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David E Gray

University of Greenwich, The Business School, Faculty Member

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David Gray is Professor of Leadership and Organisational Behaviour at the University of Greenwich having been previously Professor of Management Learning at the University of Surrey, UK. He also worked at the London Stock Exchange where he was director of a national training development initiative for the UK securities industry. His research interests, and publication record, include innovation in SMEs, research methods (with a focus on research design and quantitative and qualitative methods), management learning (particularly coaching and mentoring), reflective learning, and e-learning. David taught on Surrey's MBA programme (which is AMBA and ASCSB accredited) and was responsible for curriculum innovations, including the introduction of action consultancies, action learning sets and reflective management practice. He has been a member of the International Coach Federation’s global research committee.
Address: The Business School
University of Greenwich
30 Park Row
London
SE10 9LS

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Alexandra Bristow

The Open University

Mark N K Saunders

The University of Birmingham

Alquds University

University of KwaZulu-Natal

Mudaray Marimuthu

kokou Adalessossı

Akdeniz University

kokou ADALESSOSSI

Burcu Demirel UKTU

Akdeniz University

abdulazeez olamide

University of Ilorin, Ilorin Kwara State Nigeria

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Books by David E Gray

Example chapter Digital Research Methods.pdf

This chapter appears in Gray, D.E. (2017) Doing Research in the Business World. London: Sage.

A Critical Introduction to Coaching & Mentoring: Debate, Dialogue and Discourse.

The Mentor Handbook: A Practical Guide for VET Teachers and Trainers

3 1 The TTnet was established by CEdEfop in 1998 as a pan-European forum for key players and deci... more 3 1 The TTnet was established by CEdEfop in 1998 as a pan-European forum for key players and decision-makers involved in the training and professional development of vocational teachers and trainers. The TTnet aims have been to foster cooperation between key national actors; produce recommendations, guidance and tools for practitioners and decision-makers, and support the implementation of EU priorities for VET teachers and trainers. The network is being dismantled during 2011. Its activities are being taken over by the new Thematic Working Group on trainers in VET set up by the European Commission / dG Education and Culture (dG EAC) in cooperation with CEdEfop (www.cedefop. europa.eu).

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edition

"1 Introduction PRINCIPLES AND PLANNING FOR RESEARCH 2 Theoretical Perspectives and Research Me... more "1 Introduction
PRINCIPLES AND PLANNING FOR RESEARCH
2 Theoretical Perspectives and Research Methodologies
3 Selecting and Planning Research Proposals and Projects
4 Research Ethics
5 Searching, critically reviewing and using the literature
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
6 Research design: quantitative methods
7 Research design: qualitative methods
8 Research design: using mixed methods
9 Sampling strategies
10 Designing Descriptive and analytical surveys
11 Designing Case Studies
12 Designing Evaluations
13 Action Research and Change
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
14 Collecting Primary Data: Questionnaires
15 Collecting Primary Data: Interviewing
16 Collecting Primary Data: Non-participant Observation
17 Collecting Primary Data: Ethnography and participant observation
18 Collecting Primary Data: Focus groups
19 Collecting Primary Data: Unobtrusive Measures
ANALYSIS AND REPORT WRITING
20 Secondary analysis
21 Getting started using SPSS
22 Analysing and Presenting Quantitative Data
23 Analysing and Presenting Qualitative Data
24Writing up the Research
25 Planning presentations and vivas
References
Glossary
"

Pesquisa no Mundo Real 2ª Edição

O livro conduz o leitor do início ao fim do processo de pesquisa. Ajuda o leitor a compreender os... more O livro conduz o leitor do início ao fim do processo de pesquisa. Ajuda o leitor a compreender os muitos meios pelos quais é possível coletar, validar e interpretar dados. Entre os tópicos abordados estão: como selecionar projetos e questões de pesquisa adequadas; como decidir sobre quais são as estratégias mais eficazes para o desenho de pesquisa; e como escolher e implementar métodos de coleta de dados. O autor lança mão de recursos como atividades e “dicas quentes” ao longo dos capítulos que visam auxiliar os leitores em seus projetos de pesquisa.

Doing Research in the Real World 2nd edition

"Doing Research in the Real World introduces readers to all the essential aspects of the research... more "Doing Research in the Real World introduces readers to all the essential aspects of the research process and will be an essential guide to any student on a research methods course.

David Gray's clear and accessible introduction starts by setting out best approaches to the design of appropriate research tools, and leads the reader into issues of data collection, analysis and writing up. Practically focused throughout, this book encourages the reader to develop an awareness of the real nature of research and the many means by which data can be collected, validated and interpreted.

Gray's book will help students with the full research process and covers:

How to select appropriate projects and research questions
How to decide on the most effective research design strategies
How to select and use appropriate data and literature sources
How to choose and implement methods of data collection
How to analyse and present data in a coherent and effective manner.
This new edition provides five new chapters on:

Research ethics
Searching, reviewing and using the literature
Research design using qualitative methods
Mixed methods research designs
Planning presentations and passing vivas.
In addition, a wide variety of case studies, activities and new practical 'Top Tips' for the discerning researcher have been incorporated. The new edition also includes an extensive companion website which includes links to journal articles, tutorial questions and data sets.

Written in a lively and accessible way, Doing Research in the Real World can be used as a set text on an introductory methods course and can be used as an essential resource for students and researchers completing research projects across the social sciences, education and business studies.
"

Business Coaching for Managers and Organizations

""Chapter 1: What this book is about What can I get out of coaching? Who is this book for? Des... more ""Chapter 1: What this book is about
What can I get out of coaching?
Who is this book for?
Description of each chapter

Chapter 2: Do I need a coach?
So, what is coaching?
Who is coaching and being coached?
Types of coaching
• Executive/corporate coaching
• Leadership coaching
• Performance/skills coaching
• Small business coaching
• Career/transition coaching
• Personal/Life coaching
Coaching delivery
Coaching relationships
Do I need a coach or a counsellor?
Key points

Chapter 3: From the many to the few – making a shortlist
Finding a coach: internal or external?
Internal
External
• Local media
• Using the internet
• Search engines
• Coaching referral services
• Coaching warehouses
• Networking events
• Word of mouth
Drawing up a shortlist
Key points

Chapter 4: Interviewing and selection criteria
Coaching experience
Business experience
Qualifications
Coaching processes
• Contracting
• Psychological assessments
• Setting tasks
• Using tools and techniques
• Evaluating progress
• Making referrals
• Terminating the relationship
Coaching methodologies
• Psychotherapy
• NLP coaching
• Gestalt coaching
• Cognitive behaviour therapy
• Business coaching
Ethics and boundaries
Supervision
Insurance
Key points

Chapter 5: Contracts and Agreements
Contract elements
• Objectives
• Timescales
• Meeting logistics
• Coaching approach
• Resources
• Checkpoints
• Responsibilities
• Exclusions
• Risks
• Payment
• Termination
• Insurance
• Confidentiality
• Evaluation
The coaching agreement
What if it all goes wrong?
Key points

Chapter 6: How am I doing? Evaluating progress
Why evaluate coaching?
What do I need to check on?
Who is involved in evaluation?
When to evaluate
The tools of coaching evaluation
Being reflective
Moving on or calling a halt?
Key points

Chapter 7: Recruiting a coaching faculty
The recruitment process
• Issue tender
• Briefing session
• Applications
• Short listing
Filtering
Matching
• Coaching database
• Speed dating
Key points
Appendix 1
A Directory of Coaching Organisations
Appendix 2
Coaching Qualifications
• Example of qualifications provided by Universities
• Examples of qualifications from private providers
""

Training to Teach in Further and Adult Education

Examines the broad variety of teaching methods at the teacher’s disposal. Please note that this c... more

E-learning for teachers and trainers: innovative practices, skills and competences.

""The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in education and training is becom... more ""The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in education and training is becoming increasingly important, and has had a profound effect on the role of teachers and trainers. With e-learning growing in popularity and usefulness as a means of instruction, it is necessary that teachers and trainers have the skills and competences required to effectively engage their students. This report summarises the research carried out by the Pan European Teachers and Trainers Network (TTnet) in 2002-2003 in analysing examples of innovative practices in the training of teachers and trainers who use e-learning and identifying the range of activities, competencies and roles involved in such practices.

Learning through the Workplace

Post-Compulsory Education and the New Millennium

Doing Research in the Real World

Academic articles by David E Gray

What Can We Learn from the Organizational Life Cycle Theory? A Conceptualization for the Practice of Workplace Learning

In the world of business and management, the practice of workplace learning is deemed important f... more In the world of business and management, the practice of workplace learning is deemed important for firms to survive or stay competitive. However, firm characteristics such as business priorities, management styles, and limited internal resources and capabilities are always organizational factors that affect how firms may practice workplace learning. According to organizational life cycle (OLC) theory, during the firm's growth from inception, to high-growth, to maturity, firm characteristics differ and the internal resources and capabilities of the firm develop. The literature has discussed the dynamics of organizational life cycle, but little is known about how it possibly relates to workplace learning. The paper synthesises the OLC literature and draws the characteristics of three common stages for firms (large or small) to conceptualize different patterns of workplace learning practices, promoting a new page of empirical research potential.

