Highlights of the 2023 U.S. PIAAC Results
The Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is a cyclical, large-scale study of adult cognitive skills and life experiences developed by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and, in the United States, conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). PIAAC provides relevant data about the U.S. adult population's competencies and skills in literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, and helps inform decision-making at the local, state, and national levels, especially around economic development and workforce training.
The fourth PIAAC data collection, also referred to as Round 1 of Cycle 2, took place in the United States between August 2022 and June 2023 (those results are labeled “2023”). Response rates for this data collection were relatively low, both for the United States and for several other participating countries. There is evidence that procedures implemented to reduce bias associated with nonresponse have done so, and that the data are representative of the population. However, readers should be aware of the potential for bias and use caution when interpreting PIAAC results. For more details on response rates and other aspects of PIAAC see the Technical Notes.
The results of the first round of U.S. PIAAC data collection in 2012 and the second round of data collection in 2014 (officially known as the National Supplement to the Main Study) are combined, by design, into one data point labeled "2012/14." The third round of data collection occurred in 2017. The results for 2023 highlighted in this report are compared to 2012/14 and 2017 results. In the tables and figures the symbol (*) indicates that 2012/14 and/or 2017 scores or percentages are statistically different from the 2023 results. Only those differences that are found to be statistically significant are discussed in the accompanying text in terms of being "higher" or "lower" or that results "increased" or "decreased." Along these lines, readers should note that numeric differences—even relatively "large" differences—are not always statistically different. Not all statistically significant differences are discussed.
The first three rounds of PIAAC were administered on laptop computers to respondents, typically in their home. In these earlier PIAAC assessments, those who could not take the assessment on a computer were administered a standard paper-and-pencil version of the assessment with no adjustment for the test taker's ability. In the 2023 administration, all participants took the assessment on tablets. PIAAC is an adaptive assessment, so participants taking the computer-based assessment (that is, on a laptop or tablet) responded to a series of items targeted to their performance levels for more precise measurement.
The focus of this report is on the traditional workforce age range of 16 to 65. All results presented are based on data collected as part of PIAAC. Results are presented for the major variables of gender, age, race/ethnicity, educational attainment, current employment status, nativity, and self-reported health status. The PIAAC design provides comparability between many background variables and the literacy and numeracy assessments between 2012/14, 2017, and 2023. The domain of adaptive problem solving (APS), however, is new and results for APS are presented for 2023 only.
The proficiency-level figures display some combined levels so that users can readily see broad patterns in the data. For example, in literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. Links below each of the figures allow users to access full data tables in the International Data Explorer (IDE), which provide results for all response categories for each variable and all the discrete PIAAC proficiency levels.
Between 2017 and 2023, overall average scores for U.S. adults decreased in literacy and numeracy.
Figure 1-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, there were increases in the percentages of adults performing at the lowest proficiency level (Level 1 or below) in both literacy and numeracy: in literacy this percentage increased from 19 to 28 percent and in numeracy from 29 to 34 percent. The percentage of U.S. adults performing at the lowest level in adaptive problem solving in 2023 was 32 percent.
The percentages performing at the highest level (i.e., Level 3 or above) in 2023 were 44 percent in literacy, 38 percent in numeracy, and 32 percent in adaptive problem solving.
Figure 1-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
A brief look at demographics
Between 2017 and 2023, the percentage of male U.S. adults increased from 49 to 50 percent and the percentage of female adults decreased from 51 to 50 percent.
| Gender | 2012/14 | 2017 | 2023 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Male | 49 | 49 | 50 |
| Female | 51 | 51 | 50 |
* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: Values are weighted estimates of the population based on the PIAAC sample. The PIAAC demographic estimates in the table may differ from estimates reported elsewhere due to variations in samples and definitions. The results presented for the 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments are for those individuals who could respond to PIAAC in either English or Spanish (adults who responded to the literacy assessment). The percentages for PIAAC 2023 shown in the table also include adults who did not speak either English or Spanish, who were given a short, self-administered survey of background information (also referred to as the Doorstep Interview) in the language they identified as the one they best understood. For more details see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
The average scores for U.S. adult males and females in both literacy and numeracy decreased between 2017 and 2023: for males, from 270 to 257 in literacy and from 259 to 253 in numeracy; for females, from 271 to 260 in literacy and from 251 to 245 in numeracy.
