Socio-historical classification of Khoekhoe groups Tom Güldemann & Alena Witzlack-Makarevich (Humboldt University Berlin, University of Kiel) Speaking (of) Khoisan: A symposium reviewing southern African prehistory EVA MPI Leipzig, 14–16 Mai 2015 1 Kolb 1719 Overview • Introduction • Khoekhoe groups • in pre- and early colonial period • in later colonial periods • today • Problems and challenges 2 Introduction • The Khoekhoe played an important role in the network of language contact in southern Africa a) because of their traditionally mobile economies → larger migratory territories b) contact with all language groups in the area  Tuu languages as the earliest linguistic layer  Bantu languages (Herero, Tswana, Xhosa)  colonial languages: Dutch → influencing Afrikaans 3 Introduction • The Khoekhoe played an important role in the network of language contact in southern Africa a) traditionally mobile → larger migratory territories b) contact with all language groups in the area c) fled from the encroaching colonial system carrying with them their Khoekhoe language + Dutch and some cultural features → considerable advantages and prestige vis-à-vis the groups they encounter during their migrations 4 Introduction • The Khoekhoe language played a dual role: o the substratum of groups shifting to other languages (e.g. Dutch/Afrikaans) o the target of language shift by groups speaking other languages • complexity unlikely to be disentangled completely • especially problematic due to the lack of historical linguistic data → wanted: a more fine-grained distinction of Khoekhoe-speaking ethnic groups in space and time 5 Groups in pre- and early colonial period • Major groups before colonial disruption in the Cape: • Cape Khoekhoe Nama Eini (!Ora = Korana) moderate documentation 6 Groups in pre- and early colonial period • Eini(kwa) or Riverfolk (Engelbrecht 1936, Maingard 1964) • often but erroneously subsumed under !Ora • indigenous to the middle Orange River between Augrabies and Upington Upington Maingard (1964) 7 Groups in pre- and early colonial period • !Ora in the Upper Orange region migrated according to oral histories from the Cape area to escape colonial domination • Two major routes: • to the east and then along the Orange northward • to the north into Little Namaqualand up to the Orange and then along the river eastward ("Ondervelders") Upington Prieska Maingard (1964) 8 Later colonial period • Colonial disruption leads to emergence of new diverse Khoekhoe-speaking groups distinguished according to various parameters: • • • • • • original ethnic core group(s) individual leaders (“captains”) time and route of migration final settlement contact with non-Khoekhoe groups influence by Cape Dutch component and degree of acculturation, including language maintenance 9 Later colonial period • Cape Khoekhoe becomes extinct in its original area > virtually no linguistic data beyond short wordlists • encroachment of Cape Khoekhoe descendants on areas away from the Cape strongly affecting other groups, thereby forming so-called “frontier groups” like “Oorlam”, “Basters”, and Griqua • language contact with a variety of other groups like other Khoekhoe groups, Cape Dutch, ǃUi-speaking San, and also Bantu in the East 10 Later colonial period • Khoekhoe-speaking groups studied more extensively from a linguistic perspective after colonial disruption: • Group • Nama Documentation relatively good, but unclear distinction to Oorlam varieties; basis of Standard Khoekhoe • Eini little data, mostly vocabulary • !Ora moderate • Former frontier groups little data 11 Later colonial period 1. ǃOra cluster in the Upper Orange region • • • • • • Hoogstanders Skerpioene Black people Side people Cats … Upington Prieska ǃOra may be closest to Cape Khoekhoe but with unknown nature and amount of linguistic admixture 12 Maingard 1964 Later colonial period 2. Oorlam in Namibia (Budack 1986) • • • • Amraal Lamberts Bersebaers Afrikaners … - stronger bilingualism in Khoekhoe and Dutch - documented in missionary contexts together with Nama - mainstream Namibian Khoekhoe is a koine of early Nama varieties and later Oorlam varieties 13 Later colonial period “Baster” communities (cf. Steenken 1997) 3. • • • • Xiri(kwa) aka Griqua Rehobothers Vilanders … - latest layer of Khoekhoe migration into diverse regions of Namibia and South Africa - possessed most European “know-how”, such as political organization, Christian religion, guns, horses - bilingualism with strong tendency to shift to Afrikaans 14 Modern situation • South Africa: 1. Pre-disruption groups: - Cape Khoekhoe, Eini and most of Little Nama extinct - some remnants of Little Nama in the Richtersveld and Namaqualand but influenced by other post-disruption groups 2. Post-disruption groups: - Upper Orange !Ora, Griqua, “Basters” extinct 15 Modern situation • Namibia with a diverse range of Khoekhoe varieties: 1. Nama-Damara - basis of Standard Namibian Khoekhoe 2. Haiǁom-ǂAakhoe - partly divergent varieties spoken by hunter-gatherers Haacke et al. (1997) 16 Modern situation • Ongoing controversy about the scenario how Khoekhoe in its present form came to be spoken by different groups in Namibia Scenario 1 (e.g. Vedder 1927): language shift on the part of Damara, Haiǁom and ǂAakhoe Scenario 2 (e.g. Haacke 2008): no Khoekhoeization of these groups 17 Linguistic challenges • Insufficient documentation of both older and modern Khoekhoe varieties • No systematic historical linguistic analysis of available data • Overall homogeneity of attested pre-disruption Khoekhoe varieties does not match archaeological findings that pastoralism has a long history of 2000 years in South Africa 18