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Volume 15
Issue 12
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Forests, Volume 15, Issue 12 (December 2024) – 213 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Oak forests are vital to European biodiversity, providing essential habitats for thousands of species and supporting key ecosystem services. However, these forests face unprecedented challenges from climate change, invasive pathogens, and pest infestations. Prolonged droughts, shifting precipitation patterns, and rising temperatures weaken tree resilience, with the introduction of invasive species further compromising forest stability. This cascade of stressors destabilises forests, highlighting the need for holistic management strategies. Early detection, genetic diversity conservation, and climate-resilient microrefugia are essential to protect oak forests against future environmental change, aligning with the goals of the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030. View this paper
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25 pages, 4556 KiB  
Article
Bark Biometry Along the Stem for Three Commercial Tree Species in Romania
by Maria Magdalena Vasilescu
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2264; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122264 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 404
Abstract
In general, bark serves a protective role for trees and is genetically determined. The quantification of bark based on biometric characteristics is linked to studies on the distribution of forest species across the globe and vegetation fires. In Romania, on the other hand, [...] Read more.
In general, bark serves a protective role for trees and is genetically determined. The quantification of bark based on biometric characteristics is linked to studies on the distribution of forest species across the globe and vegetation fires. In Romania, on the other hand, the improvement of the wood traceability system requires an increase in the accuracy of the estimation of the biometric characteristics of bark and, implicitly, of the volume of wood under the bark. The aim of this study was to develop more precise models for predicting bark thickness along the stem of three key Romanian species, taking into account a comprehensive range of models and stem sections, including those with a diameter over bark smaller than 8 cm, which have been excluded in previous studies. The study is based on two datasets, one containing the national measurements of three commercially valuable forest species, i.e., Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst), European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), and pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) from 12,186 trees, and a second dataset containing the measurements from 61 logs of the same species at a specific forest site. A set of seven double bark thickness (DBT) estimation models with stem diameter over bark (DOB), DOB and total tree height (H), DOB and relative height along the stem (h/H), and diameter over bark at breast height (DBH) and DOB as predictors were used. The DBT models were evaluated using the coefficient of determination (R2), mean absolute error (MAE), root mean squared error (RMSE), the Akaike information criterion (AIC), and the Bayesian information criterion (BIC). This led to the selection of two more accurate models, Model 2 (based on a third-degree polynomial) and Model 3 (based on a logarithmic function), with DOB as the predictor. Relative double bark thickness (RDBT) and proportion of bark area (PBA) were also estimated using a sixth-degree polynomial and relative height as a predictor variable after stratifying the data by DBH classes to reduce variability. The results of this study indicate that there is a need to complete the database, for all three forest species of commercial value in Romania especially for large trees with DBH greater than 60–70 cm. The models obtained for PBA are of great use to the industry and the economy, in particular in the context of the traceability of wood. This is due to the fact that PBA can be equated with the proportion of bark volume (PBV), which describes the variation in the proportion of bark in the volume of the wood assortments along the stem. For a given DBH, PBA and PBV demonstrate minimal variability in sections from the tree’s base to a relative height of 0.6; however, a pronounced increase is observed at crown level in sections above relative heights of 0.8. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Biometrics, Inventory, and Modelling of Growth and Yield)
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16 pages, 3525 KiB  
Article
Digitization and Virtualization of Wood Products for Its Commercial Use
by Ladislav Odstrčil, Peter Valent, Vladislav Kaputa and Marek Fabrika
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2263; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122263 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 483
Abstract
Augmented reality (AR) offers several advantages in the commercialization of wood products, increasing both the efficiency and the attractiveness of the process of presenting and selling them. The digitization and virtualization of wood features/products for the purpose of their economic valorization represent a [...] Read more.
Augmented reality (AR) offers several advantages in the commercialization of wood products, increasing both the efficiency and the attractiveness of the process of presenting and selling them. The digitization and virtualization of wood features/products for the purpose of their economic valorization represent a significant advance in technology and its application in traditional industries such as wood processing and trade. We present a concrete process of digitization and virtualization of wood features through AR for the purpose of its commercial valorization. Three methods of object scanning are tested: convergent photogrammetry, LiDAR scanning using an iPhone, and handheld scanners. Wood samples with different textures, shapes, and surface properties were used for the research, while each method was tested on a trio of models. The methods showed specific limitations: convergent photogrammetry is time-consuming and prone to human error, LiDAR iPhone scanning provides lower output quality and struggles with reflective surfaces, while handheld scanners are expensive and require additional tools for capturing color. Convergent photogrammetry was evaluated as the optimal and available method for the widest range of users. The 3D models were integrated into the Virtual Wood Market application, created in the Unreal Engine environment. The use of augmented reality in wood product commercialization offers significant benefits, including enhanced material efficiency, improved design and fabrication processes, better supply chain management, and increased customer engagement. These advantages can lead to more sustainable practices and higher customer satisfaction, ultimately driving the success of wood product commercialization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Challenges for Management in Wood-Based Sector in the Digital Age)
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19 pages, 3926 KiB  
Article
Study on the Surface Properties of Hot-Waxed Wood with MCC Filled Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Wax
by Luoyuan Zhang and Kuiyan Song
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2262; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122262 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 403
Abstract
This study aims to enhance the mechanical properties of hot-waxed wood by incorporating microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), thereby addressing the issue of inadequate surface durability. We investigated the effects of varying mass fractions (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%) of MCC on multiple surface properties of [...] Read more.
This study aims to enhance the mechanical properties of hot-waxed wood by incorporating microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), thereby addressing the issue of inadequate surface durability. We investigated the effects of varying mass fractions (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%) of MCC on multiple surface properties of hot-waxed wood modified with natural wax and maleic anhydride-ethyl acetate copolymer-grafted Fischer-Tropsch wax. These properties encompass adhesion, hardness, abrasion resistance, impact resistance, surface roughness, gloss, and hydrophobicity. To gain deeper insights into the reinforcing role of MCC, analytical techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were employed to comprehensively characterize the chemical structure, crystalline structure, and surface morphology of the samples. The results reveal that, upon the addition of 5% MCC, the hot-waxed wood treated with modified Fischer-Tropsch wax demonstrates a 41% increase in surface adhesive strength, an improvement in hardness from 2H to 3H, a reduction in surface impact resistance from grade 5 to grade 2, and a 72% decrease in wear mass. Additionally, it exhibits enhanced surface hydrophobicity and thermal stability, while preserving its decorative appearance. These findings endorse the use of MCC in hot-waxed wood, offering significant potential in fields like wooden architecture, indoor wooden decorative panels, and furniture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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17 pages, 3490 KiB  
Article
Near-Real-Time Detection of Insect Outbreaks in Urban Trees Using a PlanetScope Time Series
by Valentina Falanga, Saverio Francini, Francesco Parisi, Alice Cavalli, Paolo De Fioravante, Benedetta Cucca, Giovanni D’Amico, Gherardo Chirici, Bruno Lasserre, Marco Ottaviano, Michele Munafò and Marco Marchetti
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2261; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122261 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 555
Abstract
A critical challenge for urban forests is the arrival of Toumeyella parvicornis (or pine tortoise scale) in Italy, as this species damages stone pine (Pinus pinea L.), an emblematic Mediterranean species. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of [...] Read more.
