of them are working illegally, and of course work is readily
available in big cities.
The London councils have a particular problem. They are now providing for 3,000 single males,
many of whom are from east European countries recently liberated from oppressive regimes.
They cannot by any means be said to be from countries where they would find themselves in
grave political difficulties if they had stayed at home.
82
( 5 ) There are also about 2,000 families, with young children who must be supported. The cost
of that to Westminster council is estimated to be £2 million a year, but over London as a whole,
the cost is running at about ( 58 ) £140 million a year, which is a great deal of money to be
found from the council tax budget.
Mr. Peter Brooke (City of London and Westminster, South): I would not want my hon. Friend
to mislead the House. She should point out that the figure that she has just quoted represents
the net expenditure which will fall on the city council. There is a great deal of further
expenditure, which is paid for by grant.
Mrs. Gorman: I thank my right hon. Friend. He is a great authority on the matter, as he
represents Westminster city council. I know that he has an important contribution to make.
( 66 ) Goodness knows how much it costs for the legal aid that those people invoke to keep
challenging the decision that they are not bona fide asylum seekers.
( 26 ) The Daily Mail today reports the case of a woman from Russia who has managed to stay
in Britain for five years. ( 23 ) According to the magistrates court yesterday, she has cost the
British taxpayer £40,000. She was arrested, of course, for stealing. I do not know how people
who are not bona fide asylum seekers and whose applications have been rejected time and
again manage to remain in this country for so long at the expense of the British public, but the
system clearly needs tightening up.
Westminster is in a unique position because, being the centre of the capital city, it must also
accommodate many other homeless people who find their way to London and take up
temporary accommodation places. That means that the alleged asylum seekers whom the
council is obliged to support often have to be put in expensive accommodation. There is a limit
to the number of cheap bed-and-breakfast places in the centre of a city like London. Much of
the accommodation is in hotels, which can charge a great deal more for a week's bed and
breakfast than the sum that the council considers adequate, and certainly more than the sum
that might be adequate in outer London boroughs or in other parts of the country. Therefore we
have this unique situation, which Westminster has to deal with.
The Government have announced--this is most welcome--that they are to contribute £165 a
week for each asylum seeker while their requests for asylum are being endlessly considered. Of
course, in some parts of Britain, that may be adequate, but in Westminster it is not. It has done
detailed homework and it can prove that, on average, the cost for the council is £215 a week for
a single adult--and that is based on shared bed and breakfast accommodation, not on very
expensive flats.
The National Assistance Act says that the assistance given to these people must be provided in
kind, which means that Westminster city council has to use its meals on wheels service to take
food to them, wherever they are placed, whether in the centre of London or in outer boroughs. (
62 ) In addition to the breakfast that comes with the bed-and-breakfast accommodation, they
have to be given a packed lunch, presumably in case they decide to go shopping in the middle
of the day or to do a bit of work on the black economy--who knows? They also have to be
provided with an evening meal and snacks to keep them through the day because the
assumption is that they have no money--they have declared themselves destitute.
In addition, the council has to provide those people with a hygiene pack, which must include a
toothbrush, toothpaste, soap, a flannel and deodorants. For a family of half a dozen, six sets of
83
those commodities must be provided. ( 6 ) Presumably, if those people are here for long enough
under such terms, they will have to be provided with clothing, shoe leather and who knows what
else. All that cost falls on the British taxpayer and particularly on Westminster residents. The
council estimates that, in addition to what the Government are proposing, about £35 a year will
fall on each council tax payer in Westminster.
Again and again in the House, we hear the Opposition spokesman on housing, the hon.
Member for Holborn and St. Pancras (Mr. Dobson), assert for the umpteenth time that all the
residents in Westminster are terribly well off, so they can easily afford those extra charges.
Nothing is further from the truth. Part of his act--because it is an act; he does it every time he
gets the chance--is to cite people living in Mayfair and Belgravia, which we all know are two of
the most expensive neighbourhoods in Britain.
The truth is that, out of 100,000 households in Westminster, only 1,500 are in Mayfair and only
3,000 are in Belgravia. ( 21 , 68 ) Many of those people live in old-style housing association
Peabody flats. They are on modest incomes. Many of them are elderly, managing on their state
pension and perhaps also a little pension from their work. They pay their full rent and for all their
own expenses. ( 52 ) Now they are going to be asked to pay £35 to able-bodied males who
have come over here on a prolonged holiday and now claim that the British taxpayer should
support them.
( 1 ) In one case, a man from Romania, who came over here on a coach tour for a football
match--if the hon. Member for Perth and Kinross (Ms Cunningham) would listen she would hear
practical examples--decided that he did not want to go back, declared himself an asylum seeker
and is still here four years later. He has never done a stroke of work in his life. ( 59 ) Why should
someone who is elderly and who is scraping along on their basic income have to support people
in those circumstances?
Mr. David Nicholson (Taunton): My hon. Friend is exploiting a rich seam and she is doing so
assiduously. ( 67 ) Is she aware that there is widespread resentment? ( 24 ) This morning, I was
reading a letter from a constituent of mine, who has fallen into a catch 22 situation between
health and social service provision, about the assistance that is available to people who do not
have the right to reside in Britain, yet are milking not only the taxpayers, but the caring services,
on which so many others depend.
Mrs. Gorman: My hon. Friend is entirely right. In my constituency at the weekend, I had the
case of a woman who has managed to remain here for five years by playing the system. She
has given birth to two children while she has been here and she is so addicted to the social
services that, when she needs to go shopping in Basildon, she telephones her social service
assistant worker and asks for a minicab to take her there because she cannot bring back her
shopping. That is a fact, which I will and could demonstrate if I had to. ( 31 ) Such things go on
and they get up the noses of all constituents, including those of Opposition Members, who seem
to think it is funny that elderly British people, who are managing to live on their modest incomes,
should fork out for alleged asylum seekers, who are simply parasites.
As I have said, Westminster has a particular problem and particular expenses. My purpose in
bringing this matter to the attention of the House is to say to my hon. Friend the Under-
Secretary of State for Health that Westminster's special circumstances should be given special
treatment. Best of all, we would acknowledge that, although this matter has to be dealt with, it is
a national problem and should not be landed on the doorstep of a relatively small group of
residents in the centre of London, who have many other problems associated with residence in
London and who need to be given special care and help.
This matter needs to be aired because I am talking largely about Westminster. Of the 100,000
households in Westminster, more than half are on below average incomes. Westminster has
inherited many Greater London council estates such as Mozart and Lissom Green, which are
given special estate assistance grants by the Government to help the low-income people living
there, who have particular problems, but those people are all part and parcel of the community
charge scheme. In addition, about 16,000 households live in either Guinness Trust or Peabody
84
estates, which again cater specially for people on modest incomes. They provide good quality
homes, but, like everyone else, the people who live there pay their rates and 50 per cent. or
perhaps more are elderly people on modest incomes.
As I was a member of Westminster city council, I have many friends among the residents in
those places--people who used to be my constituents. ( 53 ) It is true that, in many cases, they
have made careful provision for themselves in their old age, have a small additional pension as
well as their old-age pension and pay all their rent and their bills and ask for nothing from the
state. They are proud and happy to do so. Such people should not be exploited by people who
are exploiting the system.
In Britain, about 70,000 alleged asylum seekers are going through umpteen appeals against
deportation. All of them can exploit the loophole provided by the National Assistance Act. It is an
extremely important matter. I have outlined some of the costs in Westminster, but the people
are distributed throughout Britain and other council areas will be grateful for the assistance that
the Government have already announced. However, it ill-behoves Opposition Members to laugh
at this and to treat it as a joke. We know what they would do because we have heard it from the
Opposition Front-Bench spokesman: they would sweep away the measures that the
Government have tried to introduce and reinstate the previous position.
