Editions in Italian of the Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church of the United States of America.

This article reconstructs the history of the Italian translations of the Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church of the United States of America. A first partial edition in Italian was published in Florence in 1868 by William Chauncey Langdon and Stanislao Bianciardi, probably for propaganda reasons. Another partial version was published in 1874 and in 1876 by the Italian Costantino Stauder, minister of the first Italian-speaking Episcopal congregation in New York. Around the same time, the General Convention of the Episcopal Church gave life to a commission charged with promoting a full translation. In 1879, this commission gave the green light to the partial publication of a new translation by Francis Philip Nash. While both the Florentine and New York editions utilized the translation of the long-published Anglican Book of Common Prayer, this was a new version. In 1880, Stauder presented his own translation ― no copies of this remain ― which was rejected by the commission in favour of the one Nash was working on. Nash concluded his work in 1886 but, for reasons unknown to us, this version never saw the light of day. The first full Italian edition was published in Philadelphia only in 1904 by Michele Zara, minister of the Italian Episcopal of Philadelphia. His successor, Tommaso Edmondo della Cioppa published in 1922 a bilingual selection of the Book of Common Prayer. The birth of Italian-speaking congregations of the Episcopal Church was helped by the idea of Americanizing Italian immigrants. The history of the translations of the Episcopalian Book of Common Prayer is, therefore, also a chapter in the cross-cultural history of Italian immigration to the United States.

Keywords: The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America (PECUSA), The Episcopal Church, Book of Common Prayer, Anglican Communion, Anglicanism, Liturgy, Translations.

Why did John Wesley leave the halls of academia at Oxford to become a Church of England missionary in the newly established colony of Georgia? Was his ministry in America a success or failure? These questions—which have engaged numerous biographers of Wesley—have often been approached from the vantage point of later developments in Methodism. Geordan Hammond presents the first book-length study of Wesley’s experience in America, providing an innovative contribution to debates about the significance of a formative period of his life.

John Wesley in America addresses Wesley's Georgia mission in fresh perspective by interpreting it in its immediate context. In order to re-evaluate this period of Wesley’s life, Hammond carefully considers Wesley's writings and those of his contemporaries. The Georgia mission, for Wesley, was a laboratory for implementing his views of primitive Christianity. The ideal of restoring the doctrine, discipline, and practice of the early church in the pristine Georgia wilderness was the prime motivating factor in Wesley’s decision to embark for Georgia and in his clerical practice in the colony. Understanding the centrality of primitive Christianity to Wesley’s thinking and pastoral methods is essential to comprehending his experience in America. Wesley’s conception of primitive Christianity was rooted in his embrace of patristic scholarship at Oxford. The most direct influence, however, was the High Church ecclesiology of the Usager Nonjurors who inspired him with their commitment to the restoration of the primitive church.

The purpose of this Thesis is to explicate the principles at play in Martin Thornton’s theology. Martin Thornton wrote thirteen books and numerous chapters and articles that explored the theological nature of corporate prayer, its relationship to doctrine, tradition and scripture, and the overall scope of discipleship and obedience to Christ that begins in this life and continues into the next. The first section of the Thesis describes the underlying theological motif and the resulting theological model. That is, the motif of “Every truth flowing from the Incarnation must impinge upon our corporate prayer life” discloses the dynamic model of total, corporate spirituality Thornton calls “Ascetic.” The next section outlines the Thornton’s varied articulations of Ascetic seen as operations with respect to scripture, doctrine, and tradition; and such operations are properly called Thornton’s “Ascetical Theology,” all of which demonstrate Thornton’s mode of ressourcement within a 20th-century Anglican context. Overall this Thesis hopes to demonstrate that Thornton’s motif and model affirm a Catholic conviction, and his operations an Anglican context—the “English School of Catholic spirituality” being the underground yet regnant dynamic within Anglican tradition including present day—and that his theology as a whole remains relevant, useful, and pastorally attuned for use today, in parish life particularly as well as in wider ecumenical discussions.