A critical challenge for urban forests is the arrival of Toumeyella parvicornis (or pine tortoise scale) in Italy, as this species damages stone pine (Pinus pinea L.), an emblematic Mediterranean species. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of remote-sensing data for monitoring pest invasions in the urban area of Rome, using PlanetScope images with a 1-day revisit time and 3 m spatial resolution, making them ideal for detecting outbreaks in complex urban areas. First, we constructed a reference dataset, georeferencing 238 healthy trees in Tenuta San Rossore (Tuscany) and more than 2000 damaged trees in Rome’s green areas. In any case, this dataset of healthy trees—obtained from forest areas—was expected to exhibit higher photosynthetic activity compared to urban green areas. Second, more than 30,000 PlanetScope images were analyzed to test the effectiveness of the Renormalized Difference Vegetation Index in detecting this specific forest disturbance. Finally, different thresholds were examined, allowing for the identification of an optimal threshold to discriminate healthy trees from damaged trees. The index results showed a marked drop during the summer in the infested areas, compared to the healthy areas. The identified threshold provided 99% accuracy in detecting infested trees. The approach applied in this study demonstrated that PlanetScope imagery proved effective in detecting T. parvicornis, leading to promising results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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13 pages, 4466 KiB  
Article
Changes in Ginkgo biloba L.’s Habitat Due to Climate Change in China
by Shenglin Li, Xiaohuang Liu, Peng Shi, Jiufen Liu, Ping Zhu, Run Liu, Liyuan Xing, Xinping Luo, Honghui Zhao, Yan Zheng and Ruyi Bao
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2260; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122260 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 367
Abstract
Ginkgo biloba L. was named by Carl Linnaeus in 1771; a “living fossil” with immense medicinal and conservation value, it is a nationally first-class protected wild plant. However, many Ginkgo populations are under threat from habitat destruction, human exploitation, and over-harvesting, which have [...] Read more.
Ginkgo biloba L. was named by Carl Linnaeus in 1771; a “living fossil” with immense medicinal and conservation value, it is a nationally first-class protected wild plant. However, many Ginkgo populations are under threat from habitat destruction, human exploitation, and over-harvesting, which have limited their numbers and range. Using an optimized MaxEnt model in R, this study analyzed Ginkgo distribution points and 22 ecological factors in China to explore the key environmental factors affecting its geographical distribution. The study also predicted the spatial distribution patterns and centroid changes of potential suitable areas under three different carbon emission pathways: current conditions, 2021–2040 (2030s), 2041–2060 (2050s), and 2061–2080 (2070s). The findings are as follows: (1) The optimal combination of model parameters (RM = 3.2, FC = LPH) reduced model complexity and overfitting and achieved very high prediction accuracy with an optimized AUC value of 0.928. (2) The key environmental factors influencing Ginkgo growth include precipitation in the driest month (20–175 mm), minimum temperature in the coldest month (−4 to 3 °C), precipitation in the hottest quarter (450–2500 mm), and a temperature seasonal variation deviation greater than 580. (3) Under the three future climate scenarios (SSP126, SSP245, and SSP585), the potential suitable habitat area for Ginkgo in China was increased, with the distribution range migrating to higher latitudes, Under the three different development models, the total suitable area followed this order: SSP126 > SSP245 > SSP585. Highly and moderately suitable areas are concentrated in the Yangtze River Basin. This study is highly significant for the ecological protection of Ginkgo, aiding in the rational planning of potential suitable areas, enhancing the monitoring of key conservation areas, and developing effective protection strategies in a timely manner. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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19 pages, 685 KiB  
Article
Genetic Parameters and Selection of Clones and Families of Pinus koraiensis Using Principal Components and Multi-Trait Method
by Huaizhi Mu, Yue Liu, Fang Wang, Zimeng Zhang, Jun Wang and Yuchun Yang
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2259; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122259 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 379
Abstract
Pinus koraiensis is recognized as one of the most valuable timber and economic tree species. Fruiting properties and growth traits are important characteristics for P. koraiensis breeding, and the relationship between fruiting properties of parents and growth traits of progeny is needed for [...] Read more.
Pinus koraiensis is recognized as one of the most valuable timber and economic tree species. Fruiting properties and growth traits are important characteristics for P. koraiensis breeding, and the relationship between fruiting properties of parents and growth traits of progeny is needed for better understanding. In this study, 71 parental clones and open-pollinated progeny families from the same plus trees were used as materials, and four fruiting properties (cone number per single tree, seed number per single cone, thousand-seed weight, and fruiting individual percentage) and four growth traits (height, diameter at breast height, volume, and survival individual percentage) were measured and calculated. There were significant variations in fruiting properties and growth traits among parental clones and progeny families. For fruiting properties, the phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation ranged from 16.51% to 175.34% and from 6.75% to 20.26%, respectively, and the repeatability ranged from 0.3430 to 0.9438. For growth traits, the phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation ranged from 15.68% to 39.89% and from 3.51% to 25.99%, respectively, and the broad-sense and narrow-sense heritability ranged from 0.7149 to 0.9681 and from 0.3648 to 0.4614, respectively. There were extremely significant positive correlations between cone number per single tree and fruiting individual percentage, as well as between height, diameter at breast height, and volume. Nevertheless, there was no significant correlation between fruiting properties of parental clones and growth traits of progeny families. Based on the integrated results of principal component analysis and the multi-trait comprehensive evaluation method, six clones (HS23, HS95, HS05, HS73, HS67, and HS17) and four families (HS37, HS17, HS60, and HS54) were selected as elite clones and families, respectively, and HS17 was identified as both an elite parental clone and an elite progeny family. The genetic and realistic gains of elite clones for fruiting properties ranged from 1.34% to 17.34% and from 1.50% to 47.22%, respectively, and the genetic and realistic gains of elite families for growth traits ranged from 4.85% to 33.90% and from 6.73% to 35.02%, respectively. The present study provides the foundation for reconstruction and upgrading of P. koraiensis seed orchards, which is helpful for increasing productivity and economic benefits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)
17 pages, 4303 KiB  
Article
Evaluating Domestic Herbivores for Vegetation Structure Management in Transitional Woodland–Shrubland Systems
by Inês Ribeiro, Tiago Domingos, Davy McCracken and Vânia Proença
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2258; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122258 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 846
Abstract
Mediterranean landscapes are shaped by natural disturbances such as herbivory and fire that regulate vegetation structure and fuel loads. As a result of the cessation of traditional agricultural practices, land abandonment is a widespread phenomenon in these landscapes, leading to shrub encroachment and [...] Read more.
Mediterranean landscapes are shaped by natural disturbances such as herbivory and fire that regulate vegetation structure and fuel loads. As a result of the cessation of traditional agricultural practices, land abandonment is a widespread phenomenon in these landscapes, leading to shrub encroachment and heightened fire hazard. This study reports the effects of grazing by domestic herbivores on vegetation structure in transitional woodland–shrubland systems across three case study areas in Portugal. The effects of low and moderate grazing intensity by cattle and horses on vegetation structure were assessed on three vegetation strata—canopy, shrubs, and grasses—using indicators to evaluate the influence of grazing on both horizontal and vertical vegetation structure. Moderate grazing shaped vertical vegetation structure by reducing shrub and grass height and by browsing and thinning the lower branches, creating a discontinuity between understorey and canopy layers. These effects on vertical fuel continuity are anticipated to limit the upward spread of flames and reduce the potential for crown fires. In contrast, low-intensity grazing showed limited effects on both vertical and horizontal vegetation structure. This work highlights the potential of using domestic herbivores as a tool to manage vegetation structure and its contribution to mitigating local wildfire hazards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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19 pages, 4038 KiB  
Article
Is the Level of Quality of Life Related to the Frequency of Visits to Natural Areas?
by Natalia Korcz, Agnieszka Kamińska and Mariusz Ciesielski
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2257; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122257 - 23 Dec 2024
Viewed by 575
Abstract
Currently, people are more and more willing to rest in areas of urban greenery or forest areas for relaxation, sports, tourism, or recreation. Nonetheless, the decision for this type of activity is often a thoughtful, planned decision that determines the level of quality [...] Read more.