Dr. Norman A. Godman (Greenock and Port Glasgow): Will the hon. Lady give way?
Mrs. Gorman: Would the hon. Gentleman forgive me because I want to sit down soon and let
others into the debate?
The cost will again be landed on the doorsteps of British taxpayers, and particularly on the
doorsteps of Westminster city ratepayers. They do not deserve to have to pay those costs out of
their own pockets.
11.19 am
Mr. Jeremy Corbyn (Islington, North): This debate is welcome in the sense that it provides an
opportunity to talk about the problem of asylum seekers and the situation facing local
authorities. However, I think that the hon. Member for Billericay (Mrs. Gorman)--who, today,
appears to be batting for Westminster council--should pause for a moment to think about why
people seek asylum. Britain is a signatory of the 1951 Geneva convention, which requires that if
someone is genuinely and legitimately in fear of persecution for political, religious or social
reasons, they should be guaranteed a place of safety in the country to which they flee. That
principle should be adhered to.
Britain has among the smallest numbers of asylum seekers of any European country.
Compared to most other continents, Europe has one of the smallest numbers of asylum
seekers. The real burden of the world's refugee crisis falls not on western Europe but on
Mexico, Jordan, India and on other countries that are near to places where there has been great
civil strife or which have Governments who are deeply oppressive towards their own people. So
the idea that there is a huge flood of people trying to get into western Europe and into Britain,
and particularly into Westminster city council accommodation, is slightly over-egging the
pudding. It is also missing the point.
It is a major step for someone with a legitimate fear to seek refuge in exile. ( 22 ) So far as I am
aware, no hon. Member has been woken up by the police at 4 am, taken into custody with no
rights of access to a judicial system, and, with his or her family, forced to flee into exile for their
own safety. It is not an experience that most British people have had, and we should think very
carefully about what a major step it would be to undertake such a journey.
When asylum seekers arrive in the United Kingdom, they must apply for asylum. Under the new
legislation, if they do not apply immediately at the port of entry, their chances of being granted
asylum are severely diminished. ( 28 ) If one has grown up in Iraq and has always been
85
completely terrified of anyone wearing any type of uniform, it is fairly unlikely that--after
managing to steal oneself out of Iraq, possibly using false documentation, aliases, guides and
other measures--one will trust a person wearing a uniform whom one encounters when first
arriving at the airport. It is more likely that one would first get out of the airport and then think
about the next step.
( 32 ) In the United Kingdom there has been a systemic erosion of peoples' ability to seek
asylum and to have their cases properly determined. There has also been a vindictiveness
against asylum seekers--it has been parroted in this debate by some Conservative Members--
which has been promoted by some newspapers, particularly the Daily Mail. For very many
years, that newspaper has had a long and dishonourable record on this issue.
Mr. Christopher Gill (Ludlow): ( 60 ) I wonder whether the hon. Gentleman will tell the House
what mandate he has from the British people to share their citizenship with foreigners?
Mr. Corbyn: I am unsure how one answers such a totally ludicrous question. ( 33 ) If someone
has a legitimate fear of persecution, they flee abroad and try to seek asylum. Many people
sought asylum from Nazi Germany. Presumably the hon. Gentleman, on the basis of his
comment, believes that they should not have been admitted to the UK, and that people fleeing
from oppression in any regime should not be admitted. He talks utter nonsense. ( 14 ) I suggest
that he start to think more seriously about human rights issues. Suppose he had to flee this
country because an oppressive regime had taken over. Where would he go? Presumably he
would not want help from anyone else, because he does not believe that help should be given
to anyone else.
( 64 ) Let us return to the issues facing people fleeing areas of oppression. Currently if they
arrive here, seek asylum and are refused, they have lost all access to benefits. They then have
to undergo an appeal process, which can take a very long time. During the appeal process,
what on earth are they supposed to do unless they are declared destitute and consequently
supported by a local authority? We need to restore benefit rights for all people pending the
outcome of their appeal. Not to do so is a gross abuse of individual human rights. Moreover,
removing benefit is not saving any money because, in many cases, it costs far more to look
after the children involved by placing them in foster care than by allowing their families to look
after them in the normal and proper way.
We should consider the experiences of people who have fled countries. A couple of weeks ago,
I spent several hours talking to a group of asylum seekers from Iran. That regime--despite the
fatwa against Salman Rushdie and numerous other human rights abuses--is beginning to be
cosied up to by the British Government and by the rest of western Europe, because they now
prefer to support Iran rather than Iraq. ( 25 ) The people who I met told me, chapter and verse,
of how they had been treated by the regime in Iran— ( 27 ) of how they had been summarily
imprisoned, with no access to the courts; of how their families had been beaten up and abused
while in prison; and of how the regime murdered one man's fiancee in front of him because he
would not talk about the secret activities that he was supposed to be involved in. ( 34 ) I heard
about many other similar cases.
( 65 ) Those people came to this country and applied for asylum. Their applications were
refused, and they appealed. They are now living a life of virtual destitution, while the Home
Office ponders on what to do for them. Those people stood up for their communities against an
oppressive regime. I remind the House that merely because a regime calls itself democratic
does not mean that human rights are guaranteed. Around the world, many regimes call
themselves democratic and have a multi-party democracy, but that does not mean that human
rights are universally respected or that people are safe.
The hon. Member for Billericay said that no one in eastern Europe has any justification for
seeking asylum. That is a sweeping statement. I presume that she has not had an opportunity
to read the papers from Amnesty International or from Helsinki Watch on what is happening in
Albania.
86
Mrs. Gorman: Will the hon. Gentleman give way?
Perhaps the hon. Lady has not had a chance to consider what is happening in Romania, where
homosexuality is a criminal act, or in Bulgaria and other places. All is not well merely because
there is multi-party democracy and a market economy. Perhaps events in Albania are not a
credit to the market economic system?
Mrs. Gorman: ( 19 ) I did not say that every eastern European's application for asylum in this
country was bogus. However, many countries that were in the former Soviet sphere of influence
have now established democracies, and some people from those countries come here to claim
asylum. Of those claiming benefit from Westminster city council, about 50 come from countries
in which there is no longer oppression.
Is the hon. Member for Islington, North (Mr. Corbyn) aware that--in a report signed by Labour
Members--the all-party Social Security Select Committee, which considered the matter, stated:
Genuine applicants, such as those described by the hon. Gentleman, are frustrated and suffer
delayed applications because of those who are not genuine.
Mr. Corbyn: The hon. Lady seems to have moved on a bit from the cant and prejudice that she
produced in her earlier speech. However, she does not deal with the point. I am a member of
the Social Security Select Committee and took part in that inquiry. I did not sign that section of
the report, although I produced a minority opinion, which I am sure that she would disagree with
profoundly. However, that is up to her.
I merely want the hon. Lady and the House to understand that democracy does not always
follow multi-party elections. The UK, for example, prides itself on its close relationship with
Turkey, yet many Kurdish people have fled Turkey and appealed for a place of safety here.
Many of them have died trying to get out of Turkey because they have a point of view that is
different from that of the Turkish Government. I think that there is a foreign policy implication
and potential initiative in that situation.