The Divine Liturgy of Saint Tikhon, a Eucharistic Liturgy of substantially Anglican origin, was approved for use within the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America in 1977. It was adopted to be used by communities of Anglo-Catholic converts to the Orthodox Church who desire to retain all such aspects of their liturgical life and piety as are judged to be consonant with the Orthodox Faith.

In 1904, the Russian Holy Synod handed down the first official Orthodox statement on the Anglican Book of Common Prayer (in its 1892 American form). This was in response to a query by Saint Tikhon Bellavin, Archbishop of the Russian Orthodox missionary Archdiocese in North America, as to the possibility of allowing the use of the Liturgy in communities of Anglican converts to Orthodoxy. It was on the basis of this official Russian Synodal response that the Antiochian Archdiocese, in 1977, revised and adopted a form of the Anglican Liturgy as commonly celebrated within Anglo-Catholic parishes of the American Episcopal Church.

This thesis traces the development of the Anglican Liturgy from its controversial origins in the sixteenth century until its adoption within the Orthodox Church. Far from being the product of one man, one age, or one party, the Anglican Liturgy underwent a long and complex history of constant reinterpretation, revision, and enrichment and by Anglican High Churchmen (Elizabethan, Caroline, Non-Juring, Scottish, American, Tractarian and Anglo-Catholic) in light of the writings of the Church Fathers and the Liturgies of the ancient Church.

From 2000 to 2010, every domestic diocese in the Episcopal Church declined in average Sunday attendance.  This decline is attributed in part to a lack of theological and liturgical identity rooted in the Holy Eucharist.  Using the mystagogical homilies of Church Fathers as inspiration, this project uses social media to teach the Eucharistic doctrines of Real Presence and Sacrifice through video and social media.  This project utilized the Internet, Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube to produce, share, and collect data on two videos on Real Presence and Eucharistic Sacrifice.  Focus Groups based in St Swithun’s Episcopal Church  in the Episcopal Diocese of North Carolina were used to gather responses on the effectiveness of the videos and the reception of Eucharistic doctrine.  Data was also collected from the social media websites.  The focus group responses showed high receptivity to the use of YouTube videos in liturgical and Eucharistic catechesis.  Responses also showed a general lack of understanding of Real Presence and Eucharistic Sacrifice before viewing the videos and a greater understanding after viewing, suggesting success in the mystagogical method.  Online data gatherings show that viewers have a short attention span and that the videos must be short in length and make the catechetical case in the first thirty seconds.  The value of this project is to show that members of the Episcopal Church are not averse to catholic teaching regarding the Holy Eucharist and that social media is a valuable tool in catechesis and hopefully in discipleship and church growth.

The Oxford Movement is considered to be one of the most influential movements in the history of the Church of England and the wider Anglican Communion. This paper sets out to examine this movement's far-reaching effects, particularly in the realms of liturgy and spirituality.

The scholarly writings of Thomas Burgess (1756-1837), bishop of St David's and then Salisbury, supported a polemical and present-day centred reading of the earlier history of the British church and primitive Christianity, designed to rebut rival and competing threats from a resurgent contemporary Roman Catholicism on the one hand and from rational Protestant Dissent, notably Unitarianism, on the other. Burgess used the high church trope of apostolical continuity to reconstruct an explicitly Protestant identity for the historic English Church, its lineage rooted in a non-Roman ancient British church. While the early Tractarians gave signs of appearing to follow in this tradition of apologetic, it was clear from as early as Newman's number 7 of the Tracts for the Times was rather predicated on the unhistorical and modern origin of Protestantism and rested its claim to Antiquity on a different basis. By the time of Newman's Tract 90 (1841) at least one strand of Tractarian apologetic was more in tune with Bishop Burgess's contemporary high church opponent, Samuel Wix, applying that same apostolical emphasis in such a way as to distance the Church of England as far as possible from 'Ultra Protestantism' while attempting to build bridges with the Church of Rome.

