General Physics 2 Electrostatics Hazeem Sakeek

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com
ii

LECTURES IN
GENERAL PHYSICS

Part Two

Principles and Applications

Dr . Hazem Fal ah Sakeek
Associated Professor of Physics
Al-Azhar University Gaza

March 2001
Dr. Hazem Falah Sakeek
iii

Lecture in General Physics
First Edition, 2001.
All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
publisher.

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vi
Contents

Chapter (1) Electrostatic
1.1 Understanding Static Electricity 5
1.2 Properties of electrostatic 9
1.2.1 Electric charge 9
1.2.2 Conductor and insulator 9
1.2.3 Positive and negative charge 10
1.2.4 Charge is conserved 11
1.2.5 Charge and matter 11
1.2.6 Charge is Quantized 12

Chapter (2) Coulombs law
2.1 Coulombs Law 16
2.2 Calculation of the electric force 17
2.2.1 Electric force between two electric charges 17
2.2.2 Electric force between more than two electric charges 18
2.3 Problems 27

Chapter (3) Electric field
3.1 The Electric Field 32
3.2 Definition of the electric field 32
3.3 The direction of E
33
3.4 Calculating E
due to a charged particle 33

3.5 To find E
for a group of point charge 34

3.6 Electric field lines 38
3.7 Motion of charge particles in a uniform electric field 39
3.8 Solution of some selected problems 40
3.9 The electric dipole in electric field 48
3.10 Problems 49
vii

Chapter (4) Electric Flux
4.1 The Electric Flux due to an Electric Field 54
4.2 The Electric Flux due to a point charge 57
4.3 Gaussian surface 57
4.4 Gausss Law 58
4.5 Gausss law and Coulombs law 59
4.6 Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium 60
4.7 Applications of Gausss law 62
4.9 Problems 76

Chapter (5) Electric Potential
5.1 Definition of electric potential difference 84
5.2 The Equipotential surfaces 85
5.3 Electric Potential and Electric Field 86
5.4 Potential difference due to a point charge 90
5.5 The potential due to a point charge 91
5.6 The potential due to a point charge 92
5.7 Electric Potential Energy 95
5.8 Calculation of E from V 97
5.10 Problems 107

Multiple Choice Questions 110

Chapter (6) Capacitors
6.1 Capacitor 125
6.2 Definition of capacitance 125
6.3 Calculation of capacitance 126
6.3.1 Parallel plate capacitor 126
6.3.2 Cylindrical capacitor 128
6.3.3 Spherical Capacitor 128
6.4 Combination of capacitors 129
6.4.1 Capacitors in parallel 129
6.4.2 Capacitors in series 130
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4.5 Energy stored in a charged capacitor (in electric field) 135
6.6 Capacitor with dielectric 145
6.7 Problems 149

Chapter (7) Current and Resistance
7.1 Current and current density 156
7.2 Definition of current in terms of the drift velocity 157
7.3 Definition of the current density 157
7.4 Resistance and resistivity (Ohms Law) 159
7.5 Evaluation of the resistance of a conductor 160
7.6 Electrical Energy and Power 163
7.7 Combination of Resistors 165
7.7.1 Resistors in Series 165
7.7.2 Resistors in Parallel 166
7.9 Problems 177

Chapter (8) Direct Current Circuits
8.1 Electromotive Force 182
8.2 Finding the current in a simple circuit 183
8.3 Kirchhoffs Rules 187
8.4 Single-Loop Circuit 190
8.5 Multi-Loop Circuit 195
8.6 RC Circuit 205
8.6.1 Charging a capacitor 205
8.6.2 Discharging a capacitor 207
8.7 Electrical Instruments 213
8.7.1 Ammeter and Voltmeter 213
8.7.2 The Wheatstone Bridge 214
8.7.3 The potentiometer 215
8.7 Problems 216

Multiple Choice Questions 220

ix
Appendices

Appendix (A): Some practical application of electrostatic 230
Understanding the Van de Graaff generator 231
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 234
XEROGRAPHY (Photocopier) 236
Battery 238

Appendix (B): Answer of Some Selected Problems 243
Appendix (C): The international system of units (SI) 246
Appendix (D): Physics Resources on the Web 254
Appendix (E): Bibliography 260
Appendix (F): Index 262

Introduction to Electrostatics
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Principle of Electrostatic
Part 1

Lectures in General Physics

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Introduction to Electrostatic

1.1 Understanding Static Electricity
1.2 Properties of electrostatic
1.2.1 Electric charge
1.2.2 Conductor and insulator
1.2.3 Positive and negative charge
1.2.4 Charge is conserved
1.2.5 Charge and matter
1.2.6 Charge is Quantized

Introduction to Electrostatic

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We have all seen the strange device, known as a
Van De Graaff Generator, that makes your hair
stand on end. The device looks like a big
aluminum ball mounted on a pedestal, and has
the effect pictured on the right. Have you ever
wondered what this device is, how it works, why
it was invented, Surely it wasn't invented to make
children's hair stand on end... Or have you ever
shuffled your feet across the carpet on a dry
winter day and gotten the shock of your life when
you touched something metal? Have you ever
wondered about static electricity and static cling?
If any of these questions have ever crossed your
mind, then here we will be amazingly interesting
as we discuss Van de Graaff generators and static
electricity in general.

1.1 Understanding Static Electricity
To understand the Van de Graaff generator and how it works, you need to
understand static electricity. Almost all of us are familiar with static
electricity because we can see and feel it in the winter. On dry winter days,
static electricity can build up in our bodies and cause a spark to jump from
our bodies to pieces of metal or other people's bodies. We can see, feel and
hear the sound of the spark when it jumps.
In science class you may have also done some experiments with static
electricity. For example, if you rub a glass rod with a silk cloth or if you rub
a piece of amber with wool, the glass and amber will develop a static charge
that can attract small bits of paper or plastic.
To understand what is happening when your body or a glass rod develops a
static charge, you need to think about the atoms that make up everything we
can see. All matter is made up of atoms, which are themselves made up of
charged particles. Atoms have a nucleus consisting of neutrons and protons.
They also have a surrounding "shell" which is made up electrons. Typically
matter is neutrally charged, meaning that the number of electrons and
protons are the same. If an atom has more electrons than protons, it is
negatively charged. Likewise, if it has more protons than electrons, it is
positively charged. Some atoms hold on to their electrons more tightly than
others do. How strongly matter holds on to its electrons determines its place
in the Triboelectric Series. If a material is more apt to give up electrons
when in contact with another material, it is more positive on the
Triboelectric Series. If a material is more to "capture" electrons when in
contact with another material, it is more negative on the Triboelectric
Series.
The following table shows you the Triboelectric Series for many materials
you find around the house. Positive items in the series are at the top, and
negative items are at the bottom:
Human Hands (usually too moist though) (very positive)
Rabbit Fur
Glass
Human Hair
Nylon
Wool
Fur
Lead
Silk
Aluminum
Paper
Cotton
Steel (neutral)
Wood
Amber
Hard Rubber
Nickel, Copper
Brass, Silver
Gold, Platinum
Polyester
Styrene (Styrofoam)
Saran Wrap
Polyurethane
Polyethylene (like scotch tape)
Polypropylene
Vinyl (PVC)
Silicon
Teflon (very negative)

The relative position of two substances in the Triboelectric series tells you
how they will act when brought into contact. Glass rubbed by silk causes a
charge separation because they are several positions apart in the table. The
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same applies for amber and wool. The farther the separation in the table, the
greater the effect.
When two non-conducting materials come into contact with each other, a
chemical bond, known as adhesion, is formed between the two materials.
Depending on the triboelectric properties of the materials, one material may
"capture" some of the electrons from the other material. If the two materials
are now separated from each other, a charge imbalance will occur. The
material that captured the electron is now negatively charged and the
material that lost an electron is now positively charged. This charge
imbalance is where "static electricity" comes from. The term "static"
electricity is deceptive, because it implies "no motion", when in reality it is
very common and necessary for charge imbalances to flow. The spark you
feel when you touch a doorknob is an example of such flow.
You may wonder why you don't
see sparks every time you lift a
piece of paper from your desk.
The amount of charge is
dependent on the materials
involved and the amount of
surface area that is connecting
them. Many surfaces, when
viewed with a magnifying device,
appear rough or jagged. If these
surfaces were flattened to allow
for more surface contact to occur,
the charge (voltage) would most definitely increase. Another important
factor in electrostatics is humidity. If it is very humid, the charge imbalance
will not remain for a useful amount of time. Remember that humidity is the
measure of moisture in the air. If the humidity is high, the moisture coats the
surface of the material providing a low-resistance path for electron flow.
This path allows the charges to "recombine" and thus neutralize the charge
imbalance. Likewise, if it is very dry, a charge can build up to extraordinary
levels, up to tens of thousands of volts!
Think about the shock you get on a dry winter day. Depending on the type
of sole your shoes have and the material of the floor you walk on, you can
build up enough voltage to cause the charge to jump to the doorknob, thus
leaving you neutral. You may remember the old "Static Cling" commercial.
Clothes in the dryer build up an electrostatic charge. The dryer provides a
low moisture environment that rotates, allowing the clothes to continually
contact and separate from each other. The charge can easily be high enough
to cause the material to attract and "stick" to oppositely charged surfaces
(your body or other clothes in this case). One method you could use to
remove the "static" would be to lightly mist the clothes with some water.
Here again, the water allows the charge to leak away, thus leaving the
material neutral.
It should be noted that when dirt is in the air, the air will break down much
more easily in an electric field. This means that the dirt allows the air to
become ionized more easily. Ionized air is
actually air that has been stripped of its
electrons. When this occurs, it is said to be
plasma, which is a pretty good conductor.
Generally speaking, adding impurities to air
improves its conductivity. You should now
realize that having impurities in the air has
the same effect as having moisture in the air.
Neither condition is at all desirable for
electrostatics. The presence of these
impurities in the air, usually means that they
are also on the materials you are using. The
air conditions are a good gauge for your
material conditions, the materials will generally break down like air, only
much sooner.
[Note: Do not make the mistake of thinking that electrostatic charges are
caused by friction. Many assume this to be true. Rubbing a balloon on your
head or dragging your feet on the carpet will build up a charge.
Electrostatics and friction are related in that they both are products of
adhesion as discussed above. Rubbing materials together can increase the
electrostatic charge because more surface area is being contacted, but
friction itself has nothing to do with the electrostatic charge]

For further information see appendix A (Understanding the Van de Graaff
generator)

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1.2 Properties of electrostatic
1.2.1 Electric charge
If a rod of ebonite is rubbed with fur, or a fountain pen with a coat-sleeve, it
gains the power to attract light bodies, such as pieces of paper or tin foil.
The discovery that a body could be made attractive by rubbing is attributed
to Thales (640-548 B.C). He seems to have been led to it through the
Greeks practice of spinning silk with an amber spindle; the rubbing of the
spindle cause the silk to be attracted to it. The Greek world of amber is
electron, and a body made attractive by rubbing is said to be electrified or
charged. The branch of electricity is called Electrostatics.

1.2.2 Conductor and insulator
Thales 16
Gilbert
.
100 ) 1700 (
.

.
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors .
Conductor
Conduction
Band
Valence
Band
Empty
E
g
Filled
Empty
Insulator
Empty
E
g
Filled
Semiconductor
Empty
E
g
Filled

Figure 1.1


.
1.1 solid
Energy level . Energy Bands
.
Valence Band Conduction Band
E
g
.Energy Gap

E
g
Energy Gap .
semiconductor

Absorbing thermal energy .

1.2.3 Positive and negative charge
.
.

Repel .
Attract .

Like charge repel one another and unlike charges attract one another as
shown in figure 1.1 where a suspended rubber rod is negatively charged is
attracted to the glass rod. But another negatively charged rubber rod will
repel the suspended rubber rod.

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Rubber
Rubber
Glass
Rubber

Figure 1.2
Unlike charges attract one another and like charge repel one another

Franklin Negative
.

1.2.4 Charge is conserved
Normal .
) (

.
Conservation of electric charge .

1.2.5 Charge and Matter

.
,
Atom .

.
) 1 ( :

Mass Charge Symbol Particle
1.6710
-27
K 1.610
-19
C
p Proton
1.6710
-27
K 0 n Neutron
1.6710
-31
K -1.610
-19
C
e Electron

Table 1.1

.
.

1.2.6 Charge is Quantized
Franklin's
.

1.6x10
-19
c .
.
.

Coulombs Law
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Coulombs law

2.1 Coulombs Law
2.2 Calculation of the electric force

2.2.1 Electric force between two electric charges
2.2.2 Electric force between more than two electric charges
2.3 Problems

Coulombs Law
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Coulombs law

:
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.

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2.1 Coulombs Law
In 1785, Coulomb established the fundamental law of
electric force between two stationary, charged
particles. Experiments show that an electric force has
the following properties:

(1) The force is inversely proportional to the square
of separation, r
2
, between the two charged particles.
2
1
r
F (2.1)
(2) The force is proportional to the product of charge
q
1
and the charge q
2
on the particles.
2 1
q q F (2.2) Figure 2.1

(3) The force is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign and repulsive
if the charges have the same sign.
We can conclude that
2
2 1
r
q q
F
2
2 1
r
q q
K F = (2.3)
where K is the coulomb constant =9 10
9
N.m
2
/C
2
.
The above equation is called Coulombs law, which is used to calculate the
force between electric charges. In that equation F is measured in Newton
(N), q is measured in unit of coulomb (C) and r in meter (m).
The constant K can be written as
4
1
= K
where
is known as the Permittivity constant of free space.
=8.85 10
-12
C
2
/N.m
2
2 2 9
12
/ . 10 9
10 85 . 8 4
1
4
1
C m N K =

= =

Coulombs Law
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2.2 Calculation of the electric force

q
1

: -

2.2.1 Electric force between two electric charges
.
Figure 2.2(a)
Repulsive force .
+ +
q
1
q
2
F
12
F
21

- +
q
1
q
2
F
12
F
21

Figure 2.2(a) Figure 2.2(b)

q
1
q
2 .

q
1
q
2
F
12
q
2
.
:
21
2
2 1
12
F
r
q q
K F = =

21 12
F F
r r
=

.

Figure 2.2(b)
Attractive force .
.
21 12
F F
r r
=
.
Example 2.1
Calculate the value of two equal charges if they repel one another with
a force of 0.1N when situated 50cm apart in a vacuum.
Solution
2
2 1
r
q q
K F =
Since q
1
=q
2

2
2 9
) 5 . 0 (
10 9
1 . 0
q
=
q =1.7x10
-6
C =1.7C
0.1N .

2.2.2 Electric force between more than two electric charges

The resultant electric forces
q
1
Figure 2.3
F
1

q
1

15 14 13 12 1
F F F F F
r r r r r
+ + + = (2.4)

F
1
: -
1 ( q
1

q
1
.
2 ( q
1
&q
2
. q
1

q
2
F
12
q
1
+
-
+
+
+
q
1
q
3
q
2
q
4
q
5
F
14
F
15
F
12
F
13
Figure 2.3
Coulombs Law
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q
2
. q
1
&q
3

F
13
F
14
.
3 ( q
2
& q
3
& q
4

q
1
.
4 ( : -
2
2 1
12
r
q q
K F =
2
3 1
13
r
q q
K F =
2
4 1
14
r
q q
K F =
5 ( F
1

F
1x
=F
12x
+F
13x
+F
14x

F
1y
=F
12y
+F
13y
+F
14y

2 2
1 ) ( ) ( y x F F F + =
(2.5)

x
y
F
F
1
tan
= (2.6)

.


Example 2.2
In figure 2.4, two equal positive charges q=2x10
-6
C interact with a third
charge Q=4x10
-6
C. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force on Q.

Figure 2.4
Solution
Q
Q . q
1
&q
2

Q
2
2
6 6
9
2
1
29 . 0
) 5 . 0 (
) 10 2 )( 10 4 (
10 9
Qq Qq
F N
r
qQ
K F = =

= =

:
N F F
N F F
y
x
17 . 0
5 . 0
3 . 0
29 . 0 sin
23 . 0
5 . 0
4 . 0
29 . 0 cos
=
= =
=
= =

q
2
Q F
Qq2

y .
q
2

q
1

Q
0.3m
0.3m
0.4m
0.5m
0.5m
F
y
F
Qq2

F
Qq1

F
y
F
x
Coulombs Law
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=
= =
0
46 . 0 23 . 0 2
y
x
F
N F

0.46N x .

Example 2.3
In figure 2.5 what is the resultant force on the charge in the lower left
corner of the square? Assume that q=110
-7
C and a = 5cm
q
- q
- 2 q
2 q
1
2
3
4
F
12
F
13
F
14

Figure 2.5
Solution
For simplicity we number the charges as shown in figure 2.5, then we
determine the direction of the electric forces acted on the charge in the
lower left corner of the square q
1
14 13 12 1
F F F F
r r r r
+ + =
2
12
2
a
qq
K F =
2
13
2
2
a
qq
K F =
2
14
2 2
a
q q
K F =
.
:
F
12
=0.072 N,
F
13
=0.036 N,
F
14
=0.144 N

x,y
F
13
F
13x
=F
13
sin 45 =0.025 N &
F
13y
=F
13
cos 45 =0.025 N

F
x
=F
13x
+F
14
=0.025 +0.144 =0.169 N
F
y
=F
13y
- F
12
=0.025 - 0.072 =-0.047 N
y .

The resultant force equals
2 2
1
) ( ) (
y x
F F F + =
= 0.175 N

The direction with respect to the x-axis
equals
x
y
F
F
1
tan
= = -15.5

q
- q
- 2 q
2 q
1
2 3
4
F
y
F
x
F

Coulombs Law
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Example 2.4
A charge Q is fixed at each of two opposite corners of a square as shown
in figure 2.6. A charge q is placed at each of the other two corners. (a)
If the resultant electrical force on Q is Zero, how are Q and q related.
Q
- q
Q
- q
1
2
3 4
F
12
F
13
F
14
a
a

Figure 2.6
Solution
Q
Q ) 1 (
) 2 ( ) 4 ( Q ) 1 ( ) 3 (
) 1 .(

) 2.6 .( F
13

F
x
=0 F
12
- F
13x
=0
then
F
12
=F
13
cos 45
Q - q
Q
- q
1
2
3 4
F
12
F
13
sinO
F
14
a
a
F
13
cosO

2
1
2
2 2
a
QQ
K
a
Qq
K = q =
2 2
Q

F
y
=0 F
13y
- F
14
=0
F
13
sin 45 =F
14

2 2
2
1
2 a
Qq
K
a
QQ
K = q =
2 2
Q

Q q Q
q Q
Q =- 2 2 q

Q =2 2 q
Coulombs Law
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Example 2.5
Two fixed charges, 1C and -3C are separated by 10cm as shown in
figure 2.7 (a) where may a third charge be located so that no force acts
on it? (b) is the equilibrium stable or unstable for the third charge?
Figure 2.7
Solution

equilibrium ) .
.(
.
. q
3

.

F
31
=F
32

2
32
2 3
2
31
1 3
r
q q
k
r
q q
k =
2
6
2
6
) 10 (
10 3 10 1
+

d d

d
(b) This equilibrium is unstable!! Why!!

F
32

F
31

3
2
1
d
10cm
Example 2.6
Two charges are located on the positive x-axis of a coordinate system,
as shown in figure 2.8. Charge q
1
=2nC is 2cm from the origin, and
charge q
2
=-3nC is 4cm from the origin. What is the total force exerted
by these two charges on a charge q
3
=5nC located at the origin?

Figure 2.8
Solution
The total force on q
3
is the vector sum of the forces due to q
1
and q
2

individually.

N F
4
2
9 9 9
1 3
10 25 . 2
) 02 . 0 (
) 10 5 )( 10 2 )( 10 9 (

=

=

N F
4
2
9 9 9
32
10 84 . 0
) 04 . 0 (
) 10 5 )( 10 3 )( 10 9 (

=

=

q
1
q
3
F
31

q
2
q
3
F
32
.
F
3
:

N F
F F F
4 4 4
3
32 31 3
10 41 . 1 10 25 . 2 10 84 . 0

= =
+ =

The total force is directed to the left, with magnitude 1.41x10
-4
N.