Since last year, people from the Ivory Coast have sought asylum in the UK. I recall a discussion
with the Home Office about the safety of people from the Ivory Coast. The Minister told me that
he was assured that everything was okay in the Ivory Coast. The students whom I met who had
sought asylum in this country from the Ivory Coast told me that their Government were so keen
on carrying out the economic wishes of the International Monetary Fund and others that they
were crushing anyone who opposed them--they crushed trade unions and they crushed student
opposition, sending troops into various universities and closing them down. Is that how a
democratic Government should behave? No. We must recognise that those people from the
Ivory Coast are justifiably seeking asylum.
Dr. Godman: I hesitate to intervene in the debate, because I come across few asylum seekers--
an experience that I suspect that I share with the hon. Member for Perth and Kinross (Ms
Cunningham). I have come across a few at Greenock prison. One concession was offered a few
months ago by the Minister of State, Home Office, the right hon. Member for Maidstone (Miss
Widdecombe)--a promise that those women seeking to avoid the infliction of genital mutilation
would be given sympathetic consideration when seeking asylum. That is at least one
concession in this picture of unrelieved gloom.
Mr. Corbyn: At least the Minister was forced into that concession during a debate in this
Chamber. I wonder whether those who make decisions on refusing people asylum, refusing
87
them benefits and forcing them into destitution have ever taken the trouble to sit down and listen
to the stories of people who have been tortured and abused.
The process depends on refugees applying at the point of entry. That is often difficult to do, for
reasons that I have already outlined. It is also often difficult for people to talk about the torture
experiences that they have been through. ( 12 ) Many soldiers who were tortured during the
second world war found it difficult to talk about their experiences for years. That is no different
from the position of people who have been tortured in Iran, Iraq, west Africa or anywhere else.
The issue is not simple. They feel a sense of failure, a sense of humiliation and a sense of
defeat. ( 45 ) We should have a different attitude towards asylum seekers.
Almost uniquely among European countries, this country routinely puts in prison people who
seek asylum. There are nearly 900 people in British prisons who have sought asylum. It costs
£20 million a year to keep them in prison. I have been given a letter from several people who
are being held in the Home Office holding centre at Haslar. They complain about their treatment
and the way in which the immigration service carries out its duties. They say:
"Another problem, literally fatal for certain detainees, is deportation without prior notice
of the date being given. Those under notice for many months are often collected from
Haslar for deportation at a week-end when it is quite impossible to have recourse to
their solicitors or other help."
( 46 ) We should think a bit more seriously about how we treat those people.
For the past few weeks, there has been a hunger strike at Her Majesty's prison in Rochester. I
understand that that hunger strike is not continuing at the moment. When I raised the issue on a
private notice question, the Home Office Minister was dismissive. She appeared to have no
understanding of the moral force of people undertaking a hunger strike to draw attention to their
problems. Hon. Members should stop and think for a moment about the circumstances of those
who come to this country seeking asylum, go to prison with no direct access to the courts and
then, thinking that they have been badly treated and fearful of what will happen, undertake a
hunger strike and, in some cases, a refusal to take fluids. ( 15 ) If that happened in another
country under a regime of which we disapproved, the British Government would say that it was
a terrible indictment on the human rights record of that regime that prisoners were forced to
undertake a hunger strike to draw attention to their situation. In this country, people who say
that get routine abuse from Home Office Ministers and Conservative Members. Stop and think
for a moment about the moral courage of those who have undertaken a hunger strike to ensure
that their case is at least looked at.
( 47 ) Attitudes towards asylum seekers need to be changed. Routine imprisonment should end.
Access to benefits should be restored for those applying for asylum. If they are refused asylum
but are undertaking their legitimate right of appeal, they should continue receiving benefits until
the appeal has been determined. ( 48 ) It is wrong to force them into destitution or to throw them
out of the country, often with no access to lawyers or anyone else.
The Government's regime on asylum seekers is creating a serious situation, with a class of
destitute people that is paralleled across Europe. Those who have applied for asylum, have
been refused and are fearful of deportation end up going into hiding in the poorest areas of
Paris, Frankfurt, Madrid, Berlin, London or Amsterdam. They are subject to the worst kind of
exploitation by rogue employers, drugs and prostitution. They cannot reveal their identity
because they would be deported. Only the churches around Europe have drawn attention to the
issue and tried to do something about it. I hope that we shall recognise that we should have a
slightly more humane approach towards asylum seekers in this country.
Last year, the Churches Commission for Racial Justice held a conference called, "Why
Detention?". A report of the conference has been published. There was universal condemnation
of the principle of imprisoning asylum seekers and a plea for a more understanding approach. (
49 ) Europe must stop its xenophobic attitude towards those who seek a place of safety here
and adopt a more humane approach.
88
There is also a foreign policy agenda. Where is the outright condemnation from the Government
of the denial of human rights in Iran, Iraq, the Ivory Coast and many other countries? I find it
very muted on many occasions. They seem more interested in trade and selling arms to those
regimes than in defending human rights. ( 36 ) History shows that unless we stand up for
human rights wherever they are abused around the world, eventually it will come back and our
human rights will be abused. ( 56 ) A lot of brave people in this country have stood up for the
rights and needs of asylum seekers. Local authorities are being told that they should pay a large
share of the bill. I do not want them to have to do that. Central Government should give more
support to local authorities to ensure that asylum seekers do not live in destitution. Above all, I
want a change in attitude and a more humane approach to this serious problem of the victims of
injustice from around the world.
11.36 am
Mr. Peter Brooke (City of London and Westminster, South): I shall be briefer than my hon.
Friend the Member for Billericay (Mrs. Gorman) and the hon. Member for Islington, North (Mr.
Corbyn), because this is a short debate and I want others to get in. I congratulate my hon.
Friend on securing the debate.
The problem that we are discussing arises from the autumn of 1995, when various
announcements were made at the Conservative party conference about the Government's
intentions. There was evidence through the autumn of that year of a lack of interaction between
Government Departments. Brussels often praises Whitehall for having better co-ordination
between Departments than any other Government in the European Union, but that co-ordination
was not in evidence in this case. The Social Security Advisory Committee wrote a hostile report
on the Government's intentions. I suspect that once the Home Office had legislative cover and
clearance for its Bill, it washed its hands of the consequences, which would fall on other
Departments.
On Second Reading of the Asylum and Immigration Bill, in December 1995, I alluded to some of
the problems that I could foresee. I mentioned in particular the problems of unaccompanied
children coming to Westminster and other central London boroughs. Perhaps as a consequence
of that debate, there was a delay in bringing forward the amendments to the benefit regulations,
quaintly named the Social Security (Persons from Abroad) Miscellaneous Amendments
Regulations 1996. The Opposition were satisfied with a 90-minute debate. Some Conservative
Members felt that that was inadequate time to discuss the regulations. I was the last to speak
before the replies to the debate and was allowed three minutes. I said that the drama that I
foresaw would be played out on the streets of my constituency rather than those of some of my
right hon. and hon. Friends on the Front Bench who were introducing the measures.
A legal case went against the Government in the summer, as a result of which they had to
amend the Bill in the House of Lords with primary rather than secondary legislation. As has
been said, on 8 October the decision was taken that obliged local authorities to provide
assistance to single adult asylum seekers. That decision was challenged in the Court of Appeal,
and the appeal was defeated. That series of legal defeats reflects rather badly on the degree of
co-ordination involved in the preparation of the legislation before its introduction. Like my hon.
Friend the Member for Billericay, I am briefed primarily by Westminster city council, but I shall
allude to other areas of central London later. At the heart of the problem is the fact that it is
being dealt with on a piecemeal, rather than a co-ordinated, basis.