Protestant and Catholic response, c. 1760-c. 1830. One of the key elements highlighted by recent historians of Britain in the so-called 'Long Eighteenth Century', notably Linda Colley in her ground-breaking Britons: Forging the Nation (1992) and Colin Haydon in his Anti-Catholicism in Eighteenth-Century Britain (1995), has been that of the potent power and influence of Protestantism and of an attendant virulent anti-Catholicism (Catholicism being demonised as an unacceptable 'Other' to an evolving British national identity and selfunderstanding). 1 Haydon has delineated the ingredients of an eighteenthcentury anti-Catholicism that was ingrained in the national and popular religious consciousness and fed by such potent symbols of supposedly popish cruelty and persecution as the fires of Smithfield, the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre, the Spanish Armada, and the Gunpowder Plot. He has emphasised the important part played in keeping alive a popular and elite anti-Catholic historical memory and English 'Protestant' self-image by the seminal influence of the gruesome accounts, visual as well as textual, given in John Foxe's Acts and Monuments, commonly known as his 'Book of Martyrs'. Foxe helped link Catholicism in the minds of English people with religious persecution, foreign interference, arbitrary government and despotism. Haydon has argued that a previous reluctance by historians to recognise the force of eighteenth-century English anti-Catholicism as symbolised by a continued popularity and propagation of Foxe's martyrology can be ascribed to a historiography of 1 L. Colley,

Approximately 50 years ago a rapid series of events has concentrated the attention of many Catholics on the Orthodox Church.  This widespread interest is something new.  After 1917 there grew up in most Western countries a diaspora of Russian Orthodox exiles.  This had several small-scale consequences.

This thesis examines Neoplatonic and Anglo-Catholic influences in the writings of the influential Melbourne organist, music critic and teacher, Arth E.H. Nickson (1876-1964). Nickson won the Clarke (Southern Provinces) Scholarship, founded to enable young Victorians to study at the Royal College of Music, where he studied organ under Sir Walter Parratt (1895-99), and came under the very strong influence of the Catholic revival in the Church of England at its height.

In 1901 Nickson returned to Melbourne where the aesthetic views he had begun to develop during his studies in England formed the basis for his activities as a church musician, which was centred on the parish of St Peter's Eastern Hill, a prominent Anglo-Catholic parish in Melbourne, recitalist and lecturer. These views were further developed as he began to write and publish essays expressing his aesthetic views that span a forty year period beginning in 1905.

Over the course of a 56-year career as a lecturer at the University of Melbourne Faculty of Music, Nickson had a strong influence due to the fact that every student passed through his lectures at some point in their course. In his lectures on the history, literature and aesthetics of music, Nickson presented a distinctive view that saw fine art as a sacrament. Nickson's presentation of thes ideas will be explored through the notes of Bruce Steele, a student who attended his lectures in 1950, other student recollections, and Nickson's own lecture notes.

This thesis falls into two broad sections, seeking first to provide an adequate biography tracing Nickson's development, and secondly, to examine Nickson's presentation of his aesthetic views in his essays and lectures. The final chapter falls into two parts. In the first, Nickson's central claim, that art is a sacrament, will be examined. From this it will be seen that Nickson viewed artistic creation as a sort of sign making which could be understood in three ways, as symbol, metaphor and sacrament. It will be shown that Nickson's centreal claim, that art is a sacrament, and his view that the world emanates from God, expose tensions in his thought that appear to be inconsistent with these central claims. Nickson focussed his thinking on the artist in the creative process, rather than on the art object itself. The central requirement he placed on the artist was that they should cultivate a particular religious disposition of mind, based on the assertion that "the powers of the Artist reach their fullest extension only in the Christian Faith"; this requirement will be seen to have been based very firmly on Nickson's own mysticism.