2cm
4cm
q
1
q
2
q
3

F
31

F
32

Coulombs Law
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2.3 Problems

2.1) Two protons in a molecule are
separated by a distance of 3.810
-
10
m. Find the electrostatic force
exerted by one proton on the other.
2.2) A 6.7C charge is located 5m
from a -8.4C charge. Find the
electrostatic force exerted by one
on the other.
2.3) Two fixed charges, +1.010
-6
C
and -3.010
6
C, are 10cm apart. (a)
Where may a third charge be
located so that no force acts on it?
(b) Is the equilibrium of this third
charge stable or unstable?
2.4) Each of two small spheres is
charged positively, the combined
charge being 5.010
-5
C. If each
sphere is repelled from the other by
a force of 1.0N when the spheres
are 2.0m apart, how is the total
charge distributed between the
spheres?
2.5) A certain charge Q is to be
divided into two parts, q and Q-q.
What is the relationship of Q to q if
the two parts, placed a given
distance apart, are to have a
maximum Coulomb repulsion?
2.6) A 1.3C charge is located on
the x-axis at x=-0.5m, 3.2C charge
is located on the x-axis at x=1.5m,
and 2.5C charge is located at the
origin. Find the net force on the
2.5C charge.
2.7) A point charge q
1
=-4.3C is
located on the y-axis at y=0.18m, a
charge q
2
=1.6C is located at the
origin, and a charge q
3
=3.7C is
located on the x-axis at x= -0.18m.
Find the resultant force on the
charge q
1
.
2.8) Three point charges of 2C,
7C, and 4C are located at the
corners of an equilateral triangle as
shown in the figure 2.9. Calculate
the net electric force on 7C
charge.
-
+
+
C 7
C 4 C 2
0.5m
60
o

Figure 2.9
2.9) Two free point charges +q and
+4q are a distance 1cm apart. A
third charge is so placed that the
entire system is in equilibrium.
Find the location, magnitude and
sign of the third charge. Is the
equilibrium stable?
2.10) Four point charges are situated
at the corners of a square of sides a
as shown in the figure 2.10. Find
the resultant force on the positive
charge +q.
+q
- q
- q
- q
a
a

Figure 2.10
2.11) Three point charges lie along
the y-axis. A charge q
1
=-9C is at
y=6.0m, and a charge q
2
=-8C is at
y=-4.0m. Where must a third
positive charge, q
3
, be placed such
that the resultant force on it is zero?
2.12) A charge q
1
of +3.4C is
located at x=+2m, y=+2m and a
second charge q
2
=+2.7C is
located at x=-4m, y=-4m. Where
must a third charge (q
3
>0) be
placed such that the resultant force
on q
3
will be zero?
2.13) Two similar conducting balls of
mass m are hung from silk threads
of length l and carry similar
charges q as shown in the figure
2.11. Assume that is so small
that tan can be replaced by sin.
Show that
3 1
2
2

=
mg
l q
x

where x is the separation between
the balls (b) If l=120cm, m=10g
and x=5cm, what is q?
+q +q
x
L L

Figure 2.11


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Electric field

3.1 The Electric Field
3.2 Definition of the electric field
r

3.4 Calculating E
r
due to a charged particle
3.5 To find E
r
for a group of point charge
3.6 Electric field lines
3.7 Motion of charge particles in a uniform electric field
3.8 Solution of some selected problems
3.9 The electric dipole in electric field
3.10 Problems


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3.1 The Electric Field
The gravitational field g at a point in space was defined to be equal to the
gravitational force F acting on a test mass m
o
divided by the test mass
m
F
g
r
r
= (3.1)

In the same manner, an electric field at a point in space can be defined in
term of electric force acting on a test charge q
o
placed at that point.

3.2 Definition of the electric field
The electric field vector E
r
at a point in space is defined as the electric force
F
r
acting on a positive test charge placed at that point divided by the
magnitude of the test charge q
o

q
F
E
r
r
= (3.2)
The electric field has a unit of N/C

E
r
q
o

3.1
q
o
q
o

.

Figure 3.1

q
o
F
q
r

If Q is +ve the electric field at point p in space is radially outward from Q as
shown in figure 3.2(a).
If Q is -ve the electric field at point p in space is radially inward toward Q
as shown in figure 3.2(b).

Figure 3.2 (a) Figure 3.2 (b)

3.2(a)
3.2(b) .

3.4 Calculating E
r
due to a charged particle
Consider Fig. 3.2(a) above, the magnitude of force acting on q
o
is given by
Coulombs law

2
4
1
r
Qq
F

q
F
E =
2
4
1
r
Q
E
= (3.3)

E
r
p
E
r
p
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3.5 To find E for a group of point charge
To find the magnitude and direction of the electric field due to several
charged particles as shown in figure 3.3 use the following steps
) 1 ( .
) 2 (

p p

) 2 .(
) 3 (

.........
4 3 2 1
+ + + + = E E E E E
p
r r r r r
(3.4)

) 4 (
x y
) 5 ( x y .

E
x
= E
1x
+ E
2x
+ E
3x
+E
4x

E
y
= E
1y
+ E
2y
+ E
3y
+E
4y

) 6 ( p
2 2
y x
E E E + =
) 7 (
x
y
E
E
1
tan
=

+
-
+
+
q
4
q
3
q
2
q
1
P
E
1
E
2
E
3
E
4
Figure 3.3
Example 3.1
Find the electric field at point p in figure 3.4 due to the charges shown.

Figure 3.4
Solution
3 2 1
E E E E
p
r r r r
+ + =

E
x
= E
1
- E
2
= -3610
4
N/C
E
y
= E
3
= 28.810
4
N/C

E
p
= (3610
4
)
2
+(28.810
4
)
2
= 46.1N/C
= 141
o

Figure 3.5 Shows the resultant electric field

p
50cm
50cm
50cm
-8C
+12C
+2C
3
2
1
E
3

E
2

E
1

p
46
28.8
36
= 141
o

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Example 3.2
Find the electric field due to electric dipole along x-axis at point p,
which is a distance r from the origin, then assume r>>a
The electric dipole is positive charge and negative charge of equal
magnitude placed a distance 2a apart as shown in figure 3.6
+q
-q
r
E
2
E
1
2
1
2a
P
cos
1
E cos
2
E
sin
1
E
sin
2
E

Figure 3.6

Solution
p E
1
q
1
E
2

q
2

2 1
E E E
p
r r r
+ =
p

2
2 2
1
1
4
1
E
r a
q
E =
+
=

.

E
x
= E
1
sin - E
2
sin
E
y
= E
1
cos + E
2
cos = 2E
1
cos
E
p
= 2E
1
cos
cos
4
1
2 2
r a
q
Ep
+
=
from the Figure
2 2
cos
r a
a
+
=
2 2
2 2
4
1
r a
a
r a
q
Ep
+
+
=

E
p
=
2 / 3
2 2
) ( 4
2
a r
aq
+
(3.5)

The direction of the electric field in the -ve y-axis.

The quantity 2aq is called the electric dipole momentum (P) and has a
direction from the -ve charge to the +ve charge

(b) when r>>a

3
4
2
r
aq
E
= (3.6)

electric dipole
electric dipole momentum
electric dipole
.

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3.6 Electric field lines
The electric lines are a convenient way to visualize the electric filed
patterns. The relation between the electric field lines and the electric
field vector is this:
(1) The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of E
r
at
that point.
(2) The lines of force are drawn so that the number of lines per unit
cross-sectional area is proportional to the magnitude of E
r
.

Some examples of electric line of force

Electric field lines due to +ve
charge
Electric field lines due to -ve
charge

E

Electric field lines due to +ve
line charge
Electric field lines due two
surface charge

Figure 3.7 shows some examples of electric line of force

Notice that the rule of drawing the line of force:-
(1) The lines must begin on positive charges and terminates on negative
charges.
(2) The number of lines drawn is proportional to the magnitude of the
charge.
(3) No two electric field lines can cross.

3.7 Motion of charge particles in a uniform electric field
If we are given a field E
r
, what forces will act on a charge placed in it?
We start with special case of a point charge in uniform electric field E
r
.
The electric field will exert a force on a charged particle is given by
F = qE
The force will produce acceleration
a = F/m
where m is the mass of the particle. Then we can write
F = qE = ma
The acceleration of the particle is therefore given by
a = qE/m (3.7)

If the charge is positive, the acceleration will be in the direction of the
electric field. If the charge is negative, the acceleration will be in the
direction opposite the electric field.

One of the practical applications of this subject is a device called the
(Oscilloscope) See appendix A (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) for further
information.

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Example 3.3
A positive point charge q of mass m is
released from rest in a uniform electric
field E
r
directed along the x-axis as shown
in figure 3.8, describe its motion.

Solution
The acceleration is given by
a = qE/m
Since the motion of the particle in one dimension, then we can apply the
equations of kinematics in one dimension
x-x
o
= v
0
t+ at
2
v = v
0
+ at v
2
=v
o
2
+ 2a(x-x
o
)
Taking x
o
= 0 and v
0
= 0
x = at
2
= (qE/2m) t
2

v = at = (qE/m) t
v
2
=2ax = (2qE/m)x (3.7)

V
V=0
E
X

Figure 3.8
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Example 3.4
In the above example suppose that a negative charged particle is
projected horizontally into the uniform field with an initial velocity v
o

as shown in figure 3.9.
Solution
Since the direction of electric field E
r
in the y direction, and the charge is
negative, then the acceleration of charge is in the direction of -y.
a = -qE/m
The motion of the charge is in two dimension with constant acceleration,
with v
xo
= v
o
& v
yo
= 0
The components of velocity after time t are given by
v
x
= v
o
=constant
v
y
= at = - (qE/m) t
The coordinate of the charge after time t are given by
x = v
o
t
y = at
2
= - 1/2 (qE/m) t
2

Eliminating t we get
2
2
0
2
x
mv
qE
y = (3.8)
we see that y is proportional to x
2
. Hence, the trajectory is parabola.
E
(0,0)
(X,Y)
L
Y
X
V
V
o

Figure 3.9
Example 3.5
Find the electric field due to electric dipole shown in figure 3.10 along
x-axis at point p which is a distance r from the origin. then assume
r>>a

Solution
2 1
E E E
p
r r r
+ =
E
1
= K
2
) ( a x
q
+

E
2
= K
2
) ( a x
q

E
p
= K
2
) ( a x
q
-
2
) ( a x
q
+

E
p
= Kq
2 2 2
) (
4
a x
ax

When x>>a then Figure 3.10

3
4
2
x
aq
E
= (3.9)

x 2a
.

2a
+q
-q
p
x
1

2

E
2

E
1

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Example 3.6
What is the electric field in the lower left corner of the square as shown
in figure 3.11? Assume that q = 110
-7
C and a = 5cm.

Solution
First we assign number to the charges (1, 2, 3, 4) and then determine the
direction of the electric field at the point p due to the charges.
2
1
4
1
a
q
E

=
2
2
2 4
1
a
q
E

=
2
3
2
4
1
a
q
E
=
Evaluate the value of E
1
, E
2
, & E
3
E
1
= 3.610
5
N/C,
E
2
= 1.8 10
5
N/C,
E
3
= 7.2 10
5
N/C
Since the resultant electric field is the vector additions of all the fields i.e.
3 2 1
E E E E
p
r r r r
+ + =
We find the vector E
2
need analysis to two components
E
2x
= E
2
cos45
E
2y
= E
2
sin45
E
x
= E
3
- E
2
cos45 = 7.210
5
- 1.8 10
5
cos45 = 6 10
5
N/C

+q
+q
-2q
P
E
2
E
3
E
1
E
2x
E
2y
1
2
3
Figure 3.11
E
y
= -E
1
- E
2
sin45 = -3.610
5
- 1.8 10
5
sin45 = - 4.8 10
5
N/C
2 2
y x
E E E + = = 7.7 10
5
N/C
x
y
E
E
1
tan
= = - 38.6
o

Example 3.7
In figure 3.12 shown, locate the point at which the electric field is zero?
Assume a = 50cm

Solution
- +
-5q 2q
V S P
d
a+d
a
E
2
E
1
1
2

Figure 3.12

To locate the points at which the electric field is zero (E=0), we shall try all
the possibilities, assume the points S, V, P and find the direction of E
1
and
E
2
at each point due to the charges q
1
and q
2
.

The resultant electric field is zero only when E
1
and E
2
are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction.
At the point S E
1
in the same direction of E
2
therefore E cannot be zero in
between the two charges.

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At the point V the direction of E
1
is opposite to the direction of E
2
, but the
magnitude could not be equal (can you find the reason?)

At the point P the direction of E
1
and E
2
are in opposite to each other and
the magnitude can be equal

E
1
= E
2

2 2
) (
5
4
1
) 5 . 0 (
2
4
1
d
q
d
q

=
+

d = 30cm

.

Example 3.8
A charged cord ball of mass 1g is suspended
on a light string in the presence of a uniform
electric field as in figure 3.13. When
E=(3i+5j) 10
5
N/C, the ball is in equilibrium
at =37
o
. Find (a) the charge on the ball and
(b) the tension in the string.
Solution

.

.
F=ma x y .
E
x
= 310
5
N/C E
y
= 5j10
5
N/C
F = T+qE+F
g
= 0
F
x
= qE
x
T sin 37 = 0 (1)
F
y
= qE
y
+ T cos 37 - mg= 0 (2)
Substitute T from equation (1) into equation (2)
C
E
E
mg
q
x
y
8
5
3
10 09 . 1
10
37 tan
3
5
) 8 . 9 )( 10 1 (
37 tan
+
=
To find the tension we substitute for q in equation (1)
N
qEx
T
3
10 44 . 5
37 sin

= =

q
E
mg
qE
T
q
E
Figure 3.13
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3.9 The electric dipole in electric field
If an electric dipole placed in an external electric field E as shown in figure
3.14, then a torque will act to align it with the direction of the field.

Figure 3.14

E P
r r
r
= (3.10)
= P E sin (3.11)
where P is the electric dipole momentum, the angle between P and E

equilibrium
) = 0 , (

Figure 3.15 (ii) Figure 3.15 (i)
) i ( 3.15 0= dipole
stable equilibrium 0=
) ii ( 3.15 dipole
unstable equilibrium dipole
0= = .

E
P
E
P
qE
-qE
3.10 Problems

3.1) The electric force on a point
charge of 4.0C at some point is
6.910
-4
N in the positive x
direction. What is the value of the
electric field at that point?
3.2) What are the magnitude and
direction of the electric field that
will balance the weight of (a) an
electron and (b) a proton?
(Use the data in Table l.)
3.3) A point charge of -5.2C is
located at the origin. Find the
electric field (a) on the x-axis at
x=3 m, (b) on the y-axis at y= -4m,
(c) at the point with coordinates
x=2m, y=2m.
3.4) What is the magnitude of a
point charge chosen so that the
electric field 50cm away has the
magnitude 2.0N/C?
3.5) Two point charges of
magnitude +2.010
-7
C and
+8.510
-11
C are 12cm apart. (a)
What electric field does each
produce at the site of the other? (b)
What force acts on each?
3.6) An electron and a proton are
each placed at rest in an external
electric field of 520N/C. Calculate
the speed of each particle after
48nanoseconds.
3.7) The electrons in a particle beam
each have a kinetic energy of
1.610
-17
J. What are the magnitude
and direction of the electric field
that will stop these electrons in a
distance of 10cm?
3.8) A particle having a charge of -
2.010
-9
C is acted on by a
downward electric force of 3.010
-
6
N in a uniform electric field. (a)
What is the strength of the electric
field? (b) What is the magnitude
and direction of the electric force
exerted on a proton placed in this
field? (c) What is the gravitational
force on the proton? (d) What is the
ratio of the electric to the
gravitational forces in this case?
3.9) Find the total electric field
along the line of the two charges
shown in figure 3.16 at the point
midway between them.
- +
3m
C 7 . 4
C 9 +

Figure 3.16
3.10) What is the magnitude and
direction of an electric field that
will balance the weight of (a) an
electron and (b) a proton?
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3.11) Three charges are arranged in
an equilateral triangle as shown in
figure 3.17. What is the direction
of the force on +q?
a
a
a
+q
+Q -Q

Figure 3.17
3.12) In figure 3.18 locate the point at
which the electric field is zero and
also the point at which the electric
potential is zero. Take q=1C and
a=50cm.
50cm
-5q +2q

Figure 3.18

3.13) What is E in magnitude and
direction at the center of the square
shown in figure 3.19? Assume that
q=1C and a=5cm.
P
a
a
+q
-2q
+2q -q
a
a

Figure 3.19
3.14) Two point charges are a
distance d apart (Figure 3.20). Plot
E(x), assuming x=0 at the left-hand
charge. Consider both positive and
negative values of x. Plot E as
positive if E points to the right and
negative if E points to the left.
Assume q
1
=+1.010
-6
C,
q
2
=+3.010
-6
C, and d=10cm.
q
1
q
2
P
x
d

Figure 3.20
3.15) Calculate E (direction and
magnitude) at point P in Figure
3.21.
+2q
+q
+q
P
a
a

Figure 3.21

3.16) Charges +q and -2q are fixed a
distance d apart as shown in figure
3.22. Find the electric field at
points A, B, and C.
+q
A
-2q
d d
d
2
d
2
B C

Figure 3.22
3.17) A uniform electric field exists
in a region between two oppositely
charged plates. An electron is
released from rest at the surface of
the negatively charged plate and
strikes the surface of the opposite
plate, 2.0cm away, in a time
1.510
-8
s. (a) What is the speed of
the electron as it strikes the second
plate? (b) What is the magnitude of
the electric field E?


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Electric Flux

4.1 The Electric Flux due to an Electric Field
4.2 The Electric Flux due to a point charge
4.3 Gaussian surface
4.4 Gausss Law
4.5 Gausss law and Coulombs law
4.6 Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
4.7 Applications of Gausss law
4.9 Problems


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.
" "

.

.

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4.1 The Electric Flux due to an Electric Field
We have already shown how electric field can be described by lines of
force. A line of force is an imaginary line drawn in such a way that its
direction at any point is the same as the direction of the field at that point.
Field lines never intersect, since only one line can pass through a single
point.
The Electric flux () is a measure of the number of electric field lines
penetrating some surface of area A.

Case one:
The electric flux for a plan surface perpendicular to a uniform electric
field (figure 4.1)
To calculate the electric flux we recall
that the number of lines per unit area is
proportional to the magnitude of the
electric field. Therefore, the number of
lines penetrating the surface of area A is
proportional to the product EA. The
product of the electric filed E and the
surface area A perpendicular to the field
is called the electric flux .

A E
r r
. = (4.1)

The electric flux has a unit of N.m
2
/C.

E
Area = A

Figure 4.1
Case Two
The electric flux for a plan surface make an angle to a uniform electric
field (figure 4.2)
Note that the number of lines
that cross-area is equal to the
number that cross the projected
area A`, which is perpendicular
to the field. From the figure we
see that the two area are related
by A`=Acos. The flux is given
by:
A E =
r r
. = E A cos
A E
r r
. =
Where is the angle between
the electric field E and the
normal to the surface A
r
.
= 0
= 90 . A
r

.

Case Three
In general the electric field is nonuniform over the surface (figure 4.3)
The flux is calculated by integrating the normal
component of the field over the surface in
question.
= A E
r r
. (4.2)

The net flux through the surface is proportional
to the net number of lines penetrating the
surface
E
DdA

Figure 4.3
E
Area = A
A`=Acos

Figure 4.2

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net number of lines )
( - ) .(

Example 4.1
What is electric flux for closed cylinder of radius R immersed in a
uniform electric field as shown in figure 4.4?

Figure 4.4

Solution

= A d E
r r
.

+ + =
) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
. . . A d E A d E A d E
r r r r r r

+ + =
) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
0 cos 90 cos 180 cos dA E dA E dA E
Since E is constant then
= - EA + 0 + EA = zero

Exercise
Calculate the total flux for a cube immersed in uniform electric field E
r
.
E
2
3 1
dA
dA
dA
4.2 The Electric Flux due to a point charge
To calculate the electric flux due to a point
charge we consider an imaginary closed
spherical surface with the point charge in the
center figure 4.5, this surface is called gaussian
surface. Then the flux is given by

= A d E
r r
. =
cos dA E ( = 0)
=
dA
r
q
2
4

=
2
2
4
4
r
r
q
q
(4.3)
Note that the net flux through a spherical gaussian surface is proportional to
the charge q inside the surface.