Organisational learning and the organisational life cycle: the differential aspects of an integrated relationship in SMEs

Purpose: This study seeks to relate the practice of organisational learning (OL) in small and med... more Purpose: This study seeks to relate the practice of organisational learning (OL) in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to the organisational life cycle (OLC), contextualising the differential aspects of an integrated relationship between them.
Design/methodology/approach: It is a mixed method study with two consecutive phases. In Phase I, 30 Hong Kong SMEs identified through theoretical sampling were classified into three life-cycle stages – inception, high-growth, and maturity. In Phase II, their employees’ learning practices (grouped by learning levels) were statistically compared using the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and then followed up for confirmation with qualitative semi-structured interviews.
Findings: This study uniquely suggests the nature of a relationship between SME organisational learning and the OLC. Empirical results show that three out of the four learning levels (individual, group, organisational, and inter-organisational) practised in SMEs are varied in importance between life-cycle stages.
Research limitations/implications: Comparative studies are encouraged in other parts of the world to strengthen the findings – with either SMEs or large organisations.
Practical implications: The study informs SME owner/managers about what is important for employee learning at different business stages so that appropriate learning strategies or human resource development (HRD) policies can be formulated in a timely fashion to promote competitiveness.
Originality/value: It is among the first studies to connect SME learning with organisational growth. The relationships found serve as a sound foundation for further empirical investigations.

Coaching unemployed managers and professionals through the trauma of unemployment: Derailed or undaunted?

Management Learning

The economic crisis of 2008/9 has increased unemployment amongst managers, particularly older man... more The economic crisis of 2008/9 has increased unemployment amongst managers, particularly older managers, a group empirically under-researched. This longitudinal study assesses the efficacy of executive coaching for a group of unemployed professionals who participated in an intensive coaching programme aimed at reintegrating them into the economy. Results suggest that the majority were positive about coaching, a process that helped them to reflect on and learn from their new circumstances. Findings also contradict other studies, indicating cautious, cool and even hostile responses to coaching. The study highlights the mental fragility of previously successful, now unemployed managers. From a policy perspective, interventions should start earlier (before employees leave an organisation) and finish later. From a social science perspective, executive coaching represents a modest but sometimes effective initiative to help unemployed professionals to re-write their life stories to make sense of their experiences.

Transforming Farm Health and Safety: The Case for Business Coaching

Journal of Safety and Health, 2014

SME innovation and learning: the role of networks and crisis events

by David E Gray and Mark N K Saunders

European Journal of Training and Development 38(1/2) 136-149, 2013

"Purpose: To contribute to the literature on innovation and entrepreneurial learning by exploring... more "Purpose: To contribute to the literature on innovation and entrepreneurial learning by exploring how SMEs learn and innovate, how they use of both formal and informal learning and in particular the role of networks and crisis events within their learning experience.
Design/methodology/approach: Mixed method study, comprising 13 focus groups, over 1000 questionnaire responses from SME mangers, 13 focus groups and 20 case studies derived from semi-structured interviews.
Findings: SMEs have a strong commitment to learning, and a shared vision. Much of this learning is informal through network events, mentoring or coaching. SMEs that are innovative are significantly more committed to learning than those which are less innovative, seeing employee learning as an investment. Innovative SMEs are more likely to have a shared vision, be open-minded and to learn from crises, being able to reflect on their experiences.
Implications for research: There is a need for further process driven qualitative research to understand the interrelationship between, particularly informal, learning, crisis events and SME innovation.
Implications for practice: SME owners need opportunities and time for reflection as a means of stimulating personal learning – particularly the opportunity to learn from crisis events. Access to mentors (often outside the business) can be important here, as are informal networks.
Originality/value: This is one of the first mixed method large scale studies to explore the relationship between SME innovation and learning, highlighting the importance of informal learning to innovation and the need for SME leaders to foster this learning as part of a shared organisational vision.
"

Learning about Managing the Business in the Hospitality Industry

Human Resource Development Quarterly 24(4) 525-559, 2013

This research examines the learning experiences of General Managers (GMs) in the hospitality indu... more This research examines the learning experiences of General Managers (GMs) in the hospitality industry, a sector much neglected in terms of research into management learning and human resource development. Our research focused on four large hospitality organizations (two hotels and two contract catering companies) and adopted an approach that integrates multiple data collection strategies in supporting our qualitative case studies. Data were collected by using document analysis plus detailed, qualitative interviews with 21 general managers, of whom seven were subsequently observed at work and observation notes generated. Data analysis revealed that the participants learned to manage the business primarily through experience, a process consisting of four key stages: Being Challenged, Information Searching, Information Transformation, and Testing. Reflective thinking plays a central role in their learning, taking the form of “actions” involving association, integration and validation, and of “products” involving content, process and context reflections. We argue that the way hospitality managers learn, while sharing the learning approaches taken by other professionals, differs in that these managers’ learning is more highly contextualized.

Job loss and its aftermath among managers and professionals: wounded, fragmented and flexible

by David E Gray and Yiannis GABRIEL

Work, Employment & Society 27(1) 56-72, 2013

""Based on longitudinal fieldwork with unemployed managers and professionals in their 50s, the ar... more ""Based on longitudinal fieldwork with unemployed managers and professionals in their 50s, the article examines the meaning of job loss to these people and charts their subsequent efforts to restore their lives. The article identifies core similarities in their experiences and discerns different narrative strategies through which they have tried to make sense of their dismissal and
sustain their selfhood. For all, job loss was a considerable trauma leading to a fragmentation of identity; this was compounded by subsequent rejection and perceived discrimination. Few were
able to resume their earlier careers; the majority had to adjust their expectations downwards and opt for either virtual deskilling in less well paid and less demanding jobs or for an assortment of
part-time, casual and voluntary work. Best ‘adapted’ (and least fragmented) were those who were prepared to forsake hopes of a return to high-powered jobs and display flexibility, resourcefulness
and opportunism in adapting to their reduced circumstances.""

Journeys towards the professionalisation of coaching: Dilemmas, dialogues and decisions along the global pathway’

Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice. 4(1) 4-19. , 2011

The term ‘profession’ derives from the Latin word ‘profiteor’ meaning to profess. Professionalis... more The term ‘profession’ derives from the Latin word ‘profiteor’ meaning to profess. Professionalisation, is the process whereby a gainful activity moves from the status of ‘occupation’ to the status of ‘profession’. Claims for professional status and the emergence of standards and awards are typical of the journey that occupations make (or attempt to make) towards professionalisation. However, some occupations fall short of the mark or, at best, become semi-professions with shorter training, less specialised knowledge; and more societal (state) control. If coaching is to become a profession it must adopt criteria such as the development of an agreed and unified body of knowledge, professional standards and qualifications, and codes of ethics and behaviour. While some of these are already completed or in development, the continuation of a multiplicity (and growing) number of coaching associations suggests that the pathway of coaching to professionalisation may be at best bumpy, and at worst derailed.

Example chapter Digital Research Methods.pdf

This chapter appears in Gray, D.E. (2017) Doing Research in the Business World. London: Sage.

A Critical Introduction to Coaching & Mentoring: Debate, Dialogue and Discourse.

The Mentor Handbook: A Practical Guide for VET Teachers and Trainers

3 1 The TTnet was established by CEdEfop in 1998 as a pan-European forum for key players and deci... more 3 1 The TTnet was established by CEdEfop in 1998 as a pan-European forum for key players and decision-makers involved in the training and professional development of vocational teachers and trainers. The TTnet aims have been to foster cooperation between key national actors; produce recommendations, guidance and tools for practitioners and decision-makers, and support the implementation of EU priorities for VET teachers and trainers. The network is being dismantled during 2011. Its activities are being taken over by the new Thematic Working Group on trainers in VET set up by the European Commission / dG Education and Culture (dG EAC) in cooperation with CEdEfop (www.cedefop. europa.eu).

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edition

"1 Introduction PRINCIPLES AND PLANNING FOR RESEARCH 2 Theoretical Perspectives and Research Me... more "1 Introduction
PRINCIPLES AND PLANNING FOR RESEARCH
2 Theoretical Perspectives and Research Methodologies
3 Selecting and Planning Research Proposals and Projects
4 Research Ethics
5 Searching, critically reviewing and using the literature
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
6 Research design: quantitative methods
7 Research design: qualitative methods
8 Research design: using mixed methods
9 Sampling strategies
10 Designing Descriptive and analytical surveys
11 Designing Case Studies
12 Designing Evaluations
13 Action Research and Change
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
14 Collecting Primary Data: Questionnaires
15 Collecting Primary Data: Interviewing
16 Collecting Primary Data: Non-participant Observation
17 Collecting Primary Data: Ethnography and participant observation
18 Collecting Primary Data: Focus groups
19 Collecting Primary Data: Unobtrusive Measures
ANALYSIS AND REPORT WRITING
20 Secondary analysis
21 Getting started using SPSS
22 Analysing and Presenting Quantitative Data
23 Analysing and Presenting Qualitative Data
24Writing up the Research
25 Planning presentations and vivas
References
Glossary
"

Pesquisa no Mundo Real 2ª Edição

O livro conduz o leitor do início ao fim do processo de pesquisa. Ajuda o leitor a compreender os... more O livro conduz o leitor do início ao fim do processo de pesquisa. Ajuda o leitor a compreender os muitos meios pelos quais é possível coletar, validar e interpretar dados. Entre os tópicos abordados estão: como selecionar projetos e questões de pesquisa adequadas; como decidir sobre quais são as estratégias mais eficazes para o desenho de pesquisa; e como escolher e implementar métodos de coleta de dados. O autor lança mão de recursos como atividades e “dicas quentes” ao longo dos capítulos que visam auxiliar os leitores em seus projetos de pesquisa.