Looking at performance gaps between males and females in 2023, one finds males scored higher than females in numeracy (253 compared to 245). This gender gap of 8 points in 2023 represents no statistically significant change in the numeracy gender gap since 2017. There were no statistically significant gender gaps in literacy or adaptive problem solving scores in 2023.
Figure 2-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65, by gender: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, there were increases in the percentages of both male and female U.S. adults performing at the lowest proficiency level (Level 1 or below) in literacy: for males, from 19 to 29 percent and for females, from 18 to 26 percent. Females also showed an increase in the percentage performing at the lowest proficiency level in numeracy: from 30 to 36 percent.
Approximately 32 percent of males and 32 percent of females performed at Level 1 or below in adaptive problem solving in 2023.
Figure 2-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, by gender: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
A brief look at demographics
Between 2017 and 2023, the percentage of U.S. adults within the 16 to 24 age group decreased (from 20 to 18 percent) and the percentage increased for adults ages 35 to 44 (from 19 to 21 percent).
| Age interval | 2012/14 | 2017 | 2023 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 16–24 | 18 | 20 | 18 |
| 25–34 | 20 | 20 | 20 |
| 35–44 | 20 | 19 | 21 |
| 45–54 | 21 | 20 | 19 |
| 55–65 | 20 | 22 | 21 |
* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: Values are weighted estimates of the population based on the PIAAC sample. The PIAAC demographic estimates in the table may differ from estimates reported elsewhere due to variations in samples and definitions. The results presented for the 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments are for those individuals who could respond to PIAAC in either English or Spanish (adults who responded to the literacy assessment). The percentages for PIAAC 2023 shown in the table also include adults who did not speak either English or Spanish, who were given a short, self-administered survey of background information (also referred to as the Doorstep Interview) in the language they identified as the one they best understood. For more details see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, the average scores in literacy for U.S. adults decreased across all age group categories; in numeracy the average score for U.S. adults within the 55 to 65 age group decreased.
In 2023, there were statistically significant differences between the average scores for the 55 to 65 age group and other age groups: U.S. adults ages 55 to 65 scored lower than all other age groups in both literacy and adaptive problem solving. In numeracy, adults ages 55 to 65 scored lower than adults ages 25 to 34 and 35 to 44.
Figure 3-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65, by age intervals: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Reflecting the broader pattern of declining performance between 2017 and 2023, there were increases in the percentages of U.S. adults performing at the lowest proficiency level (Level 1 or below) across all age groups in literacy except for the 45 to 54 age group. In numeracy, there were increases in the percentages of U.S. adults ages 25 to 34 and 35 to 44 performing at Level 1 or below. The percentages of U.S. adults performing at Level 1 or below in adaptive problem solving in 2023 were 26 percent for the 25 to 34 age group; 28 percent for the 16 to 24 age group; 31 percent for the 35 to 44 age group; 35 percent for the 45 to 54 age group; and 40 percent for the 55 to 65 age group.
Figure 3-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, by age intervals: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
A brief look at demographics
Between 2017 and 2023, the percentages of White and Black U.S. adults decreased and the percentage of Hispanic U.S. adults increased.
| Race/ |
2012/14 | 2017 | 2023 |
|---|---|---|---|
| White | 65 | 63 | 60 |
| Black | 13 | 13 | 12 |
| Hispanic | 15 | 15 | 19 |
| Other | 7 | 9 | 9 |
* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: Values are weighted estimates of the population based on the PIAAC sample. The PIAAC demographic estimates in the table may differ from estimates reported elsewhere due to variations in samples and definitions. Black includes African American, and Hispanic includes Latino. The race/ethnicity category Other includes Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and persons of Two or More Races. These are combined because individually the groups would not meet the reporting standards. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin. The results presented for the 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments are for those individuals who could respond to PIAAC in either English or Spanish (adults who responded to the literacy assessment). The percentages for PIAAC 2023 shown in the table also include adults who did not speak either English or Spanish, who were given a short, self-administered survey of background information (also referred to as the Doorstep Interview) in the language they identified as the one they best understood. For more details see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, the average literacy and average numeracy scores for Black and Hispanic U.S. adults decreased.