4.3 Gaussian surface
Consider several closed surfaces as shown in
figure 4.6 surrounding a charge Q as in the
figure below. The flux that passes through
surfaces S
1
, S
2
and S
3
all has a value q/
.
Therefore we conclude that the net flux through
any closed surface is independent of the shape of
the surface.

Consider a point charge located outside a closed
surface as shown in figure 4.7. We can see that
the number of electric field lines entering the
surface equal the number leaving the surface.
Therefore the net electric flux in this case is
zero, because the surface surrounds no electric
charge.
S
1
S
2
S
3
Q
E

Figure 4.6

Q
E
S

Figure 4.7
DdA
Q
E

Figure 4.5
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Example 4.2
In figure 4.8 two equal and opposite charges of
2Q and -2Q what is the flux for the surfaces
S
1
, S
2
, S
3
and S
4
.

Solution
For S
1
the flux = zero
For S
2
the flux = zero
For S
3
the flux = +2Q/
o

For S
4
the flux = -2Q/
o

4.4 Gausss Law
Gauss law is a very powerful theorem, which
relates any charge distribution to the resulting
electric field at any point in the vicinity of the
charge. As we saw the electric field lines
means that each charge q must have q/
o
flux
lines coming from it. This is the basis for an
important equation referred to as Gausss
law. Note the following facts:
1. If there are charges q
1
, q
2
, q
3
, ......q
n
inside
a closed (gaussian) surface, the total
number of flux lines coming from these
charges will be

(q
1
+ q
2
+ q
3
+ ....... +q
n
)/
o
(4.4)
2Q
-2Q
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4

Figure 4.8
DdA
Q
E

Figure 4.9
2. The number of flux lines coming out of a closed surface is the integral of
A d E
r r
. over the surface,
A d E
r r
.
We can equate both equations to get Gauss law which state that the net
electric flux through a closed gaussian surface is equal to the net charge
inside the surface divided by
o

in
q
A d E =
r r
. Gausss law (4.5)
where q
in
is the total charge inside the gaussian surface.

Gausss law states that the net electric flux through any closed gaussian
surface is equal to the net electric charge inside the surface divided by
the permittivity.

4.5 Gausss law and Coulombs law
We can deduce Coulombs law from Gausss
law by assuming a point charge q, to find the
electric field at point or points a distance r
from the charge we imagine a spherical
gaussian surface of radius r and the charge q at
its center as shown in figure 4.10.

in
q
A d E =
r r
.

in
q
dA E =
0 cos Because E is
constant for all points on the sphere, it can be factored from the inside of the
integral sign, then

in
q
dA E =
in
q
EA =
in
q
r E = ) 4 (
2

DdA
Q
E
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2
4
1
r
q
E
= (4.6)

Now put a second point charge q
o
at the point, which E is calculated. The
magnitude of the electric force that acts on it F = Eq
o

2
4
1
r
qq
F
o
=

4.6 Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
A good electrical conductor, such as copper, contains charges (electrons)
that are free to move within the material. When there is no net motion of
charges within the conductor, the conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium.

Conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties:

1. Any excess charge on an isolated conductor must reside entirely on its
surface. (Explain why?) The answer is when an excess charge is placed
on a conductor, it will set-up electric field inside the conductor. These
fields act on the charge carriers of the conductor (electrons) and cause
them to move i.e. current flow inside the conductor. These currents
redistribute the excess charge on the surface in such away that the
internal electric fields reduced to become zero and the currents stop, and
the electrostatic conditions restore.

2. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor. (Explain
why?) Same reason as above

In figure 4.11 it shows a conducting slab
in an external electric field E. The
charges induced on the surface of the slab
produce an electric field, which opposes
the external field, giving a resultant field
of zero in the conductor.

Figure 4.11

Steps which should be followed in solving problems

1. The gaussian surface should be chosen to have the same symmetry
as the charge distribution.
2. The dimensions of the surface must be such that the surface
includes the point where the electric field is to be calculated.
3. From the symmetry of the charge distribution, determine the
direction of the electric field and the surface area vector dA, over
the region of the gaussian surface.
4. Write E.dA as E dA cos and divide the surface into separate
regions if necessary.
5. The total charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is dq = dq,
which is represented in terms of the charge density ( dq = dx for
line of charge, dq = dA for a surface of charge, dq = dv for a
volume of charge).

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dE
dx
r
x

4.7 Applications of Gausss law

.
.

4.12
(C/m)
dx dE ) p (

Figure 4.12

2 2 2 2
x r
dx
K
x r
dq
K dE
+
=
+
=

y
dE
y
= dE cos E
y
=
y
dE =
+

dE cos
E

= 2
+
0
cos dE
+
+
0
2 2
cos
4
2
x r
dx

x dx :
x = y tan dx = y sec
2
d
E =
2
0
cos
2
d
E =
r
2

.

Gausss law can be used to calculate the electric field if the symmetry of
the charge distribution is high. Here we concentrate in three different
ways of charge distribution

1 2 3
Charge distribution Linear Surface Volume
Charge density
Unit C/m C/m
2
C/m
3

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A linear charge distribution
In figure 4.13 calculate the electric field at a distance r from a uniform
positive line charge of infinite length whose charge per unit length is
=constant.
E
Rr
L

Figure 4.13

The electric field E is perpendicular to the line of charge and directed
outward. Therefore for symmetry we select a cylindrical gaussian surface
of radius r and length L.
The electric field is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the surface.
The flux through the end of the gaussian cylinder is zero since E is parallel
to the surface.
The total charge inside the gaussian surface is L.
Applying Gauss law we get
in
q
A d E =
r r
.
L
dA E =
L
rL E = 2
r
E
2
= (4.7)

.
A surface charge distribution
In figure 4.4 calculate the electric field due to non-conducting, infinite plane
with uniform charge per unit area .
E

Figure 4.14

The electric field E is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the plane
charge and directed outward for both surfaces of the plane. Therefore for
symmetry we select a cylindrical gaussian surface with its axis is
perpendicular to the plane, each end of the gaussian surface has area A and
are equidistance from the plane.

The flux through the end of the gaussian cylinder is EA since E is
perpendicular to the surface.

The total electric flux from both ends of the gaussian surface will be 2EA.
Applying Gauss law we get

in
q
A d E =
r r
.
A
EA = 2

2
= E (4.8)
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An insulated conductor.

= E (4.9)

.

Conductor
E

Figure 4.15

4.15

.
A volume charge distribution
In figure 4.16 shows an insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform charge
density and a total charge Q.
1) Find the electric field at point outside the sphere (r>a)
2) Find the electric field at point inside the sphere (r<a)

For r>a
Rr
Aa
E

Figure 4.16

We select a spherical gaussian surface of radius r, concentric with the
charge sphere where r>a. The electric field E is perpendicular to the
gaussian surface as shown in figure 4.16. Applying Gauss law we get

in
q
A d E =
r r
.
Q
r E A E = =
) 4 (
2

2
4 r
Q
E
= (for r>a) (4.10)

Note that the result is identical to appoint charge.

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For r<a
Rr
Aa
E

Figure 4.17

We select a spherical gaussian surface of radius r, concentric with the
charge sphere where r<a. The electric field E is perpendicular to the
gaussian surface as shown in figure 4.17. Applying Gauss law we get
in
q
A d E =
r r
.

It is important at this point to see that the charge inside the gaussian surface
of volume V` is less than the total charge Q. To calculate the charge q
in
, we
use q
in
=V`, where V`=4/3r
3
. Therefore,

q
in
=V`=(4/3r
3
) (4.11)

in
q
r E A E = =
) 4 (
2

r
r
r
r
q
E
in

3 4 4
2
3
3
4
2
= = = (4.12)
since
3
3
4
a
Q
=
3
4 a
Qr
E
= (for r<a) (4.13)

Note that the electric field when
r<a is proportional to r, and when
r>a the electric field is proportional
to 1/r
2
.

r 10
-10
m
E

1
0
1
3
N
/
C
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.0 2.0 3.0


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Example 4.3
If the net flux through a gaussian surface is zero, which of the following
statements are true?
1) There are no charges inside the surface.
2) The net charge inside the surface is zero.
3) The electric field is zero everywhere on the surface.
4) The number of electric field lines entering the surface equals the
number leaving the surface.

Solution
Statements (b) and (d) are true. Statement (a) is not necessarily true since
Gauss' Law says that the net flux through the closed surface equals the net
charge inside the surface divided by
o
. For example, you could have an
electric dipole inside the surface. Although the net flux may be zero, we
cannot conclude that the electric field is zero in that region.

Example 4.4
A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge q. Describe what
happens to the: flux through the surface if
1) The charge is tripled,
2) The volume of the sphere is doubled,
3) The shape of the surface is changed to that of a cube,
4) The charge is moved to another position inside the surface;

Solution
1) If the charge is tripled, the flux through the surface is tripled, since the
net flux is proportional to the charge inside the surface
2) The flux remains unchanged when the volume changes, since it still
surrounds the same amount of charge.
3) The flux does not change when the shape of the closed surface changes.
4) The flux through the closed surface remains unchanged as the charge
inside the surface is moved to another position. All of these conclusions
are arrived at through an understanding of Gauss' Law.

Example 4.5
A solid conducting sphere of
radius a has a net charge +2Q. A
conducting spherical shell of
inner radius b and outer radius c
is concentric with the solid sphere
and has a net charge Q as shown
in figure 4.18. Using Gausss law
find the electric field in the
regions labeled 1, 2, 3, 4 and find
the charge distribution on the
spherical shell.

Solution

r .

Region (1) r < a
To find the E inside the solid sphere of radius a we construct a gaussian
surface of radius r < a
E = 0 since no charge inside the gaussian surface.

Region (2) a < r < b
we construct a spherical gaussian surface of radius r

in
q
A d E =
r r
.
Aa
Ab
Ac
A+ Q 2
A--Q

Figure 4.18
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2Q
= 0
.
E 4r
2
=
Q 2

2
2
4
1
r
Q
E
= a < r < b

Region (4) r > c
we construct a spherical gaussian surface of radius r > c, the total net charge
inside the gaussian surface is q = 2Q + (-Q) = +Q Therefore Gausss law
gives

in
q
A d E =
r r
.
E 4r
2
=
Q

2
4
1
r
Q
E
= r > c

Region (3) b > r < c

b<r<c . -Q

-Q
-2Q
-Q
+Q

Example 4.6
A long straight wire is surrounded by a hollow cylinder whose axis
coincides with that wire as shown in figure 4.19. The solid wire has a
charge per unit length of +, and the hollow cylinder has a net charge
per unit length of +2. Use Gauss law to find (a) the charge per unit
length on the inner and outer surfaces of the hollow cylinder and (b) the
electric field outside the hollow cylinder, a distance r from the axis.

Solution
(a) Use a cylindrical Gaussian surface S
1
within
the conducting cylinder where E=0
Thus
in
q
A d E =
r r
. = 0
and the charge per unit length on the inner surface
must be equal to

inner
= -
Also
inner
+
outer
= 2
thus
outer
= 3

(b) For a gaussian surface S
2
outside the
conducting cylinder

in
q
A d E =
r r
.
E (2rL) =
1
( - + 3)L

r
E
2
3
=

+
+2

Figure 4.19
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Example 4.7
Consder a long cylindrical charge distribution of radius R with a
uniform charge density . Find the electric field at distance r from the
axis where r<R.

Solution
If we choose a cilindrical gaussian surface of length L and radius r, Its
volume is r
2
L, and it enclses a charge r
2
L. By applying Gausss law we
get,
in
q
A d E =
r r
. becomes
L r
dA E
2
=

rL dA 2 =
Q therefore
L r
rL E
2
) 2 ( =
Thus
2
r
E = radially outward from the cylinder axis
Notice that the electric field will increase as increases, and also the
electric field is proportional to r for r<R. For thr region outside the cylinder
(r>R), the electric field will decrese as r increases.

Example 4.8
Two large non-conducting sheets of +ve charge face each other as
shown in figure 4.20. What is E at points (i) to the left of the sheets (ii)
between them and (iii) to the right of
the sheets?
Solution
We know previously that for each sheet,
the magnitude of the field at any point
is

2
= E
(a) At point to the left of the two
parallel sheets
E = -E
1
+ (-E
2
) = -2E

= E
(b) At point between the two sheets
E = E
1
+ (-E
2
) = zero
(c) At point to the right of the two parallel sheets
E = E
1
+ E
2
= 2E

= E

Figure 4.20
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4.9 Problems

4.1) An electric field of intensity
3.5103N/C is applied the x-axis.
Calculate the electric flux through a
rectangular plane 0.35m wide and
0.70m long if (a) the plane is
parallel to the yz plane, (b) the
plane is parallel to the xy plane,
and (c) the plane contains the y axis
and its normal makes an angle of
40
o
with the x axis.
4.2) A point charge of +5C is
located at the center of a sphere
with a radius of 12cm. What is the
electric flux through the surface of
this sphere?
4.3) (a) Two charges of 8C and -
5C are inside a cube of sides
0.45m. What is the total electric
flux through the cube? (b) Repeat
(a) if the same two charges are
inside a spherical shell of radius 0.
45 m.
4.4) The electric field everywhere
on the surface of a hollow sphere of
radius 0.75m is measured to be
equal to 8.9010
2
N/C and points
radially toward the center of the
sphere. (a) What is the net charge
within the surface? (b) What can
you conclude about charge inside
the nature and distribution of the
charge inside the sphere?
4.5) Four closed surfaces, S
1
,
through S
4
, together with the
charges -2Q, +Q, and -Q are
sketched in figure 4.21. Find the
electric flux through each surface.
-2Q
S
1
S
4
S
3
S
2
-Q
+Q

Figure 4.21

4.6) A conducting spherical shell of
radius 15cm carries a net charge of
-6.4C uniformly distributed on its
surface. Find the electric field at
points (a) just outside the shell and
(b) inside the shell.
4.7) A long, straight metal rod has a
radius of 5cm and a charge per unit
length of 30nC/m. Find the electric
field at the following distances
from the axis of the rod: (a) 3cm,
(b) 10cm, (c) 100cm.
4.8) A square plate of copper of
sides 50cm is placed in an extended
electric field of 810
4
N/C directed
perpendicular to the plate. Find (a)
the charge density of each face of
the plate and (b) the total charge on
each face.
4.9) A solid copper sphere 15cm in
radius has a total charge of 40nC.
Find the electric field at the
following distances measured from
the center of the sphere: (a) 12cm,
(b) 17cm, (c) 75cm. (d) How would
your answers change if the sphere
were hollow?
4.10) A solid conducting sphere of
radius 2cm has a positive charge of
+8C. A conducting spherical
shell d inner radius 4cm and outer
radius 5cm is concentric with the
solid sphere and has a net charge of
-4C. (a) Find the electric field at
the following distances from the
center of this charge configuration:
(a) r=1cm, (b) r=3cm, (c) r=4.5cm,
and (d) r=7cm.
4.11) A non-conducting sphere of
radius a is placed at the center of a
spherical conducting shell of inner
radius b and outer radius c, A
charge +Q is distributed uniformly
through the inner sphere (charge
density C/m
3
) as shown in figure
4.22. The outer shell carries -Q.
Find E(r) (i) within the sphere
(r<a) (ii) between the sphere and
the shell (a<r<b) (iii) inside the
shell (b<r<c) and (iv) out side the
shell and (v) What is the charge
appear on the inner and outer
surfaces of the shell?
Aa
Ab
Ac
A+Q
A--Q

Figure 4.22

4.12) A solid sphere of radius 40cm
has a total positive charge of 26C
uniformly distributed throughout its
volume. Calculate the electric field
intensity at the following distances
from the center of the sphere: (a) 0
cm, (b) 10cm, (c) 40cm, (d) 60 cm.
4.13) An insulating sphere is 8cm in
diameter, and carries a +5.7C
charge uniformly distributed
throughout its interior volume.
Calculate the charge enclosed by a
concentric spherical surface with
the following radii: (a) r=2cm and
(b) r=6cm.
4.14) A long conducting cylinder
(length l) carry a total charge +q is
surrounded by a conducting
cylindrical shell of total charge -2q
as shown in figure 4.23. Use
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Gausss law to find (i) the electric
field at points outside the
conducting shell and inside the
conducting shell, (ii) the
distribution of the charge on the
conducting shell, and (iii) the
electric field in the region between
the cylinder and the cylindrical
shell?

Figure 4.23

4.15) Consider a thin spherical shell
of radius 14cm with a total charge
of 32C distributed uniformly on
its surface. Find the electric field
for the following distances from the
center of the charge distribution:
(a) r=10cm and (b) r =20cm.
4.16) A large plane sheet of charge
has a charge per unit area of
9.0C/m
2
. Find the electric field
intensity just above the surface of
the sheet, measured from the sheet's
midpoint.
4.17) Two large metal plates face
each other and carry charges with
surface density + and -
respectively, on their inner surfaces
as shown in figure 4.24. What is E
at points (i) to the left of the sheets
(ii) between them and (iii) to the
right of the sheets?

Figure 4.24

Electric Potential Difference
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Electric Potential

5.1 Definition of electric potential difference
5.2 The Equipotential surfaces
5.3 Electric Potential and Electric Field
5.4 Potential difference due to a point charge
5.5 The potential due to a point charge
5.7 Electric Potential Energy
5.8 Calculation of E from V
5.9 Problems
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The Electric Potential

.
.

.

The electric potential .

.

: -
) 1 ( .
) 2 ( .
) 3 ( .
) 4 ( .
) 5 ( .

.

) 1 (
m h ) (

m .
h . m

.

) 2 (
U 5.1 .
B
A S
A
A&B .

) 3 (
A&B
Q 5.2 .
q
o
) m
B ( Q q
o
B A
q
o
.

Figure 5.1
www.hazemsakeek.com
A&B E
) F
ex
( ) qE (
q
o
A B ) .(

Figure 5.2

1.5volt
.
U
.

5.1 Definition of electric potential difference
We define the potential difference between two points A and B as the work
done by an external agent in moving a test charge q
o
from A to B i.e.
V
B
-V
A
= W
AB
/ q
o
(5.1)

The unit of the potential difference is (Joule/Coulomb) which is known as
Volt (V)

Notice
Since the work may be (a) positive i.e V
B
> V
A

(b) negative i.e V
B
< V
A

(c) zero i.e V
B
= V
A

You should remember that the work equals
l F l F W
ex ex
cos . = =
r r

If 0 < < 90 cos is +ve and therefore the W is +ve
If 90 < < 180 cos is -ve and therefore W is -ve
If = 90 between F
ex
and l therefore W is zero

The potential difference is independent on the path between A and B. Since
the work (W
AB
) done to move a test charge q
o
from A to B is independent on
the path, otherwise the work is not a scalar quantity. (see example 5.2)

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5.2 The Equipotential surfaces
As the electric field can be represented graphically by lines of force, the
potential distribution in an electric field may be represented graphically by
equipotential surfaces.
The equipotential surface is a surface such that the potential has the same
value at all points on the surface. i.e. V
B
-V
A
= zero for any two points on
one surface.
The work is required to move a test charge between any two points on an
equipotential surface is zero. (Explain why?)
In all cases the equipotential surfaces are at right angles to the lines of force
and thus to E. (Explain why?)