Currently, people are more and more willing to rest in areas of urban greenery or forest areas for relaxation, sports, tourism, or recreation. Nonetheless, the decision for this type of activity is often a thoughtful, planned decision that determines the level of quality of life. The purpose of our study was to determine whether objective indicators of quality of life, such as social, economic, infrastructural, and environmental factors, influence the frequency of visits to urban green areas and forest areas. An online survey was conducted by a professional firm on a group of 1000 people living in and around the Warsaw metropolitan area. The results showed a clear seasonal pattern, with a higher frequency of visits in summer compared to winter. Urban green areas were more likely to be visited than forests. The frequency of visits was influenced by the 11 analysed factors, although not always in all variants. Among these factors were education level, income, distance to urban green areas, and assessment of the quality of greenery at the place of residence. Women and younger age groups were more frequent visitors, especially in summer, while older people and lower-income groups visited less often, especially in winter. The results underscore the importance of integrating green spaces with urban planning to increase accessibility and meet the diverse needs of the population, promoting both physical and mental well-being. Further research should be extended to other metropolitan areas and exploring psychological motivations for visiting natural areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forest Landscapes and Forest Therapy)
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19 pages, 3714 KiB  
Article
Sequoia Groves of Yosemite: Visitor Use and Impact Monitoring
by Sheri A. Shiflett, Jeffrey S. Jenkins, Rachel F. Mattos, Peter C. Ibsen and Nicole D. Athearn
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2256; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122256 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 697
Abstract
Despite being long-lived and massive, giant sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) J. Bucholz) are susceptible to erosion given their relatively shallow root structure. Human-caused soil compaction and vegetation loss through social trails are primary drivers of erosion in giant sequoia groves, particularly for [...] Read more.
Despite being long-lived and massive, giant sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) J. Bucholz) are susceptible to erosion given their relatively shallow root structure. Human-caused soil compaction and vegetation loss through social trails are primary drivers of erosion in giant sequoia groves, particularly for trees that are near formal trails and access roads. We develop a method to observe and quantify the near-tree impacts from park visitors and to relate the overall amount of use with ground cover impact parameters to assess whether the desired conditions of each grove are being met for the park to maintain a spectrum of recreational opportunities. We collected data on visitation, ground cover, soil compaction, and social trailing using a combination of targeted surveys and observations at the three giant sequoia groves in Yosemite National Park. The Mariposa Grove receives the most visitation, and use levels among groves were consistent with relative size and facilities available. Selected parameters for ground cover data were analyzed by comparing values within undisturbed versus trampling-disturbed subplots at both 0–2 m and 2–8 m. Exposed soil cover and compaction were generally higher in anthropogenically disturbed subplots versus undisturbed subplots, and vegetation cover was reduced in some disturbed subplots. Each grove had one surveyed tree where average soil compaction was ≥2.2 kg/cm2, which may limit root growth and impact seedling regeneration. Each of the three groves had some trees with social trail presence, yet less than 7% of mature trees within any grove were impacted by social trails, and most social trails were rated as having low impairment. Coupling soil compaction measurements and estimates of trampling-disturbed areas with mapping of social trail conditions within groves provides a general assessment of visitor-associated impacts to sequoia groves and can facilitate a relatively rapid way to track hotspot (i.e., increasingly impacted) trees over time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests and Nature Tourism: Navigating Conservation, Recreation, and Change in the Anthropocene)
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16 pages, 2076 KiB  
Article
Divergent Effects of Monoculture and Mixed Plantation on the Trade-Off Between Soil Carbon and Phosphorus Contents in a Degraded Hilly Land
by Xiaojuan Gu, Zhihang He, Linyunhui Liu, Zhenyuan Zhang, Jiahui Wu and Qifeng Mo
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2255; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122255 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 560
Abstract
Carbon (C) and phosphorus (P) in soil are closely related to plantation types in afforestation practices. However, the trade-off between soil C and P in response to different restoration models on degraded hilly land is still not clear. In this study, four restoration [...] Read more.
Carbon (C) and phosphorus (P) in soil are closely related to plantation types in afforestation practices. However, the trade-off between soil C and P in response to different restoration models on degraded hilly land is still not clear. In this study, four restoration patterns, including natural recovered shrubland (NS), Castanopsis hystrix plantation (CH), 10-species mixed plantation (10MX), and 30-species mixed plantation (30MX) were selected, and the physicochemical properties and readily oxidized carbon (ROC) in different layers of 1 m depth soil were measured to understand the effects of natural restoration and artificial afforestation on soil P and C pool and their trade-off on degraded hilly land in southern China. The results indicate that the total P (TP) content in each soil layer was observed to follow the order of CH > 10MX > 30MX > NS, with monoculture (CH) exhibiting higher levels of TP than mixed plantation. However, the soil C storage of NS (59.61 t hm−2) and 30MX (57.71 t hm−2) was similar, while 10MX boasted the highest C storage (64.99 t hm−2) of the four restoration patterns, with CH being the lowest (42.75 t hm−2). In deep soil layers (20–100 cm), the 10MX plantation presented the highest for both the C pool index (CPI) and C pool management index (CMI). Moreover, the structural equation model (SEM) revealed that the soil CMI was directly regulated by the levels of soil available P and total N, while soil C pool activity was directly influenced by soil pH. Thus, our study suggests that compared to mixed plantations, the monoculture plantation (CH) demonstrates lower P uptake and utilization, resulting in a higher soil P content. Furthermore, 10MX plantation showed a superior C fixation capacity over those with 30MX and monoculture plantations. These suggests that the trade-off between soil C and P contents was commonly observed among different plantation restoration patterns. Therefore, afforestation with different tree composition and nutrient regulation is necessary for maintaining the balance between soil C and P and keeping the sustainability of plantation management in the degraded hilly lands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Storage and Cycling in Forest Soil)
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17 pages, 8450 KiB  
Article
MaxEnt-Based Habitat Suitability Assessment for Vaccinium mandarinorum: Exploring Industrial Cultivation Opportunities
by Xuxu Bao, Peng Zhou, Min Zhang, Yanming Fang and Qiang Zhang
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2254; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122254 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 590
Abstract
Vaccinium mandarinorum Diels, a wild blueberry species distributed in the south of the Yangtze River in China, holds significant ecological and commercial value. Understanding its potential distribution and response to climate change is crucial for effective resource utilization and scientific introduction. By using [...] Read more.