Statistically significant performance gaps exist between White adults and Black and Hispanic adults and adults in the "Other" race category. The White–Black score gaps were statistically significant in literacy (57 points), numeracy (67 points), and adaptive problem solving (51 points) in 2023. For both literacy and numeracy, the White–Black score gaps were larger in 2023 than in 2017.
White–Hispanic score gaps were also statistically significant in 2023: literacy (52 points), numeracy (57 points), and adaptive problem solving (38 points). For both literacy and numeracy, the White–Hispanic score gaps were larger in 2023 than in 2017.
Figure 4-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65, by selected race/ethnicity groups: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Black includes African American, and Hispanic includes Latino. The race/ethnicity category Other includes Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and persons of Two or More Races. These are combined because individually the groups would not meet the reporting standards. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin. The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, the percentage of U.S. Black adults performing at Level 1 or below increased from 36 to 50 percent in literacy. Hispanic adults performing at Level 1 or below increased from 31 to 45 percent in literacy and from 45 to 55 percent in numeracy over the same time frame. The percentages of adults in the "Other" race/ethnicity category performing at Level 1 or below increased from 19 to 32 percent in literacy between 2017 and 2023. The percentage of White adults performing at Level 1 or below increased from 12 to 16 percent in literacy. The percentages of U.S. adults performing at Level 1 or below in adaptive problem solving in 2023 were 21 percent for White adults, 34 percent for adults in the "Other" race category, 48 percent for Hispanic adults, and 58 percent for Black adults.
Figure 4-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, by selected race/ethnicity groups: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Black includes African American, and Hispanic includes Latino. The race/ethnicity category Other includes Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and persons of Two or More Races. These are combined because individually the groups would not meet the reporting standards. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
A brief look at demographics
Between 2017 and 2023, the percentage of U.S. adults with less than a high school education increased from 12 to 13 percent, and the percentage with more than a high school education increased from 41 to 43 percent. The percentage of U.S. adults with a high school education decreased over the same time period (from 47 to 44 percent).
| Level of educational attainment | 2012/14 | 2017 | 2023 |
|---|---|---|---|
| More than high school | 36 | 41 | 43 |
| High school | 50 | 47 | 44 |
| Less than high school | 14 | 12 | 13 |
* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: Values are weighted estimates of the population based on the PIAAC sample. The PIAAC demographic estimates in the table may differ from estimates reported elsewhere due to variations in samples and definitions. Respondents were asked to identify their highest level of education completed. The education variable used here (EDCAT6) is based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 97 categories and allows for trend comparisons between 2023 and earlier PIAAC assessments. In this web report, adults with an associate's degree (ISCED 5B) are classified as having a "More than high school" education. Adults with certificates that are not part of an associate's program or higher (ISCED 4-A-B-C) are classified as having a "High school" education. In the Highlights of PIAAC 2017 U.S. results web report, a different variable was used that included adults with certificates from colleges or trade schools in the "More than high school" category, leading to some differences between the estimates presented in the current report and the previous report. The results presented for the 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments are for those individuals who could respond to PIAAC in either English or Spanish (adults who responded to the literacy assessment). The percentages for PIAAC 2023 shown in the table also include adults who did not speak either English or Spanish, who were given a short, self-administered survey of background information (also referred to as the Doorstep Interview) in the language they identified as the one they best understood. For more details see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, the average scores for U.S. adults in literacy decreased across all levels of educational attainment: from 238 to 213 for adults with less than a high school education; from 259 to 246 for adults with a high school education; and from 294 to 287 for adults with more than a high school education. In numeracy, average scores decreased between 2017 and 2023 for adults with less than a high school education (from 213 to 199) and for adults with a high school education (from 242 to 232).
Figure 5-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65, by level of educational attainment: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Respondents were asked to identify their highest level of education completed. The education variable used here (EDCAT6) is based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 97 categories and allows for trend comparisons between 2023 and earlier PIAAC assessments. In this web report, adults with an associate's degree (ISCED 5B) are classified as having a "More than high school" education. Adults with certificates that are not part of an associate's program or higher (ISCED 4-A-B-C) are classified as having a "High school" education. In the Highlights of PIAAC 2017 U.S. results web report, a different variable was used that included adults with certificates from colleges or trade schools in the "More than high school" category, leading to some differences between the estimates presented in the current report and the previous report. The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, there were increases in the percentages of U.S. adults performing at Level 1 or below in literacy across all levels of educational attainment: from 40 to 55 percent for adults with less than a high school education; from 24 to 32 percent for adults with a high school education; and from 6 to 13 percent for adults with more than a high school education.