Doing Research in the Real World 2nd edition

"Doing Research in the Real World introduces readers to all the essential aspects of the research... more "Doing Research in the Real World introduces readers to all the essential aspects of the research process and will be an essential guide to any student on a research methods course.

David Gray's clear and accessible introduction starts by setting out best approaches to the design of appropriate research tools, and leads the reader into issues of data collection, analysis and writing up. Practically focused throughout, this book encourages the reader to develop an awareness of the real nature of research and the many means by which data can be collected, validated and interpreted.

Gray's book will help students with the full research process and covers:

How to select appropriate projects and research questions
How to decide on the most effective research design strategies
How to select and use appropriate data and literature sources
How to choose and implement methods of data collection
How to analyse and present data in a coherent and effective manner.
This new edition provides five new chapters on:

Research ethics
Searching, reviewing and using the literature
Research design using qualitative methods
Mixed methods research designs
Planning presentations and passing vivas.
In addition, a wide variety of case studies, activities and new practical 'Top Tips' for the discerning researcher have been incorporated. The new edition also includes an extensive companion website which includes links to journal articles, tutorial questions and data sets.

Written in a lively and accessible way, Doing Research in the Real World can be used as a set text on an introductory methods course and can be used as an essential resource for students and researchers completing research projects across the social sciences, education and business studies.
"

Business Coaching for Managers and Organizations

""Chapter 1: What this book is about What can I get out of coaching? Who is this book for? Des... more ""Chapter 1: What this book is about
What can I get out of coaching?
Who is this book for?
Description of each chapter

Chapter 2: Do I need a coach?
So, what is coaching?
Who is coaching and being coached?
Types of coaching
• Executive/corporate coaching
• Leadership coaching
• Performance/skills coaching
• Small business coaching
• Career/transition coaching
• Personal/Life coaching
Coaching delivery
Coaching relationships
Do I need a coach or a counsellor?
Key points

Chapter 3: From the many to the few – making a shortlist
Finding a coach: internal or external?
Internal
External
• Local media
• Using the internet
• Search engines
• Coaching referral services
• Coaching warehouses
• Networking events
• Word of mouth
Drawing up a shortlist
Key points

Chapter 4: Interviewing and selection criteria
Coaching experience
Business experience
Qualifications
Coaching processes
• Contracting
• Psychological assessments
• Setting tasks
• Using tools and techniques
• Evaluating progress
• Making referrals
• Terminating the relationship
Coaching methodologies
• Psychotherapy
• NLP coaching
• Gestalt coaching
• Cognitive behaviour therapy
• Business coaching
Ethics and boundaries
Supervision
Insurance
Key points

Chapter 5: Contracts and Agreements
Contract elements
• Objectives
• Timescales
• Meeting logistics
• Coaching approach
• Resources
• Checkpoints
• Responsibilities
• Exclusions
• Risks
• Payment
• Termination
• Insurance
• Confidentiality
• Evaluation
The coaching agreement
What if it all goes wrong?
Key points

Chapter 6: How am I doing? Evaluating progress
Why evaluate coaching?
What do I need to check on?
Who is involved in evaluation?
When to evaluate
The tools of coaching evaluation
Being reflective
Moving on or calling a halt?
Key points

Chapter 7: Recruiting a coaching faculty
The recruitment process
• Issue tender
• Briefing session
• Applications
• Short listing
Filtering
Matching
• Coaching database
• Speed dating
Key points
Appendix 1
A Directory of Coaching Organisations
Appendix 2
Coaching Qualifications
• Example of qualifications provided by Universities
• Examples of qualifications from private providers
""

Training to Teach in Further and Adult Education

Examines the broad variety of teaching methods at the teacher’s disposal. Please note that this c... more

E-learning for teachers and trainers: innovative practices, skills and competences.

""The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in education and training is becom... more ""The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in education and training is becoming increasingly important, and has had a profound effect on the role of teachers and trainers. With e-learning growing in popularity and usefulness as a means of instruction, it is necessary that teachers and trainers have the skills and competences required to effectively engage their students. This report summarises the research carried out by the Pan European Teachers and Trainers Network (TTnet) in 2002-2003 in analysing examples of innovative practices in the training of teachers and trainers who use e-learning and identifying the range of activities, competencies and roles involved in such practices.

Learning through the Workplace

Post-Compulsory Education and the New Millennium

Doing Research in the Real World

What Can We Learn from the Organizational Life Cycle Theory? A Conceptualization for the Practice of Workplace Learning

In the world of business and management, the practice of workplace learning is deemed important f... more In the world of business and management, the practice of workplace learning is deemed important for firms to survive or stay competitive. However, firm characteristics such as business priorities, management styles, and limited internal resources and capabilities are always organizational factors that affect how firms may practice workplace learning. According to organizational life cycle (OLC) theory, during the firm's growth from inception, to high-growth, to maturity, firm characteristics differ and the internal resources and capabilities of the firm develop. The literature has discussed the dynamics of organizational life cycle, but little is known about how it possibly relates to workplace learning. The paper synthesises the OLC literature and draws the characteristics of three common stages for firms (large or small) to conceptualize different patterns of workplace learning practices, promoting a new page of empirical research potential.

Organisational learning and the organisational life cycle: the differential aspects of an integrated relationship in SMEs

Purpose: This study seeks to relate the practice of organisational learning (OL) in small and med... more Purpose: This study seeks to relate the practice of organisational learning (OL) in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to the organisational life cycle (OLC), contextualising the differential aspects of an integrated relationship between them.
Design/methodology/approach: It is a mixed method study with two consecutive phases. In Phase I, 30 Hong Kong SMEs identified through theoretical sampling were classified into three life-cycle stages – inception, high-growth, and maturity. In Phase II, their employees’ learning practices (grouped by learning levels) were statistically compared using the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and then followed up for confirmation with qualitative semi-structured interviews.
Findings: This study uniquely suggests the nature of a relationship between SME organisational learning and the OLC. Empirical results show that three out of the four learning levels (individual, group, organisational, and inter-organisational) practised in SMEs are varied in importance between life-cycle stages.
Research limitations/implications: Comparative studies are encouraged in other parts of the world to strengthen the findings – with either SMEs or large organisations.
Practical implications: The study informs SME owner/managers about what is important for employee learning at different business stages so that appropriate learning strategies or human resource development (HRD) policies can be formulated in a timely fashion to promote competitiveness.
Originality/value: It is among the first studies to connect SME learning with organisational growth. The relationships found serve as a sound foundation for further empirical investigations.

Coaching unemployed managers and professionals through the trauma of unemployment: Derailed or undaunted?

Management Learning

The economic crisis of 2008/9 has increased unemployment amongst managers, particularly older man... more The economic crisis of 2008/9 has increased unemployment amongst managers, particularly older managers, a group empirically under-researched. This longitudinal study assesses the efficacy of executive coaching for a group of unemployed professionals who participated in an intensive coaching programme aimed at reintegrating them into the economy. Results suggest that the majority were positive about coaching, a process that helped them to reflect on and learn from their new circumstances. Findings also contradict other studies, indicating cautious, cool and even hostile responses to coaching. The study highlights the mental fragility of previously successful, now unemployed managers. From a policy perspective, interventions should start earlier (before employees leave an organisation) and finish later. From a social science perspective, executive coaching represents a modest but sometimes effective initiative to help unemployed professionals to re-write their life stories to make sense of their experiences.

Transforming Farm Health and Safety: The Case for Business Coaching

Journal of Safety and Health, 2014

SME innovation and learning: the role of networks and crisis events

by David E Gray and Mark N K Saunders

European Journal of Training and Development 38(1/2) 136-149, 2013

"Purpose: To contribute to the literature on innovation and entrepreneurial learning by exploring... more "Purpose: To contribute to the literature on innovation and entrepreneurial learning by exploring how SMEs learn and innovate, how they use of both formal and informal learning and in particular the role of networks and crisis events within their learning experience.
Design/methodology/approach: Mixed method study, comprising 13 focus groups, over 1000 questionnaire responses from SME mangers, 13 focus groups and 20 case studies derived from semi-structured interviews.
Findings: SMEs have a strong commitment to learning, and a shared vision. Much of this learning is informal through network events, mentoring or coaching. SMEs that are innovative are significantly more committed to learning than those which are less innovative, seeing employee learning as an investment. Innovative SMEs are more likely to have a shared vision, be open-minded and to learn from crises, being able to reflect on their experiences.
Implications for research: There is a need for further process driven qualitative research to understand the interrelationship between, particularly informal, learning, crisis events and SME innovation.
Implications for practice: SME owners need opportunities and time for reflection as a means of stimulating personal learning – particularly the opportunity to learn from crisis events. Access to mentors (often outside the business) can be important here, as are informal networks.
Originality/value: This is one of the first mixed method large scale studies to explore the relationship between SME innovation and learning, highlighting the importance of informal learning to innovation and the need for SME leaders to foster this learning as part of a shared organisational vision.
"

Learning about Managing the Business in the Hospitality Industry

Human Resource Development Quarterly 24(4) 525-559, 2013

This research examines the learning experiences of General Managers (GMs) in the hospitality indu... more This research examines the learning experiences of General Managers (GMs) in the hospitality industry, a sector much neglected in terms of research into management learning and human resource development. Our research focused on four large hospitality organizations (two hotels and two contract catering companies) and adopted an approach that integrates multiple data collection strategies in supporting our qualitative case studies. Data were collected by using document analysis plus detailed, qualitative interviews with 21 general managers, of whom seven were subsequently observed at work and observation notes generated. Data analysis revealed that the participants learned to manage the business primarily through experience, a process consisting of four key stages: Being Challenged, Information Searching, Information Transformation, and Testing. Reflective thinking plays a central role in their learning, taking the form of “actions” involving association, integration and validation, and of “products” involving content, process and context reflections. We argue that the way hospitality managers learn, while sharing the learning approaches taken by other professionals, differs in that these managers’ learning is more highly contextualized.