Vaccinium mandarinorum Diels, a wild blueberry species distributed in the south of the Yangtze River in China, holds significant ecological and commercial value. Understanding its potential distribution and response to climate change is crucial for effective resource utilization and scientific introduction. By using the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model, we evaluated V. mandarinorum’s potential distribution under current (1970–2000) and future climate change scenarios (2041–2060, 2061–2080, and 2081–2100) based on 216 modern distribution records and seven bioclimatic variables. The results showed that the MaxEnt model could effectively simulate the historical distribution and suitability degree of V. mandarinorum. The top two major environmental variables were precipitation of the driest quarter and annual precipitation, considering their contribution rates of 61.3% and 23.4%, respectively. Currently, the high suitability areas were mainly concentrated in central and northern Jiangxi province, central and southern Zhejiang province, southern Anhui province, central and northern Fujian province, and the border areas of Hunan and Guangxi provinces, covering 21.5% of the total suitable area. Future projections indicate that habitat will shift to higher latitudes and altitudes and that habitat quality will decline. Strategies are required to protect current V. mandarinorum populations and their habitats. The study results could provide an important theoretical reference for the optimization of planting distribution and ensure the sustainable production of the blueberry industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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19 pages, 2627 KiB  
Article
How Does the Mulching Management of Phyllostachys Praecox Affect Soil Enzyme Activity and Microbial Nutrient Limitation in Karst Bamboo Forest Ecosystems?
by Long Tong, Lianghua Qi, Lijie Chen, Fengling Gan, Qingping Zeng, Hongyan Li, Bin Li, Yuan Liu, Ping Liu, Xiaoying Zeng, Lisha Jiang, Xiaohong Tan and Hailong Shi
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2253; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122253 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 440
Abstract
Phyllostachys praecox is a valuable tree species in karst ecosystems, but improper mulching practices can worsen soil degradation. Understanding soil nutrient limitations is crucial for successful restoration and sustainable development. However, it remains unclear whether and how mulching management of Phyllostachys praecox affects [...] Read more.
Phyllostachys praecox is a valuable tree species in karst ecosystems, but improper mulching practices can worsen soil degradation. Understanding soil nutrient limitations is crucial for successful restoration and sustainable development. However, it remains unclear whether and how mulching management of Phyllostachys praecox affects soil enzyme stoichiometry and nutrient limitation in karst areas. Here, we conducted a field experiment in Chongqing karst bamboo forest ecosystems with four mulching treatments: 1-year (T1), 2-years (T2), 1-year and recovery and 1-year (T3), and no mulching (CK). We investigated the activities of the C-acquiring enzyme β-1,4-glucosidase (BG), N-acquiring enzymes L-leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) and β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminidase (BNA), as well as P-acquiring enzyme phosphatase activity (AP), to assess the limitations of C, N or P and identify the main factors influencing soil microbial nutrient limitation. Compared with the CK treatment, both the T2 and T3 management treatments significantly increased the SOC, TN, MBC, and MBN. Furthermore, the soil enzyme stoichiometric ratio in the karst bamboo forests deviated from the global ecosystem ratio of 1:1:1. T1 > T3 > CK > T2 presented higher values of C/(C + N) and C/(C + P), with T1 having values that were 1.10 and 1.12 greater than those of T2, respectively. Additionally, there was a significant negative correlation between microbial C and N limitations and total nutrients, but a positive correlation with microbial biomass ratios. In conclusion, changes in mulching management of Phyllostachys praecox affect soil enzyme stoichiometry activities and their ratios by influencing total nutrients and microbial biomass ratios. This study suggests an alternate year cover pattern (mulching in one year and resting in the next) as a scientific management approach for bamboo forests, contributing to a better understanding of nutrient limitation mechanisms in karst bamboo forest ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Storage and Cycling in Forest Soil)
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20 pages, 8060 KiB  
Article
The Wheel of Vegetation: A Spatial and Temporal Story of Vegetation Evolution in the Shennongjia Forest District
by Xueli Wang, Xiaolong Du, Chunyan Zhao, An Luo, Hui Chen, Shaobin Li and Hewei Du
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2252; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122252 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 375
Abstract
As one of the most well-preserved areas in the vertical band spectrum of vegetation in central China and even in the northern hemisphere at the same latitude, the vegetation in Shennongjia Forest District is vital to global ecological balance. In order to fully [...] Read more.
As one of the most well-preserved areas in the vertical band spectrum of vegetation in central China and even in the northern hemisphere at the same latitude, the vegetation in Shennongjia Forest District is vital to global ecological balance. In order to fully understand the vegetation change in the study area, remotely sensed data since 1990, combined with the Sen-MK test, Geo detector, and LandTrendr algorithm, were used to analyze the vegetation distribution characteristics and change trends. The results showed that: (1) the overall NDVI in the study area displayed an upward trend. (2) Vegetation disturbance occurred frequently before 2000 and decreased significantly after 2000. The most severely disturbed year was 1991 when the disturbed area amounted to 4.0851 km2, accounting for 16.76% of the total disturbed area. The analysis of the topographic environment reveals that most of the vegetation disturbances occur in areas with slopes of 15–25° and elevations of 1500–2000 m, which indicates that these areas have frequent human activity. (3) The explanatory power of different influences on vegetation changes varied, with altitude having the most significant effect and the superposition of two influences increasing the effect on vegetation change. Over the past 30 years, vegetation in the Shennongjia Forest District has shown a general trend of recovery, with natural forest protection initiatives playing a critical role in mitigating disturbance. This comprehensive study of vegetation changes in Shennongjia offers a valuable research paradigm for forest conservation and sustainable development in temperate forests at similar latitudes, providing significant insights into the protection and management of similar ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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26 pages, 8482 KiB  
Article
Improving European Black Pine Stem Volume Prediction Using Machine Learning Models with Easily Accessible Field Measurements
by Maria J. Diamantopoulou and Aristeidis Georgakis
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2251; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122251 - 21 Dec 2024
Viewed by 674
Abstract
Reliable prediction of tree stem volume is crucial for effective forest management and ecological assessment. Traditionally, regression models have been applied to estimate forest biometric variables, yet they often fall short when handling the complex, non-linear patterns typical of biological data, potentially introducing [...] Read more.
Reliable prediction of tree stem volume is crucial for effective forest management and ecological assessment. Traditionally, regression models have been applied to estimate forest biometric variables, yet they often fall short when handling the complex, non-linear patterns typical of biological data, potentially introducing biases and errors. Tree stem volume, a critical metric in forest biometrics, is generally estimated through easily measured parameters such as diameter at breast height (d) and total tree height (h). This study investigates advanced machine learning (ML) techniques—Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), epsilon-Support Vector Regression (ε-SVR), and Random Forest regression (RFr)—to predict the stem volume of European black pine (Pinus nigra) on Mount Olympus, Greece, using basic field measurements. Machine learning (ML) approaches demonstrated substantial improvements in prediction accuracy compared to traditional non-linear regression-based models (RMs). Notably, XGBoost significantly enhanced predictive performance by reducing the Furnival index (FI) by as much as 42.3% (from 1.1859 to 0.1056) and 21.3% (from 0.1475 to 0.1161) in the test and fitting datasets, respectively, for the single-entry model. For the double-entry model, XGBoost achieved FI reductions of 40.5% (from 0.1136 to 0.0676) and 41.3% (from 0.1219 to 0.0715) in the test and fitting datasets, respectively. These findings highlight the potential of ML models to improve the accuracy of forest inventory predictions, thereby supporting more effective and data-driven forest management strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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15 pages, 2335 KiB  
Article
Genetic Diversity and Structure of Higher-Resin Trees of Pinus oocarpa Schiede in Mexico: Implications for Genetic Improvement
by Miguel Ángel Vallejo-Reyna, Mario Valerio Velasco-García, Viridiana Aguilera-Martínez, Hilda Méndez-Sánchez, Liliana Muñoz-Gutiérrez, Martín Gómez-Cárdenas and Adán Hernández-Hernández
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2250; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122250 - 21 Dec 2024
Viewed by 450
Abstract
Pinus oocarpa Schiede is the most widely distributed conifer in the Americas. In Mexico, it inhabits diverse environments and is the primary pine species utilized for resin production, prompting the establishment of a genetic improvement program (GIP). Preserving a broad genetic diversity is [...] Read more.