In the second part, Nickson's application of his ideas will be examined through his teaching, making use of student recollections, and his own rereading of Karg-Elert's Seven Pastels from the Lake of Constance (Op. 96), presented in his program notes for a concert where this work was played. Challenges to Nickson's ideas included his own rejection of twentieth-century developments in music, such as jazz and dodecaphony, and the work of non-Christian composers and performers, particularly given that some of these people held views very similar to his own. It is clear that Nickson did not respond to these challenges.

When I contemplated so many young men, all communicants at the altar, worshipping in an audible and reverent manner, the God of Heaven, and pouring out their prayers and praises with one voice, through Jesus Christ, I could hardly believe myself on earth'. 1 This awe-struck observation in November 1823 from Philander Chase, a visiting bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, while he was briefly residing in Oriel as the guest of the provost, Edward Copleston, gives a rosy, if not flattering, account of devout religious observance during a communion service in the college chapel. Such observations, however, can be notoriously subjective, and more negative impressions of religious observance and practice in contemporary Oxford colleges, Oriel included, can be cited. 2 John Campbell Colquhoun (1803-70), an evangelically-minded gentleman commoner of Oriel, went so far in 1822 as to address the heads of houses of 1 1 the university on the evils of profanation and impiety attendant upon enforcement of compulsory chapel attendance for undergraduates. 3 Colquhoun's strictures on a system

Using the example of Nehemiah Goreh, a mid nineteenth-century Brahmin Hindu convert to Christianity, the essay explores how Anglican missionaries interacted with Indian counterparts, sometimes encouraging their ordination (as was the case in the South), or (as was the case in the North) placing obstacles in their way. After an agonistically 'cognitive' struggle with Christian faith, Goreh was recommended for ordination by the Low-Church Anglican missionaries of Benares, only to be denied 'Holy Orders' by superiors in Calcutta, who felt that ordination would entail social intercourse of a kind detrimental to British status in colonial society. Having been a 'subaltern' of mission for some twenty years, Goreh converted again, this time to High-Church Anglicanism. I demonstrate that he did this not only to secure his ordination (High-Church Anglicans being less averse to having Indian counterparts), but also because, in the process of understanding the faith he had embraced, he had become convinced by High-Church Tractarians of the "Grace of Orders." I argue, therefore, that Goreh's little-known ordination quest demonstrates exemplary integrity, politically and theologically.

[George Frederick Nott (1768-1841). An Anglican Churchman amidst Theology, Literature, Art, Archeology, Bibliophilia and Collecting]. This book reconstructs the biography of George Frederick Nott, who reflected the intellectual climate of his time and bridged English and Italian cultures at the turn of the nineteenth century. An erudite and passionate admirer of Italian culture, Nott lived many years in Italy. As a writer, philologist and translator, he was a mediator between English and Italian culture. He met Vincenzo Monti and was befriended by Christian Karl Josias von Bunsen, Giovan Battista Niccolini, Giacomo Leopardi; translated into Italian the Book of Common Prayer, edited Dante and Bosone da Gubbio’s Avventuroso Ciciliano. At the time Italian culture was becoming increasingly important for British high society; the Grand Tour to Italy was an essential part of the British elite’s education. While Italy was considered the cradle of European civilization progressive Italian intellectuals looked to England as a model. George Frederick Nott (1768-1841), an Anglican minister, garnered an initial reputation as a theologian but was later better known for his studies in English literature, culminating in the publishing of the Earl of Surrey’s and Thomas Wyatt’s poems in 1815-1816. Nott delighted in archaeology and art. He was Joseph Anton Koch’s, the spiritual father of the “Nazarenes,” patron and as canon of Winchester he supervised the restoration of the Cathedral. He was among the first members of the Institute of Archaeology in Rome and was also a passionate collector of antiquities, coins, medals and a bibliophile who over time built a refined library of thousands of books and manuscripts. His collections were sold after his death; his important collection of coins was acquired by the British Museum and the manuscripts and books, including some very rare, are scattered throughout all major libraries and museums around the world. Reconstructing Nott’s biography effectively also reconstructs the intellectual climate of the time, which we find described in the works of Jane Austen and George Eliot. In many respects Nott was an exemplary figure of pre-Victorian England. He undertook The Grand Tour as a tutor in the years immediately following the French Revolution. His complex relations with the English court, which had remained chaotic since the end of the Napoleonic Wars, his incredible network of relationships and his diversified interests reveal much about the transition from eighteenth century erudition to a new romantic sensibility. It is difficult to assess what Nott’s impact really was on the development of Anglo-Italian relations. He felt he was unjustly undervalued by Italian scholars, yet he was esteemed by Giacomo Leopardi, whose friendship in itself demonstrated Nott was far from banal. What is certain is that his fascination with Italian culture was shared by many contemporary British writers. Nott was also certainly a very peculiar person. His dismissal as Princess Charlotte’s tutor was talked of at length throughout England. Despite having serious health problems, he was clearly a hypochondriac. He had a difficult temper; many who came into contact with him considered him a “novel character” as a result of his fits and posturing. While Anthony Trollope transformed him into a generally benevolent caricature Shelley and Byron, with whom he had dealings in Pisa in 1821, were much less generous. Nott was a bizarre erudite. As a reflection, we decided to follow his tracks in an erudite fashion. Despite his oft cited work on English Renaissance and thirteenth-century Italian literature, his notable relations with some of the most famous people of the era no biography of Nott was ever written beyond brief entries in the Dictionary of National Biography (1894 by Sidney Lee and 2004 by Rosemary Mitchell) and a recent short article by Carlo De Frede about his relationship with Leopardi. The painstaking reconstruction of Nott’s life, characterised by his intellectual ties and international scope, was the only way to adequately describe his erudite anxiety which is precisely what renders him an emblematic figure of his era.