Job loss and its aftermath among managers and professionals: wounded, fragmented and flexible

by David E Gray and Yiannis GABRIEL

Work, Employment & Society 27(1) 56-72, 2013

""Based on longitudinal fieldwork with unemployed managers and professionals in their 50s, the ar... more ""Based on longitudinal fieldwork with unemployed managers and professionals in their 50s, the article examines the meaning of job loss to these people and charts their subsequent efforts to restore their lives. The article identifies core similarities in their experiences and discerns different narrative strategies through which they have tried to make sense of their dismissal and
sustain their selfhood. For all, job loss was a considerable trauma leading to a fragmentation of identity; this was compounded by subsequent rejection and perceived discrimination. Few were
able to resume their earlier careers; the majority had to adjust their expectations downwards and opt for either virtual deskilling in less well paid and less demanding jobs or for an assortment of
part-time, casual and voluntary work. Best ‘adapted’ (and least fragmented) were those who were prepared to forsake hopes of a return to high-powered jobs and display flexibility, resourcefulness
and opportunism in adapting to their reduced circumstances.""

Journeys towards the professionalisation of coaching: Dilemmas, dialogues and decisions along the global pathway’

Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice. 4(1) 4-19. , 2011

The term ‘profession’ derives from the Latin word ‘profiteor’ meaning to profess. Professionalis... more The term ‘profession’ derives from the Latin word ‘profiteor’ meaning to profess. Professionalisation, is the process whereby a gainful activity moves from the status of ‘occupation’ to the status of ‘profession’. Claims for professional status and the emergence of standards and awards are typical of the journey that occupations make (or attempt to make) towards professionalisation. However, some occupations fall short of the mark or, at best, become semi-professions with shorter training, less specialised knowledge; and more societal (state) control. If coaching is to become a profession it must adopt criteria such as the development of an agreed and unified body of knowledge, professional standards and qualifications, and codes of ethics and behaviour. While some of these are already completed or in development, the continuation of a multiplicity (and growing) number of coaching associations suggests that the pathway of coaching to professionalisation may be at best bumpy, and at worst derailed.

Spanning the HRD academic-practitioner divide – bridging the gap through Mode 2 research

Journal of European Industrial Training 35(3) 247-263, 2011

In HRD, the relationship between theory (usually produced by academics) and practice (the domain,... more In HRD, the relationship between theory (usually produced by academics) and practice (the domain, normally of practitioners), has been seen in dichotomous terms of theory versus practice, referred to in various ways such as: the research-practice gap; the implementation gap; the research-practice divide; and the theory-practice void. This gap is also typified by Mode 1 research, an approach which adopts the principles of ‘normal science’ and which generates results, the main beneficiaries of which are the academic community. Practitioners, however, need research that has a practical focus and which can be applied immediately. This article examines the nature of Mode 2 research, where knowledge is generated in the context of multi-stakeholder teams (academics and practitioners) that transcend the boundaries of traditional disciplines, working on problems to be found in working life. It is an approach that requires both academic rigour and practical relevance. The article presents and critically evaluates a number of examples of academic-practitioner partnerships in action in order to highlight both the potential and the challenges for the development of Mode 2 research. It also recommends strategies for the advancement of Mode 2 research, including getting academics to attune themselves more closely with the needs of practitioners, encouraging academics to write for practitioner journals, and the use of the kinds of research methodologies that can generate richer stories and cases that resonate with practitioner interests.

Coaching SME managers: business development or personal therapy? A mixed methods study

International Journal of Human Resource Management 22(4) 862-881, 2011

""While a growing number of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are making use of coaching... more ""While a growing number of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are making use of coaching, little is known about the impact such coaching has within this sector. This study sought to identify the factors that influence managers’ decision to engage
with coaching, their perceptions of the coaching ‘journey’ and the kinds of benefits accruing from coaching: organisational, personal or both. As part of a mixed methods approach, a survey tool was developed based upon a range of relevant management
competencies from the UK’s Management Occupational Standards and responses analysed using importance-performance analysis, an approach first used in the marketing sector to evaluate customer satisfaction. Results indicate that coaching had a
significant impact on personal attributes such as ‘Managing Self-Cognition’ and ‘Managing Self-Emotional’, whereas the impact on business-oriented attributes was weaker. Managers’ choice of coaches with psychotherapeutic rather than non-psychotherapeutic backgrounds was also statistically significant. We conclude that even in the competitive business environment of SMEs, coaching was used as a largely personal, therapeutic intervention rather than to build business-oriented competencies.""

A Five‐dimensional Model of Attributes: Some precursors of executive coach selection

International Journal of …, 2011

"The purpose of this study was to specify a set of attributes, identified as important precursors... more "The purpose of this study was to specify a set of attributes, identified as important precursors to coach selection. Executive coaching has grown exponentially, but there have been few
studies as to the efficacy of coaching, including the factors that influence a manager’s choice of coach. This study sought to identify these factors. The 45-item, online survey produced 267
useable responses. Results of the principal component analysis suggested a five-factor solution, with women showing a statistically significant preference over men for coaches who have
the Ability to Develop Critical Thinking and Action, the Ability to Forge the Coaching Partnership ,and Coach Experience and Qualifications. The impact of coachee age was not significant in
selecting executive coaches. The findings show a statistically significant relationship between coach attributes and the intention to continue with coaching. The implications of these findings for the selection of coaches, and for the coaching profession are discussed."

Temporary derailment or the end of the line? Managers coping with unemployment at 50

by David E Gray and Yiannis GABRIEL

Organization Studies 31(12) 1687-1712 , 2010

Based on fieldwork conducted at the outset of the 2008 economic downturn, this paper examines the... more Based on fieldwork conducted at the outset of the 2008 economic downturn, this paper examines the experiences of a group of unemployed managers and professionals in their fifties. Following a review of existing literature, the authors use a narrative methodology to explore how these people incorporate the experience of job loss into their self-images and identities. They identify certain core similarities in the experiences of unemployed professionals and then discern three narrative strategies through which unemployed professionals tried to make sense of their dismissal and sustain their sense of selfhood. The term ‘narrative coping’ is proposed as a way of describing each unemployed professional’s struggle to construct a story that offers both meaning and consolation. The study reveals that individuals expressing the most profound despair (those for whom job loss was the ‘end of the line’) were those whose stories had achieved ‘closure’. By contrast, most of those who maintained more open-ended narratives were better able to contain their emotions, either by holding on to the belief that unemployment was a temporary career aberration or by abandoning the idea that life is the same as career and by moving on to a new stage of experimentation and bricolage akin to an identity moratorium.

Choosing an executive coach: The influence of gender on the coach-coachee matching process

Management Learning, 2010

Coaching has enjoyed substantial commercial growth, but empirical support for its effectiveness i... more Coaching has enjoyed substantial commercial growth, but empirical support for its effectiveness is thin. Nowhere is this more so than in the matching process between coach and coachee. This study describes the results from a coaching programme in which coachees were asked to reflect on and justify their choice of coach. Initial, qualitative results, suggested that female coachees favoured the choice of female coaches, partly as a role model of business success. Male coachees tended to justify the selection of a female coach as more approachable for the discussion of sensitive, personal issues. A minority of male respondents also displayed sexist attitudes in their comments on the selection process. Subsequent quantitative analysis of the data, however, revealed no bias towards the choice of either female or male coaches. While the results show no statistical significance in gender choices, for a minority of coachees, gender is a compelling factor in the selection process.

Teaching and learning intuition: some implications for HRD and coaching practice

Journal of European …, 2010

"Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine conceptual and theoretical links between intui... more "Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine conceptual and theoretical links between intuition and coaching; investigate accomplished coaches’ practical experiences of intuition; identify skill set of an intuitive coach; discuss implications of findings for coaches’, HRD professionals’, and line managers’ learning and development.
Design/methodology/approach – In-depth, semi-structured, individual interviews with 14 accomplished experienced executive coaches (eight males and six females) averaging 14.5 years as
a coach.
Findings – Outline of core attributes of an intuitive coach.
Originality/value – Immersion in experience, a reflective approach to practice, effective feedback and supervision, and attending to personal well-being are likely to enable coaches, HRD practitioners
and line managers to take a more informed and intelligent approach to “going with their gut” in coaching and other situations where inter- and intra-personal awareness are important.
Keywords Coaching, Competences, Intuition, Human resource development
Paper type Research paper
Introduction"

Towards the lifelong skills and business development of coaches: an integrated model of supervision and mentoring

Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice 3(1) 60-72, 2010

This article offers an original model for the professional development of coaches that integrates... more This article offers an original model for the professional development of coaches that integrates models of coach supervision with mentoring – the supervisor-mentor. Many coaches are new to the profession and may lack experience of managing their own business. It is likely that these and many other coaches could benefit from the support and guidance of more experienced practitioners. One answer is a supervisor, but the functions of supervision often focus on helping the development of the coach as a professional, including skills development, emotional support and understanding the ethical principles in coaching. Supervisors are not necessarily responsible for the career development of coaches, nor do they normally provide advice on, say, business strategy or marketing principles for the coach’s business. This article argues that there exists a significant gap which can be filled by another kind of helping intervention – a mentor. The article explores three potential models of coach mentoring: constellation, complementary and integrated supervisor-mentoring – the latter combining coach supervision with mentoring. Recommendations are made for future research in this area.