Pinus oocarpa Schiede is the most widely distributed conifer in the Americas. In Mexico, it inhabits diverse environments and is the primary pine species utilized for resin production, prompting the establishment of a genetic improvement program (GIP). Preserving a broad genetic diversity is fundamental to the success of the GIP. This study aimed to assess the genetic diversity and structure of trees selected for their high resin yield. A total of 146 trees from 15 provenances within three populations (MX-MIC, MX-MEX, and MX-OAX) constituting the selection population of the GIP were evaluated. Five SSR microsatellite markers (PtTX3013, NZPR1078, PtTX2146, PtTX3107, and PtTX3034) were used to determine key indicators of genetic diversity and structure. All three populations exhibited high genetic diversity; however, the heterozygosity observed was lower than the expected heterozygosity. Genetic structure analysis revealed the presence of two distinct genetic groups: the Transverse Volcanic Axis (MX-MIC and MX-MEX) and the Sierra Madre del Sur (MX-OAX). Most of the genetic diversity (87.42%) was found within provenances. Gene flow was high among provenances within the same genetic group but limited between provenances from different groups. The findings suggest that GIPs should be tailored to each genetic region, with a focus on within-provenance selection to maintain genetic diversity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Tree Breeding, Testing, and Selection)
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18 pages, 5716 KiB  
Article
Study on Novel Modified Phenolic Foams with Added Pine Wood Sawdust
by Jianwei Ling, Shiyu Lu, Shouqing Liu, Xuemei Li and Jianxiang Liu
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2249; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122249 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 638
Abstract
The use of low-cost agricultural and forestry waste for the preparation of modified phenolic foam (MPF) has attracted widespread attention and has shown promising prospects. This study proposes a novel method for producing MPF using pine sawdust. The full components of pine wood [...] Read more.
The use of low-cost agricultural and forestry waste for the preparation of modified phenolic foam (MPF) has attracted widespread attention and has shown promising prospects. This study proposes a novel method for producing MPF using pine sawdust. The full components of pine wood powder and its liquefied products were used as raw materials, and the resin was modified with a silane coupling agent (KH560), triethylene glycol (TEG), and nylon 66 (PA66). Subsequently, three novel MPFs were successfully fabricated using a transplanted core foaming technique, and their material properties were subsequently investigated. The results showed that all three MPFs exhibited excellent compressive strength and flame retardancy, with compressive strength ranging from 5.93 MPa to 12.22 MPa and oxygen index values between 36.2% and 41.5%. In terms of water resistance, the MPFs significantly outperformed traditional phenolic foam (PF); in particular, the addition of 4% KH560 and PA66 reduced the water absorption rate to as low as 2.5%. Furthermore, the powdering rate and thermal conductivity of all MPFs were significantly reduced, with chalking rates decreasing by 28.57% to 50%. This research presents a novel method for preparing MPF using agroforestry waste as a partial replacement for phenol. This approach achieves high-value utilization of pine sawdust while maintaining the performance of the MPF, thus broadening the avenues for MPF production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research and Technology on Biomass Materials in Forestry)
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23 pages, 6211 KiB  
Article
Multisilva: A Web-Based Decision Support System to Assess and Simulate the Provision of Forest Ecosystem Services at the Property Level
by Claudio Petucco, Laurent Chion, Jérémy Ludwig, Tomás Navarrete Gutiérrez, Benedetto Rugani and Jacek Stankiewicz
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2248; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122248 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 572
Abstract
Forests provide a variety of ecosystem services (ESs) that contribute to a society’s wellbeing. ES provision depends on the structure and evolution of forest ecosystems and is influenced by forest management. Society’s increasing need for ESs requires these complex ecological dynamics to be [...] Read more.
Forests provide a variety of ecosystem services (ESs) that contribute to a society’s wellbeing. ES provision depends on the structure and evolution of forest ecosystems and is influenced by forest management. Society’s increasing need for ESs requires these complex ecological dynamics to be understood and integrated in forest management and planning. We present the decision support system (DSS) Multisilva for multifunctional forest management. The Multisilva DSS is a web-based application that comprises two tools: the Mapping tool and the Simulation tool. The first tool provides spatial statistics and maps of the current provision of ESs at the forest property level. The Simulation tool compares two alternative, user-defined management scenarios over time and returns the biophysical estimations of ESs and the economic costs for each alternative. Multisilva is calibrated for Luxembourg, though it can be adapted for other temperate forest regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economy and Sustainability of Forest Natural Resources)
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25 pages, 2597 KiB  
Article
Classification Model of Site Quality for Mixed Forests Based on the TWINSPAN Method and Site Form in Southwestern Zhejiang
by Ruoyun Wu, Chen Dong, Chengwei Zhang, Weifang Gao, Xinyu Zheng and Xiongwei Lou
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2247; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122247 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 388
Abstract
The evaluation of site quality for mixed forests is a comprehensive approach to analyzing forest site conditions and tree species growth performance. Accurate site quality assessment is crucial for understanding and enhancing the ecological functions and productivity potential of forests. This study focuses [...] Read more.
The evaluation of site quality for mixed forests is a comprehensive approach to analyzing forest site conditions and tree species growth performance. Accurate site quality assessment is crucial for understanding and enhancing the ecological functions and productivity potential of forests. This study focuses on mixed forests in Lishui City, Zhejiang Province. Using the Two-way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) method, coniferous mixed forest, broadleaved mixed forest, and mixed coniferous–broadleaved forests in the region were classified into 15 forest types. Site form models for each type were then constructed using the Algebraic Difference Approach (ADA) to categorize site quality levels. Subsequently, a site quality classification model was developed by integrating site and climatic factors, employing four machine learning algorithms: Random Forest (RF), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and XGBoost. This model effectively facilitated the evaluation of site quality in mixed forests. The results showed that, across the 15 forest types, the site form models based on the ADA method achieved R2 values greater than 0.634, indicating accuracy in capturing tree height growth trends in mixed forests. For site quality classification, all four models (RF, KNN, SVM, and XGBoost) achieved overall accuracies above 0.77. Among these, the machine learning models ranked in effectiveness for site quality classification as follows: XGBoost > RF > SVM > KNN. These findings suggest that the site form model is a suitable criterion for classifying site quality in mixed forests in Lishui City, Zhejiang Province, and that the XGBoost-based model demonstrates strong classification accuracy. This study provides a scientific basis for site-adapted tree selection and advances information on mixed forest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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15 pages, 1902 KiB  
Article
Is the Concentric Plot Design Reliable for Estimating Structural Parameters of Forest Stands?
by Martin Kománek, Robert Knott, Jan Kadavý and Michal Kneifl
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2246; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122246 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 484
Abstract
Monitoring forest stands using sampling techniques offers a valuable alternative to conventional forest condition assessment methods in Central Europe. While these designs are optimized for assessing production parameters, their effectiveness for structural characteristics remains unclear. This study evaluates various plot designs to determine [...] Read more.