My hon. Friend referred to the £165 per week grant provided by central Government. That is an
average figure drawn from estimates that the Government received, which ranged from £95 for
cold weather shelter provision to £290. That scatter of figures derives from outer and inner
London areas. As the Bishop of London reminded us during the centenary service for the King's
Fund only yesterday, costs outside central London are quite different from those in inner
London. For two reasons the £95 for cold weather shelter is an unrealistic figure for provision in
central London. First, the rough sleepers initiative has absorbed so much of the accommodation
that might be used for that purpose that the central London boroughs no longer have access to
it. Secondly, asylum seekers are specifically excluded from cold weather shelters.
89
Westminster pays £175 for accommodation alone, before the addition of extra sums that it must
provide. The rough sleepers initiative, co-ordinated by central Government in conjunction with
the voluntary sector, has been a great success. The number of those sleeping rough in central
London has fallen from more than 1,000 to below 400 in the past six or seven years. Central
Government would render major assistance if they took over that co-ordination in conjunction
with the voluntary sector, upon which a great deal of the burden of the problem falls. That would
instantly reduce the average unit cost. The piecemeal approach adopted at present increases
the likelihood of fraud.
It is recognised widely that the burden of the problem falls on local authorities in London, and
primarily on those in inner London. I freely acknowledge that Westminster is not the only
authority involved: the borough of Islington is affected in the same way. I alluded to the problem
of unaccompanied children during the Second Reading of the Asylum and Immigration Bill in
December 1995. This year, Westminster will spend £1.2 million on unaccompanied children.
There is no logical reason why Westminster and one or two other boroughs should uniquely
absorb that problem. Unaccompanied children--who come to this country extremely well
prepared--simply go to a handful of authorities in central London about which they have heard
or to which they have been directed, and the council tax payers in those areas must foot the bill.
There is a hazard to community and race relations in central London if such costs continue to
fall heavily on council tax. The burden constitutes a risk to the quality of community and race
relations in those areas and, in that respect, I endorse my hon. Friend's comments. At the
margin, community care budgets are being diverted to this problem and away from council tax
payers.
I put it to my hon. Friend the Minister--for whom I have some sympathy--first, that all
unavoidable costs resulting from the programme should be reimbursed to local authorities that
are acting on behalf of the nation as a whole. Secondly, it would be immensely desirable if the
Government would announce their grant levels for 1997-98. It is now 5 March and the fiscal
year ends within a month. However, local authorities do not yet know what level of grant the
Government will provide.
I hope that the Home Office--in this respect I make common cause with the hon. Member for
Islington, North--can improve the speed with which it processes these cases. Between
December 1995 and May 1996, applicants under the legislation prior to 1993 waited an average
of 43 months for initial decisions. Between October and December 1996, the waiting time
increased to more than 48 months. The comparable statistics for those who were treated under
the legislation that was introduced in 1993 are 10.7 months in the earlier period and 12.2
months in the second period. The time taken by the immigration appellate authority to determine
appeals lengthened from eight to 10 months in the same period. Outstanding appeals increased
from 14,000 in February 1996 to nearly 22,000 at the end of last year. So the burden on local
authorities is being extended because the process of handling applications is slowing down
rather than accelerating.
I said that I sympathise with my hon. Friend the Minister, who will come to the Dispatch Box on
behalf of the Department of Health as much of the expenditure flows through that Department.
However, I am not sure that the Department of Health should necessarily take the lead in co-
ordinating this process. It originates in the Home Office, and I believe that it would be desirable
if that Department took the lead--not least because a lack of co-ordination at the end of 1995 led
to this situation. I promised that I would be brief, Mr. Deputy Speaker, and I now sit down within
10 minutes.
Mr. Deputy Speaker (Sir Geoffrey Lofthouse): Order. Five hon. Members hope to catch my
eye in the 25 minutes before the winding-up speeches begin. With the co-operation of the
House, I hope that they will all be successful.
11.46 am
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Mr. Neil Gerrard (Walthamstow): I shall try to be brief. The right hon. Member for City of
London and Westminster, South (Mr. Brooke) has discussed this subject on several occasions
and raised the issue of responsibility. His speech contrasted considerably with that of the hon.
Member for Billericay (Mrs. Gorman) at the beginning of the debate. I must admit that I was one
of those who laughed at some of the things that she said, not because I do not take the subject
seriously, but because it was obvious that she does not have the slightest clue about who
asylum seekers are, the circumstances in which they find themselves, and what happens to
them.
I agree that London boroughs should not carry the responsibility for asylum seekers, but what
are the alternatives? The right hon. Gentleman suggested that the Government should shift the
responsibility somewhere else. The hon. Member for Billericay seemed to endorse the
Government's option of appealing the court decisions and returning to their favoured position of
removing benefits completely and leaving asylum seekers with absolutely nothing. I remind the
House that the measure applies to asylum seekers who apply in country, and not to those who
apply at the port of entry. That is despite the fact that the success rate for asylum applications of
people who apply in country is at least as great as--and sometimes greater than--that of people
who apply at the port of entry.
In the first four months of last year, 775 people were awarded refugee status, 610 of whom
were in-country applicants--precisely the people who have been denied benefits. The
Government were warned about the repercussions from the beginning. The Social Security
Advisory Committee warned the Government not to change the social security regulations in
1995, and pointed to the likely consequences of that action.
( 10 ) The Government's reasoning was the same then as it is now: they still talk about
economic migrants and benefit scroungers. Anyone who deals with asylum seekers knows the
reality. It is rubbish to say that people come this country because the benefits here are more
than the average wages in the countries from which they have come. They may be, but we
should consider what that means in real terms, and what standard of living people have had in
their own countries.
An Algerian asylum seeker told me that he had been a general practitioner in Algeria and that
his wife had been a vet, but people were telling him that he had come here to live on benefits. I
have known an 18-year-old Somali girl for a couple of years. She is struggling to look after six
children younger than herself. They all live in a bedsit, and she showed me photographs of her
house in Somali, which has a mosque in the back garden that her father built. Yet we tell those
people that they have come here to live on a few pounds a week in benefits.
The people who manage to get to this country are usually not the poorest or most downtrodden.
The poorest people are in refugee camps in neighbouring countries: that is where the majority
of refugees end up. How many of the 20 million refugees worldwide are trying to get to Europe,
never mind the United Kingdom?
The Government lost the court case on the benefit regulations. At the last minute, they included
these provisions in the Asylum and Immigration Act 1996. Time and again, those of us who
served on the Committee considering that Bill and who participated in the debates asked what
would happen and who would have ultimate responsibility. We said that local authorities would
be stuck with the problem of having to deal with children under the Children Act 1989 and with
homeless people on the streets. We did not know then that the courts would decide that the
National Assistance Act 1948 could be used. We pointed out the problems and said that council
tax payers would have to pick up the bill.
91
such a policy, and that is Italy. On the outskirts of large towns such as Naples one sees shanty
towns full of asylum seekers. That is the logical consequence of the Government's policy.
It is a disgrace to any civilised society even to consider leaving genuine asylum seekers without
a penny to live on. That is what we should be debating, not the financial position of a few local
authorities that have been dropped into this mess by the Government, who want to leave them
in that mess. Hon. Members should read the Refugee Council's report, which shows the impact
that having to live on nothing has on the lives of asylum seekers. People have to walk miles to
soup kitchens to get a meal.