Consumer engagement in alternative energy - Can the regulators and suppliers be trusted?

Reconciling conflicting interpretations of risk: a case study about the siting of a hazardous plant’

Journal of Communication Management. 13(3), 233-249, 2009

The Asian Business Sector and the Dynamics of Change: A Story of growth, diversity and success in the UK’

by David E Gray and Spinder Dhaliwal

Equal Opportunities International 27(3) 221-236. , 2008

Purpose The Asian business community has been noted for its contribution to the UK economy. Thi... more Purpose
The Asian business community has been noted for its contribution to the UK economy. This vibrant sector of the SME population serves to illustrate diversity in terms of the way it spans sectors, and its emerging strength and confidence with each new generation – including the emergence of female entrepreneurs. This paper attempts to highlight the success of the Asian business community within the overall context of the UK economy. The study also seeks to examine both individual case studies of success, but also to frame these within the context of an emerging and evolving Asian business community. An additional interest is to examine the kinds of sectoral changes taking place over time, and to explore the extent to which Asian business are moving from those business often associated with Asian entrepreneurship (for example, textiles), and newer, more innovative activities.

Methodology/Approach
This study reports on a research project which comprises the latest phase in a seven year, longitudinal, study of the richest 200 Asian business people in the UK.

Findings
The analysis suggests that the Asian business community has delivered significant and sustained growth which is higher than average growth in the UK. Over a period of seven years, the depth and authenticity of the study has revealed not only changing sectoral patterns, but how the family and community structures within the Asian community have made it more resilient to economic instability.

Research Limitations/Implications
The sample selected is not meant to be representative of all Asian wealth but is a representative sample of the most successful Asian entrepreneurs in order to illustrate the ingredients of success.

Originality/value of paper
For policy makers and the business support community, this paper offers a greater understanding of the dynamics behind the success stories. For academics it adds to the growing literature of minority ethnic businesses in the UK. It is also hoped that the study may contribute to a greater understanding of the processes and dynamics contributing to SME success in general.

Towards a systemic model of coaching supervision – some lessons from psychotherapeutic and counselling models’

Australian Psychologist 42(4) 300-309., 2007

Although recent research reveals a growing engagement amongst coaches with supervision, many coac... more Although recent research reveals a growing engagement amongst coaches with supervision, many coaches still pursue their professional practice without the support and guidance of a supervisor. Also, while the organisations that purchase coaching are clear that the coaches they hire should have supervision, they are unclear as to what forms that supervision should take. This article sets out to identify the kind of models of supervision that might be appropriate to coaches by exploring models and lessons from the supervision of counsellors and psychotherapist. Such models are valid because many current practising coaches are professionally trained as counsellors or psychotherapists, and a range of alternative supervisory models have been tried and evaluated over several decades. Applying elements of these models to a coaching context has allowed for the design of what is termed a systemic model of coaching supervision, with contracting, teaching and evaluation at its core. Models of the supervisory relationship are also discussed as important elements of the supervisor-coach alliance.

Facilitating management learning – developing critical reflection through reflective tools’

Management Learning. 38(5) 495-513., 2007

The aim of this article is to explore how the practice of critical reflection within an informal ... more The aim of this article is to explore how the practice of critical reflection within an informal management learning process can be facilitated through the application of reflective processes and tools. A distinction is drawn between reflection as a form of individual development (of, say, the reflective practitioner), and critical reflection as a route to collective action and a component of organisational learning and change. Critical reflection, however, is not a process that comes naturally to many managers and may have to be learned or facilitated, often through informal learning processes such as coaching, mentoring and action learning. The aim of this paper is to discuss some of the tools available to informal learning facilitators, in helping a client towards a more critically reflective understanding of their situation and organisation. These include processes such as storytelling, and reflective and reflexive conversations, and the use of tools such as reflective metaphors, critical incident analysis, reflective journals, repertory grids and concept mapping. Such tools provide an aid to critical reflection, the process that mediates between experience, knowledge and action.

Success in Challenging Times: SMEs - generating and harnessing social capital

by Mark N K Saunders, David E Gray, and Alexandra Bristow

This study focuses on the ways in which SMEs use and benefit from social capital. Social capital ... more This study focuses on the ways in which SMEs use and benefit from social capital. Social capital is created through both offline activities such as networking events, and online activities including social media use. Offline and online networking activities are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Successful SMEs network with a number of different communities integrating a combination of both offline and online methods. SMEs’ websites are crucial and need to be optimised to improve search engine positioning. Social media sites, such as Facebook and LinkedIn are used widely to both showcase the business and build relationships with customers, but are not considered a substitute for face-to-face networking.

The most popular reason for SMEs using social media is to develop their business image or to market products. The fast, easy and low cost access to people and businesses provided by Web 2.0 and social media helps them do this better. Online networking can enable SMEs to overcome the drawbacks of traditional face-to-face contact, such as limited numbers and diversity, and the associated high costs(15). SMEs that proactively engage with social media can systematically raise their profiles to successfully compete with larger organisations(15).

The study reveals that few SMEs claim to be experts in social media use. IT and social media are regarded as necessary evils and SMEs consider that there is no choice but to engage very proactively in these areas. However, there is a need to manage this engagement strategically, along with traditional networking, to avoid a disproportionate amount of resource being dedicated to this area. Face-to-face (offline) networking events remain the most important form of all types of SME networking with roughly two thirds of SMEs devoting one to six hours per week to this activity. In general, locally oriented SMEs without a scalable business offering prefer face-to-face networking events, whereas globally oriented non-scalable SMEs additionally put significant effort into social media. Networks included customers, associates and former employees who had moved on to become independent contractors. Networking is about making contacts outside the SME who can offer feedback or advice or be used to outsource work. These networks are regarded as a ‘community of people’ who might join in with a new business proposal or be used to provide external expertise.

The methods SMEs use to increase social capital, must be fit for purpose and appropriate to their business model. Social media are complementary to, rather than a substitute for, traditional networking and events. The challenge facing SMEs is how best to integrate their online and offline activities to complement their business and generate social capital. This article explores how this can be done to best effect.

Coaching: an emerging profession - or just a spanner in the HRD toolbox?

This paper reports on a global study that sought to identify the extent to which coaching is a di... more This paper reports on a global study that sought to identify the extent to which coaching is a distinct occupation, or task, performed within a portfolio of HR or other roles. The study also sought to ascertain the extent to which coaches identify with coaching as a profession and to explore how their professional identity (or multiple identities) are created and maintained.

Professional identity and coaching: Validating a global study

by David E Gray, Mark N K Saunders, Catherine Farrant, and Barry Curnow

Whether acting as independent (external) or in-house (internal) coaches, all face the challenge o... more Whether acting as independent (external) or in-house (internal) coaches, all face the challenge of building their skills, knowledge, credibility and self-confidence, as well as creating or reshaping a sense of professional identity. So, how is the journey towards becoming a coach personally, socially and professionally experienced? How are coaches socialised into the profession and how is a new professional identity (or multiple identities) established and maintained? The position of coaching is complicated by the fact that many come to coaching with already well-established professional identities, particularly as qualified counsellors, psychotherapists and psychologists (Gray, 2011). This session will report (and actively debate) the results of a global study into the professional identity of coaches being conducted by the Universities of Greenwich and Surrey, UK.

Career coaching, student self-efficacy and job searching behaviours

This poster was presented at the McLean Medical School, Harvard conference, Boston, 12-13 Septemb... more

SMEs and access to bank finance: Discussions lost in translation?

3rd International Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Fort Canning Hotel, Singapore, Jul 22, 2013

This keynote reports on an on-going research project, financed by UK accountancy firm Kingston Sm... more This keynote reports on an on-going research project, financed by UK accountancy firm Kingston Smith and undertaken by myself and Professor Mark Saunders of the University of Surrey. There is a persistent perception that banks will not lend to SMEs and this is causing disruption both to SMEs themselves and the UK economy. Our study has involved interviewing five of the major UK banks (senior executives responsible for lending policy to SMEs), and running focus groups and conducting a number of interviews with SMEs. Our draft findings show that banks are lending to SMEs (80 per cent of applications are funded) but that many SMEs will not approach banks for funding because they believe they will just be turned down. A full report on this study will be launched in October 2013.

SME innovation and learning: the role of crisis events and social networks

by David E Gray and Mark N K Saunders

UFHRD Conference, Brighton, Jun 6, 2013

Within the UK there are approximately 4.5 million small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) provi... more Within the UK there are approximately 4.5 million small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) providing 13.7 million jobs equating to over half of the private sector workforce in 2011 (Department of Business Innovation and Skills, 2012). Such SMEs are considered one of the driving forces of the market economy (Philip, 2011) and a major source of economic growth. However whilst SMEs are important, it is their success that is of greater significance to continued prosperity (Holmes et al., 2010).

This paper takes as its starting point the proposition that innovation and learning orientation are key factors in SME success. Its purpose is to contribute to the literature on the relationship between innovation and entrepreneurial learning by exploring how entrepreneurs learn and innovate, their use of both formal and informal learning and in particular the role of crisis events and networks within this.

Virtual EQ – the talent differentiator in 2020?