Monitoring forest stands using sampling techniques offers a valuable alternative to conventional forest condition assessment methods in Central Europe. While these designs are optimized for assessing production parameters, their effectiveness for structural characteristics remains unclear. This study evaluates various plot designs to determine their reliability in estimating structural diversity indices, including the Gini index, Artenprofile index, and Shannon index. We compared ten fixed-radius (FR) sampling designs (plot sizes: 50–1250 m2) and a concentric circle (CC) design (500 m2) employed at the Mendel University Forest Enterprise (Křtiny, Czech Republic). The CC design proved adequate for assessing production parameters and structural diversity indices like Artenprofile and Shannon. However, it showed significant limitations for the Gini index (p < 0.01), due to a smaller number of sampled trees. For the Gini index, fixed-radius plots of at least 150 m2, with 200 m2 being the most cost-effective size, provided the most reliable estimates. Interestingly, the CC design may also be less suitable for production parameters, where smaller fixed-radius plots (50 m2) were more effective, requiring fewer total samples despite the need for more plots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tree Growth and Physiological Properties Under Ongoing Global Climate Change: 2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 1721 KiB  
Article
The Effect of the Vaccinium myrtillus L. Rhizosphere on the Maturity Index for Predatory Mites (Mesostigmata: Gamasina) in Assessing Anthropogenic Pollution of Forest Soils
by Gabriela Barczyk, Aleksandra Nadgórska-Socha and Marta Kandziora-Ciupa
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2245; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122245 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 332
Abstract
The soil’s biological quality and its functions are closely linked. They determine the ecological processes and ecosystem services. Therefore, the heavy metal contamination of forest soils, leading to their degradation, is a major international problem. Soil is a habitat for many organisms, and [...] Read more.
The soil’s biological quality and its functions are closely linked. They determine the ecological processes and ecosystem services. Therefore, the heavy metal contamination of forest soils, leading to their degradation, is a major international problem. Soil is a habitat for many organisms, and the strong correlations between soil properties, vegetation, and soil fauna are particularly evident in the rhizosphere. Therefore, comprehensive soil monitoring must take all these elements into account. In forest soils, Vaccinium myrtillus plays a vital role. Despite this, there is still a lack of information in the literature on the interrelationship between microarthropod biodiversity, including predatory soil mites, and heavy metals in the rhizosphere zone of blueberry plants. To fill this gap, we assessed the impact of the V. myrtillus rhizosphere on soil stability and biological quality using a bioindicator based on predatory mites. We conducted the study in Poland, on selected forest sites characterised by varying degrees of soil contamination. In our study, we used a combined analysis based on the following indicators: maturity index (MI), contamination factor (CF), pollution load index (PLI), and potential ecological risk index (PERI), which allowed us to determine the level of soil contamination. We extracted 4190 Gamasina mites from soil samples. We also investigated soil properties such as pH, organic matter content, total carbon, total nitrogen, C/N ratio, and heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Ni). Our study proved that the rhizosphere zone significantly influences the stability of the predatory soil mite community, but this influence depends on the degree of soil contamination. We found that in unpolluted or moderately polluted soil, soil mites prefer habitats with less biological activity, i.e., non-rhizosphere zones. These main results are fascinating and indicate the need for further in-depth research. Our study’s comprehensive combination of methods provides valuable information that can facilitate the interpretation of environmental results. In addition, our study can be a starting point for analysing the impact of the rhizosphere zones of many other plant species, especially those used in the reclamation or urban spaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)
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27 pages, 13231 KiB  
Article
PosE-Enhanced Point Transformer with Local Surface Features (LSF) for Wood–Leaf Separation
by Xin Lu, Ruisheng Wang, Huaiqing Zhang, Ji Zhou and Ting Yun
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2244; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122244 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 477
Abstract
Wood–leaf separation from forest LiDAR point clouds is a challenging task due to the complex and irregular structures of tree canopies. Traditional machine vision and deep learning methods often struggle to accurately distinguish between fine branches and leaves. This challenge arises primarily from [...] Read more.
Wood–leaf separation from forest LiDAR point clouds is a challenging task due to the complex and irregular structures of tree canopies. Traditional machine vision and deep learning methods often struggle to accurately distinguish between fine branches and leaves. This challenge arises primarily from the lack of suitable features and the limitations of existing position encodings in capturing the unique and intricate characteristics of forest point clouds. In this work, we propose an innovative approach that integrates Local Surface Features (LSF) and a Position Encoding (PosE) module within the Point Transformer (PT) network to address these challenges. We began by preprocessing point clouds and applying a machine vision technique, supplemented by manual correction, to create wood–leaf-separated datasets of forest point clouds for training. Next, we introduced Point Feature Histogram (PFH) to construct LSF for each point network input, while utilizing Fast PFH (FPFH) to enhance computational efficiency. Subsequently, we designed a PosE module within PT, leveraging trigonometric dimensionality expansion and Random Fourier Feature-based Transformation (RFFT) for nuanced feature analysis. This design significantly enhances the representational richness and precision of forest point clouds. Afterward, the segmented branch point cloud was used to model tree skeletons automatically, while the leaves were incorporated to complete the digital twin. Our enhanced network, tested on three different types of forests, achieved up to 96.23% in accuracy and 91.51% in mean intersection over union (mIoU) in wood–leaf separation, outperforming the original PT by approximately 5%. This study not only expands the limits of forest point cloud research but also demonstrates significant improvements in the reconstruction results, particularly in capturing the intricate structures of twigs, which paves the way for more accurate forest resource surveys and advanced digital twin construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Parameter Detection and Modeling Using Remote Sensing Data)
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13 pages, 7018 KiB  
Article
Image Classification of Tree Species in Relatives Based on Dual-Branch Vision Transformer
by Qi Wang, Yanqi Dong, Nuo Xu, Fu Xu, Chao Mou and Feixiang Chen
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2243; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122243 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 438
Abstract
Tree species in relatives refer to species belonging to the same genus with high morphological similarity and small botanical differences, making it difficult to perform classification and usually requiring manual identification by experts. To reduce labor costs and achieve accurate species identification, we [...] Read more.
Tree species in relatives refer to species belonging to the same genus with high morphological similarity and small botanical differences, making it difficult to perform classification and usually requiring manual identification by experts. To reduce labor costs and achieve accurate species identification, we conducted research on the image classification of tree species in relatives based on deep learning and proposed a dual-branch feature fusion Vision Transformer model. This model is designed with a dual-branch architecture and two effective blocks, a Residual Cross-Attention Transformer Block and a Multi-level Feature Fusion method, to enhance the influence of shallow network features on the final classification and enable the model to capture both overall image information and detailed features. Finally, we conducted ablation studies and comparative experiments to validate the effectiveness of the model, achieving an accuracy of 90% on the tree relatives dataset. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications in Forestry—Second Edition)
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22 pages, 1798 KiB  
Review
Accounting for Land-Use Changes in Environmental Impact Assessments of Wood Products: A Review
by Charis Anaïs Kanellos, Miguel Riviere, Thierry Brunelle and David W. Shanafelt
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2242; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122242 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 515
Abstract
Environmental policy and the expansion of the bioeconomy sector has led to increased demand for wood and wood products, pressuring forests. In order to meet additional demand, foresters must either intensify forest management practices or alter forest area. One of the more observable [...] Read more.