E
E

Figure 5.3 (a) Figure 5.3 (b)

Figure 5.3 shows the equipotential surfaces (dashed lines) and the electric
field lines (bold lines), (a) for uniform electric field and (b) for electric
field due to a positive charge.
5.3 Electric Potential and Electric Field
Simple Case (Uniform electric field):
The potential difference between two points A and B in a Uniform electric
field E can be found as follow,
Assume that a positive test charge q
o
is moved by an external agent from A
to B in uniform electric field as shown in figure 5.4.
The test charge q
o
is affected by electric
force of q
o
E in the downward direction. To
move the charge from A to B an external
force F of the same magnitude to the
electric force but in the opposite direction.
The work W done by the external agent is:

W
AB
= Fd = q
o
Ed (5.2)

The potential difference V
B
-V
A
is

Ed
q
W
V V
o
AB
A B = = (5.3)

This equation shows the relation between the potential difference and the
electric field for a special case (uniform electric field). Note that E has a
new unit (V/m). hence,

Coulomb
Newton
Meter
Volt
=

Oq E
o
A
B
E
F
Oq
o
Ddl
Dd

Figure 5.4
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The relation in general case (not uniform electric field):
If the test charge q
o
is moved along a curved path from A to B as shown in
figure 5.5. The electric field exerts a force q
o
E on the charge. To keep the
charge moving without accelerating, an external agent must apply a force F
equal to -q
o
E.
If the test charge moves distance dl
along the path from A to B, the work
done is F.dl. The total work is given
by,

= =
B
A
B
A
o AB
l d E q l d F W
r r r r
. . (5.4)
B
-V
A
is,

= =
B
A o
AB
A B
l d E
q
W
V V
r r
. (5.5)

A B dl
.
If the point A is taken to infinity then V
A
=0 the potential V at point B is,
=
B
B
l d E V
r r
. (5.6)
This equation gives the general relation between the potential and the
electric field.
A
B
E
F
Oq E
o
Oq
o
Ddl

Figure 5.5
Example 5.1
Derive the potential difference between points A and B in uniform
electric field using the general case.

Solution

= = =
B
A
B
A
B
A
A B
Edl dl E l d E V V

180 cos .
r r
(5.7)
E is uniform (constant) and the integration over the path A to B is d,
therefore
= =
B
A
A B
Ed dl E V V (5.8)

Example 5.2
In figure 5.6 the test charge moved
from A to B along the path shown.
Calculate the potential difference
between A and B.

Oq
o
Oq E
o
A
B
E
F
Ddl
Oq
o
Oq E
o
F
Ddl
Dd

C

Figure 5.6
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Solution
V
B
-V
A
=(V
B
-V
C
)+(V
C
-V
A
)

For the path AC the angle is 135
o
,

= = =
C
A
C
A
C
A
A C
dl
E
dl E l d E V V
2
135 cos .

r r

The length of the line AC is 2 d
Ed d
E
V V
A C
= = ) 2 (
2

For the path CB the work is zero and E is perpendicular to the path
therefore, V
C
-V
A
= 0
Ed V V V V
A C A B
= =

The Electron Volt Unit
A widely used unit of energy in atomic physics is the electron volt (eV).
ELECTRON VOLT, unit of energy, used by physicists to express the
energy of ions and subatomic particles that have been accelerated in particle
accelerators. One electron volt is equal to the amount of energy gained by
an electron traveling through an electrical potential difference of 1 V; this is
equivalent to 1.60207 x 10
19
J. Electron volts are commonly expressed as
million electron volts (MeV) and billion electron volts (BeV or GeV).

5.4 Potential difference due to a point charge
Assume two points A and B near to a positive charge q as shown in figure
5.7. To calculate the potential difference V
B
-V
A
we assume a test charge q
o

is moved without acceleration from A to B.
E B A
Oq
o
Oq E
o F
Ddl
R r

Figure 5.7

In the figure above the electric field E is directed to the right and dl to the
left.
Edl dl E l d E = =

180 cos .
r r
(5.10)
However when we move a distance dl to the left, we are moving in a
direction of decreasing r. Thus
r d l d
r
r
= (5.11)
Therefore
-Edl=Edr (5.12)

= =
B
A
r
r
B
A
A B
r d E l d E V V
r
r r r
. . (5.13)
Substitute for E
2
4
1
r
q
E
= Q (5.14)

We get
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= =

A B
r
r
A B
r r
q
r
dr q
V V
B
A
1 1
4 4
2

(5.15)

q .

If we choose A at infinity then V
A
=0 (i.e. r
A
) this lead to the potential
at distance r from a charge q is given by

r
q
V
4
1
= (5.16)

This equation shows that the
equipotential surfaces for a charge
are spheres concentric with the
charge as shown in figure 5.8.

.

Figure 5.8

V = V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ ...........+ V
n
(5.17)

= =
n
n
n
n
n
r
q
V V
4
1
(5.18)
q
.

Example 5.3
What must the magnitude of an isolated positive charge be for the
electric potential at 10 cm from the charge to be +100V?

Solution
r
q
V
4
1
=
C r V q
9 12 2
10 1 . 1 1 . 0 10 9 . 8 4 100 4

= = =

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Example 5.4
What is the potential at the center of the square shown in figure 5.9?
Assume that q
1
= +1 10
-8
C, q
2
= -210
-8
C, q
3
=+310
-8
C, q
4
=+210
-8
C,
and a=1m.

Solution
r
q q q q
V V
n
n
4 3 2
1
4
1
+ + +
= =

The distance r for each charge from P is 0.71m
V V 500
71 . 0
10 ) 2 3 2 1 ( 10 9
8 9
=
+ +
=

Example 5.5
Calculate the electric potential due to an electric dipole as shown in
figure 5.10.

Figure 5.10

P
Qq
4
Qq
1
Qq
3
Q2q
2
Aa Aa
Aa
Aa

Figure 5.9
r
1

r
r
2

+q
-q
2a
P
Solution

V = V
n
= V
1
+ V
2

V =
1 2
1 2
2 1
r r
r r
Kq
r
q
r
q
K

=

When r>>2a,

r
2
- r
1
2acos and r
1
r
2
r
2
,

V =
2 2
cos cos 2
r
p
K
r
a
Kq

= (5.19)

where p is the dipole momentum

Note that V = 0 when =90
o
but V has the maximum positive value when
=0
o
and V has the maximum negative value when =180
o
.

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5.7 Electric Potential Energy
The definition of the electric potential energy of a system of charges is the
work required to bring them from infinity to that configuration.

To workout the electric potential energy for a system of charges, assume a
charge q
2
at infinity and at rest as shown in figure 5.11. If q
2
is moved from
infinity to a distance r from another charge q
1
, then the work required is
given by

W=Vq
2

r
q
V
1
4
1
= Q
Substitute for V in the equation of work
12
2 1
4
1
r
q q
W U
= = (5.20)
r
q q
U
4
2 1
= (5.21)
To calculate the potential energy for systems containing more than two
charges we compute the potential energy for every pair of charges
separately and to add the results algebraically.
=
ij
j i
r
q q
U
4
(5.22)

.

If the total electric potential energy of a system of charges is positive this
correspond to a repulsive electric forces, but if the total electric potential
energy is negative this correspond to attractive electric forces. (explain
why?)
r
q
1 q
2
Figure 5.11

Example 5.6
Three charges are held fixed as
shown in figure 5.12. What is the
potential energy? Assume that
q=1 10
-7
C and a=10cm.

Solution

U=U
12
+U
13
+U
23

+
+
+ +
+
+
=
a
q q
a
q q
a
q q
U
) 2 )( 4 ( ) 2 )( ( ) )( (
4
1

a
q
U
2
4
10
=

J U
3
2 7 9
10 9
1 . 0
) 10 1 )( 10 ( 10 9

=

=

.

.

Aa
Aa
Aa
-4q
+2q +1q

Figure 5.12
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5.8 Calculation of E from V
As we have learned that both the electric field and the electric potential can
be used to evaluate the electric effects. Also we have showed how to
calculate the electric potential from the electric field now we determine the
electric field from the electric potential by the following relation.
dl
dV
E =
r
(5.23)
New unit for the electric field is volt/meter (v/m)

.
equipotential surfaces .

Example 5.7
Calculate the electric field for a point charge q, using the equation
r
q
V
4
1
=
Solution
= =
r
q
dr
d
dl
dV
E
4
1

2
4
1 1
4 r
q
r dr
d q
E

=
=



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Example 5.8
Two charges of 2C and -6C are
located at positions (0,0) m and (0,3) m,
respectively as shown in figure 5.13. (i)
Find the total electric potential due to
these charges at point (4,0) m.
(ii) How much work is required to
bring a 3C charge from to the point
P?
(iii) What is the potential energy for
the three charges?

Solution
V
p
= V
1
+ V
2

+ =
2
2
1
1
4
1
r
q
r
q
V

3
6 6
9
10 3 . 6
5
10 6
4
10 2
10 9 =
=

V volt

(ii) the work required is given by
W = q
3
V
p
= 3 10
-6
-6.3 10
3
= -18.9 10
-3
J
The -ve sign means that work is done by the charge for the movement from
to P.

(iii) The potential energy is given by
U = U
12
+ U
13
+ U
23

Joule U
k U
2
6 6 6 6 6 6
10 5 . 5
5
) 10 3 )( 10 6 (
4
) 10 3 )( 10 2 (
3
) 10 6 )( 10 2 (

+

+

=

-6
+2
P
(4,0) (0,0)
(0,3)

Figure 5.13
Example 5.9
A particle having a charge q=310
-9
C moves from point a to point b
along a straight line, a total distance d=0.5m. The electric field is
uniform along this line, in the direction from a to b, with magnitude
E=200N/C. Determine the force on q, the work done on it by the
electric field, and the potential difference V
a
-V
b
.

Solution
The force is in the same direction as the electric field since the charge is
positive; the magnitude of the force is given by
F =qE = 310
-9
200 = 60010
-9
N
The work done by this force is
W =Fd = 60010
-9
0.5 = 30010
-9
J
The potential difference is the work per unit charge, which is
V
a
-V
b
= W/q = 100V
Or
V
a
-V
b
= Ed = 200 0.5 = 100V

Example 5.10
Point charge of +1210
-9
C and
-1210
-9
C are placed 10cm part as
shown in figure 5.14. Compute the
potential at point a, b, and c.
Compute the potential energy of a
point charge +410
-9
C if it placed at
points a, b, and c.

A a Ab
A c
+2q
2
+2q
1
10cm
4cm 6cm 4cm
10cm

Figure 5.14
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Solution
We need to use the following equation at each point to calculate the
potential,

= =
i
i
n
n
r
q
V V
4
1

At point a
V V
a
900
04 . 0
10 12
06 . 0
10 12
10 9
9 9
9
=
=

At point b
V V
b
1930
14 . 0
10 12
04 . 0
10 12
10 9
9 9
9
=
=

At point c
V V
c
0
14 . 0
10 12
1 . 0
10 12
10 9
9 9
9
=
=

We need to use the following equation at each point to calculate the
potential energy,
U = qV
At point a
U
a
= qV
a
= 410
-9
(-900) = -3610
-7
J
At point b
U
b
= qV
b
= 410
-9
1930 = +7710
-7
J
At point c
U
c
= qV
c
= 410
-9
0 = 0

Example 5.11
A charge q is distributed throughout a nonconducting spherical volume
of radius R. (a) Show that the potential at a distance r from the center
where r < R, is given by
3
2 2
8
) 3 (
R
r R q
V

=
Solution
A
A .
=

l d E V VB
r r
.

.
2
4 r
q
E
out
=
3
4 R
qr
E
in
=
V
A
- V

= (V
A
- V
B
) + (V
B
- V

)

=

l d E l d E V V
out in A
r r r r
. .
dl & E 180
o
cos180= -1 dl = -dr
V
A
- V
= -
3
4 R
qr
dr -
2
4 r
q
dr
= -
2 4
2
3
r
R
q
r
q 1
4

=
3
2 2
8
) 3 (
R
r R q

A
A
R
q
V
4
=
.

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Example 5.12
For the charge configuration shown in figure 5.15, Show that V(r) for
the points on the vertical axis, assuming r >> a, is given by
+ =
2
2
4
1
r
aq
r
q
V

Solution
V
p
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3

) ( 4 4 ) ( 4 a r
q
r
q
a r
q
V
+
+
=

r
q
a r
a r q a r q

4 ) ( 4
) ( ) (
2 2
+
+

r
q
r a r
aq

4 ) / 1 ( 4
2
2 2 2
+

when r>>a then a
2
/r
2
<<1
r
q
r a
r
aq
V

4
) / 1 (
4
2
1
2 2
2
+ =

(1 + x)
n
= 1 + nx when x<<1
r
q
r a
r
aq
V

4
) / 1 (
4
2
2 2
2
+ + =

a
2
/r
2
1
+ =
2
2
4
1
r
aq
r
q
V

+q
+q
-q
a
r
a
P
Figure 5.15
Example 5.13
Derive an expression for the work
required to put the four charges together
as indicated in figure 5.16.

Solution
The work required to put these charges
together is equal to the total electric potential
energy.

U = U
12
+ U
13
+ U
14
+ U
23
+ U
24
+ U
34

+ +
=
a
q
a
q
a
q
a
q
a
q
a
q
U
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
4
1
=
a
q
a
q
U
2
2 4
4
1
2 2

a
q
a
q q
U

2
2 2
2 . 0
2
2 4 2
4
1
=
+
=

The minus sign indicates that there is attractive force between the charges

In Example 5.13 assume that if all the charges are positive, prove that
the work required to put the four charges together is
a
q
U

2
41 . 5
4
1
=

Q+q
Q+q
Aa Aa
Aa
A a
Q-q
Q-q

Figure 5.16
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Example 5.14
In the rectangle shown in figure 5.17, q
1
= -5x10
-6
C and q
2
= 2x10
-6
C
calculate the work required to move a charge q
3
= 3x10
-6
C from B to A
along the diagonal of the rectangle.

Figure 5.17
Solution
from the equation V
B
-V
A
= W
AB
/ q
o

V
A
= V
1
+ V
2
& V
B
= V
1
+ V
2

+

=

05 . 0
10 2
15 . 0
10 5
4
6 6
q
VA
= 6 10
4
V

+

=

15 . 0
10 2
05 . 0
10 5
4
6 6
q
VB
= -7.8 10
4
V

W
BA
= (V
A
- V
B
) q
3

=(6 10
4
+ 7.8 10
4
) 3 10
-6
= 0.414 Joule

B
A
q
2
15cm
5cm
q
1
q
3
Example 5.15
Two large parallel conducting plates are 10 cm a part and carry equal
but opposite charges on their facing surfaces as shown in figure 5.18.
An electron placed midway between the two plates experiences a force
of 1.6 10
-15
N.
What is the potential difference between the plates?

Solution
V
B
-V
A
=Ed

F = eE E = F/e

V
B
-V
A
= 10000 0.1 = 1000 volt

A
B
E
10cm
Figure 5.18
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5.10 Problems

5.1) What potential difference is
needed to stop an electron with an
initial speed of 4.210
5
m/s?
5.2) An ion accelerated through a
potential difference of 115V
experiences an increase in potential
energy of 7.3710
-17
J. Calculate the
charge on the ion.
5.3) How much energy is gained by
a charge of 75 C moving through
a potential difference of 90V?
5.4) An infinite charged sheet has a
surface charge density of 1.010
-
7
C/m
2
. How far apart are the
equipotential surfaces whose
potentials differ by 5.0 V?
5.5) At what distance from a point
charge of 8C would the potential
equal 3.610
4
V?
5.6) At a distance r away from a
point charge q, the electrical
potential is V=400V and the
magnitude of the electric field is
E=150N/C. Determine the value of
q and r.
5.7) Calculate the value of the
electric potential at point P due to
the charge configuration shown in
Figure 5.19. Use the values
q
1
=5C, q
2
=-10C, a=0.4m, and
b=0.5m.
-
- +
+
q
1
q
2
q
2
q
1
P
b
b
a
a

Figure 5.19
5.8) Two point charges are located
as shown in Figure 5.20, where
q
l
=+4C, q
2
=-2C, a=0.30m, and
b =0.90m. Calculate the value of
the electrical potential at points P
1
,
and P
2
. Which point is at the
higher potential?
+
-
b
b
a
a
q
1
q
2
P
2
P
1
x
y

Figure 5.20

5.9) Consider a point charge with
q=1.510
-6
C. What is the radius of
an equipotential surface having a
potential of 30V?
5.10) Two large parallel conducting
plates are 10cm apart and carry
equal and opposite charges on their
facing surfaces. An electron placed
midway between the two plates
experiences a force of 1.610
15
N.
What is the potential difference
between the plates?
5.11) A point charge has q=1.010
-
6
C. Consider point A which is 2m
distance and point B which is 1m
distance as shown in the figure
5.21(a). (a) What is the potential
difference V
A
-V
B
? (b) Repeat if
points A and B are located
differently as shown in figure
5.21(b).
q
A B

Figure 5.21(a)
q
A
B

Figure 5.21(b)

5.12) In figure 5.22 prove that the
work required to put four charges
together on the corner of a square
of radius a is given by (w=-
0.21q
2
/

a).
- q
- q a
a
+q
+q

Figure 5.22
5.13) Two charges q=+210
-6
C are
fixed in space a distance d=2cm)
apart, as shown in figure 5.23 (a)
What is the electric potential at
point C? (b) You bring a third
charge q=2.010
-6
C very slowly
from infinity to C. How much
work must you do? (c) What is the
potential energy U of the
configuration when the third charge
is in place?
q q
O
C
1/2d 1/2d
1/2d

Figure 5.23
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5.14) Four equal point charges of
charge q=+5C are located at the
corners of a 30cm by 40cm
rectangle. Calculate the electric
potential energy stored in this
charge configuration.
5.15) Two point charges, Q
1
=+5nC
and Q
2
=-3nC, are separated by
35cm. (a) What is the potential
energy of the pair? What is the
significance of the algebraic sign of
your answer? (b) What is the
electric potential at a point midway
between the charges?

Multiple Choice Questions

Part 1
Principles of Electrostatic

Coulombs Law
Electric Field
Gausss Law

Attempt the following question after the
completion of part 1
Multiple choice question for part 1
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110

[1] Two small beads having positive charges 3 and 1 are fixed on the
opposite ends of a horizontal insulating rod, extending from the origin to the
point x=d. As in Figure 1, a third small, charged bead is free to slide on the
rod. At what position is the third bead in equilibrium?
+3q +q
d

Figure 1
a. x =0.366d
b. x =0.634d
c. x =0.900d
d. x =2.37d

[2] Two identical conducting small spheres are placed with their centers
0.300m apart. One is given a charge of 12.0nC and the other one a charge of
18.0nC. (a) Find the electrostatic force exerted on one sphere by the other.
(b) The spheres are connected by a conducting wire. After equilibrium has
occurred, find the electrostatic force between the two.

a. (a) 2.16 10
-5
N attraction; (b) 0 N repulsion
b. (a) 6.47 10
-6
N repulsion; (b) 2.70 10
-7
N attraction
c. (a) 2.16 10
-5
N attraction; (b) 8.99 10
-7
N repulsion
d. (a) 6.47 10
-6
N attraction; (b) 2.25 10
-5
N repulsion

[3] An electron is projected at an angle of 40.0
o
above the horizontal at a
speed of 5.20 10
5
m/s in a region where the electric field is E = 3 50 j N/C.
Neglect gravity and find (a) the time it takes the electron to return to its
maximum height, (h) the maximum height it reaches and (c) its horizontal
displacement when it reaches its maximum height.

a. (a) 1.09 10
-8
s; (b) 0.909 mm; (c) 2.17 m
b. (a) 1.69 10
-8
s; (b) 2.20 mm; (c) 4.40 m
c. (a) 1.09 10
-8
s; (b) 4.34 mm; (c) 0.909 m
d. (a) 1.30 10
-8
s; (b) 1.29 mm; (c) 2.17 m

[4] Two identical metal blocks resting on a frictionless horizontal surface are
connected by a light metal spring for which the spring constant is k 175 N/m
and the unscratched length is 0.350 m as in Figure 2a.
111
m m
k
m m
k
a b

Figure 2
A charge Q is slowly placed on the system causing the spring to stretch to an
equilibrium length of 0.460 m as in Figure 2b. Determine the value of Q,
assuming that all the charge resides in the blocks and that the blocks can be
treated as point charges.
a. 64.8 C
b. 32.4 C
c. 85.1 C
d. 42.6 C

[5] A small plastic ball 1.00 g in mass is suspended by a 24.0 cm long string
in a uniform electric field as shown in Figure P23.52.
E=1.5x10
3
i N/C
24cm
m=1g
23
o
y
x

Figure 3

If the ball is in equilibrium when the string makes a 23.0
o
angle with the
vertical, what is the net charge on the ball?

a. 36.1 C
b. 15.4 C
c. 6.5 3 C
d. 2.77 C

[6] An object having a net charge of 24.0 C is placed in a uniform electric
field of 6 10 N/C directed vertically. What is the mass of the object if it
"floats" in the field?
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112
a. 0.386 g
b. 0.669 g
c. 2.59 g
d. 1.49 g

[7] Four identical point charges (q =+14.0 C) are located on the corners of
a rectangle as shown in Figure 4.
q q
q q
L
W

Figure 4

The dimensions of the rectangle are L = 55.0 cm and W= 13.0 cm.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the net electric force exerted on the
charge at the lower left corner by the other three charges. (Call the lower left
corner of the rectangle the origin.)

a. 106 mN @ 264
o

b. 7.58 mN @ 13.3
o

c. 7.58 mN @ 84.0
o

d. 106 mN @ 193
o

[8] An electron and proton are each placed at rest in an electric field of 720
N/C. Calculate the speed of each particle 44.0 ns after being released.

a. v
e
=1.27 10
6
m/S, v
p
=6.90 10
3
m/s
b. v
e
=5.56 10
6
m/S, v
p
= 3.04 10
3

m/s
c. v
e
. =1.27 10
14
m/S, v
p
=6.90 10
10
m/s
d. v
e
=3.04 10
3
m/S, v
p
=5.56 10
6
m/s

[9] Three point charges are arranged as shown in Figure 5.