As the right hon. Member for City of London and Westminster, South said, delays should be
eliminated. Why are people having to wait four or five years for a decision on their case? Why
are the queues getting longer? In 1993, we were told that the Asylum and Immigration Appeals
Act 1993 would make things better, and we were told last year that the 1996 Act would makes
them better, but waiting times are getting longer. If we want to encourage people to make bogus
applications, the way to do so is to let the queues get longer, but that penalises the genuine
asylum seeker. I believe that the majority of applicants are genuine: I do not believe the 90 per
cent. figure.
Long queues encourage the bogus applicant, so the Home Office and the Lord Chancellor's
Department should do something about it. Why has the number of cases awaiting appeal gone
from 13,000 to 21,000? Many of those people will have to await their appeal--which they may
well win--without a penny, because their benefits have been cut off. Do not tell me that that is
what happens to people who are refused benefits through the social security system. Few
people who are refused social security benefits are left destitute without a penny. The people
who are refused benefit tend to be those claiming a particular benefit to which they are not
entitled.
We should not treat in such a way people who come here to escape from appalling conditions.
They may have been in gaol and may have been tortured. To put them on the streets without a
penny is a disgrace to any society that calls itself civilised.
11.55 am
Mr. Charles Wardle (Bexhill and Battle): I congratulate my hon. Friend the Member for
Billericay (Mrs. Gorman) on securing this debate. The topic of asylum seekers is fundamentally
important for two obvious reasons. ( 35 ) First, it matters crucially that this country honours, as it
always has, its obligations under the Geneva convention. ( 38 , 51 , 61 ) It is equally important
that abuse of the asylum rules by the large number of people who make asylum applications
knowing that their position as illegal immigrants has no bearing on the Geneva convention
should be debated openly, so that it is fully understood and tackled.
Bearing in mind the fact that year in, year out the number of people found to be genuine
Geneva convention cases ranges from 1,000 to 3,000, it stands to reason that the other tens of
thousands of applicants include people who knowingly abuse the system. Those people do a
disservice to genuine refugees, who are held up in the queue, to which the hon. Member for
Walthamstow (Mr. Gerrard) alluded, and do not receive the treatment and care that should
come their way.
Mr. Wardle: I shall not give way. The hon. Gentleman and I have often discussed this matter,
but I am aware of the time, and I would like to make progress.
( 44 ) Britain has always honoured the Geneva convention, and has given sanctuary to people
with a well-founded fear of persecution in the country from which they are fleeing and whose
first safe country landing is in the United Kingdom. The only occasion that I know of when our
proud record under successive Governments of honouring the convention was sullied was the
92
recent Al Masari case. Reference to the primacy of British business interests in Saudi Arabia
brought the integrity of our asylum criteria into question, and, when the Government lost the
appeal, a thoroughly undesirable person was allowed to remain in this country and continue his
political activity.
I want to make three points on detention, the asylum queue and the wider issue of asylum, the
European Union and broader immigration policy. Much of what is said about detention is
confused or misleading. ( 20 ) Protesters may genuinely be concerned about refugees in
detention, but the fact is that only a tiny proportion of applicants are detained. In virtually every
case--not in 100 per cent. of cases, but in almost all of them--a detainee is someone whose
appeal has been refused, who is waiting to be removed from the country and is only temporarily
in detention, or whose application has been refused and is awaiting appeal but is considered
likely to abscond. However, it is a tiny proportion of the number of people concerned.
Mr. Tony Marlow (Northampton, North): Will my hon. Friend give way?
Mr. Wardle: If my hon. Friend will allow me, I must make some progress.
My next point concerns the asylum queue. As I have already said and as is widely known, there
are people in the queue who have arrived in this country and been welcomed as visitors but
who have then overstayed that welcome, found work and assimilated themselves into the local
population, quite unlawfully. When apprehended and questioned, they are frequently advised by
immigration lawyers or advisers to apply for asylum because, once they are in the queue they
can stay here and qualify for social security. As my right hon. Friend the Member for City of
London and Westminster, South (Mr. Brooke) said, it may take four years to resolve the case.
Recently, Ministers have pointed to the fall in the number of asylum applications and to the
success of the Asylum and Immigration Act 1996. It is a welcome development if some bogus
applicants are no longer applying, but it does not deal with the underlying problem of the queue.
In December 1995, on Second Reading of the 1996 Act, I explained what I felt was the only way
to tackle the problem, which was not simply to pass more legislation--Bills do not resolve what is
fundamentally an administrative problem--but to process the queue swiftly.
On Second Reading my right hon. and learned Friend the Home Secretary said that some
75,000 people were in the asylum queue at the end of 1995. He estimated the cost to be about
£200 million a year. I said that I had every reason to believe that he was grossly
underestimating the costs and that when the figures for social security, housing, school places,
the health service and so on were added to that figure, the cost was likely to be closer to £500
million or even £750 million a year. I recommended that he should think again about his promise
to spend £37 million on the appeals section of the asylum division and on the Lord Chancellor's
Department and that he should spend about £150 million a year for two years to process the
queue. As the hon. Member for Walthamstow said, once the queue is gone, the attraction of
making a bogus claim disappears. At the same time, it would help the genuine applicants
because they could be dealt with promptly.
Mr. Marlow: My hon. Friend said that everyone is concerned about people going into detention
and many people do not go into detention. The Home Office is unable to give me an answer to
my question, but perhaps my hon. Friend will have some idea. Does he know how many people
who do not go into detention but who are bogus asylum seekers disappear and do not turn up
ever again?
Mr. Wardle: I cannot give my hon. Friend an exact answer. Undoubtedly many people who are
not detained but are in the queue and see their appeal coming closer to resolution, disappear
into the undergrowth. That is unlawful and wrong and should not happen. It is all very well to
talk about new legislation and new measures, but while the queue exists, the temptation to join
it as a bogus applicant is there. That is fundamentally wrong. We must process the queue and
ensure that those who do not qualify for leave to remain in this country are removed from here,
including those who have absconded. That is being missed in all the headline chasing about
93
new Bills every other year. That is not what is needed. We need competent administrative
action.
I should like to raise the link between asylum and the European Union and the wider but directly
related issue of immigration and border controls. Under the third pillar of co-operation in the EU,
there has for several years been harmonisation of asylum policies--the Dublin convention is one
example of that. The European Commission wants to go much further--it is perfectly open about
its ambitions. It wants to take the third pillar into treaty competence and that includes asylum
policy. The Government have said that they will resist that and I am sure that they are right to
do so. The cornerstone of that resistance is not to allow Britain's border controls to be
dismantled, as is required by the existing European treaty. The moment those border controls
are gone, the ability to determine where a person has landed as the first safe country becomes
confused.
There was recently a welcome announcement by the Dutch Government that they now
recognise--the operative word is "now"--that no future British Government will willingly relinquish
border controls. I should like to believe that it is significant that, until I made a fuss about this
two years ago there were no Government speeches or great policy statements on the subject of
our border controls. There was only the occasional furtive and uneasy answer to parliamentary
questions. Undoubtedly, Ministers in other EU member states and their officials all assumed
that, sooner or later, Britain would cede its border controls when required to do so by the
European Court. That position has changed, but the battle is not yet over.
The best thing that the Government can do is to be open and frank about the legal threat to our
position as it now stands. There has been some progress with the recognition by the Dutch, but
the problem is still there. By rehearsing the nature of the problem openly rather than glossing
over it, the full force of British public opinion, including people of all ethnic origins, would be
brought to bear to persuade the Commission that this country will not wish to change its stance.