In this essay, I will seek to explicate that the Oxford Movement was not based upon a monolithic message that was responding to a given set of problems or needs. To make this point I will show how the three primary personalities involved were very different in their interpretations, especially in how to communicate their convictions in writing. I will also show there was no primary strategy but rather an organic outworking of ideas in the form of the 90 Tracts that were published between 1833 and 1841. I will also show how the outcome of the movement was as much a redefining of the theologies of the writers themselves and how various evolving ideologies developed as they studied, wrote, were criticized and interacted with each other. A New Movement is Born The following passage from August B. Donaldson, one of the seminal writers on the Oxford Movement, best characterizes how this paper has outlined the context and the actual outworking of the Oxford Movement: […] it was something more than a reaction, it was a new growth, and a revival of long-dormant principles. There here had been rising in England, from various quarters, a fresh life of culture and art. Men had grown dissatisfied with the old commonplaces in poetry, painting, and architecture. Poetry had with Wordsworth taken nature and religion into an alliance and had planted the seeds of a mystic spirituality. Walter Scott had recovered juster [sic] views of the Church of the past; and, with others, had shown that the Middle Ages were not altogether times of unmitigated darkness and corruption. Added to this, opportunities for foreign travel, which had increased enormously since the end of the great wars with France, had removed not a little of the narrow and insular prejudice that declined to see anything good in the religion and worship of Continental Churches. 1

Joshua Watson (1771–1855) was a wealthy merchant who used his business acumen and administrative skills to become a key player in numerous Anglican societies that had missionary concerns, working alongside high-ranking clergy in various capacities. One aspect of Watson’s achievements was his impact on the emerging colonial church structures in Canada, India, Australia, and New Zealand. He was heavily involved in the reform and administration of the two main High Church mission societies: the SPCK and the SPG. Watson was a figure of immense significance to the development of the early nineteenth-century colonial Anglicanism. His example illustrates the importance of lay figures both to the High Church tradition and to the broader history of Anglicanism.