In 2023, in both numeracy and adaptive problem solving, the percentage of U.S. adults performing at the lowest proficiency level (Level 1 or below) was highest for those who had not completed high school (65 percent for numeracy and 59 percent for adaptive problem solving) and lowest for those who had more than a high school education (16 percent for both domains).
Figure 5-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, by level of educational attainment: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Respondents were asked to identify their highest level of education completed. The education variable used here (EDCAT6) is based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 97 categories and allows for trend comparisons between 2023 and earlier PIAAC assessments. In this web report, adults with an associate's degree (ISCED 5B) are classified as having a "More than high school" education. Adults with certificates that are not part of an associate's program or higher (ISCED 4-A-B-C) are classified as having a "High school" education. In the Highlights of PIAAC 2017 U.S. results web report, a different variable was used that included adults with certificates from colleges or trade schools in the "More than high school" category, leading to some differences between the estimates presented in the current report and the previous report. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
A brief look at demographics
Between 2017 and 2023, there was a decrease in the percentage of employed U.S. adults from 77 to 72 percent and an increase in the percentage of U.S. adults reporting that they were out of the labor force from 19 to 23 percent over the same time frame. Readers should note that adults in the “unemployed” category were those who indicated that they were without work but currently available for work, and were actively seeking paid work. Adults in the “out of labor force” category were those not currently seeking paid work (e.g., because of study, household duties, or sickness/disability).
| Current employment status | 2012/14 | 2017 | 2023 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Employed | 74 | 77 | 72 |
| Unemployed | 7 | 4 | 5 |
| Out of labor force | 19 | 19 | 23 |
* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: Values are weighted estimates of the population based on the PIAAC sample. The PIAAC demographic estimates in the table may differ from estimates reported elsewhere due to variations in samples and definitions. The results presented for the 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments are for those individuals who could respond to PIAAC in either English or Spanish (adults who responded to the literacy assessment). The percentages for PIAAC 2023 shown in the table also include adults who did not speak either English or Spanish, who were given a short, self-administered survey of background information (also referred to as the Doorstep Interview) in the language they identified as the one they best understood. For more details see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, the average scores in literacy for U.S. adults decreased across all self-reported employment categories; in numeracy the average scores for U.S. adults out of the labor force decreased.
Figure 6-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65, by current employment status: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, there were increases in the percentages performing at Level 1 or below in literacy for both employed U.S. adults and those out of the labor force. In numeracy, the percentages performing at Level 1 or below increased for U.S. adults out of the labor force. The percentages of U.S. adults performing at Level 1 or below in adaptive problem solving in 2023 were 26 percent for employed adults, 31 percent for unemployed adults, and 48 percent for adults out of the labor force.
Figure 6-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, by current employment status: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
A brief look at demographics
Between 2017 and 2023, the percentage of native born U.S. adults decreased and the percentage of non-native born U.S. adults increased.
| Nativity | 2012/14 | 2017 | 2023 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Native born | 85 | 86 | 82 |
| Non-native born | 15 | 14 | 18 |
* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: Values are weighted estimates of the population based on the PIAAC sample. The PIAAC demographic estimates in the table may differ from estimates reported elsewhere due to variations in samples and definitions. Respondents were asked whether they were born in the United States. "Native born" refers to those who were born in the United States, while "non-native born" refers to those who were not. The results presented for the 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments are for those individuals who could respond to PIAAC in either English or Spanish (adults who responded to the literacy assessment). The percentages for PIAAC 2023 shown in the table also include adults who did not speak either English or Spanish, who were given a short, self-administered survey of background information (also referred to as the Doorstep Interview) in the language they identified as the one they best understood. For more details see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, the average scores in literacy for both native born and non-native born U.S. adults decreased; in numeracy the average score for non-native born U.S. adults decreased.
Figure 7-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65, by nativity: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Respondents were asked whether they were born in the United States. "Native born" refers to those who were born in the United States, while "non-native born" refers to those who were not. The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, higher percentages of native born and non-native born U.S. adults performed at Level 1 or below in literacy; a higher percentage of non-native born U.S. adults performed at Level 1 or below in numeracy. The percentages of U.S. adults performing at Level 1 or below in adaptive problem solving in 2023 were 27 percent for native born adults and 52 percent for non-native born adults.