113
y
x
4 nC 3 nC
-2 nC
0.175 m
0.250 m

Figure 5

(a) Find the vector electric field that the 4.00 nC and -2.00 nC charges
together create at the origin. (b) Find the vector force on the 3.00 nC charge.

a. (a) (0.144i - 0.103 j) kN/C; (b) (0.432i - 0.308j) N
b. (a) (-0.575i - 0.587j ) kN/C; (b) (-1.73i- 1.76j) N
c. (a) (-0.144i - 0.103j) kN/C; (b) (-0.432i - 0.308j) N
d. (a) (-0.575i +0.587j) kN/C; (b) (-1.73i +1.76j) N

[10] Two 1.00 C point charges are located on the x axis. One is at x = 0.60
m, and the other is at x =-0.60 m. (a) Determine the electric field on the y
axis at x = 0.90 m. (b) Calculate the electric force on a -5.00 C charge
placed on the y axis at y = 0.90 m.

a. (a) (8.52 10
3
i +1.28 l0
4
j)N/C; (b) (-4.62 l0
-2
i 6.39 10
-2
j)N
b. (a) 8.52 10
3
j N/C; (b) -4.26 10
-2
j N
c. (a) 1.28 10
4
j N/C; (b) -6.39 10
-2
j N
d. (a) -7.68 10
3
N/C; (b) 3.84 10
-2
j N

[11] A 14.0C charge located at the origin of a cartesian coordinate system
is surrounded by a nonconducting hollow sphere of radius 6.00 cm. A drill
with a radius of 0.800 mm is aligned along the z-axis, and a hole is drilled
in the sphere. Calculate the electric flux through the hole.

a. 176 Nm
2
/C
b.4.22 Nm
2
/C
c. 0 Nm
2
/C
d. 70.3 Nm
2
/C

[12] An electric field of intensity 2.50 kN/C is applied along the x-axis.
Calculate the electric flux through a rectangular plane 0.450 m wide and
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114
0.800 m long if (a) the plane is parallel to the yz plane; (b) the plane is
parallel to the xy plane; (c) the.plane contains the y-axis and its normal
makes an angle of 30.0
o
with the x-axis.

a. (a) 900 Nm
2
/C; (b) 0 Nm
2
/C; (c) 779 Nm
2
/C
b. (a) 0 Nm
2
/C; (b) 900 Nm
2
/C; (c) 779 Nm
2
/C
c. (a) 0 Nm
2
/C; (b) 900 Nm
2
/C; (c) 450 Nm
2
/C
d. (a) 900 Nm
2
/C; (b) 0 Nm
2
/C; (c) 450 Nm
2
/C

[13] A conducting spherical shell of radius 13.0 cm carries a net charge of -
7.40 C uniformly distributed on its surface. Find the electric field at
points (a) just outside the shell and (b) inside the shell.

a. (a) (-7.88 mN/C)r; (b) (-7.88 mN/C)r
b. (a) (7.88 mN/C)r; (b) (0 mN/C)r
c. (a) (-3.94 rnN/C)r; (b) (0 mN/C)r
d. (a) (3.94 mN/C)r; (b) (3.94 mN/C)r

[14] A point charge of 0.0562 C is inside a pyramid. Determine the total
electric flux through the surface of the pyramid.

a.1.27 10
3
Nm
2
/C
2

b.6.35 10
3
Nm
2
/C
2

c. 0 Nm
2
/C
2

d. 3.18 10
4
Nm
2
/C
2

[15] A large flat sheet of charge has a charge per unit area of 7.00 C/m
2
.
Find the electric field intensity just above the surface of the sheet, measured
from its midpoint.

a. 7.91 10
5
N/C up
b. 1.98 10
5
N/C up
c. 3.95 10
5
N/C up
d. 1.58 10
6
N/C up

[16] The electric field on the surface of an irregularly shaped conductor
varies from 60.0 kN/C to 24.0 kN/C. Calculate the local surface charge
115
density at the point on the surface where the radius of curvature of the
surface is (a) greatest and (b) smallest.

a. 0.531 C/m
2
; (b) 0.2l2, C/m
2

b. l.06, C/m
2
; (b) 0.425 C/m
2

c. 0.425, C/m
2
; (b) 1.06C/m
2

d. 0.212 C/m
2
; (b) 0.531 C/m
2

[17] A square plate of copper with 50.0 cm sides has no net charge and is
placed in a region of uniform electric field of 80.0 kN/C directed
perpendicular to the plate. Find (a) the charge density of each face of the
plate and (b) the total charge on each face.

a. (a) = 0.708 C/m
2
; (b) Q =0.0885 C
b. (a) = 1.42 C/m
2
; (b) Q = 0.354 C
c. (a) = 0.708 C/m
2
; (b) Q = 0.177 C
d. (a) = 1.42 C/m
2
; (b) Q = 0.177 C

[18] The following charges are located inside a submarine: 5.00C, -9.00C,
27.0C and -84.0C. (a) Calculate the net electric flux through the
submarine. (b) Is the number of electric field lines leaving the submarine
greater than, equal to, or less than the number entering it?

a. (a) 1.41 10
7
Nm
2
/C; (b) greater than
b. (a) -6.89 10
6
Nm
2
/C; (b) less than
c. (a) -6.89 10
6
Nm
2
/C; (b) equal to
d. (a) 1.41 10
7
Nm
2
/C; (b) equal to

[19] A solid sphere of radius 40.0 cm has a total positive charge of 26.0C
uniformly distributed throughout its volume. Calculate the magnitude of the
electric field at 90.0 cm.

a. (2.89 10
5
N/C)r
b. (3.29 10
6
N/C)r
c. 0 N/C
d. (1.46 10
6
N/C)r

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116
[20] A charge of 190 C is at the center of a cube of side 85.0 cm long. (a)
Find the total flux through each face of the cube. (b) Find the flux through
the whole surface of the cube.

a. (a) 3.58 10
6
Nm
2
/C; (b) 2.15 10
7
Nm
2
/C
b. (a) 4.10 10
7
Nm
2
/C; (b) 4.10 10
7
Nm
2
/C
c. (a) 1.29 10
8
Nm
2
/C; (b) 2.15 10
7
Nm
2
/C
d. (a) 6.83 10
6
Nm
2
/C; (b) 4.10 10
7
Nm
2
/C

[21] A 30.0 cm diameter loop is rotated in a uniform electric field until the
position of maximum electric flux is found. The flux in this position is
found to be 3.20 x 105 Nm2/C. What is the electric field strength?

a. 3.40 10
5
N/C
b. 4.53 10
6
N/C
c. 1.13 10
6
N/C
d. 1.70 10
5
N/C

[22] Consider a thin spherical shell of radius 22.0 cm with a total charge of
34.0C distributed uniformly on its surface. Find the magnitude of the
electric field (a) 15.0 cm and (b) 30.0 cm from the center of the charge
distribution.

a. (a) 6.32 10
6
N/C; (b) 3.40 10
6
N/C
b. (a) 0 N/C; (b) 6.32 10
6
N/C
c. (a) 1.36 10
7
N/C; (b) 3.40 10
6
N/C
d. (a) 0 N/C; (b) 3.40 10
6
N/C

[23] A long, straight metal rod has a radius of 5.00 cm and a charge per unit
length of 30.0 nC/m. Find the electric field 100.0 cm from the axis of the
rod, where distances area measured perpendicular to the rod.

a. (1.08 10
4
N/C)r
b. (2.70 10
2
N/C)r
c. (5.39 10
2
N/C)r
d. (0 N/C)r

117
[24] A solid conducting sphere of radius 2.00 cm has a charge of 8.00 C. A
conducting spherical shell of inner radius 4.00 cm and outer radius 5.00 cm
is concentric with the solid sphere and has a charge of -4.00 C. Find the
electric field at r = 7.00 cm from the center of this charge configuration.

a. (2.20 10
7
N/C)r
b. (4.32 10
7
N/C)r
c. (7.34 10
6
N/C)r
d. (1.44 10
7
N/C)r

[25] The electric field everywhere on the surface of a thin spherical shell of
radius 0.650 m is measured to be equal to 790 N/C and points radially
toward the center of the sphere. (a) What is the net charge within the sphere's
surface? (b) What can you conclude about the nature and distribution of the
charge inside the spherical shell?

a. (a) 3.7110
-8
C; (b) The charge is negative, its distribution is
spherically symmetric.
b. (a) 3.71 10
-8
C; (b) The charge is positive, its distribution
is uncertain.
c. (a) 1.9310
-4
C; (b) The charge is positive, its distribution is
spherically symmetric.
d. (a) 1.9310
-4
C; (b) The charge is negative, its distribution
is uncertain.

[26] Four identical point charges (q =+16.0 C) are located on the corners
of a rectangle, as shown in Figure 6.

q q
q q
L
W

Figure 6

The dimensions of the rectangle are L 70.0 cm and W= 30.0 cm. Calculate
the electric potential energy of the charge at the lower left corner due to the
other three charges.

a. 14.9 J
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118
b. 7.94 J
c. 14.0 J
d. 34.2 J

[27] The three charges in Figure 7 are at the vertices of an isosceles triangle.

q
-q -q
2 cm
4 cm

Figure 7

Calculate the electric potential at the midpoint of the base, taking q=7.00 C.
a. -14.2 mV
b. 11.0 mV
c. 14.2 mV
d. -11.0mV

[28] An insulating rod having a linear charge density =40.0 C/m and linear
mass density 0.100 kg/m is released from rest in a uniform electric field
E=100 V/m directed perpendicular to the rod (Fig. 8).

119
E
E

Figure 8

(a) Determine the speed of the rod after it has traveled 2.00 m. (b)
How does your answer to part (a) change if the electric field is not
perpendicular to the rod?

a. (a) 0.200 m/s; (b) decreases
b. (a) 0.400 m/s; (b) the same
c. (a) 0.400 m/s; (b) decreases
d. (a) 0.200 m/s; (b) increases

[29] A spherical conductor has a radius of 14.0 cm and a charge of 26.0C.
Calculate the electric field and the electric potential at r = 50.0 cm from the
center.

a. 9.35 10
5
N/C, 1.67 mV
b. 1.19 10
7
N/C, 0.468 mV
c. 9.35 10
5
N/C, 0.468 mV
d. 1.19 10
7
N/C, 1.67 mV

[30] How many electrons should be removed from an initially unchanged
spherical conductor of radius 0.200 m to produce a potential of 6.50 kV at
the surface?

a. 1.81 10
11

b. 2.38 10
15

c. 9.04 10
11

d. 1.06 10
15

[31] An ion accelerated through a potential difference of 125 V experiences
an increase in kinetic energy of 9.37 10
-17
J . Calculate the charge on the
ion.
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120
a. 1.33 10
18
C
b. 7.50 10
-19
C
c. 1. 17 10
-14
C
d. 1.60 10
-19
C

[32] How much work is done (by a battery, generator, or some other source
of electrical energy) in moving Avagadro's number of electrons from an
initial point where the electric potential is 9.00 V to a point where the
potential is -5.00 V? (The potential in each case is measured relative to a
common reference point.)

a. 0.482 MJ
b. 0.385 MJ
c. 1.35 MJ
d. 0.867 MJ

[33] At a certain distance from a point charge, the magnitude of the electric
field is 600 V/m and the electric potential is -4.00 kV. (a) What is the
distance to the charge? (b) What is the magnitude of the charge?

a. (a) 0.150 m; (b) 0.445 C
b. (a) 0.150 m; (b) -1.50 C
c. (a) 6.67 m; (b) 2.97 C
d. (a) 6.67 m; (b) -2.97 C

[34] An electron moving parallel to the x-axis has an initial speed of 3.70
10
6
m/s at the origin. Its speed is reduced to 1.40 10
5
m/s at the point x =
2.00 cm. Calculate the potential difference between the origin and that
point. Which point is at the higher potential?

a. -38.9 V, the origin
b. 19.5 V, x
c. 38.9 V, x
d. -19.5 V, the origin

pppppppppppppppppp

Solution of the multiple choice questions

121

Q. No. Answer Q. No. Answer
1 b 18 b
2 c 19 a
3 a 20 a
4 d 21 b
5 d 22 d
6 d 23 c
7 a 24 c
8 b 25 a
9 b 26 c
10 c 27 d
11 d 28 b
12 a 29 c
13 c 30 c
14 b 31 b
15 c 32 c
16 d 33 d
17 c 34 a

pppppppppppppppppp
Capacitors and capacitance
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Applications of Electrostatic
Part 2


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Capacitors and Capacitance

6.1 Capacitor
6.2 Definition of capacitance
6.3 Calculation of capacitance
6.3.1 Parallel plate capacitor
6.3.2 Cylindrical capacitor
6.3.3 Spherical capacitor

6.4 Combination of capacitors
6.4.1 Capacitors in parallel
6.4.2 Capacitors in series

4.5 Energy stored in a charged capacitor (in electric field)
6.6 Capacitor with dielectric
6.7 problems


Capacitors
. .
.

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6.1 Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by
an insulator Figure 6.1. The capacitance of the
capacitor depends on the geometry of the
conductors and on the material separating the
charged conductors, called dielectric that is an
insulating material. The two conductors carry equal
and opposite charge +q and -q.

6.2 Definition of capacitance
The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined
as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge
on either conductor to the magnitude of the
potential difference between them as shown
in Figure 6.2.
V
q
C = (6.1)
The capacitance C has a unit of C/v, which
is called farad F
F = C/v
The farad is very big unit and hence we use submultiples of farad
1F = 10
-6
F
1nF = 10
-9
F
1pF = 10
-12
F

The capacitor in the circuit is represented by the symbol shown in Figure
6.3.

1+q
1-q
Conductor
Insulator

Figure 6.1
Capacitor
Electric field
Battery

Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
6.3 Calculation of capacitance
The most common type of capacitors are:-
Parallel-plate capacitor
Cylindrical capacitor
Spherical capacitor
We are going to calculate the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor using
the information we learned in the previous chapters and make use of the
equation (6.1).

6.3.1 Parallel plate capacitor
Two parallel plates of equal area A are separated by distance d as shown in
figure 6.4 bellow. One plate charged with +q, the other -q.

1+q
1-q
dd
Gaussian
surface

Figure 6.4
The capacitance is given by
V
q
C =
First we need to evaluate the electric field E to workout the potential V.
Using gauss law to find E, the charge per unit area on either plate is
= q/A. (6.2)
A
q
E

= = (6.3), (4.9)
The potential difference between the plates is equal to Ed, therefore
A
qd
Ed V
= = (6.4)
The capacitance is given by
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A qd
q
V
q
C
= = (6.5)
d
A
C

= (6.6)

Notice that the capacitance of the parallel plates capacitor is depends on the
geometrical dimensions of the capacitor.
The capacitance is proportional to the area of the plates and inversely
proportional to distance between the plates.
) 6.6 (
.

Example 6.1
An air-filled capacitor consists of two plates, each with an area of
7.6cm
2
, separated by a distance of 1.8mm. If a 20V potential difference
is applied to these plates, calculate,
(a) the electric field between the plates,
(b) the surface charge density,
(c) the capacitance, and
(d) the charge on each plate.

Solution
(a) m V
d
V
E
4
3
10 11 . 1
10 8 . 1
20
=
= =

(b)
2 8 4 12
10 83 . 9 ) 10 11 . 1 )( 10 85 . 8 ( m C E

= = =

(c) F
d
A
C
12
3
4 12
10 74 . 3
10 8 . 1
) 10 6 . 7 )( 10 85 . 8 (

= =

(d) C CV q
11 12
10 48 . 7 ) 20 )( 10 74 . 3 (

= = =

6.3.2 Cylindrical capacitor
In the same way we can calculate the capacitance of cylindrical capacitor,
the result is as follow
( ) a b
l
C
ln
2

= (6.7)
Where l is the length of the cylinder, a is the radius of the inside cylinder,
and b the radius of the outer shell cylinder.

6.3.3 Spherical Capacitor
In the same way we can calculate the capacitance of spherical capacitor, the
result is as follow
a b
ab
C
=

4
(6.8)
Where a is the radius of the inside sphere, and b is the radius of the outer
shell sphere.

Example 6.2
An air-filled spherical capacitor is constructed with inner and outer
shell radii of 7 and 14cm, respectively. Calculate,
(a) The capacitance of the device,
(b) What potential difference between the spheres will result in a
charge of 4C on each conductor?

Solution
(a) F
a b
ab
C
11
12
10 56 . 1
) 07 . 0 14 . 0 (
) 14 . 0 )( 07 . 0 )( 10 85 . 8 4 ( 4

(b) V
C
q
V
5
11
6
10 56 . 2
10 56 . 1
10 4
=
= =

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6.4 Combination of capacitors
Some times the electric circuit consist of more than two capacitors, which
are, connected either in parallel or in series the equivalent capacitance is
evaluated as follow

6.4.1 Capacitors in parallel:
In parallel connection the capacitors are connected as shown in figure 6.5
below where the above plates are connected together with the positive
terminal of the battery, and the bottom plates are connected to the negative
terminal of the battery.

V
C
2
C
3
C
1
Cq
1
Cq
2
Cq
3

Figure 6.5

In this case the potential different across each capacitor is equal to the
voltage of the battery V
i.e. V=V
1
=V
2
=V
3

The charge on each capacitor is
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
; ; V C q V C q V C q = = =
The total charge is
V C C C q
q q q q
) (
3 2 1
3 2 1
+ + =
+ + =

V
q
C = Q
The Equivalent capacitance is
3 2 1
C C C C + + = (6.9)

.
6.4.2 Capacitors in series:
In series connection the capacitors are connected as shown in figure 6.6
below where the above plates are connected together with the positive

V
C
2
C
3
C
1
V
1
V
2
V
3
1-q 1-q 1-q 1+q 1+q 1+q

Figure 6.6

In this case the magnitude of the charge must be the same on each plate with
opposite sign
i.e. q=q
1
=q
2
=q
3

The potential across each capacitor is
3 3 2 2 1 1
/ ; / ; / C q V C q V C q V = = =
The total potential V is equal the sum of the potential across each capacitor
3 2 1
V V V V + + =
+ + =
3 2 1
1 1 1
C C C
q V
3 2 1
1 1 1
1
C C C
V
q
C
+ +
= =
The Equivalent capacitance is

3 2 1
1 1 1 1
C C C C
+ + = (6.10)

.

.
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Example 6.3
Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and b for the group of
capacitors shown in figure 6.7 . C
1
=1F, C
2
=2F, C
3
=3F, C
4
=4F,
C
5
=5F, and C
6
=6F.