This paper traces the development of "eucharistic social theology" in the Anglo-Catholic wing of the nineteenth-century Church of England, in which eucharistic social theology is defined as the advancement of social parity on the basis of one's sacramental theology and praxis. The paper attempts to sweep away some of the naive (or more strident) historiographical assumptions about the origins and development of Anglo-Catholic doctrine, while advancing a tentative thesis that there is a genuine thread of eucharistic social theology stretching over a century, from the Oxford Movement and F.D. Maurice to the Anglo-Catholic Congresses.

The documents  of the Roman Inquisition evidence the semantic embarrassment of the Inquisitors to define the members of the Church of England. Very rarely it is used for them the expression “of the Anglican sect of Protestants”. More often the British are defined as Calvinists or as Lutherans, more rarely as "Protestant heretics of England" , or as of the "mixed religion, part of Luther and part of Calvin." The schemes crystallized in the Inquisitorial manuals present a conceptual framework that obviously did not work well for Protestants who were neither Lutherans nor Calvinists. The mechanical application  of these uncertain definitions demonstrates not only the lack of a more sophisticated interpretative paradigm but also  the bureaucratic  nature of many of the inquisitorial proceedings.

This book is about Roger Williams (ca. 1603-83), who was banished from the colony of Massachusetts Bay for advocating freedom of conscience, separation of church and state, Native American rights, and related matters.  He founded the town of Providence in what became Rhode Island on the basis of full liberty of conscience and complete separation of religion and government.  For additional information, see the uploaded PDF and links.

The book is available in paperback and Kindle e-book editions at Amazon websites throughout the world.  The paperback is also available at some other websites and bookstores.

See also my YouTube channel (https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCOlUZaehYk7WmwW8v9oBMzQ) about Roger Williams, including an interview (https://youtu.be/mGRl5lIbdYY) with me about this book.

For Errata and Supplemental Comments, see the separate document uploaded at https://www.academia.edu/13798228/Errata_and_Supplemental_Comments_to_The_First_American_Founder_Roger_Williams_and_Freedom_of_Conscience.

Alan E. Johnson

Offering a decisive challenge to the older reception of Pusey as a paragon of backwards scholarship, Tobias A. Karlowicz argues that Pusey is properly understood as a penetrating and original theologian whose work anticipated contemporary conversations about the nature of theology, and a pivotal figure in the history of Anglican theology. Karlowicz locates the heart of Pusey's project in a theological perception which looks through the physicality and concreteness of language, to discern Christ at the centre of both Scripture and the physical creation. This 'sacramental vision,' which grew from Pusey's critique of Christianity's decay and his formative engagement with patristic hermeneutics and ontology, forms his teaching on the sacraments as vehicles for a Christian life of eucharistic self-oblation in union with Christ, and demonstrates the relevance of his thought to contemporary theology.

Conferenza "Pionieri o profeti? Figure e luoghi del mondo cattolico per l'ecumenismo prima del Vaticano II".

Alcuni fra i profeti dell'ecumenismo cattolico sono annoverati fra i partecipanti alle Conversazioni di Malines e fra questi spiccano l'abbé Portal, il cardinale Mercier, e dom Beauduin, con il suo famoso memorandum L'Eglise anglicane unie non absorbée. Non vi è dubbio che le Conversazioni abbiano potuto ispirare, col loro metodo e coi loro contenuti, altri pionieri dell'ecumenismo che hanno poi preso parte al concilio Vaticano II. La storia di questi cinque incontri anglo-cattolici dei primi anni venti (1921-1926) è certamente ben studiata e documentata, in particolare in seguito all'apertura degli archivi della diocesi di Malines nel 1966, che hanno aggiunto la disponibilità delle fonti cattoliche a quelle anglicane. Gli archivi Pio XI, aperti alla consultazione nel 2006, possono aiutare però a chiarire l'attitudine vaticana rispetto a questo evento. Quale fu il grado reale di approvazione da parte della Santa Sede? Quale ruolo hanno avuto esponenti romani appartenenti ad altri orientamenti unionisti come d'Herbigny? Quale peso hanno avuto quanti, come Merry del Val, erano fermi in una radicale opposizione a qualsiasi forma di avvicinamento diverso dalla conversione? E infine, come spiegare il passaggio dall'apertura iniziale degli anni 1920-1922 alla chiusura quasi di condanna del 1927? Per capirlo occorre ricollocare la storia delle Conversazioni nel più ampio rapporto del papato rattiano con le diverse iniziative di dialogo fra i cristiani che fioriscono in quegli anni.