University Forum for Human Resource Development, 2012

In an increasingly competitive, globalised world, knowledge-intensive industries/ services are se... more In an increasingly competitive, globalised world, knowledge-intensive industries/ services are seen as engines for success. Key to this marketplace is a growing army of ‘talent’ i.e. skilled and dedicated knowledge workers. These knowledge workers engage in non-routine problem solving through combining convergent, divergent and creative thinking across organizational and company boundaries - a process often facilitated though the internet and social media, consequently forming networks of expertise.
For knowledge workers, sharing their learning with others through communities of practice embedded in new information media becomes an important element of their personal identity and the creation of their individual brand or e-social reputation. Part of the new knowledge/skills needed for this process becomes not only emotional intelligence (being attuned to the emotional needs of others) but being able to do this within and through new media, thus the emergence of virtual emotional intelligence (EQ).
Our views of current research found that HRD practitioners in 2020 might need to consider Virtual EQ as part of their talent portfolio. However it seems that new technology has created strategies for capturing and managing knowledge that are readily duplicated and that a talent differentiator in 2020 might simply be the ability and willingness to learn.

Identifying the Triggers for SME Innovation and Success: A UK mixed methods study’

This paper recounts the planning and the first stages in the delivery of a research project that ... more This paper recounts the planning and the first stages in the delivery of a research project that set out to identify the common factors which produce innovation and business success amongst medium-sized enterprises. This means identifying the crossroads or critical incidents (including failures) that businesses reach, and what triggers stimulate innovation and growth. Secondary data analysis has identified three key areas: the role of the entrepreneur (including entrepreneurial orientation), the nature of the firm (for example, its age, size and legal form), and business strategy (including the use of social networks). Phase 1 of the project, reported here, has identified five areas of significance: access to finance, flexibility (including the ability to contract), the utilization of social capital and networks, committed engagement with technology including social media, entrepreneurial orientation and learning orientation. Propositions for the next phase of the research project are presented. 1

Building communities through peer mentoring and networking. All Young People are Needed.

From chaos to purgatory, resignation or recuperation: stories of unemployed managers and professionals

by David E Gray and Yiannis GABRIEL

Standing Conference on Organisational Symbolism, 2010

eTTCampus: innovative approaches to process evaluation

ED-MEDIA, 29 June – 2 July. Toronto, 2010

Abstract: This paper critically examines innovative approaches to the evaluation of a European ... more Abstract: This paper critically examines innovative approaches to the evaluation of a European funded project involving nine countries in the development of a virtual campus to provide training opportunities in ICT for teachers and trainers across Europe. It explores project management processes and decision making and the impact on outcomes as well as relationships between project team members. It concludes with recommendations for the more effective use of a range of these approaches, asserting that a critical analysis of the processes of engagement is as important as the outcomes.

Issues and Challenges in Coaching Supervision: Where do we go next?

Association of Professional Executive Coaches and Supervisors, 2010

Mentoring in Vocational Education and Training– some European perspectives on policy and practice

Towards a model of coaching supervision – what can psychotherapeutic and counselling models tell us?

Second Australian Evidence-Based Coaching Conference. University of Sydney, 8-9 October. , 2005

Workplace learning, Action learning and the Virtual paradigm

European Conference on Educational Research, Lahti, Finland. , 1999

Coaching research blog

Chapter 15 Interviewing in Doing Research in the Business World. London: Sage.

Chapter 11 Designing Case Studies in Doing Research in the Real World (2014) 3rd edition, London: Sage.

 When should we use case studies? 267  The case study design process 268  Types of case study ... more  When should we use case studies? 267  The case study design process 268  Types of case study design 274  Data collection sources 277  Quality in case studies: validity and reliability 279  Analysing the evidence 282  Composing case study reports 286 Keywords  Case study design  Causal relationships  Multiple data sources  Unit of analysis  Converging evidence  Cross-case comparisons

Mixed Methods in HRD Research - Theory and Practice from a Study of Hong Kong SMEs

Handbook of Research Methods in Human Resource Development, 2014

Mixed methods design contributes great value to academic research. The purpose of this chapter is... more Mixed methods design contributes great value to academic research. The purpose of this chapter is to share with readers an empirical HRD study which used both quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of the research design. It discusses how the research was designed and implemented, why mixed methods suited the study, and what critical insights emerged from the research.

Chapter 14: Research in Coaching and Mentoring in An Introduction to Coaching and Mentoring: Thinking Critically about Theory, Practice and Context

An Introduction to Coaching & Mentoring: Thinking Critically about Theory, Practice & Context, 2014

Despite the rapid growth in coaching and mentoring as helping interventions, it is a paradox that... more Despite the rapid growth in coaching and mentoring as helping interventions, it is a paradox that both remain relatively unsupported by robust empirical research. As we shall see in this chapter, while research is certainly on the increase, it has lagged behind the practice of coaching and mentoring, to the detriment of both. As Grant (2005) points out, the first mention of workplace coaching in peer-reviewed journals was as long ago as 1937. Between then and 2003, a total of 131 coaching-specific papers were published as evidenced in the PsychINFO and Dissertations Abstracts international database. Of these, only 55 were empirical studies, the rest being uncontrolled groups or case studies (recall Chapter 7 for the use of control groups in quantitative research). While Grant (2005) gives some assurance that a figure of 131 articles is not insignificant, he also compares this to the number of papers published in the specialised field of transtheoretical model of change (Prochasta, DiClemente, and Norcross, 1992) for which there were over 620 articles. Thus, coaching and mentoring have a long way to go in terms of both conceptual and empirical studies.

This chapter will be published in full, in our forthcoming book (2014)

eTTCampus: innovative approaches to process evaluation

Cases on Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Online Learning: Opportunities and Practices. , 2012

This chapter critically examines innovative approaches to the evaluation of a European funded pro... more This chapter critically examines innovative approaches to the evaluation of a European funded project involving nine countries in the development of a virtual campus to provide training opportunities in ICT for teachers and trainers across Europe. It explores project management processes and decision making and the impact on outcomes as well as relationships between project team members. It concludes with recommendations for the more effective use of a range of these approaches, asserting that a critical analysis of the processes of engagement is as important as the outcomes.

Coaching supervision in the historical context of psychotherapeutic and counselling models: a meta-model

T. Bachkirova, P. Jackson, and D Clutterbuck Coaching and Mentoring Supervision, Maidenhead: OUP McGraw-Hill Education, 2012

This chapter sets out to identify what kinds of models of supervision are appropriate to coaches.... more This chapter sets out to identify what kinds of models of supervision are appropriate to coaches. In undertaking this objective, models and lessons from the supervision of counsellors and psychotherapists will be explored. There are three reasons for this. Firstly, many current practicing coaches are professionally trained and have practiced, or are practising, as counsellors or psychotherapist. Secondly, there has been over 30 years of debate and analysis of alternative models of supervision from which lessons for coaching supervision can be drawn. Thirdly, even when coaching focuses ostensibly on business issues, personal, experiential and problem-based themes often flow out of the coaching process. These include ‘red flag’ issues when the coachee may be experiencing psychological difficulties. As Whybrow and Palmer (2006) suggest, even non-clinical populations contain potentially vulnerable clients. It seems, therefore, that (arguably) supervision models from a counselling or psychological background may have some relevance for all business and evidence-based coaches.

Building quality into executive coaching: : a model for recruiting and managing a coaching faculty

Gower Handbook of Leadership and Management Development. 5th ed. Aldershot: Gower., 2010

Executive coaching is now seen in many organisations, both private and public, as an essential pr... more Executive coaching is now seen in many organisations, both private and public, as an essential professional development intervention. While in the recent past, coaches may have been engaged by individual senior managers, it is increasingly the case that they are used throughout the management structure of organisations. As a result, many organisations have had to engage the services of teams or ‘faculties’ of coaches, either recruited individually, engaged ‘en mass’ from coaching or management consultancy organisations, or developed internally. This raises a number of questions, not least of which are:
• Should an organisation use internal or external coaches?
• How should these coaches be recruited and selected?
• How should coaches and coachees be match?
• How should the coaching faculty be managed?
This chapter will offer a tentative model for answering these questions, based partly on the author’s personal experience of being recruited into a corporate coaching faculty, partly on recruiting a coaching faculty for a government-sponsored initiative, and, in part, on recent research findings.

Knowledge Management in the Workplace

Learning through the Workplace, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes, 2004

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

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Flash mob - the future of coaching?