Environmental policy and the expansion of the bioeconomy sector has led to increased demand for wood and wood products, pressuring forests. In order to meet additional demand, foresters must either intensify forest management practices or alter forest area. One of the more observable shifts in forest management comes in the form of changes in land use or land cover. Yet despite the many short- and long-term consequences of land-use change, the environmental impacts of it are less explored in forestry than in agriculture. In this paper, we conduct a literature review over the period between 1993 and 2022 to better understand how the notions of land-use and land-cover change are included in environmental impact assessments related to the production of wood and wood products. Specifically, we identified five categories of impacts studied and found a surprising dichotomy in terminology between land-use/land-cover change and changes in forest management practices. We present general trends in the methods and indicators used and discuss potential methodological and conceptual challenges inherent to this literature. Our results are particularly important in light of the growing popularity of land-use and land-cover data in research, as we highlight how they have been integrated into existing environmental impact assessment methods and how we can improve them going into the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Dynamics under Climate and Land Use Change)
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16 pages, 4410 KiB  
Article
Effects of Ecological Restoration Measures on Growth Renewal and Nutritional Quality of Arundinaria faberi in Degraded Habitat of Giant Panda
by Weirui Qin, Jingyi Liu, Han Pan, Yong Cheng, Xinqiang Song, Mingxia Fu, Yuanbin Zhang, Xiaofeng Luan and Biao Yang
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2241; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122241 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 489
Abstract
Restoring the degraded habitat of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is of paramount importance for the conservation of the species and its forest ecosystem. However, little is known about the impact of ecological restoration interventions on the growth renewal and nutritional [...] Read more.
Restoring the degraded habitat of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is of paramount importance for the conservation of the species and its forest ecosystem. However, little is known about the impact of ecological restoration interventions on the growth renewal and nutritional quality of Arundinaria faberi in the degraded habitat of the giant panda. Here, we implemented strip thinning and blocky thinning techniques in the Daxiangling mountain range, alongside a control group. A random forest model and multiple linear regression analysis were employed to predict changes in the growth renewal and nutritional quality of bamboo, particularly in the strip-thinned zones. The key findings were as follows: (1) Compared with the control area, strip thinning increased the number of shoots and increased the diameter and height of shoots. (2) The random forest model predicted a decline in bamboo regeneration indices in 2023 compared to 2022 under strip thinning. (3) Through thinning, the palatability and nutritional level of A. faberi were improved. (4) Long-term effects included increased tannin in leaves, decreased tannin and amino acids in shoots and culms, and increased crude fat, with changes in crude protein distribution across bamboo parts. Overall, these findings provide valuable insights for habitat restoration efforts targeting giant panda populations in the low-canopy forest ecosystems of the Daxiangling mountain range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)
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13 pages, 4281 KiB  
Article
Wind-Induced Variations in Phenology Regulate Carbon Fluxes in Two Warm-Temperate Plantation Forests
by Yue Liu, Menglin Su, Jiaxin Jin, Honghua Ruan, Jianhui Xue, Yin Sun, Shuiqiang Yu and Weifeng Wang
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2240; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122240 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 393
Abstract
Forest phenology directly reacts to global climate change, potentially regulating greenhouse gas fluxes between ecosystems and the atmosphere. To explore this phenomenon in two plain poplar (Populus spp.) forests in eastern China, we measured CO2 fluxes and phenology at the canopy [...] Read more.
Forest phenology directly reacts to global climate change, potentially regulating greenhouse gas fluxes between ecosystems and the atmosphere. To explore this phenomenon in two plain poplar (Populus spp.) forests in eastern China, we measured CO2 fluxes and phenology at the canopy scale based on the eddy covariance and PhenoCam technology. From 2019 to 2022, poplars in a high-speed wind site (HWS) experienced shorter maturity durations (108 ± 4.9 days vs. 152 ± 1.2 days) and an earlier date of foliar senescence (day of year: 223.8 ± 2.5 vs. 259.5 ± 0.9) than those in the low-speed wind site (LWS). The annual net CO2 uptake in the HWS (689.65 ± 105.15 g C·m−2·year−1) was approximately 2.4 times higher than that in the LWS (285.65 ± 81.37 g C·m−2·year−1). Our results indicate that environmental changes like wind stress alter forest phenology that can dynamically regulate ecosystem respiration and gross primary production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
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15 pages, 3307 KiB  
Article
Common Species in the Subtropical Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forest: Dominance in Adaptation Mechanisms and Resource Utilization Capabilities
by Huan He, Haibao Ren, Guijing Li, Yali Ding, Xinliang Wu, Lina Wang, Ansa Rebi and Shuyu He
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2239; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122239 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 567
Abstract
When species of different abundance coexist, their ecological strategies remain uncertain. Assessing the functional diversity and niche characteristics of species with different levels of abundance contributes to understanding vegetation properties and is essential for species conservation. Based on the species abundance of 380 [...] Read more.
When species of different abundance coexist, their ecological strategies remain uncertain. Assessing the functional diversity and niche characteristics of species with different levels of abundance contributes to understanding vegetation properties and is essential for species conservation. Based on the species abundance of 380 plots in the Gutianshan subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest in the Zhejiang Province of China, woody plants were categorized as common species (86 species), occasional species (87 species), and rare species (79 species). Plant functional traits, including maximum height, seed dispersal modes, first flowering stage, flowering duration, and fruit length, were used to assess the functional diversity of the community of common, occasional, and rare species, while 15 environmental factors were used to evaluate their Levins’ niche breadth and Pianka’s niche overlap. The results showed that rare species have the highest functional evenness, while functional dispersion and Rao’s quadratic entropy were higher for common species (2.05 and 5.07, respectively) compared to occasional species (1.57 and 3.10) and rare species (1.35 and 2.48). Furthermore, the 15-dimensional mean value of niche breadth of common species (ranging from 0.277 to 0.955) was also higher than that of occasional (ranging from 0.193 to 0.710) and rare species (ranging from 0.100 to 0.345), and the same trend was also observed in niche overlap. The results suggest that common species have diverse functional traits and a greater ability to adapt to the environment and use resources, whereas occasional species have a limited ability to use the environment. Rare species are evenly distributed within functional space to reduce direct competition with other species, but they thrive only under specific environmental conditions, mainly following a K reproductive strategy. Niche differentiation mechanisms are important determinants of species coexistence in subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests. In summary, more attention and greater efforts should be paid to the conservation of rare species. Our findings could help forest managers in the restoration and conservation of subtropical forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity in Forests: Management, Monitoring for Conservation)
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17 pages, 2473 KiB  
Article
The Combined Effects of Salt and Nitrogen Addition on the Chlorophyll Fluorescence, Antioxidant System, and Leaf Stoichiometry of Torreya grandis Sexes
by Yang Liu, Danyang Chen, Haochen Zhang and Songheng Jin
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2238; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122238 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 409
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that there are significant sexual differences in the physiological responses of Torreya grandis to environmental stress. However, little is known about its sex-specific differences in response to salt stress against the background of nitrogen (N) deposition. In this experiment, [...] Read more.