This book begins by noting both the prominence of its subject in the religious and political history of eighteenth-century England and the unfortunate lack of historical attention to the topic. It then promises to offer "the first extensive account of the whole of the Bangorian controversy" (1) and the following pages deliver precisely that. This is without a doubt the best-researched and most nuanced historical treatment of the so-called Bangorian controversy that wracked the early Hanoverian church and kept the printers of the day extremely busy. When Benjamin Hoadly, the Whig Bishop of Bangor preached his sermon on John 18:36 entitled The Nature of the Kingdom of Christ on 31 March 1717, he provoked a series of responses, counterresponses, denunciations, satires, and theological reflections that amounted to at least 401 printed works identified by Starkie in his comprehensive bibliography. Starkie has also traced the controversy as it unfolded in the pages of fourteen separate newspapers and periodicals of the era. For all of this painstaking bibliographic investigation, future historians of the early eighteenth-century church will be grateful, and his work should hold up for many years to come as the essential starting point for identifying the key works of the Bangorian controversy.

Starkie's interpretation of the debates provoked by Hoadly's sermon is less likely to gain such widespread acceptance, for he also offers a tendentious, albeit informed and provocative, account of early Hanoverian church politics. Key to his interpretation of the controversy is a rigid distinction between the orthodox and the heterodox. For Starkie, Hoadly and the doctrines he advanced in his 1717 sermon were unquestionably heterodox, and he was justly called to account for his theological error by his orthodox brethren in the church, above all his chief nemesis, Andrew Snape, the headmaster of Eton. It is telling that the frontispiece to this book contains a reproduction of a mezzotint engraving of Snape rather than Hoadly. Hoadly's vision of a "doctrinally minimal, Erastian 'national' religion," (153) surely offered a deep challenge to those churchmen, both Whig and Tory, who believed that the church and its doctrines were and should remain, at least relatively autonomous from the state, and Starkie correctly sees this ecclesiological conflict as the heart of the Bangorian controversy. While he understands Hoadly's position well, Starkie clearly has very little sympathy for it, and thus he insists that the controversy was animated by the justified denunciation of heterodoxy by the orthodox.

There is another way to tell this story. Orthodoxy and heterodoxy may be considered mutually constitutive, and continually in the process of transformation. Yesterday's heterodoxy may become tomorrow's orthodoxy, at least in the eyes of some. As it happened, Hoadly and his allies did not manage to establish their Erastian views as the new orthodoxy, but to dismiss them as irredeemably heterodox fails to grasp the historically-contingent nature of orthodoxy itself. It also fails to appreciate just how close Hoadly came to succeeding. Starkie's second chapter usefully locates Hoadly's beliefs within the political agenda of the Stanhope-Sunderland ministry. It demonstrates that important religious differences within the newly ascendant Whigs in the early years of George I 's reign also mapped onto political divisions, and this can help account for the rise of Robert Walpole's brand of "orthodox" Whig religion in the 1720s. Had the political vicissitudes of the early Hanoverian era worked out differently, it is possible that Hoadly's beliefs might have gained greater legitimacy and acceptance.

It is worth remembering that Hoadly remained a fixture of the ecclesiastical hierarchy for another four decades after the close of Starkie's story. He went on to receive further preferments to the rather more favorable sees of Hereford, Salisbury, and ultimately, Winchester, so it is hard to argue that his "heterodoxy" was decisively refuted by Snape and other critics. Hoadly may not have succeeded in redefining English church orthodoxy, but his contemporary reputation and influence managed to survive the challenges and rebukes he received during the Bangorian controversy.

Brian Cowan McGill University