C
5
C
2
C
6
C
3
C
4
C
1
aa
Ab
Ag
Ad Ae
Al
Ak
Am
Ah
(i)
Figure 6.7
Solution
First the capacitor C
3
and C
6
are connected in series so that the equivalent
capacitance C
de
is
F C
C
de
de
2 ;
3
1
6
1 1
= + =
Second C
1
and C
5
are connected in parallel
C
kl
=1+5=6F
The circuit become as shown below

aa
Ab
Ag
Ad Ae
Al
Ak
Am
Ah
2
2
4
6
(ii)
Continue with the same way to reduce the circuit for the capacitor C
2
and
C
de
to get C
gh
=4F

aa
Ab
Ag
Al
Ak
Am
Ah
4 4
6
(iii)

Capacitors C
mg
and C
gh
are connected in series the result is C
mh
=2F, The
circuit become as shown below

aa
Ab
Al
Ak
Am
Ah
2
6
(iv)

Capacitors C
mh
and C
kl
are connected in parallel the result is

aa
Ab
8
(v)

C
eq
=8F.

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Example 6.4
In the above example 6.3 determine the potential difference across each
capacitor and the charge on each capacitor if the total charge on all the
six capacitors is 384C.

Solution
First consider the equivalent capacitor C
eq
to find the potential between
points a and b (V
ab
)
V
C
Q
V
ab
ab
ab
48
8
384
= = =
Second notice that the potential V
kl
=V
ab
since the two capacitors between k
and l are in parallel, the potential across the capacitors C
1
and C
5
= 48V.
V
1
=48V and Q
1
=C
1
V
1
=48C

And for C5
V
5
=48V and Q
5
=C
5
V
5
=240C

For the circuit (iv) notice that V
mh
=V
ab
=48V, and
Q
mh
=C
mh
V
mh
=228=96C
Since the two capacitors shown in the circuit (iii) between points m and h
are in series, each will have the same charge as that of the equivalent
capacitor, i.e.
Q
mh
=Q
gh
=Q
mh
=96C
V
C
Q
V
mg
mg
mg
24
4
96
= = =
V
C
Q
V
gh
gh
gh
24
4
96
= = =
Therefore for C
4
, V
4
=24 and Q
4
=96C
In the circuit (ii) the two capacitor between points g and h are in parallel so
the potential difference across each is 24V.
Therefore for C
2
, V
2
=24V and Q
2
=C
2
V
2
=48C
Also in circuit (ii) the potential difference
V
de
=V
gh
=24V
And
Q
de
=C
de
V
de
=224=48C
The two capacitors shown in circuit (i) between points d and a are in series,
and therefore the charge on each is equal to Q
de
.
Therefore for C
6
, Q
6
=48C
V
C
Q
V 8
6
6
6
= =
For C
3
, Q
3
=48C and V
3
=Q
3
/C
3
=16V

The results can be summarized as follow:

Capacitor
Potential
Difference (V)
Charge
(C)
C
1
48 48
C
2
24 48
C
3
16 48
C
4
24 96
C
5
48 240
C
6
8 48
C
eq
48 384

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4.5 Energy stored in a charged capacitor (in electric field)
If the capacitor is connected to a power supply such as battery, charge will
be transferred from the battery to the plates of the capacitor. This is a
charging process of the capacitor which mean that the battery perform a
work to store energy between the plates of the capacitor.
Consider uncharged capacitor is connected to a battery as shown in figure
6.8, at start the potential across the plates is zero and the charge is zero as
well.

V
C
S

Figure 6.8

If the switch S is closed then the charging process will start and the potential
across the capacitor will rise to reach the value equal the potential of the
battery V in time t (called charging time).
S
.
Suppose that at a time t a charge q(t) has been transferred from the battery
to capacitor. The potential difference V(t) across the capacitor will be
q(t)/C. For the battery to transferred another amount of charge dq it will
perform a work dW
dq
C
q
Vdq dW = = (6.11)
The total work required to put a total charge Q on the capacitor is
C
Q
dq
C
q
dW W
Q
2
2
0
= = =

(6.12)

Using the equation q=CV
C
Q
U W
2
2
= = (6.13)
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
CV QV
C
Q
U = = = (6.14)

The energy per unit volume u (energy density) in parallel plate capacitor is
the total energy stored U divided by the volume between the plates Ad

Ad
CV
Ad
U
u
2
2
1
= = (6.15)
For parallel plate capacitor
d
A
C

=
2
2

=
d
V
u

(6.16)
2
2
1
E u

= (6.17)
Therefore the electric energy density is proportional with square of the
electric field.

U u .
.
) 6.14 ( & ) 6.17 (
.
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Example 6.5
Three capacitors of 8F, 10F and 14F are connected to a battery of
12V. How much energy does the battery supply if the capacitors are
connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel?

Solution
(a) For series combination
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
C C C C
+ + =
14
1
10
1
8
1 1
+ + =
C

This gives
C = 3.37 F
Then the energy U is
2
2
1
CV U =
U = 1/2 (3.3710
-6
) (12)
2
= 2.4310
-4
J
(b) For parallel combination
3 2 1
C C C C + + =
C= 8+10+14=32F
The energy U is
U = 1/2 (3210
-6
) (12)
2
= 2.310
-3
J

Example 6.6
A capacitor C
1
is charged to a
potential difference V
o
. This
charging battery is then removed
and the capacitor is connected as
shown in figure 6.9 to an
uncharged capacitor C
2
,

(a) What is the final potential difference V
f
across the
combination?
(b) What is the stored energy before and after the switch S is
closed?

Solution
(a) The original charge q
o
is shared between the two capacitors since they
are connected in parallel. Thus
2 1
q q q + =

q=CV
f f
V C V C V C
2 1 1
+ =

2 1
1
C C
C
V V
f
+
=

(b) The initial stored energy is U
o

2
1 2
1

V C U =
The final stored energy U
f
=U
1
+U
2

2
2 1
1
2 1 2
1
2
2 2
1
2
1 2
1
) (

+
+ = + =
C C
C V
C C V C V C U
f f f

U
C C
C
U
f

+
=
2 1
1

Notice that U
f
is less than U
o
(Explain why)
V
o
C
1
Cq
o
C
2
S

Figure 6.9
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Example 6.7
Consider the circuit shown in figure 6.10 where
C
1
=6F, C
2
=3F, and V=20V. C
1
is first charged
by closing switch S
1
. S
1
is then opened, and the
charged capacitor C
1
is connected to the
uncharged capacitor C
2
by closing the switch S
2
.
Calculate the initial charge acquired by C
1
and
the final charge on each of the two capacitors.

Solution
When S
1
is closed, the charge on C
1
will be
Q
1
=C
1
V
1
=6F 20V=120C

When S
1
is opened and S
2
is closed, the total charge will remain constant
and be distributed among the two capacitors,
Q
1
=120C-Q
2

The potential across the two capacitors will be equal,
2
2
1
1
C
Q
C
Q
V = =
F
Q
F
Q F

3 6
120
2 2
=

Therefore,
Q
2
= 40C

Q
1
=120C-40C=80C

Figure 6.10
Example 6.8
Consider the circuit shown in figure
6.11 where C
1
=4F, C
2
=6F, C
3
=2F,
and V=35V. C
1
is first charged by
closing switch S to point 1. S is then
connected to point 2 in the circuit.
(a) Calculate the initial charge
acquired by C
1
,
(b) Calculate the final charge on each of the three capacitors.
(c) Calculate the potential difference across each capacitor after
the switch is connected to point 2.

Solution
When switch S is connected to point 1, the potential difference on C
1
is
35V. Hence the charge Q
1
is given by
Q
1
= C
1
xV=4x35 =140C

When switch S is connected to point 2, the charge on C
1
will be distributed
among the three capacitors. Notice that C
2
and C
3
are connected in series,
therefore
6
4
2
1
6
1 1 1 1
3 2
= + = + =
C C C

F C 5 . 1 =

We know that the charges are distributed equally on capacitor connected in
series, but the charges are distributed with respect to their capacitance when
they are connected in parallel. Therefore,

C Q 8 . 101 4
5 . 1 4
140
1
=
+
=
But the charge Q on the capacitor C is
C Q 2 . 38 8 . 101 140 = =
S
1 2

Figure 6.11
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Since C
1
and C
2
are connected in series then
Q
2
=Q
3
=Q =38.2C

To find the potential difference on each capacitor we use the relation
V=Q/C
Then,
V
1
=25.45V
V
2
=6.37V
V
3
=19.1V

Example 6.9
Consider the circuit shown in figure 6.12 where C
1
=6F, C
2
=4F,
C
3
=12F, and V=12V.

V

Figure 6.12

(a) Calculate the equivalent capacitance,
(b) Calculate the potential difference across each capacitor.
(c) Calculate the charge on each of the three capacitors.

Solution
C
2
and C
3
are connected in parallel, therefore
C =C
2
+C
3
=4+12=16F
Now C is connected in series with C
1
, therefore the equivalent capacitance
is
48
11
16
1
6
1 1 1 1
1
= + = +
=
C C C

C = 4.36F

The total charge Q =CV = 4.36x12 = 52.36C
The charge will be equally distributed on the capacitor C
1
and C
Q
1
=Q =Q=52.36C
But Q = C V, therefore
V = 52.36/16=3.27 volts
The potential difference on C
1
is
V
1
=12-3.27=8.73volts
The potential difference on both C
2
and C
3
is equivalent to V since they
are connected in parallel.
V
2
= V
3
=3.27volts
Q
2
= C
2
V
2
= 13.08C
Q
3
= C
3
V
3
= 39.24C

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Example 6.9
Four capacitors are connected as shown in Figure 6.13. (a) Find the
equivalent capacitance between points a and b. (b) Calculate the charge
on each capacitor if V
ab
=15V.
aa
Ac
Ab
15uF 3uF
6uF
24uF

Figure 6.13
Solution
(a) We simplify the circuit as shown in the figure from (a) to (c).

aa
Ac
Ab
2.5uF
6uF
24uF

aa
Ac
Ab
2.5uF 24uF

aa Ab
5.96uF

(a) (b) (c)

Firs the 15F and 3F in series are equivalent to
F 5 . 2
) 3 / 1 ( ) 15 / 1 (
1
=
+

Next 2.5F combines in parallel with 6F, creating an equivalent
capacitance of 8.5F.
The 8.5F and 20F are in series, equivalent to
F 96 . 5
) 20 / 1 ( ) 5 . 8 / 1 (
1
=
+


(b) We find the charge and the voltage across each capacitor by working
backwards through solution figures (c) through (a).
For the 5.96F capacitor we have
C CV Q 5 . 89 15 96 . 5 = = =
In figure (b) we have, for the 8.5F capacitor,

V
C
Q
V
ac
5 . 10
5 . 8
5 . 89
= = =
and for the 20F in figure (b) and (a) C Q 5 . 89
20
=
V
C
Q
V
cb
47 . 4
20
5 . 89
= = =
Next (a) is equivalent to (b), so V V
cb
47 . 4 = and V V
ac
5 . 10 =
Thus for the 2.5F and 6F capacitors V V 5 . 10 =
C CV Q 3 . 26 5 . 10 5 . 2
5 . 2
= = =
C CV Q 2 . 63 5 . 10 6
6
= = =
Therefore
C Q 3 . 26
15
= C Q 3 . 26
3
=
For the potential difference across the capacitors C
15
and C
3
are
V
C
Q
V 75 . 1
15
3 . 26
15
= = =
V
C
Q
V 77 . 8
3
3 . 26
3
= = =

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6.6 Capacitor with dielectric
A dielectric is a non-conducting material, such as rubber, glass or paper.
Experimentally it was found that the capacitance of a capacitor increased
when a dielectric material was inserted in the space between the plates. The
ratio of the capacitance with the dielectric to that without it called the
dielectric constant of the material.
C
C
= (6.18)
In figure 6.14 below two similar capacitors, one of them is filled with
dielectric material, and both are connected in parallel to a battery of
potential V. It was found that the charge on the capacitor with dielectric is
larger than the on the air filled capacitor, therefore the C
d
>C
o
, since the
potential V is the same on both capacitors.

V
C
d
C
o
K

Figure 6.14

If the experiment repeated in different way by placing the same charge Q
o

on both capacitors as shown in figure 6.15. Experimentally it was shown
that V
d
<V
o
by a factor of 1/.

V
o
C
o
C
d
K
V
d

Figure 6.15

V
V
d
= (6.19)
Since the charge Q
o
on the capacitors does not change, then
V
Q
V
Q
V
Q
C
d
= = = (6.20)

For a parallel plate capacitor with dielectric we can write the capacitance.
d
A
C

= (6.21)

Example 6.10
A parallel plate capacitor of area A and separation d is connected to a
battery to charge the capacitor to potential difference V
o
. Calculate the
stored energy before and after introducing a dielectric material.

Solution
The energy stored before introducing the dielectric material,
2
2
1
o o o
V C U =
The energy stored after introducing the dielectric material,
o
C C = and
V
V
d
=

o o
o
U V
C CV U =
= =
2
2
1
2
2
1

Therefore, the energy is less by a factor of 1/.

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Example 6.11
A Parallel plate capacitor of area 0.64cm
2
. When the plates are in
vacuum, the capacitance of the capacitor is 4.9pF.
(a) Calculate the value of the capacitance if the space between the
plates is filled with nylon (=3.4).
(b) What is the maximum potential difference that can be applied
to the plates without causing discharge (E
max
=1410
6
V/m)?

Solution
(a)
o
C C = = 3.44.9 = 16.7pF
(b) V
max
=E
max
d

To evaluate d we use the equation
m
C
A
d
o
4
12
5 12
10 16 . 1
10 9 . 4
10 4 . 6 10 85 . 8

= =

V
max
= 110
6
1.1610
-4
=1.6210
3
V

Example 6.12
A parallel-plate capacitor has a
capacitance C
o
in the absence of
dielectric. A slab of dielectric material of
dielectric constant and thickness d/3 is
inserted between the plates as shown in
Figure 6.16. What is the new capacitance
when the dielectric is present?

dd
dd
dd
1/3
2/3
K

Figure 6.16
Solution
We can assume that two parallel plate capacitor are connected in series as
shown in figure 6.17,
3
1
d
A
C

=
and
3 2
2
d
A
C

=

A
d
A
d
C C C

3 2 3 1 1 1
2 1
+ = + =

+
=
+ =

2 1
3
2
1
3
1
A
d
A
d
C

d
A
C

+
=
1 2
3

C C

+
=
1 2
3

C
1
K
dd
dd
1/3
2/3
C
2

Figure 6.17
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6.7 Problems

6.1) Two capacitors, C
1
=2F and
C
2
=16F, are connected in parallel.
What is the value of the equivalent
capacitance of the combination?
6.2) Calculate the equivalent
capacitance of the two capacitors in
the previous exercise if they are
connected in series.
6.3) A 100pF capacitor is charged to
a potential difference of 50V, the
charging battery then being
disconnected. The capacitor is then
connected in parallel with a second
(initially uncharged) capacitor. If
the measured potential difference
drops to 35V, what is the
capacitance of this second
capacitor?
6.4) A parallel-plate capacitor has
circular plates of 8.0cm radius and
1.0mm separation. What charge
will appear on the plates if a
potential difference of 100V is
applied?
6.5) In figure 6.18 the battery
supplies 12V. (a) Find the charge
on each capacitor when switch S
1
is
closed, and (b) when later switch S
2

is also closed. Assume C
1
=1F,
C
2
=2F, C
3
=3F, and C
4
=4F.

Figure 6.18
6.6) A parallel plate capacitor has a
plate of area A and separation d,
and is charged to a potential
difference V. The charging battery
is then disconnected and the plates
are pulled apart until their
separation is 2d. Derive expression
in term of A, d, and V for, the new
potential difference, the initial and
final stored energy, and the work
required to separate the plates.
6.7) A 6.0F capacitor is connected
in series with a 4.0F capacitor and
a potential difference of 200 V is
applied across the pair. (a) What is
the charge on each capacitor? (b)
What is the potential difference
across each capacitor?
6.8) Repeat the previous problem
for the same two capacitors
connected in parallel.
6.9) Show that the plates of a
parallel-plate capacitor attract each
other with a force given by
A
q
F
2
2
=

6.10) A parallel-plate air capacitor
having area A (40cm
2
) and spacing
d (1.0 mm) is charged to a potential
V (600V). Find (a) the capacitance,
(b) the magnitude of the charge on
each plate, (c) the stored energy,
(d) the electric field between the
plates and (e) the energy density
between the plates.
6.11) How many 1F capacitors
would need to be connected in
parallel in order to store a charge
1C with potential of 300V across
the capacitors?
6.12) In figure 6.19 (a)&(b) find the
equivalent capacitance of the
combination. Assume that
C
1
=10F, C
2
=5F, and C
3
=4F.

Figure 6.19(a)
C
1
V

Figure6.19(b)
6.13) Two capacitors (2.0F and
4.0F) are connected in parallel
across a 300V potential difference.
Calculate the total stored energy in
the system.
6.14) A 16pF parallel-plate capacitor
is charged by a 10V battery. If
each plate of the capacitor has an
area of 5cm
2
, what is the energy
stored in the capacitor? What is the
energy density (energy per unit
volume) in the electric field of the
capacitor if the plates are separated
by air?
6.15) The energy density in a
parallel-plate capacitor is given as
2.1 l0
-9
J/m
3
. What is the value of
the electric field in the region
between the plates?
6.16) (a) Determine the equivalent
capacitance for the capacitors
shown in figure 6.20. (b) If they
are connected to 12V battery,
calculate the potential difference
across each capacitor and the
charge on each capacitor
aa Ab
F 3 F 6
F 2

Figure 6.20
6.17) Evaluate the effective
capacitance of the configuration
shown in Figure 6.21. Each of the
capacitors is identical and has
capacitance C.
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aa Ab
c
c
c c c
c

Figure 6.21
6.18) A parallel plate capacitor is
constructed using a dielectric
material whose dielectric constant
is 3 an whose dielectric strength is
210
8
V/m The desired capacitance
is 0.25F, and the capacitor must
withstand a maximum potential
difference of 4000V. Find the
maximum area of the capacitor
plate.
6.19) In figure 6.19(b) find (a) the
charge, (b) the potential difference,
(c) the stored energy for each
capacitor. With V=100V.
6.20) (a) Figure 6.22 shows a
network of capacitors between the
terminals a and b. Reduce this
network to a single equivalent
capacitor. (b) Determine the charge
on the 4F and 8F capacitors
when the capacitors are fully
charged by a 12V battery
connected to the terminals. (c)
Determine the potential difference
across each capacitor.
4 F u
2 F u
24 F u
8 F u
6 F u

Figure 6.22
6.21) A uniform electric field
E=3000V/m exists within a certain
region. What volume of space
would contain an energy equal to
10
-7
J? Express your answer in
cubic meters and in litters.
6.22) A capacitor is constructed from
two square metal plates of side
length L and separated by a
distance d (Figure 6.23). One half
of the space between the plates (top
to bottom) is filled with
polystyrene (=2.56), and the other
half is filled with neoprene rubber
(=6.7). Calculate the capacitance
of the device, taking L=2cm and
d=0.75mm. (Hint: The capacitor
can be considered as two capacitors
connected in parallel.)
L
K = 6 .7
K = 2 .5 6
Dd

Figure 6.23
6.23) A parallel plate capacitor is
constructed using three different
dielectric materials, as shown in
figure 6.24. (a) Find an expression
for the capacitance in terms of the
plate area A and
1
,
2
, and
3
. (b)
Calculate the capacitance using the
value A=1cm
2
, d=2mm,
1
=4.9,
2
=5.6, and
3
=2.1.
L
K
1
K
2
K
3
L/ 2
dd
Dd/2

Figure 6.24

Current & Resistance
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Current and Resistance

7.1 Current and current density
7.2 Definition of current in terms of the drift velocity
7.3 Definition of the current density
7.4 Resistance and resistivity (Ohms Law)
7.5 Evaluation of the resistance of a conductor
7.6 Electrical Energy and Power
7.7 Combination of Resistors
7.7.1 Resistors in Series
7.7.2 Resistors in Parallel

7.9 Problems
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" ."

.

.

7.1 Current and current density

.
C
V
q
C =

A .
.