Unfortunately, time and again Ministers have given Parliament the strong impression that the
Government consider that they have a sound defence against the requirement in article 7A to
dismantle border controls. The Government, effectively, seem to face both ways because they
have said that they will never give away the border controls, but then say that we have an
adequate defence.
It might be as well for Ministers to remind themselves of "Questions of Procedure for Ministers"
which states:
"Ministers have a duty to give Parliament and the public as full account as possible
about the policies, decisions and actions of the Government and not to mislead
Parliament and the public."
"If the account given by a Minister to Parliament withholds information on the matter
under review, it is not a full account."
Time and again we have not been given a full account on this subject in Parliament. While the
Government gloss over our vulnerability but assert, at the same time, as my right and learned
Friend the Foreign Secretary has done, that the Government will not break European law, we
are not getting to the bottom of the problem. The only way to do that is to be open with
Parliament and the British public and to ensure that, with the force of British public opinion
behind them, these matters can be dealt with to British satisfaction at the forthcoming
intergovernmental conference. To do that, would put our asylum and immigration policies into
the proper framework. This is a subject to which I fully intend to return in the next Parliament.
12.7 pm
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Mr. David Shaw (Dover): I speak as the Member of Parliament for Dover, which is a port of
entry, and which has many immigration officers who have to carry out difficult work. They
enforce our border controls with great difficulty, ( 39 ) because there are many attempts at
illegal immigration using asylum techniques, fraudulent documents or other methods. They face
a difficult battle. There are police officers and special branch people at the port, as well as five
social security benefit fraud investigators to deal with many of those who try to get into this
country to take advantage of our system, either to claim benefits or to gain residency here.
Although many of us may support the Geneva convention and want to see people with a
legitimate fear of persecution being able to come to this country for protection, we do not want
people to take advantage of our compassion, and many of them who come here are doing that.
When the recent hunger strike at Rochester was investigated, it was found that nearly all, if not
all, the people involved were not genuine asylum seekers but illegal immigrants who were being
detained with a view to being deported. Many people want to take advantage of this country.
The world is full of economic migrants, who can travel more easily than ever before. I accept
that there are trouble spots, but there are not as many as asylum seekers would have us
believe. ( 30 ) We must also face the fact that, even in the case of brutal dictatorships such as
Iraq, we cannot take in all those who suffer. I would like to help all those people who suffer from
Saddam Hussein's actions, but we cannot do so. Almost the whole population of Iraq is
persecuted and oppressed, and we could not take them all in.
Mr. Marlow: My hon. Friend has cited the example of Iraq. If people are desperate to get out of
Iraq, why do they not go to Jordan or somewhere else in the middle east? Why do such people
come all the way here? Is it because they are seeking the economic benefits of this country?
Why do people have to traverse a continent to get away, instead of going to the country next
door?
Mr. Shaw: My hon. Friend raises the question of how so many migrants, who seek asylum or
become illegal immigrants, reach this country.
Mr. Shaw: I cannot give way again, because of the shortage of time. ( 40 ) Too many asylum
seekers enter the country initially as family visitors, tourists, students and business people, and
then suddenly discover that they want to remain as asylum seekers. That is why the Social
Security Select Committee produced a report on the Government's proposals. I accept that the
report was not unanimous, but we had no difficulty in saying that the Government's actions were
right.
The problem is that far too many people have jumped on the asylum bandwagon. There is an
industry supporting people who try to remain in this country when they cannot justify their
presence. I have recently come across the Migrant Training Company. Labour councillors in
Camden have apparently been involved in a £1 million fraud with taxpayers' money, and
European grants have gone astray. I understand that a Labour parliamentary candidate has
also been involved. There is a serious possibility that Labour councillors in Camden will have to
be surcharged as a result of that fraud.
We have to face the fact that real problems are caused by asylum policies and immigration. We
cannot go on meeting the bill, which at one stage was £200 million a year, for attempts by
40,000 people to seek asylum. Many of those people are not genuine. My hon. Friend the
Member for Billericay (Mrs. Gorman) mentioned a lady from Russia, who is an arts graduate
and claims that she had problems at her university. That is not a good enough reason to cost
the British taxpayer £40,000. The situation cannot continue.
I have much sympathy for Westminster council, which has had to bear considerable costs.
Outrageous accusations have been made that the resources that Westminster receives from
the Government are unfair, but it bears many costs that should properly be borne by the whole
95
country. It is the central authority in London. I also have sympathy for Kent, which also bears
some of the cost of asylum seekers. Dover district council has also had to bear the costs of
some cases. It is unfair for local authorities to have to bear the costs, when the Geneva
convention is a national policy.
It is also unfair that Camden council, and other Labour councils involved in the Migrant Training
Company, are abusing the system and engaging in fraud. The Government have a serious
problem, because they cannot tell councils that they will take over 100 per cent. of the bill, but
allow Labour councils to take advantage by setting up fraudulent companies, such as the
Migrant Training Company, for the benefit of Labour councillors and a Labour parliamentary
candidate.
Mr. Shaw: The evidence is sitting in the Department for Education and Employment, which has
a European Court of Auditors' report showing that the company has been involved in serious
fraud. That is a disgrace, and the Labour councillors and members involved should be exposed.
The Government have the right approach, but I have much sympathy for the councils that incur
unreasonable expense.
12.15 pm
Ms Ann Coffey (Stockport): I congratulate the hon. Member for Billericay (Mrs. Gorman) on
obtaining her Adjournment debate. The issues she has raised concern a number of London
boroughs, but I am not sure that some of her general comments were helpful. I remind her that
it is easy to raise and exploit fears about immigration, but the challenge in a multiracial society
is the maintenance of good race relations.
The Government's defence is that the current shambles over payments under section 21 of the
National Assistance Act 1948 is not their fault, but the fault of the judges. The Government
claim that the judges have put local authorities in an invidious position, and that they have
rushed to the rescue with a special grant to help out the local authorities.
I am not sure that that is a correct assessment of the judgment. The judges in the Court of
Appeal said that, because asylum seekers were disqualified from assistance under the Asylum
and Immigration Act 1996, they automatically qualified under the National Assistance Act 1948
for assistance from local authorities. As the 1948 Act had not been repealed by Parliament, the
judges interpreted the general will of Parliament as a desire to continue to provide for those in
need. That is the principle that has been behind the poor law for 350 years.
The present situation of local authorities is not the fault of the judges, in the stark way that the
Government claim, but arises from the confusion caused by two conflicting Acts of Parliament.
Clearly, the legal advice received by Ministers was not entirely sound. The local authorities had
to appeal, because the Government refused to reimburse them for payments they made under
section 21 of the 1948 Act. It was clear that the local authorities would not be reimbursed
without a legal ruling that would enable Ministers to blame the judges for the Government
having to pay for an alternative benefits system for asylum seekers, administered at a high cost
by the local authorities.
I might add that the Asylum and Immigration Act 1996 did not remove asylum seekers'
entitlement to national health service treatment. Asylum seekers would be admitted to hospital if
they became physically ill through lack of funds, suffered hypothermia from sleeping on the
streets or contracted a disease. If asylum seekers become mentally ill as a result of stress and
depression, they would be entitled to treatment under the mental health Acts. It would be
interesting to see the after-care programme for such cases.
Yesterday, when we discussed the special grant of £165 for each asylum seeker that the
Government are giving local authorities, I asked about cash payments. The Department of
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Social Security has ruled that such payments are not lawful under the National Assistance Act
1948, and would not be eligible to be reimbursed, although the expenditure is lawful under
general local government powers.
I understand that there is conflicting legal advice, but the present situation is absurd. Social
workers' time is being used to deliver groceries and take people shopping. One silly example is
that people cannot be given money for toothbrushes, because they have to be bought for them.