Success in challenging times: Generating social capital

by David E Gray and Mark N K Saunders

Prompted by findings from the 2012 Kingston Smith funded national survey, Success in challenging ... more Prompted by findings from the 2012 Kingston Smith funded national survey, Success in challenging times: Key lessons for UK SMEs(10), about the importance of social capital, this new study focuses on the ways in which SMEs use and benefit from it. Social capital is created through both offline activities such as networking events, and online activities including social media use.
Offline and online networking activities are not mutually exclusive alternatives for SMEs. Successful SMEs network with a number of different communities integrating a combination of both offline and online methods. SMEs’ websites are crucial and need to be optimised to improve search engine positioning. Social media sites, such as Facebook and LinkedIn are used widely to both showcase the business and build relationships with customers, but are not considered a substitute for face-to-face networking.
The most popular reason for SMEs using social media is to develop their business image or to market products. The fast, easy and low cost access to people and businesses provided by Web 2.0 and social media helps them do this better. Online networking can enable SMEs to overcome the drawbacks of traditional face-to-face contact, such as limited numbers and diversity, and the associated high costs(15). SMEs that proactively engage with social media can systematically raise their profiles to successfully compete with larger organisations(15).
Few SMEs claim to be experts in social media use. IT and social media are regarded as necessary evils and SMEs consider that there is no choice but to engage very proactively in these areas. However, there is a need to manage this engagement strategically, along with traditional networking, to avoid a disproportionate amount of resource being dedicated to this area.
Face-to-face (offline) networking events remain the most important form of all types of SME networking with roughly two thirds of SMEs devoting one to six hours per week to this activity. In general, locally oriented SMEs without a scalable business offering prefer face-to-face networking events, whereas globally oriented non-scalable SMEs additionally put significant effort into social media. Networks included customers, associates and former employees who had moved on to become independent contractors. Networking is about making contacts outside the SME who can offer feedback or advice or be used to outsource work. These networks are regarded as a ‘community of people’ who might join in with a new business proposal or be used to provide external expertise.
The methods SMEs use to increase social capital, must be fit for purpose and appropriate to their business model. Social media are complementary to, rather than a substitute for, traditional networking and events. The challenge facing SMEs is how best to integrate their online and offline activities to complement their business and generate social capital. This report explores how this can be done to best effect.

Success in challenging times: Bank finance - lost in translation

by David E Gray and Mark N K Saunders

The conventional wisdom, not just in the UK but also internationally, is that the major banks are... more The conventional wisdom, not just in the UK but also internationally, is that the major banks are not interested in lending to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). One of the main factors cited is that banks find it difficult to gauge whether SMEs have the capacity and/or willingness to repay their debts. In contrast, some studies suggest that most SMEs seeking external funding are successful in their applications. The current study sets out to investigate the truth of these seemingly contradictory claims and makes recommendations for improvements in SME access to bank finance. In conducting the study, the authors made use of their 2012 national survey on the triggers for SME success (with over 1,000 SME responses12), and secondary data analysis of government reports, with new data gathering methods using two SME focus groups, five in-depth SME case studies, and analysis of the major banks’ SME lending policies as presented through their websites. Access was obtained to interview the senior lending policy makers of four major banks and one challenger bank.
Research revealed that the majority of SMEs seeking routes to finance avoid banks and traditional financial institutions. The main source of finance used by SMEs to start their business is personal/family savings, with more established SMEs using retained profits. Although banks are used by SMEs, they are not the primary source of finance. From an SME perspective, not only do banks not provide the capital required, but they also seem to know very little about what businesses (particularly small businesses) need. However, the picture is more nuanced than this. Of those SMEs that seek access to external finance, banks are still the primary source. Furthermore, and contrary to popular myth, the majority of SMEs seeking finance from banks do obtain it. This situation, however, has deteriorated. Before the economic crisis of 2008, 90% of SMEs seeking bank finance successfully attained it, a figure which fell to 74% in 2011 0. This partly helps to explain the growth in importance of alternative sources of finance such as challenger banks, business angels, peer-to-peer lending and crowd funding.
Drawing upon the literature reviewed, the two focus groups with SMEs, and the five bank interviews, a number of core propositions was derived. These are presented in the report, along with key findings from the study.

Success in challenging times: Key lessons for UK SMEs - Summary Report

Success in challenging times: Key lessons for UK SMEs - Full Report with data

Success in challenging times: Key lessons for UK SMEs - Presentation

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

Chapter 13: Action research and change

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn., 2014

Calculating the Kappa score

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn, 2014

Chapter 3: Selecting and planning research proposals and projects

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn, 2014

Chapter 4: Research Ethics

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn, 2014

Chapter 7: Research design - qualitative methods

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn, 2014

By the end of this session you will be able to:

Chapter 8: Research designs using mixed methods

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn, 2014

Chapter 9: Sampling strategies

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn, 2014

Chapter 10: Designing descriptive and analytical surveys

Doing Research in the Real World, 3rd edn., 2014

Designing descriptive and analytical surveys Objectives After this session you will be able to: •... more Designing descriptive and analytical surveys Objectives After this session you will be able to: • Distinguish between descriptive and analytical surveys. • Describe and apply different approaches to both analytical and descriptive surveys. • Select alternative survey data collection methods. • Implement special approaches to maximize response rates to organizational surveys. • Take steps to counteract some of the limitations of survey design.

Relationship between Spatial Visualisation and Problem Solving in Structural Design

by Maizam Alias, Thomas Black, and David E Gray

The Learning Hierarchy Technique: An Instructional Analysis Tool in Engineering Education

by Maizam Alias and David E Gray

Transforming Farm Health and Safety: The Case for Business Coaching

by Anna Blackman, David E Gray, and Richard Franklin

In the U.S. and Australia, agriculture is consistently ranked as one of the most hazardous indust... more In the U.S. and Australia, agriculture is consistently ranked as one of the most hazardous industries. The cost of injuries and deaths on Australian farms is significant, estimated to be between AU$0.5 billion and AU$1.2 billion per year. Death and
injury in agriculture also place a significant financial and social burden on the family and friends of the injured, the community, and the health system. This article proposes
that if farmers were to employ coaching in their businesses, they would benefit from advances in safety practices, resulting in associated improvements in overall farm productivity
and a reduction in injury costs to the wider community. A coaching model is presented to demonstrate what an effective coachingprocess would need to include. An agenda for future research areas is also provided.

TRANSFORMING FARM HEALTH AND SAFETY: THE CASE FOR BUSINESS COACHING

by Anna Blackman, David E Gray, allison rossetto, and Richard Franklin

In the US and Australia, agriculture is consistently ranked as one of the most hazardous industri... more In the US and Australia, agriculture is consistently ranked as one of the most hazardous industries. The cost of injuries and death on Australian farms is significant, estimated to be between AU$0.5 and AU$1.2 billion per annum. Death and injury in agriculture also places a significant financial and social burden on the family and friends of the injured, the community and the health system. This paper proposes that if farmers were to employ coaching in their businesses they would benefit from advances in safety practices, resulting in associated improvements to overall farm productivity and a reduction in costs of injuries to the wider community. A coaching model is presented to demonstrate what an effective coaching process would need to include. An agenda for future research areas is also provided.

SME Success: Winning New Business

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

SME Success: Winning New Business [Summary Report], Mar 10, 2016

There are approximately 5.4 million businesses in the UK that employ less than 250 people. Togeth... more There are approximately 5.4 million businesses in the UK that employ less than 250 people. Together, they provide a total of 15.6 million jobs, equating to approximately 60% of the private sector workforce in 2015. However, while Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are of importance, it is their durability that can be considered of greater significance. The precarious nature of SME existence has been well documented. Only about 62% of small businesses are still trading after the first three years of initial start-up. After five years, fewer than 42% of businesses will have survived. Put simply, small businesses are more likely to fail than larger businesses. Indeed, other than size per se, the higher likelihood of failure is what distinguishes small from large businesses.
Some businesses, however, not only survive but actually prosper. This current study focuses on SMEs that have been in business for at least three years and have five or more employees. In particular, it explores both their performance and the ways in which they win new business in relation to their orientation to external and internal environments. This in turn highlights more effective strategy decisions for these businesses and may further be used to inform better policy decisions for government. A return of over 1,000 questionnaires completed by SME owners/managers or senior employees, 15 in-depth interviews and six focus groups makes this one of the largest studies ever into winning new business involving UK SMEs.

Success in challenging times: Generating social capital [Full Report]

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

Sucess in challenging times: Generating social capital [Full Report], May 7, 2014

Prompted by findings from the 2012 Kingston Smith funded national survey, Success in challenging ... more Prompted by findings from the 2012 Kingston Smith funded national survey, Success in challenging times: Key lessons for UK SMEs(10), this new study focuses on the ways in which SMEs use and benefit from Social Capital. Social capital is created through both offline activities such as networking events, and online activities including social media use.
Offline and online networking activities are not mutually exclusive alternatives for SMEs. Successful SMEs network with a number of different communities, integrating a combination of both offline
and online methods. SMEs’ websites are crucial and need to be optimised to improve search engine positioning. Social media sites, such as Facebook and LinkedIn are used widely to both showcase the business and build relationships with customers, but are not considered a substitute for face-to-face networking.
The most popular reason for SMEs using social media is to develop their business image or to market products. The fast, easy and low cost access to people and businesses provided by Web 2.0 and
social media helps them do this better. Online networking can enable SMEs to overcome the drawbacks of traditional face-to-face contact, such as limited numbers and diversity, and the
associated high costs(15). SMEs that proactively engage with social media can systematically raise their profiles to successfully compete with larger organisations(15).
Few SMEs claim to be experts in social media use. IT and social media are regarded as necessary evils and SMEs consider that there is no choice other than to engage very proactively in these areas. However, there is a need to manage this engagement strategically, along with traditional networking, to avoid a disproportionate amount of resource being dedicated to this area.
Face-to-face (offline) networking events remain the most important form of all types of SME networking with roughly two thirds of SMEs devoting one to six hours per week to this activity. In general, locally oriented SMEs without a scalable business offering prefer face-to-face networking events, whereas globally oriented non-scalable SMEs put significant effort into social media.
Networks included customers, associates and former employees who had moved on to become independent contractors. Networking is about making contacts, outside the SME, who can offer feedback or advice or be used to outsource work. These networks are regarded as a ‘community of people’ who might join in with a new business proposal or be used to provide external expertise.
The methods SMEs use to increase social capital, must be fit for purpose and appropriate to their business model. Social media are complementary to, rather than a substitute for, traditional
networking and events. The challenge facing SMEs is how best to integrate their online and offline activities to complement their business and generate social capital.