A
Conductor
Electric field
Batter y
Vv Tt

Figure 7.1

As shown in figure 7.1 above the electric field produces electric force
(F=qE), this force leads the free charge in the conductor to move in one
direction with an average velocity called drift velocity.
The current is defined by the net charge flowing across the area A per unit
time. Thus if a net charge Q flow across a certain area in time interval t,
the average current I
av
across this area is
t
Q
I
av
=
(7.1)
In general the current I is
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dt
dQ
I =
(7.2)
Current is a scalar quantity and has a unit of C/t, which is called ampere.

.

7.2 Definition of current in terms of the drift velocity
Consider figure 7.1 shown above. Suppose there are n positive charge
particle per unit volume moves in the direction of the field from the left to
the right, all move in drift velocity v. In time t each particle moves
distance vt the shaded area in the figure, The volume of the shaded area in
the figure is equal nAvt, the charge Q flowing across the end of the
cylinder in time t is
Q =nqvAt (7.3)
where q is the charge of each particle.
Then the current I is
nqvA
t
Q
I =
= (7.4)

7.3 Definition of the current density
The current per unit cross-section area is called the current density J.
nqv
A
I
J = =
r
(7.5)
The current density is a vector quantity.

Example 7.1
A copper conductor of square cross section 1mm
2
on a side carries a
constant current of 20A. The density of free electrons is 8 10
28
electron
per cubic meter. Find the current density and the drift velocity.

Solution
The current density is
2 6
/ 10 10 m A
A
I
J = =
The drift velocity is
s m
nq
J
v / 10 6 . 1
) 10 6 . 1 )( 10 8 (
10 20
3
9 28
6
=

= =

This drift velocity is very small compare with the velocity of propagation
of current pulse, which is 3 10
8
m/s. The smaller value of the drift
velocity is due to the collisions with atoms in the conductor.

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7.4 Resistance and resistivity (Ohms Law)
The resistance R of a conductor is defined as the ratio V/I, where V is the
potential difference across the conductor and I is the current flowing in it.
Thus if the same potential difference V is applied to two conductors A and
B, and a smaller current I flows in A, then the resistance of A is grater than
B, therefore we write,
I
V
R = Ohms law (7.6)
This equation is known as Ohms law, which show that a linear relationship
between the potential difference and the current flowing in the conductor.
Any conductor shows the lineal behavior its resistance is called ohmic
resistance.
The resistance R has a unit of volt/ampere (v/A), which is called Ohm ( ).
From the above equation, it also follows that
V = IR and
R
V
I =
The resistance in the circuit is drown using this symbol

Fixed resistor Variable resistor Potential divider

Each material has different resistance; therefore it is better to use the
resistivity , it is defined from
J
E
= (7.8)
The resistivity has unit of .m
The inverse of resistivity is known as the conductivity ,
1
= (7.9)
7.5 Evaluation of the resistance of a conductor
Consider a cylindrical conductor as shown in figure 7.2, of cross-sectional
area A and length l , carrying a current I. If a potential difference V is
connected to the ends the conductor, the electric field and the current
density will have the values
A
E
I

Figure 7.2

l
V
E = (7.10)
and
A
I
J =
The resistivity is
A I
I V
J
E
= = (7.11)
But the V/I is the resistance R this leads to,
A
R
l
= (7.12)
Therefore, the resistance R is proportional to the length l of the conductor
and inversely proportional the cross-sectional area A of it.

Notice that the resistance of a conductor depends on the geometry of the
conductor, and the resistivity of the conductor depends only on the
electronic structure of the material.
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Example 7.2
Calculate the resistance of a piece of aluminum that is 20cm long and
has a cross-sectional area of 10
-4
m
2
. What is the resistance of a piece of
glass with the same dimensions?
Al
=2.8210
-8
.m,
glass
=10
10
.m.

Solution
The resistance of aluminum
=
= =

5
4
8
10 82 . 2
10
1 . 0
10 82 . 2
A
R
Al
l

The resistance of glass
=
= =

13
4
10
10
10
1 . 0
10
A
R
glass
l

Notice that the resistance of aluminum is much smaller than glass.

Example 7.3
A 0.90V potential difference is maintained across a 1.5m length of
tungsten wire that has a cross-sectional area of 0.60mm
2
. What is the
current in the wire?

Solution
From Ohms law
R
V
I = where
A
R
l
=
therefore,
A
VA
I 43 . 6
) 5 . 1 )( 10 6 . 5 (
) 10 0 . 6 )( 90 . 0 (
8
7
=

= =

l

Example 7.4
(a) Calculate the resistance per unit length of a 22 nichrome wire of
radius 0.321mm. (b) If a potential difference of 10V is maintained cross
a1m length of nichrome wire, what is the current in the wire.
nichromes
=1.510
-6
.m.
Solution
(a) The cross sectional area of the wire is
A =r
2
= (0.32110
-3
)
2
=3.2410
-7
m
2

The resistance per unit length is R/l
m
A
R
/ 6 . 4
10 24 . 3
10 5 . 1
7
6
=
= =

l

(b) The current in the wire is
A
R
V
I 2 . 2
6 . 4
10
= = =

Nichrome wire is often used for heating elements in electric heater, toaster and irons, since
its resistance is 100 times higher than the copper wire.

Material Resistivity (.m)
1 Silver 1.5910
-8

2 Copper 1.710
-8

3 Gold 2.4410
-8

4 Aluminum 2.8210
-8

5 Tungesten 5.610
-8

6 Iron 1010
-8

7 Platinum 1110
-8

8 Lead 2010
-8

9 Nichrome 15010
-8

10 Carbon 3.510
-5

11 Germanium 0.46
12 Silicon 640
13 Glass 10
10
-10
14

Table (7.1) Resistivity of various materials at 20
o
C

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7.6 Electrical Energy and Power
The current can flow in circuit when a
battery is connected to an electrical device
through conducting wire as shown in
figure 7.3. If the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to a and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to b of
the device. A charge dq moves through
the device from a to b. The battery
perform a work dW = dq V
ab
. This work
is by the battery is energy dU transferred
to the device in time dt therefore,

dU=dW= dq V
ab
=I dt V
ab
(7.13)

The rate of electric energy (dU/dt) is an electric power (P).

ab
IV
dt
dU
P = = (7.14)

Suppose a resistor replaces the electric device, the electric power is

P = I
2
R (7.15)

R
V
P
2
= (7.16)

The unit of power is (Joule/sec) which is known as watt (W).

B
a
t
t
e
r
y
I
I
I
I
I
I
Aa
Ab

Figure 7.3
Example 7.5
An electric heater is constructed by applying a potential difference of
110volt to a nichrome wire of total resistance 8. Find the current
carried by the wire and the power rating of the heater.

Solution
Since V = IR
A
R
V
I 8 . 13
8
110
= = =
The power P is
P =I
2
R =(13.8)
2
8=1520W

Example 7.6
A light bulb is rated at 120v/75W. The bulb is powered by a 120v. Find
the current in the bulb and its resistance.

Solution
P = IV
A
V
P
I 625 . 0
120
75
= = =
The resistance is
= = = 192
625 . 0
120
I
V
R

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7.7 Combination of Resistors
Some times the electric circuit consist of more than two resistors, which are,
connected either in parallel or in series the equivalent resistance is evaluated
as follow:

7.7.1 Resistors in Series:
The figure 7.4 shows three resistor in series, carrying a current I.

A B C D
V
AB
R
1
R
2
R
3
V
AD
V
BC
V
CD

Figure 7.4

For a series connection of resistors, the current is the same in each
resistor.

If V
AD
is the potential deference across the whole resistors, the electric
energy supplied to the system per second is IV
AD
. This is equal to the
electric energy dissipated per second in all the resistors.
IV
AD
=IV
AB
+IV
BC
+IV
CD
(7.17)

Hence
V
AD
=V
AB
+V
BC
+V
CD
(7.18)
The individual potential differences are
V
AB
=IR
1
, V
BC
=IR
2
, V
CD
=IR
3

Therefore
V
AD
=IR
1
+IR
2
+IR
3
(7.19)
V
AD
=I (R
1
+R
2
+R
3
) (7.20)
The equivalent resistor is
R

=R
1
+R
2
+R
3
(7.21)

7.7.2 Resistors in Parallel:
The figure 7.5 shows three resistor in parallel, between the points A and B,
A current I enter from point A and leave from point B, setting up a potential
difference V
AB
.

I
1
I
2
I
3
A
B
V
AB
R
1
R
2
R
3

Figure 7.5

For a parallel connection of resistors, the potential difference is equal
across each resistor.

The current branches into I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, through the three resistors and,
I=I
1
+I
2
+I
3
(7.22)
The current in each branch is given by
1
1
R
V
I
AB
= ,
2
2
R
V
I
AB
= ,
3
3
R
V
I
AB
=
+ + =
3 2 1
1 1 1
R R R
V I
AB
(7.23)
The equivalent resistance is

3 2 1
1 1 1 1
R R R R
+ + = (7.24)

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Physical facts for the series and parallel
combination of resistors

No. Series combination Parallel combination
1
Current is the same through all
resistors
Potential difference is the same
through all resistors
2
Total potential difference =sum of
the individual potential difference
Total Current =sum of the
individual current
3
Individual potential difference
directly proportional to the
individual resistance
Individual current inversely
proportional to the individual
resistance
4
Total resistance is greater than
greatest individual resistance
Total resistance is less than least
individual resistance

Notice that parallel resistors combine in the same way that series
capacitors combine, and vice versa.

Example 7.6
Find the equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in figure 7.6.
R
1
=3, R
2
=6, and R
3
=4.

R
2
R
1
R
3

Figure 7.6
Solution
Resistance R
1
and R
2
are connected in parallel therefore the circuit is
simplify as shown below

R
3
R
1
&R
2
R

2 1
1 1 1
R R R
+ =

6
3
6
1
3
1 1
= + =
R

R =2

Then the resultant resistance of R
1
&R
2
( R ) are connected in series with
resistance R
3

R=R +R
3
=2+4=6

Example 7.7
Find the equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in figure 7.7.
R
1
=4, R
2
=3, R
3
=3, R
4
=5, and R
5
=2.9.
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R
4
R
5
R
3
R
2
R
1

Figure 7.7
Solution
Resistance R
1
and R
2
are connected in series therefore the circuit is simplify
as shown below
R
4
R
5
R
3
R
1
&R
2
R
4
R
5
R
1
&R
2
&R
3
R

R =R
1
+R
2
=4+3=7

Then the resultant resistance of R
1
&R
2
( R ) are connected in parallel with
resistance R
3
21
10
3
1
7
1 1 1 1
3
= + = +
=
R R R

R =2.1
The resultant resistance R for R
5
&R
4
&R are connected in series.

R=R + R
5
+R
4
=2.1+5+2.9=10

Example 7.8
Three resistors are connected in
parallel as in shown in figure 7.8. A
potential difference of 18V is
maintained between points a and b.
R
1
R
2
R
3
18V
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
a
b

Figure 7.8
(a) find the current in each resistor. (b) Calculate the power dissipated
by each resistor and the total power dissipated by the three resistors.
(c) Calculate the equivalent resistance, and the from this result find the
total power dissipated.

Solution
To find the current in each resistors, we make use of the fact that the
potential difference across each of them is equal to 18v, since they are
connected in parallel with the battery.
Applying V=IR to get the current flow in each resistor and then apply P =
I
2
R to get the power dissipated in each resistor.
A
R
V
I 6
3
18
1
1
= = = P
1
=I
1
2
R
1
=108W
A
R
V
I 3
6
18
2
2
= = = P
2
=I
2
2
R
2
=54W
A
R
V
I 2
9
18
3
3
= = = P
3
=I
3
2
R
3
=36W
The equivalent resistance R
eq
is
18
11
9
1
6
1
3
1 1
= + + =
eq
R

R
eq
=1.6

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Example 7.9
Two wires A and B of circular cross section are made of the same metal
and have equal length, but the resistance of wire A is three times
greater than that of wire B. What is the ratio of their cross-sectional
area? How do their radii compare?

Solution
Since R=L/A, the ratio of the resistance R
A
/R
B
=A
A
/A
B
. Hence, the ratio is
three times. That is, the area of wire B is three times that of B.
The radius of wire b is 3 times the radius of wire B.

Example 7.10
Two conductors of the same length and radius are connected across the
same potential difference. One conductor has twice the resistance of
the other. Which conductor will dissipate more power?

Solution
Since the power dissipated is given by P=V
2
/R, the conductor with the lower
resistance will dissipate more power.

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Example 7.11
Two light bulbs both operate from 110v, but one has power rating 25W
and the other of 100W. Which bulb has the higher resistance? Which
bulb carries the greater current?

Solution
Since P=V
2
/R, and V is the same for each bulb, the 25W bulb would have
the higher resistance. Since P=IV, then the 100W bulb carries the greater
current.

Example 7.12
The current I in a conductor depends on time as I=2t
2
-3t+7, where t is in
sec. What quantity of charge moves across a section through the
conductor during time interval t=2sec to t=4sec?

Solution
dt
dQ
I = ; dQ=I dt

+ = =
4
2
2
) 7 3 2 ( dt t t Idt Q
[ ] C t t t Q 3 . 33 7 3 2
4
2
2 3
= + =

Example 7.13
A 2.4m length of wire that is 0.031cm
2
in cross section has a measured
resistance of 0.24. Calculate the conductivity of the material.

Solution
A
L
R = and
1
= therefore
m
RA
L
. / 10 23 . 3
) 10 1 . 3 )( 24 . 0 (
4 . 2
6
6
=
= =

Example 7.14
A 0.9V potential difference is maintained across a 1.5m length of
tungsten wire that has cross-sectional area of 0.6mm
2
. What is the
current in the wire?

Solution
From Ohms law,
R
V
I = where
A
L
R = therefore
A
L
VA
I 43 . 6
5 . 1 10 6 . 5
10 6 9 . 0
8
7
=

= =

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Example 7.15
A resistor is constructed by forming a material of resistivity into the
shape of a hollow cylinder of length L and inner and outer radii r
a
and
r
b
respectively as shown in figure 7.9. In use, a potential difference is
applied between the ends of the cylinder, producing a current parallel
to the axis. (a) Find a general expression for the resistance of such a
device in terms of L, , r
a
, and r
b
. (b) Obtain a numerical value for R
when L=4cm, r
a
=0.5cm, r
b
=1.2cm, and =3.510
5
.m.

Solution
(a)
) (
2 2
a b
r r
L
A
L
R
= =

(b)
[ ]
=
=
7
2 2
5
2 2
10 74 . 3
) 005 . 0 ( ) 012 . 0 (
) 04 . 0 )( 10 5 . 3 (
) (

a b
r r
L
R

L
r
b
r
a
Figure 7.9
Example 7.16
If a 55 resistor is rated at 125W, what is the maximum allowed
voltage?

Solution
R
V
P
2
=
V PR V 9 . 82 55 125 = = =

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7.9 Problems

7.1) A current of 5A exists in a 10
resistor for 4min. (a) How many
coulombs, and (b) how many
electrons pass through any cross
section of the resistor in this time?
7.2) A small but measurable current
of 1.0 10
-10
A exists in a copper
wire whose diameter is 0.10in.
Calculate the electron drift speed.
7.3) A square aluminum rod is 1.0m
long and 5.0mm on edge. (a) What
is the resistance between its ends?
(b) What must be the diameter of a
circular 1.0m copper rod if its
resistance is to be the same?
7.4) A conductor of uniform radius
1.2cm carries a current of 3A
produced by an electric field of
120V/m. What is the resistivity of
the material?
7.5) If the current density in a
copper wire is equal to
5.810
6
A/m
2
, calculate the drift
velocity of the free electrons in this
wire.
7.6) A 2.4m length of wire that is
0.031cm
2
in cross section has a
measured resistance of 0.24.
Calculate the conductivity of the
material.
7.7) Aluminium and copper wires of
equal length are found to have the
same resistance. What is the ratio
of their radii?
7.8) What is the resistance of a
device that operates with a current
of 7A when the applied voltage is
110V?
7.9) A copper wire and an iron wire
of the same length have the same
potential difference applied to
them. (a) What must be the ratio of
their radii if the current is to be the
same? (b) Can the current density
be made the same by suitable
choices of the radii?
7.10) A 0.9V potential difference is
maintained across a 1.5m length of
tungsten wire that has a cross-
sectional area of 0.6mm
2
. What is
the current in the wire?
7.11) A wire with a resistance of
6.0 is drawn out through a die so
that its new length is three times its
original length. Find the resistance
of the longer wire, assuming that
the resistivity and density of the
material are not changed during the
drawing process.
7.12) A wire of Nichrome (a nickel-
chromium alloy commonly used in
heating elements) is 1.0 m long and
1.0mm
2
in cross-sectional area. It
carries a current of 4.0A when a
2.0V potential difference is applied
between its ends. What is the
conductivity , of Nichrome?
7.13) A copper wire and an iron wire
of equal length l and diameter d are
joined and a potential difference V
is applied between the ends of the
composite wire. Calculate (a) the
potential difference across each
wire. Assume that l=10m,
d=2.0mm, and V=100V. (b) Also
calculate the current density in each
wire, and (c) the electric field in
each wire.
7.14) Thermal energy is developed in
a resistor at a rate of 100W when
the current is 3.0A. What is the
resistance in ohms?
7.15) How much current is being
supplied by a 200V generator
delivering 100kW of power?
7.16) An electric heater operating at
full power draws a current of 8A
from 110V circuit. (a) What is the
resistance of the heater? (b)
Assuming constant R, how much
current should the heater draw in
order to dissipate 750W?
7.17) A 500W heating unit is
designed to operate from a 115V
line. (a) By what percentage will its
heat output drop if the line voltage
drops to 110V? Assume no change
in resistance. (b) Taking the
variation of resistance with
temperature into account, would
the actual heat output drop be
larger or smaller than that
calculated in (a)?
7.18) A 1250W radiant heater is
constructed to operate at 115V. (a)
What will be the current in the
heater? (b) What is the resistance of
the heating coil?


Direct Current Circuits
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8.1 Electromotive Force
8.2 Finding the current in a simple circuit
8.3 Kirchhoffs Rules
8.4 Single-Loop Circuit
8.5 Multi-Loop Circuit
8.6 RC Circuit
8.6.1 Charging a capacitor
8.6.2 Discharging a capacitor
8.7 Electrical Instruments
8.7.1 Ammeter and Voltmeter
8.7.2 The Wheatstone Bridge
8.7.3 The potentiometer
8.8 Problems


.
Kirchhoff's rule
.
Electromotive force .

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8.1 Electromotive Force
In any electrical circuit it must exist a device to provide energy to force the
charge to move in the circuit, this device could be battery or generator; in
general it is called electromotive force (emf) symbol ( ). The
electromotive force are able to maintain a potential difference between two
points to which they are connected.

Then electromotive force (emf) ( ) is defined as the work done per unit
charge.
dq
dW
= (8.1)
The unit of is joule/coulomb, which is volt.
The device acts as an emf source is drawn in the circuit as shown in the
figure below, with an arrow points in the direction which the positive charge
move in the external circuit. i.e. from the -ve terminal to the +ve terminal of
the battery

When we say that the battery is 1.5volts we mean that the emf of that battery
is 1.5volts and if we measure the potential difference across the battery we
must find it equal to 1.5volt.

A battery provide energy through a chemical reaction, this chemical
reaction transfer to an electric energy which it can be used for mechanical
work Also it is possible to transfer the mechanical energy to electrical
energy and the electric energy can be used to charge the battery is chemical
reaction. This mean that the energy can transfer in different forms in
reversible process.
Chemical Electrical Mechanical

See appendix (A) for more information
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8.2 Finding the current in a simple circuit
Consider the circuit shown in figure
8.1(a) where a battery is connected to
a resistor R with connecting wires
assuming the wires has no resistance.
In the real situation the battery itself
has some internal resistance r, hence it
is drawn as shown in the rectangle box
in the diagram.
Assume a +ve charge will move from
point a along the loop abcd. In the
graphical representation figure 8.1(b)
it shows how the potential changes as
the charge moves.
When the charge cross the emf from
point a to b the potential increases to a
the value of emf , but when it cross
the internal resistance r the potential
decreases by value equal Ir. Between
the point b to c the potential stay
constant since the wire has no
resistance. From point c to d the
potential decreases by IR to the same
value at point a.
The potential difference across the batter between point a and b is given by
V
b
-V
a
= - Ir (8.2)

Note that the potential difference across points a and b is equal to the
potential difference between points c and d i.e.
V
b
-V
a
= V
d
-V
c
= IR (8.3)
Combining the equations
IR = - Ir (8.4)
Or
= IR + Ir (8.5)
r
R
I
I
a
c
d
b

Figure 8.1(a)

r
R
Ir
IR
V
a d c b

Figure 8.1(b)
Therefore the current I is
r R
I
+
=

(8.6)
This equation shows that the current in simple circuit depends on the
resistors connected in series with the battery.