Figure 7-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, by nativity: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Respondents were asked whether they were born in the United States. "Native born" refers to those who were born in the United States, while "non-native born" refers to those who were not. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
A brief look at demographics
Between 2017 and 2023, the percentage of U.S. adults reporting “fair” or “poor” health increased from 17 to 21 percent. Adults reporting “excellent” or “very good” health decreased from 54 to 50 percent over the same period.
| Self-reported health status | 2012/14 | 2017 | 2023 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Excellent or very good | 57 | 54 | 50 |
| Good | 28 | 29 | 30 |
| Fair or poor | 15 | 17 | 21 |
* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: Values are weighted estimates of the population based on the PIAAC sample. The PIAAC demographic estimates in the table may differ from estimates reported elsewhere due to variations in samples and definitions. Respondents were asked to indicate the status of their health, choosing from the choices of "excellent," "very good," "good," "fair," or "poor." The results presented for the 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments are for those individuals who could respond to PIAAC in either English or Spanish (adults who responded to the literacy assessment). The percentages for PIAAC 2023 shown in the table also include adults who did not speak either English or Spanish, who were given a short, self-administered survey of background information (also referred to as the Doorstep Interview) in the language they identified as the one they best understood. For more details see the Technical Notes. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
U.S. adults self-reporting higher levels of health scored on average higher than adults with lower self-reported levels of health in all three PIAAC domains. Between 2017 and 2023, the average scores in literacy for U.S. adults decreased across all self-reported health categories; in numeracy the average score for U.S. adults self-reporting "fair" or "poor" health decreased.
Figure 8-A. Average scores on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving for U.S. adults ages 16 to 65, by self-reported health status: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Respondents were asked to indicate the status of their health, choosing from the choices of "excellent," "very good," "good," "fair," or "poor." The PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving scales range from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Between 2017 and 2023, there were increases in the percentages of adults performing at Level 1 or below in literacy across all self-reported health categories. The percentages of U.S. adults performing at Level 1 or below in adaptive problem solving in 2023 were 25 percent for adults self-reporting “excellent” or “very good” health, 33 percent for adults self-reporting “good” health, and 46 percent for adults self-reporting “fair” or “poor” health.
Figure 8-B. Percentage distribution of U.S. adults ages 16 to 65 at selected levels of proficiency on PIAAC literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving, by self-reported health status: 2012/14, 2017, and 2023
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* Significantly different (p < .05) from 2023.
NOTE: LIT = Literacy. NUM = Numeracy. APS = Adaptive problem solving. The domain of adaptive problem solving was only administered in 2023. Comparisons of 2023 results with 2012/14 and 2017 PIAAC assessments need to be made with caution due to differences in the assessments and scoring methodology. For example, 2023 PIAAC was administered completely on a tablet (digitally), whereas in previous PIAAC assessments, respondents were offered an option of paper-and-pencil format instead of taking it on a computer. In addition, items designed to assess more basic skills in literacy and numeracy contributed to the estimates of overall scores only in 2023, resulting in greater precision of the proficiency estimates for those at the lower end of the skills distribution. For more details on the differences between the assessments, see the Technical Notes. Respondents were asked to indicate the status of their health, choosing from the choices of "excellent," "very good," "good," "fair," or "poor." Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically significant. Users may explore other comparisons via the full data links and using the International Data Explorer tools. In literacy and numeracy, the top category combines Levels 3, 4, and 5. In adaptive problem solving, the top category combines Levels 3 and 4. In the figures, higher, middle, and lower performance are denoted by "Level 3 or above," "Level 2," and "Level 1 or below," respectively. The cut scores for each of these domains are as follows: Level 3 or above is a score equal to or higher than 276; Level 2 is a score from 226 to less than 276; and Level 1 or below is a score lower than 226.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
NOTES AND SOURCES
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014, U.S. PIAAC 2017, U.S. PIAAC 2023.
Suggested citation: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). Highlights of the 2023 U.S. PIAAC Results Web Report (NCES 2024-202). Washington, DC. Retrieved [date] from https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/2023/national_results.asp.