The hon. Member for Billericay gave the example of the use of the meals on wheels service to
provide food, when the service is already under much pressure. Local authorities could meet
their responsibilities in a more cost-effective way if they could make direct cash payments. That
idea should be pursued.
The recent Refugee Council report, "Just Existence", tracked 15 asylum seekers who had lost
entitlement to benefit and were being offered various kinds of help by local authorities. No one
reading that report could fail to be struck by the desperation of those people's lives and
circumstances. Whatever the eventual judgment on their status, each personally saw
overwhelming reasons for not being able to return to their country of origin, and would endure
any conditions in this country rather than face that alternative. That is the reality that must be
taken into account.
The importance to those people of resolving their status as quickly as possible is also clear.
Several hon. Members have already talked about the delays, and I have a constituent who, after
nearly five years in this country, has not yet had his appeal against refusal of refugee status
heard. That is totally unacceptable.
The delays in the legal process need tackling. If the fundamental problem is not addressed,
local authorities face the prospect of having to administer an alternative benefit system for
asylum seekers, and to support them in hotels, bed-and-breakfast accommodation, hostels,
flats and shelters. The administration will be costly, and will undermine local authorities' ability to
perform their other statutory functions.
I know that the Government propose changes, as yet unannounced, in social services
departments, but I would not have thought that the role of poor law administration was
something that even the present Government had in mind for them. Of course, I could be
wrong. Perhaps Ministers foresee the prospect, if a Conservative Government are re-elected, of
an extended role for social services departments in dealing with destitution.
As a civilised society, we should offer refuge to genuine asylum seekers; we must also be
aware of our humanitarian responsibilities. Our objection to the Asylum and Immigration Act
1996 is that it used the withdrawal of benefits to establish who was and who was not a genuine
asylum seeker. That was always bound to cause undue hardship.
I understand that a further appeal will be made to the House of Lords, and clearly, if the Lords
uphold the judgment of the Court of Appeal, the practice will cease to be an option, even for the
present Government. We must therefore consider the best way of giving assistance and
benefits to people entitled to them, whatever legislation that process falls under. The assistance
must be fair and consistent, and must not carry high administrative costs.
12.21 pm
The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Health (Mr. Simon Burns): I start by
congratulating my hon. Friend the Member for Billericay (Mrs. Gorman) on initiating this
important debate. I assure the House that I have listened extremely carefully to the variety of
points made by my right hon. and hon. Friends, as well as by Opposition Members.
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Clearly there will not be time for me to deal with all the points that have been raised. My hon.
Friend the Member for Bexhill and Battle (Mr. Wardle) raised several issues concerning the
Home Office in connection with immigration and asylum policy, and I shall ensure that his
comments are drawn to the appropriate Ministers' attention, so that he can be given answers. I
shall also write to other hon. Members to deal with any other points that I am unable to raise
during the short time available.
I must first make it plain that this Government and this country have a justifiable reputation for
welcoming to our shores genuine asylum seekers escaping persecution and torture. ( 11 ) But
the escalating number of economic and bogus asylum seekers who have come here, not
because of persecution but because of the economic situation in this country and the benefits it
affords them, has caused great concern.
There has been an abuse of the asylum system, as several of my hon. Friends have said. In
1988 there were 4,000 asylum applications; in 1995, the number had risen to a staggering
44,000. Yet by 1996, as a result of the changes that we made to benefits, it had fallen to
28,000.
Although there was an increase in the number of asylum seekers recognised as refugees--from
628 in 1988 to 2,240 in 1996--the proportion of successful applicants granted refugee status as
a result of genuine applications fell from 23 per cent. to 6 per cent.
Mr. Burns: I am sorry, but I hope that my hon. Friend will understand that I have only seven
minutes left.
As hon. Members will know, asylum seekers who claim asylum at the point of arrival in this
country are entitled to social security benefits that cover housing, food and other necessities.
Rights to benefits have been withdrawn only from those who claim asylum after they have
entered this country. It is those people who now pose such an onerous problem for local
authorities.
It is worth looking briefly at how that happened. As some of my hon. Friends have said, the
situation arose in early August, when a small number of people who had claimed asylum after
entering the country, and so had been denied benefits, approached social services departments
for aid. After social services provision was refused, four of the asylum seekers sought judicial
review against the local authorities concerned, and an interim court order obliged the local
authorities to accommodate them while proceedings were pending.
On 8 October 1996, the High Court ruled that local authorities had a duty under section 21 ( 1
)(a) of the National Assistance Act 1948 to provide services as a safety net of last resort to
those who, by reason of their circumstances, were unable to fend for themselves.
My right hon. Friend the Secretary of State for Health, with the local authorities concerned--
Westminster, Hammersmith and Fulham, and Lambeth--appealed against that ruling; the appeal
was dismissed on 17 February. We are currently seeking leave to appeal to the House of Lords,
because we do not accept that the National Assistance Act should apply to adult asylum
seekers who are not elderly, infirm or disabled, and who have no need for community care
services.
The judgment has had serious consequences for many social services authorities, especially in
London. It has imposed a new duty on them to support people for whom they have never before
had to provide services. Although the number of people claiming asylum in this country has
fallen since the removal of benefits, thus suggesting that the intended disincentive to economic
migrants is working, the numbers remain high, and the burden for local authorities is substantial.
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On 21 February, 3,501 adults were being accommodated by London authorities, and at least a
further 200 outside London. It is not right that such a financial burden should be imposed on
council tax payers, or that services for local people should suffer as a result of the court ruling.
It is precisely because the Government are so concerned about the impact on local authorities
of having to house asylum seekers that we are now making a new special grant available to
help them to carry the burden. As the House will know, three types of grant are being made
available: one for unaccompanied children, one for children accompanied by adults, and the
grant for adult asylum seekers, which we approved in Standing Committee yesterday afternoon,
That last grant will allow claims from local authorities up to the equivalent of £165 per person
per week, averaged over the relevant period, to help meet the costs of those individuals. In
addition, authorities will be able to claim up to £10 per person per week for documented costs
incurred in commissioning new premises for housing asylum seekers.
The local authority associations and individual authorities, including Westminster, were
consulted on the details of the grant, and have been given guidance on how to claim
reimbursement. I certainly accept that Westminster, which has featured prominently in the
debate, has a very high number of asylum seekers--292 at the most recent inquiry--but it is not
alone in that.
Two other London boroughs currently accommodate more asylum seekers than Westminster,
and there are about eight authorities with similarly high numbers. We have listened to what they
have said, and we consider that the special grant is a fair and reasonable response to their
concerns about adults without children.
The House may be interested to know that the figures from the local authorities show that most
of the London authorities are spending less than the £165 per week that we allow. The sums
range from a low, in Ealing, of £90 per week, to a high, in Redbridge, of £164 per week.
However, two authorities are excluded from that range--Newham, which says that it is spending
£205 a week, and Westminster, which is spending about £226 a week.
It must be borne in mind that Westminster is being charged about £226 a week, and the
neighbouring borough, Kensington and Chelsea, which is in many ways a similar local authority,
about £119 a week. It would be wrong not to take an average figure rather than giving different
amounts to different authorities, which would clearly not be any more cost-effective or efficient
for the taxpayer. We have no plans to change the existing policy.
Mrs. Gorman: Is my hon. Friend aware that Kensington and Chelsea is giving cash benefits at
the moment, which allows it to save about £30 a head? The hon. Member for Stockport (Ms
Coffey) seems to agree with me that that is illegal.