Previous studies have shown that there are significant sexual differences in the physiological responses of Torreya grandis to environmental stress. However, little is known about its sex-specific differences in response to salt stress against the background of nitrogen (N) deposition. In this experiment, two-year-old male and female T. grandis seedlings were used as experimental materials and exposed to moderate salt conditions and different N levels to study the effects of nitrogen addition and salt stress on the chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, antioxidant system, and leaf stoichiometry of T. grandis seedlings. With the increase in nitrogen content, the contents of proline, malondialdehyde, superoxide anion, and H2O2 in the leaves of T. grandis seedlings under salt conditions gradually increased. The contents of these four metabolites in the leaves of male T. grandis seedlings were almost all higher than those of the female ones. Compared with the control group, the contents of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants increased under N addition treatments, especially for the low and moderate N addition groups. The results showed that moderate concentrations of N addition can mitigate the damage caused by salt, while high concentrations of nitrogen do not. Under conditions of salt and nitrogen addition, female T. grandis seedlings outperformed male ones, as evidenced by their higher photosynthetic pigment content, enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity, reduced accumulation of intracellular cytotoxic metabolites, and higher carbon and nitrogen content in their leaves compared to those of male seedlings. The findings of this research will contribute to our understanding and offer a theoretical foundation for the cultivation of T. grandis seedlings in environments with nitrogen deposition and salinization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Plant Physiological and Ecological Responses to Environmental Stress)
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19 pages, 1645 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Forest Utilization and Quality of Life: An Integrated Approach to Promoting Forest Activities
by Seo-hyo Lee, Soojin Kim and Jeonghee Lee
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2237; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122237 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 466
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of forest-activity diversity on life satisfaction using data from the 2023 Forest Recreation and Welfare Activities Survey conducted by the Korea Forest Service. Forest-activity diversity was categorized into two dimensions: experience diversity (combining forest recreation and welfare-activity experiences) [...] Read more.
This study investigates the impact of forest-activity diversity on life satisfaction using data from the 2023 Forest Recreation and Welfare Activities Survey conducted by the Korea Forest Service. Forest-activity diversity was categorized into two dimensions: experience diversity (combining forest recreation and welfare-activity experiences) and utilization diversity (the use of forest recreation and welfare facilities and programs). Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that greater diversity in forest activities and utilization significantly enhances life satisfaction. However, participants who engaged in both forest recreation and welfare activities or utilized both facilities and programs reported comparatively lower life satisfaction. The findings indicate that while activity and utilization diversity are critical in improving life satisfaction, the benefits may plateau with excessive participation. The effects of leisure activities also vary based on individual factors such as age, gender, and life context, underscoring the importance of tailored forest welfare programs. Balanced and meaningful engagement in diverse activities is essential for maximizing well-being. While forest activities generally enhance life satisfaction, programs must be inclusive and flexible to address diverse user needs. Future research should incorporate objective measures and longitudinal designs to better evaluate the long-term effects of forest welfare activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Bathing and Forests for Public Health—Series II)
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24 pages, 2119 KiB  
Article
Reframing Forest Harvest Scheduling Models for Ecosystem Services Management
by Silvana Ribeiro Nobre, Marc Eric McDill, Luiz Carlos Estraviz Rodriguez and Luis Diaz-Balteiro
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2236; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122236 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 471
Abstract
Linear programming models have been used in forest management planning since the 1960s. These models have been formulated in three basic ways: Models I, II, and III, which are defined by the sequences of management unit states represented by the variables. In Model [...] Read more.
Linear programming models have been used in forest management planning since the 1960s. These models have been formulated in three basic ways: Models I, II, and III, which are defined by the sequences of management unit states represented by the variables. In Model I, variables represent sequences of states from the beginning of the planning horizon to the end. In Model II, variables represent sequences of states from one intervention to the next. Finally, in Model III, variables represent a single arc in a management unit’s decision tree, i.e., two states. The objectives of this paper are to clarify the definitions of these model variations and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each model. This second objective is to test the hypothesis that the relative performance of these models varies with the increasing number of ecosystem services (ES) incorporated into the models. This objective was achieved by formulating a case study problem using each model type. The case study includes three increasingly complex scenarios, each incorporating additional ecosystem services. Results show that despite having more variables and constraints, Model III requires the least time to formulate due to its less dense parameter matrix. Model II has the shortest solution times, followed closely by Model III, while Model I requires the longest times for both formulation and solution. These results are increasingly apparent in more complex scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiple-Use and Ecosystem Services of Forests—2nd Edition)
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24 pages, 3635 KiB  
Article
Effects of Different Landscape Greening Pest Control Modes on Carbon Storage and Soil Physicochemical Properties
by Laixian Xu, Chao Wang, Youjun He and Yating He
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2235; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122235 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 483
Abstract
Understanding the effects of landscape greening pest control modes (LGPCMs) on carbon storage and soil physicochemical properties is crucial for promoting the sustainable development of urban landscape greening. Climate change and green development have led to increased landscape pest occurrences. However, the impacts [...] Read more.
Understanding the effects of landscape greening pest control modes (LGPCMs) on carbon storage and soil physicochemical properties is crucial for promoting the sustainable development of urban landscape greening. Climate change and green development have led to increased landscape pest occurrences. However, the impacts of different LGPCMs on carbon storage and soil properties remain unclear. We examined six typical LGPCMs employed in Beijing, China: chemical control (HXFZ), enclosure (WH), light trapping (DGYS), biological agent application (SWYJ), natural enemy release (SFTD), and trap hanging (XGYBQ). Field surveys and laboratory experiments were conducted to analyze their effects on carbon storage and soil physicochemical properties, and their interrelationships. The main results were as follows: (1) Different LGPCMs significantly affected carbon storage in the tree and soil layers (p < 0.05), but not in the shrub and herb layers (p > 0.05). Carbon storage composition across all modes followed the following order: tree layer (64.19%–93.52%) > soil layer > shrub layer > herb layer. HXFZ exhibited the highest tree layer carbon storage (95.82 t/hm2) but the lowest soil layer carbon storage (6.48 t/hm2), while DGYS performed best in the soil, herb, and shrub layers. (2) LGPCMs significantly influenced soil bulk density (SBD), clay (SC), silt particle (SSP), sand (SS), pH, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), and heavy metal content (lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg)). WH had the highest TN (1.37 g/kg), TP (0.84 g/kg), SC (10.71%) and SSP (42.14%); HXFZ had the highest Cd (8.98 mg/kg), but lowest OC and Pb. DGYS had the highest OC and Hg, and the lowest Cd, SC, and TP. Under different LGPCMs, the heavy metal content in soil ranked as follows: Pb > Cd > Hg. (3) There were significant differences in the relationship between carbon storage and soil physicochemical properties under different LGPCMs. A significant positive correlation was observed between the soil layer carbon storage, TN, and OC, while significant negative correlations were noted between SS and SC as well as SSP. Under SFTD, the tree layer carbon storage showed a negative correlation with Cd, while under DGYS, it correlated negatively with pH and Hg. In summary, While HXFZ increased the short-term tree layer carbon storage, it reduced carbon storage in the other layers and damaged soil structure. Conversely, WH and DGYS better supported carbon sequestration and soil protection, offering more sustainable control strategies. We recommend developing integrated pest management focusing on green control methods, optimizing tree species selection, and enhancing plant and soil conservation management. These research results can provide scientific guidance for collaborative implementation of pest control and carbon sequestration in sustainable landscaping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)
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