Success in Challenging Times: Bank Finance Lost in Translation (Full Report)

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

Success in challenging times: Bank finance -lost in translation [Summary report]

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

SME success in challenging tmes: Bank finance -lost in translation, Oct 1, 2013

Smith LLP is a leading adviser to entrepreneurial businesses. Most of our commercial client busin... more Smith LLP is a leading adviser to entrepreneurial businesses. Most of our commercial client businesses are owner managed. We have been developing relationships with our clients for over forty years and understand how entrepreneurs think and the stages in which their businesses develop. As a result, in addition to audit and accounting work, we have built up a wide range of specialist services to support businesses as they grow and develop. More information about Kingston Smith LLP and our services can be found at

SME innovation and learning: the role of networks and crisis events

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

European Journal of Training and Development, Jan 10, 2014

Purpose: To contribute to the literature on innovation and entrepreneurial learning by exploring ... more Purpose: To contribute to the literature on innovation and entrepreneurial learning by exploring how SMEs learn and innovate, how they use of both formal and informal learning and in particular the role of networks and crisis events within their learning experience.
Design/methodology/approach: Mixed method study, comprising 13 focus groups, over 1000 questionnaire responses from SME mangers, 13 focus groups and 20 case studies derived from semi-structured interviews.
Findings: SMEs have a strong commitment to learning, and a shared vision. Much of this learning is informal through network events, mentoring or coaching. SMEs that are innovative are significantly more committed to learning than those which are less innovative, seeing employee learning as an investment. Innovative SMEs are more likely to have a shared vision, be open-minded and to learn from crises, being able to reflect on their experiences.
Implications for research: There is a need for further process driven qualitative research to understand the interrelationship between, particularly informal, learning, crisis events and SME innovation.
Implications for practice: SME owners need opportunities and time for reflection as a means of stimulating personal learning – particularly the opportunity to learn from crisis events. Access to mentors (often outside the business) can be important here, as are informal networks.
Originality/value: This is one of the first mixed method large scale studies to explore the relationship between SME innovation and learning, highlighting the importance of informal learning to innovation and the need for SME leaders to foster this learning as part of a shared organisational vision.

Success in challenging times: Key lessons for SMEs [full report]

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

Sucess in challenging ties: Key lessons for UK SMEs [full report], Oct 1, 2012

Success in challenging times: Key lessons for UK SMEs [Summary Report]

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

Success in challenging times: Key lessons for SMEs, Oct 1, 2012

Bounce back, firewalls and legal threats: reaching respondents using Internet Questionnaires

by Mark N K Saunders and David E Gray

Saunders MNK and Gray DE (2018) 'Bounce back, firewalls and legal threats: reaching respondents using Internet Questionnaires' in Townsend K and Saunders MNK (eds) How to keep your research project on track: Insights from when things go wrong Cheltenham: Edward Elgar 59-66, 2018

Over the years we must, between us, have undertaken a fair number of research projects where data... more Over the years we must, between us, have undertaken a fair number of research projects where data have been collected using questionnaires. Through these projects we have gained some understanding of the realities of distributing questionnaires by hand, by mail and, more recently, using the Internet. Respondents to our questionnaires have included employees in a single organisation, customers of different organisations and people with specific roles, such as owner/managers or directors of services, working a wide range of organisations. In other words, we would like to think that we are reasonably experienced in the process of designing and conducting survey research using questionnaires.

However, rather than write about our experiences of the entire process of conducting survey research using questionnaires, in this chapter we are focusing upon what we believe to be a crucial aspect: gaining access to potential questionnaire respondents. Although the issue of access is often considered in the methods literature, the focus is usually on gaining cognitive access. In particular it is concerned with leveraging the likelihood of respondents consenting to take part, answering the questions and returning the questionnaire; particularly through its design and that of the accompanying cover letter. In other words, the literature focuses in the main upon ways to enhance response rates once the potential respondent has been reached. Where difficulties associated with gaining physical access, that is getting in to undertake research, are acknowledged, the focus is usually within the context of collecting data from a single rather than multiple organisations.

In this chapter we focus on difficulties associated with gaining physical access to respondents holding a particular role from a large number of organisations. In particular we are concerned with the considerable problems we experienced when our initial plans to email a link to an Internet questionnaire online to over a ten thousand Small and Medium sized Enterprises' (SMEs) owner managers failed. We outline how, despite a carefully prepared plan that we had discussed and debated with colleagues, we were unable to gain physical access to a substantial proportion of previously identified potential Internet questionnaire respondents. Within this we begin by describing the context of the research, we then outline the practical difficulties we faced when trying gain access by using a purchased list. We then discuss the operationalization of our backup plans of collecting data through existing networks, directories and from contacts, before concluding by outlining our learning from this experience.

Beyond the Single Organization: Inside Insights from Gaining Access for Large Multi- Organization Survey HRD Research

by Mark N K Saunders, David E Gray, and Alexandra Bristow

Beyond the single organization: Inside insights from gaining access for large multiorganization survey HRD research

Gaining physical access to potential respondents is crucial to human resource development (HRD) s... more Gaining physical access to potential respondents is crucial to human resource development (HRD) survey research. Yet a review of the HRD, human resource management and bestselling business and management research methods texts in the USA and UK reveals that, even where the process of gaining access is discussed and its cruciality stressed, inside accounts and insights regarding the daunting and problematic nature and its impact upon data collected are rarely emphasized. More specialist methods literature, although outlining some potential issues, again offers few insights into the actual realities likely to be faced in the real world. Consideration of recent articles in HRD journals highlights also that, despite the widespread use of surveys, often via the Internet, such issues of physical access are rarely mentioned, reporting at best merely summarizing from whom and how data were obtained. We speak to this problem by offering two inside accounts of multi-organization research studies utilizing a survey strategy and Internet questionnaire, where gaining access to people across a large number of organizations threw up many challenges. These accounts offer clear insights into the issues and implications for rigor associated with gaining access when undertaking Internet surveys using both purchased lists (databases) and volunteer panels. In particular, they highlight the importance of recognizing that gaining access is often problematic, and provide a context for our recommendations for research practice, thereby assisting the mitigation of potential problems.

Concepts and Theory Building

by David E Gray and Mark N K Saunders

A Guide to Professional Doctorates in Business and Management, Nov 2015

Some 70 years ago, Kurt Lewin (1945, p. 132) wrote that ‘much is gained, [however,] if one realiz... more Some 70 years ago, Kurt Lewin (1945, p. 132) wrote that ‘much is gained, [however,] if one realizes that neither scientific nor practical results can be expected without adequate development of the theoretical aspect of the work’. Within the article, he argued that social science was reaching the stage where it could satisfy the requirements of practitioners’ interest in social management. Of prime importance within this was the development of concepts and theories that combined ‘generality with the power of reaching the concrete’ (p. 132). His argument highlighted the high degree of complexity in the world, emphasising the need for careful diagnosis to enable the application of theory, and the need to avoid the danger of becoming a servant to very one-sided interests. Lewin argued for theory development to be linked closely with practice and to be useful, something we believe is crucial today for DBAs. This provides the focus and purpose of our chapter: to explore concepts and theory building within the context of the DBA.
The utility of management theory for professional practice has been the subject of much consideration in business and management journals in recent years, with a substantial body of literature arguing the need for relevance, alongside rigour, in management research (for example, Hodgkinson et al., 2001; Hodgkinson & Starkey, 2012; Huff & Huff 2001; Rousseau 2006; Starkey & Madan, 2001; Van Aken, 2005). This debate has highlighted the challenges faced by management scholars when deciding whether or not to undertake research at the interface between research and practice, and also potential issues associated with such ways of working (for example, Bartunek et al., 2006; Pollit, 2006; Macbeth, 2002). However, the role of concepts and theory building at this interface and how their utility and application might be made more accessible to practice have been discussed less widely (Bartunek, 2007; Saunders, 2011).
We have written this chapter from the viewpoint that, although not all management research can or should be of direct relevance to practitioners, demonstrating the relevance of theory to practice is an essential component of all DBAs. In particular, such research must address the needs of practitioners, ensuring that the theory they develop is, in Lewin’s (1945) terms, both practical and useful. Working at the academic–practitioner interface, researchers need to maintain academic rigour while ensuring practical relevance (Hodgkinson & Starkey, 2012). We adopt Saunders’ (2011, p. 243) term ‘researcher as practitioner’’ to refer to those management scholars researching at this theory–practice interface. The chapter starts with a consideration of the nature of theory and concepts in management and, allied to this, the relationship between research and practice in theory building and the differing orientations of management researchers and professional practitioners. Within this, we consider an important debate that has emerged between design science (which is concerned with finding solutions to field problems and developing its own type of theoretical knowledge) and explanatory science (which is concerned with the development of ‘traditional’ theoretical knowledge to describe, explain and predict phenomena in the physical and social worlds), while also considering the related need for research to be of direct relevance and utility to managers. This debate has resulted in a shift in emphasis from Mode 1 research (which is designed and implemented by and for academics) to Mode 2 research, in which academics and practitioners collaborate in developing knowledge that is usable and developing practical solutions to organisations’ problems (Gibbons et al., 1994). We then consider inductive, deductive and abductive approaches to theory building, followed by discussion of some stage theories to explore how these approaches might relate to the researcher as practitioner.

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