Mr. Deputy Speaker (Mr. Michael Morris): Order. We must now move on to the next debate.
99
Referencias bibliográficas
En general la bibliografía sobre la mayoría de los tópicos tratados en este
libro está en inglés. Sin embargo, donde hay trabajos relevantes en
castellano, los incluimos en las referencias mencionadas aquí. Para más
bibliografía también vea mi libro Ideología (Van Dijk, 2000).
Ideología en general
La mayoría de los trabajos generales sobre ideología se encuentra en las
ciencias sociales, desde Destutt de Tracy, Marx/Engels, y Gramsci hasta
hoy. La tradición (neo) marxista está bien representada en esta bibliografía.
Unos de los libros clásicos con más influencia, que todavía vale la pena de
leer, es Ideología y Utopía de Karl Mannheim (1936). El libro
contemporáneo más conocido sobre la historia de el concepto de ideología
es el libro del investigador chileno Jorge Larrain (1979). Un buen libro de
introducción es el del teórico literario Terry Eagleton (1991). También
recomiendo los trabajos sobre ideología del psicólogo social Michael Billig
(por ejemplo Billig, 1982, 1988). Billig también es autor de trabajos
interesantes sobre fascismo y nacionalismo, y uno de los fundadores de la
psicología discursiva, en que él representa una línea ‘retórica’. Muy citados
también son los libros de John B. Thompson (1984, 1990), sobre todo para
el estudio de la cultura y los medios de comunicación. El famoso Centro de
Estudios Culturales Contemporáneos de Birmingham, liderado por el
igualmente famoso Stuart Hall hasta los años noventa, también publicó una
colección de estudios sobre ideología (CCCS, 1978). Abercrombie, Hill &
Turner (1990) publicaron una colección de artículos que tratan sobre todo a
la noción de “ideología dominante”. Una colección de trabajos clásicos, por
ejemplo de Adorno, Benhabib, Lacan, Althusser, Pêcheux, Therborn, etc.,
fue publicado por ŽiŽek (1994). Uno de los trabajos clásicos en ciencias
políticas es el libro de Martin Seliger (1976), y un libro más moderno él de
Michael Freeden (1996). En lingüística unos de los primeros libros fue él
de Hodge & Kress (1979, segunda versión: 1993). Se ve de esta
bibliografía que – aparte de algunos clásicos como Gramsci y Althusser,
etc. – la mayoría de los trabajos sobre ideología se han escrito en Inglaterra
– en tierra donde también Marx escribía parte de sus trabajos.
Cognición
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Una excelente introducción a la cognición social, combinando la
traducción norteamericana y europea en psicología social, es el libro de
Augoustinos & Walker (1995) – que por cierto merecería una traducción
castellana. El libro clásico de la línea norte-americana en cognición social
es de Fiske and Taylor (1991) que da también mucha otra bibliografía. La
línea europea tratando de la noción importante de la identidad social,
fundamental para la definición de ideologías, se representa por ejemplo en
el libro editado por Abrams & Hogg (1999). Muy interesante también son
los estudios sobre la psicología de las “creencias ampliamente distribuidas
(o generalizadas)” (Fraser & Gaskell (1990).
Para leer más sobre la noción de Moscovici de la representaciones
sociales, ahora hay varios libros después del clásico libro de Farr &
Moscovici (1984), como Moscovici (2000), y Meaux & Philogène (2001)
en inglés y Jodelet (1989) en francés. También hay una colección de
estudios franceses sobre ideología y representaciones sociales editado por
Aebischer, Deconchy & Lipiansky (1992), con los libros de Michael Billig
uno de los pocos libros sobre psicología social e ideología.
Para el estudio del procesamiento del discurso, vea Van Dijk &
Kintsch (1983), Kintsch, 1998; Britton & Graesser (1995), y Van
Oostendorp & Goldman (1999). En el libro de psicolingüística del español
de Vega y Cuetos (1999) hay un capítulo sobre esa linea de investigación
sobre el discurso. Sobre la lingüística cognitiva ahora tenemos un libro en
español (Cuenca & Hilferty, 1999), pero no es un área que trata
directamente de representaciones sociales como ideologías.
Para la noción importante de modelo mental (o modelo de situación),
vea los estudios y colecciones de Johnson-Laird (1983), Oakhill &
Garnham (1996), Van Dijk & Kintsch (1983), Van Oostendorp & Goldman
(1999).
Racismo
También sobre racismo ya existe una biblioteca entera de estudios, y por
eso nos limitamos a algunos libros de referencia, también porque no es el
tópico principal de este libro. Algunos libros nuevos de referencia son:
Philomena Essed & David Goldberg (2002) que reúne muchos textos
clásicos y comentarios ulteriores de l@s autores/as sobre el contexto
(recepción, etc.) en que escribieron sus artículos. Les Back y John Solomos
(2000) dan otra selección de artículos clásicos, y David Goldberg & John
Solomos (2002) es una enciclopedia de contribuciones nuevas. Allá uno
puede encontrar mucha otra bibliografía sobre racismo. Para la noción de
racismo cotidiano, veo el libro de Philomena Essed (1991). En España
todavía no hay muchos libros sobre racismo (pero cada vez más sobre
inmigración). Lo más práctico son los informes anuales de SOS Racismo.
Tomás Calvo Buezas publicó una serie de informes detallados sobre las
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opiniones de adolescentes sobre inmigración y minorías coleccionadas en
encuestas (por ejemplo Calvo Buezas, 1990, 1995, 1997, 2001). Luisa
Martín Rojo et al. (1994) es una colección sobre racismo y uno de los
primeros en España que relaciona racismo con discurso. Antonio Bañon es
uno de los lingüistas en España que está más involucrado en el estudio del
discurso racista (su último estudio es Bañon, 2002). De mis propios libros
en inglés sobre discurso y racismo (Van Dijk, 1984, 1987, 1991, 1993) se
tradujo uno en castellano (Van Dijk, 1993), y se publicó una colección de
artículos sobre racismo y la prensa (Van Dijk, 1997).
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BIBLIOGRAFÍA
Abercrombie, N., Hill, S., & Turner, B.S. (Eds.). (1990). Dominant
ideologies. London Boston: Unwin Hyman.
Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. A. (1999). Social identity theory and social
cognition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Back, L., & Solomos, J. (Eds.). (2000). Theories of race and racism.
London: Routledge.
Calsamiglia Blancafort, H., & Tuson, A. (1999). Las cosas del decir
manual de análisis del discurso. Barcelona: Ariel.
103
Calvo Buezas, T. (1997). Racismo y solidaridad de espanoles,
portugueses y latinoamericanos: Los jóvenes ante otros
pueblos y culturas. Madrid: Ediciones Libertarias.
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Fraser, C., & Gaskell, G. (Eds.). (1990). The social psychological
study of widespread beliefs. Oxford Oxford New York:
Clarendon Press Oxford University Press.
Lozano, J., Peña-Marín, C., & Abril, G. (1982). Análisis del discurso
hacia una semiótica de la interacción textual. Madrid:
Ediciones Cátedra.
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Oakhill, J., & Garnham, A. (Eds.). (1996). Mental models in
cognitive science. Essays in honour of Phil Johnson-Laird.
Hove (Sussex): Psychology Press.
Van Dijk, T. A. (1991). Racism and the press. London New York:
Routledge.
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Van Dijk, T. A. (1997). Racismo y análisis crítico de los medios.
(Racism and the critical analysis of the media). Barcelona:
Paidos.
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