We can reach to the same answer using this rule
The algebraic sum of the changes in potential difference across each
element of the circuit in a complete loop is equal to zero.

By applying the previous rule on the circuit above starting at point a and
along the loop abcda
Here in the circuit we have three elements (one emf and two resistors r&R)
applying the rule we get,
+ - Ir - IR = 0 (8.7)
The +ve sine for is because the change in potential from the left to the
right across the battery the potential increases, the -ve sign for the change in
potential across the resistors is due to the decrease of the potential as we
move in the direction abcda.
r R
I
+
=

(8.8)

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Example 8.1
In figure 8.2 find the current flow in the branch if the potential
difference V
b
-V
a
=12v. Assume
1
=10v,
2
=25v, R
1
=3, and R
2
=5.

R
1
R
2
a
b
I
1

2

Figure 8.2

Solution
We must assume a direction of the current flow in the branch and suppose
that is from point b to point a.

To find the current in the branch we need to add all the algebraic changes in
the potential difference for the electrical element as we move from point a
to point b.

V
b
-V
a
= +
1
+ IR
1
+ IR
2
-
2

a b .
V
b
-V
a
a b .

Solving for I

A
R R
V V
I
a b
375 . 3
8
) 10 25 ( ) 12 ( ) ( ) (
2 1
1 2
=
+
=
+
+
=

Example 8.2
Find the potential difference V
a
-V
b
for the branches shown in figure 8.3
& figure 8.4.

Solution
10v 12v
a
b
1

2

Figure 8.3

To find the potential difference V
a
-V
b
we should add the algebraic change in
the potential difference for the two batteries as we move from point b to
point a.
V
a
-V
b
= +
2
-
1
= 12 - 10 = 2v

30v 5v
a
b
1

3
15v
2

Figure 8.4

V
a
-V
b
= +
3
+
2
-
1
= 5 + 15 - 30 = -10v
b a

3

2

1
.

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8.3 Kirchhoffs Rules
A practical electrical circuit is usually complicated system of many
electrical elements. Kirchhoff extended Ohms law to such systems, and
gave two rules, which together enabled the current in any part of the circuit
to be calculated.

Statements of Kirchhoffs Rules
(1) The algebraic sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the
sum of the currents leaving that junction.
0 =
i
i
I at the junction (8.9)

(2) The algebraic sum of the changes in potential difference across all of the
elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero.
0 =
i
i
V for the loop circuit (8.10)
Note that the first Kirchhoffs rule is for the current and the second for the
potential difference.

Applying the first rule on the junction shown below (figure 8.5)

I
1
I
2
I
3
Junction

Figure 8.5

I
1
= I
2
+ I
3
Applying the second rule on the following cases
(1) If a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the change in
potential difference across the resistor is -IR.
I
b a
V
b
-V
a
=-IR

(2) If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the change
in potential difference across the resistor is +IR.
I
b
V
b
-V
a
=+IR
a

(3) If a source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (from - to + on
the terminal), the change in potential difference is + .
a b
V
b
-V
a
=+

(4) If a source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from +
to - on the terminal), the change in potential difference is - .
a b
V
b
-V
a
=-

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Hints for solution of problems using Kirchhoffs rules

:

) 1 ( emf
.
) 2 (
.

.
) 3 (
.
) 4 (

.
) 5 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 ( .

8.4 Single-Loop Circuit
In a single-loop circuit there is no junctions and the current is the same in all
elements of the circuit, therefore we use only the second Kirchhoff rule.

Example 8.3
Two battery are connected in opposite in a circuit contains two resistors
as shown in figure 8.6 the emf and the resistance are
1
=6v,
2
=12v,
R
1
= 8, and R
2
=10 . (a) Find the current in the circuit. (b) What is
the power dissipated in each resistor?
a
c
d
b
R
1
R
2
2
I
I
I
I

Figure 8.6
Solution
From figure 8.6 the circuit is a single-loop circuit. We draw an arrow for
each emf in the circuit directed from the -ve to +ve terminal of the emf. If
we assume the current in the circuit is in the clockwise direction (abcda).
Applying the second Kirchhoffs rule along arbitrary loop (abcda) we get
0 =
i
i
V
Starting at point (a) to point (b) we find the direction of the loop is the same
as the direction of the emf therefore
1
is +ve, and the direction of the loop
from point (b) to point (c) is the same with the direction of the current then
the change in potential difference is -ve and has the value -IR
1
. Complete
the loop with the same principle as discussed before we get;
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+
1
- IR
1
-
2
+ IR
2
= 0
Solving for the current we get
A
R R
I
3
1
10 8
12 6
2 1
2 1
=
+
=
+
=

The -ve sign of the current indicates that the correct direction of the current
is opposite the assumed direction i.e. along the loop (adba)
The power dissipated in R
1
and R
2
is
P
1
= I
2
R
1
= 8/9W
P
2
= I
2
R
2
= 10/9W
In this example the battery
2
is being charged by the battery
1
.

Example 8.4
Three resistors are connected in series with battery as shown in figure
8.7, apply second Kirchhoffs rule to (a) Find the equivalent resistance
and (b) find the potential difference between the points a and b.
a
b
R
2
R
3
I
I
I
R
1

Figure 8.7
Solution
Applying second Kirchhoffs rule in clockwise direction we get
- IR
1
- IR
2
- IR
3
+

= 0
or
3 2 1
R R R
I
+ +
=

R
I

= Q
therefore,
R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3

This is the same result obtained in section 7.1.1

To find the potential difference between points a and b V
ab
(=V
a
-V
b
) we use
the second Kirchhoffs rule along a direction starting from point (b) and
finish at point (a) through the resistors. We get

V
b
+ IR = V
a

Where R is the equivalent resistance for R
1
, R
2
and R
3

V
ab
= V
a
- V
b
= + IR
The +ve sign for the answer means that V
a
> V
b

Substitute for the current I using the equation
R
I

=
we get

V
ab
=
This means that the potential difference between points a and b is equal to
the emf in the circuit (when the internal resistance of the battery is
neglected).

Example 8.5
In the circuit shown in figure 8.8 let
1
and
2
be 2v and 4v,
respectively; r
1
,r
2
and R be 1, 2, and 5, respectively. (a) What is
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the current in the circuit? (b) What is the potential difference V
a
-V
b
and
V
a
-V
c
?
r
1
I
a b
r
2
R
c
1

2

Figure 8.8
Solution
Since the emf
2
is larger than
1
then
2
will control the direction of the
current in the circuit. Hence we assume the current direction is
counterclockwise as shown in figure 8.8. Applying the second Kirchhoffs
rule in a loop clockwise starting at point a we get
-
2
+ Ir
2
+ IR + Ir
1
+
1
= 0
Solving the equation for the current we get
A
r r R
I 25 . 0
2 1 5
2 4
2 1
1 2
+ =
+ +
=
+ +

=

The +ve sign for the current indicates that the current direction is correct. If
we choose the opposite direction for the current we would get as a result
-0.25A.
a
-V
b
we apply second Kirchhoffs rule starting at
point b to finishing at point a.

V
a
-V
b
= - Ir
2
+
2
= (-0.252)+4=+3.5v

Note that same result you would obtain if you apply the second Kirchhoffs
rule to the other direction (the direction goes through R, r
1
, and
1
)

a
-V
c
we apply second Kirchhoffs rule starting at
point c to finishing at point a.

V
a
-V
b
= +
1
+ Ir
1
= +2+(-0.251) = +2.25v
Note that same result you would obtain if you apply the second Kirchhoffs
rule to the other direction (the direction goes through R, r
2
, and
2
)

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8.5 Multi-Loop Circuit
Some circuits involving more than one current loop, such as the one shown
in figure 8.9. Here we have a circuit with three loops: a left inside loop, a
right inside loop, and an outside loop. There is no way to reduce this multi-
loop circuit into one involving a single battery and resistor.
a
c
d
b
R
2
R
1
R
3

Figure 8.9
In the circuit shown above there are two junctions b and d and three
branches connecting these junctions. These branches are bad, bcd, and bd.
The problem here is to find the currents in each branch.
A general method for solving multi-loop circuit problem is to apply
Kirchhoffs rules.

You should always follow these steps:
(1) Assign the direction for the emf from the -ve to the +ve terminal of the
battery.
a
c b
1

2

Figure 8.10

(2) Assign the direction of the currents in each branch assuming arbitrary
direction.

a
c
d
b
R
2
R
1
1

2
I
1
R
3
I
2
I
3

Figure 8.11

After solving the equations the +ve sign of the current means that the
assumed direction is correct, and the -ve sign for the current means that the
opposite direction is the correct one.

(3) Chose one junction to apply the first Kirchhoffs rule.
0 =
i
i
I

At junction d current I
1
and I
3
is approaching the junction and I
2
leaving the
junction therefore we get this equation
I
1
+ I
3
- I
2
= 0 (1)

(4) For the three branches circuit assume there are two single-loop circuits
and apply the second Kirchhoffs rule on each loop.
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a
c
d
b
R
2
R
1
1

2
I
1
R
3
I
2
I
3
a
b

Figure 8.12

For loop a on the left side starting at point b we get

+
1
- I
1
R
1
+ I
3
R
3
= 0 (2)

For loop b on the left side starting at point b we get

- I
3
R
3
- I
2
R
2
-
2
= 0 (3)

Equations (1), (2), and (3) can be solved to find the unknowns currents I
1
, I
2
,
and I
3
.

The current can be either positive or negative, depending on the
relative sizes of the emf and of the resistances.

Example 8.6
In the circuit shown in figure 8.13, find the unknown current I,
resistance R, and emf .
a
18v

I
a
R
1A
6A
2
2
b

Figure 8.13

Solution
At junction a we get this equation
I + 1 -6 = 0
Therefore the current
I = 5A
To determine R we apply the second Kirchhoffs rule on the loop (a), we get
18 - 5 R + 1 2 = 0
R = 4
To determine we apply the second Kirchhoffs rule on the loop (a), we
get
+ 6 2 + 1 2 = 0
= -14v

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Example 8.7
In the circuit shown in figure 8.14, (a)
find the current in the 2 resistor, (b) the
potential difference between points a and
b.
(Use the current as labeled in the figure
8.14).

Solution
At junction a we get
I
1
= I
2
+ I
3
(1)
For the top loop
12 - 2I
3
- 4I
1
= 0 (2)
For the bottom loop
8 - 6I
2
+ 2I
3
= 0 (3)
From equation (2)
I
1
= 3 - 1/2 I
3

From equation (2)
I
2
= 4/3 - 1/3 I
3

Substituting these values in equation (1), we get
I
3
= 0.909A the current in the resistor 2
The potential difference between points a and b
V
a
- V
b
= I
3
R = 0.9092=1.82v V
a
> V
b
12v
I
2
I
3
2
4
a
6
8v
I
1
b
Figure 8.14

Example 8.8
In the circuit shown in figure 8.15, (a) find the current I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
, (b)
the potential difference between points a and b. Use these values,
1
=10v,
2
=6v,
3
=4v, R
1
=6, R
2
=2, R
3
=1, and R
4
=4.
(Use the current as labeled in the figure below).
a
1
I
1
(b)
b
R
3
R
1
R
4
R
2
2
I
3
I
2
(a)

Figure 8.15
Solution
For the junction at the top we get
I
1
+ I
2
- I
3
= 0 (1)

For loop a on the left side we get
+
1
- I
1
R
2
-
2
+ I
2
R
3
- I
1
R
1
= 0
+10

- 2I
1
- 6

+ I
2
- 6I
1
= 0
+4

- 8I
1
+ I
2
= 0 (2)

For loop b on the right side we get
- I
2
R
3
+
2
-
2
+ I
3
R
4
= 0
- I
2
+ 6

- 4

- 4I
3
= 0
+2 - I
2
- 4I
3
= 0 (3)

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From equation (2)
I
1
=
8
4
2
I +
(4)
From equation (3)
I
3
=
4
2
2
I
(5)
Substitute in equation (1) from equations (4)&(5) we get
0
4
2
8
4
2
2
2
=
+
+ I
I
I

I
2
= 0

From equation (4)
I
1
= 0.5A

From equation (4)
I
3
= 0.5A

The potential difference between points a and b we use the loop (a)
V
b
- V
a
= -
1
+ I
1
R
2

V
b
- V
a
= -
1
+ I
1
R
2

V
b
- V
a
= 10 - 0.56 = -7v (V
b
< V
a
)

Example 8.9
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 8.16. Find (a) the current in the
20.0 resistor and (b) the potential difference between points a and b.

b a
10Ohm
10Ohm
5Ohm
5Ohm
20Ohm
25 V

Figure 8.16
Solution

Turn the diagram ion figure 8.16 on its side, we
find that the 20 and 5 resistors are in series,
so the first reduction is as shown in (b). In
addition, since the 10, 5, and 25 resistors
are then in parallel, we can solve for their
equivalent resistance as
=
+ +
= 94 . 2
25
1
5
1
10
1
1
eq
R
This is shown in figure (c), which in turn
reduces to the circuit shown in (d).

Next we work backwards through the diagrams,
applying I=V/R and V=IR. The 12.94 resistor
is connected across 25V, so the current through
the voltage source in every diagram is
A
R
V
I 93 . 1
94 . 12
25
= = =
1
0
O
h
m
1
0
O
h
m
5
O
h
m
5
O
h
m
2
0
O
h
m
2
5

V
b
a

(a)
1
0
O
h
m
1
0
O
h
m
5
O
h
m
2
5
O
h
m
2
5

V
b
a

(b)
1
0
O
h
m
2
.
9
4
O
h
m 2
5

V

(c)
1
2
.
9
4
O
h
m
2
5

V

(d)
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In figure (c), the current 1.93A goes through the 2.94 equivalent resistor
to give a voltage drop of:
V = IR = (1.93)(2.94) = 5.68V
From figure (b), we see that this voltage drop is the same across V
ab
, the
10 resistor, and the 5 resistor.
Therfore
V
ab
= 5.68V
Since the current through the 20 resistor is also the current through the
25
I = V
ab
/R
ab
= 5.68/25 = 0.227A

Example 8.10
Determine the current in each of the branches of the circuit shown in figure
8.17.
4V
12V
3
5
1
1
8

Figure 8.17
Solution
First we should define an arbitrary direction for the
current as shown in the figure below.
I
3
= I
1
+ I
2
(1)
By the voltage rule the left-hand loop
+I
1
(8)-I
2
(5)-I
2
(1)-4V=0 (2)
I
1
I
2
I
3
For the right-hand loop
4V+I
2
(5+1)+I
3
(4)-12V=0 (3)
Substitute for I
3
from eqn. (1) into eqns. (2)&(3)
8I
1
-6I
2
-4=0 (4)
4+6I
2
+4(I
1
+I
2
)-12=0 (5)
Solving eqn. (4) for I
2

6
4 8
1
2

=
I
I
Rearranging eqn. (5) we get

4
8
4
10
2 1
= + I I
Substitute for I
2
we get
I
1
+3.33I
1
-1.67=2
Then,
I
1
=0.846A
I
2
=0.462A
I
3
=1.31A

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8.6 RC Circuit
In the previous section we studied either circuits with resistors only or with
capacitors only, now we will deal with circuits contains both the resistors
and capacitors together, these circuits are time dependent circuit where the
current in the is varying with time.
In the circuit shown in figure 8.18 we have connected an emf with resistor R
and uncharged capacitor C using a switch S.
R
b
a
s
C
I

Figure 8.18

8.6.1 Charging a capacitor
When the switch S is connected to point (a) the battery will force charges to
move to the capacitor this called charging process of the capacitor. Note
that the current will not flow through the capacitor since there is no way for
the charge to jump from one plate to the other. However a positive charge
will accumulate on the plate connected with the positive terminal of the
battery. The same number of a negative charge will accumulate on the other
plate.
The current must stop after the capacitor will become fully charged and its
potential difference equals the emf.

. .
To analyze this circuit lets assume that in time dt a charge dq moves
through the resistor and the capacitor. Apply the first Kirchhoffs rule in a
direction from the battery to the resistor to the capacitor we get,
- IR -
C
q
= 0 (8.11)
Where IR is the potential difference across the resistor and q/C is the
potential difference across the capacitor.
The current I and the charge q are varying with time. Substitute for
I =
dt
dq
(8.12)
0 =
C
q
dt
dq
R (8.13)
By solving the differential equation to find the q as a function of time we
get,
) 1 (
RC t
e C q

= (8.14)
The quantity C is the maximum charge Q in the capacitor.
) 1 (
RC t
e Q q

= (8.15)

The current I is
RC t
e
R dt
dq
I

= =

(8.16)
t (sec)
I (A)
I
o
R
I
o
=
t (sec)
q
Q
C Q =

Figure 8.19
Plots of the charge Q and the current I as a function of
time in the charging process

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Note that the quantity RC in the equation has a unit of time (sec). Therefore
it is called the time constant of the circuit.
Unit of RC is Ohm . Farad=Sec

Ohm.Farad= Sec
Volt
Sec Volt
Volt
Sec Amp
Ohm
Volt
Coulomb
Ohm = = =
. .
. .

8.6.2 Discharging a capacitor
When the switch S is connected to point (b) the battery is disconnected and
now the charged capacitor plays the role of emf. Therefore the capacitor
will force a charge q to move through the resistor R this called discharging
process of the capacitor.
Apply the first Kirchhoffs rule in a direction from the resistor to the
capacitor we get,
- IR -
C
q
= 0 (8.17)
The current I and the charge q are varying with time. Substitute for
I =
dt
dq
(8.18)
0 = +
C
q
dt
dq
R (8.19)
By solving the differential equation to find the q as a function of time we
get,
RC t
Qe q

= (8.20)

The current I during the discharging process is
RC t
e
RC
Q
dt
dq
I

= = (8.21)

The -ve sign indicates that the direction of the current in the discharging
process is in the opposite direction of the charging process.

The quantity Q/RC is equal to the initial current I
o
(i.e. when t=0)
RC t
o
e I I

= (8.22)

I (A)
I
o
t (sec)
RC
Q
I
o
=
t (sec)
q
Q

Figure 8.20
Plots of the charge Q and the current I as a function of
time in the discharging process

In the end we found that charging and discharging process of the
capacitor is exponentially depends on the time constant (RC).

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Example 8.11
Consider an RC circuit in which the capacitor is being charged by a battery
connected in the circuit. In five time constants, what percentage of the final
charge is on the capacitor?

Solution
From equation (8.20)
) 1 (
RC t
e Q q

=
t = 5RC
RC t
e
Q
q

=1
5 5
1 1

= = e e
Q
q
RC RC
= 99.3%

Example 8.12
In figure 8.21 (a) find the time constant of the circuit and the charge on the
capacitor after the switch is closed. (b) find the current in the resistor R at a
time 10sec after the switch is closed. Assume R=110
6
, emf=30Vand
C=510
-6
F.
R
C
S

Figure 8.21
Solution
(a) The time constant = RC = (110
-6
)(510
-6
) = 5sec
The charge on the capacitor = Q = C = (510
-6
)(30) = 150 C

(b) The current in charging of the capacitor is given by
RC t
e
R
I

=

A e I
6 ) 10 5 )( 10 1 (
10
6
10 06 . 4
10 1
30
6 6
=

Example 8.13
Determine the potential difference V
b
-V
a
for the circuit shown in figure 8.22

Solution
The current is zero in the
middle branch since
there is discontinuity at
the points a and b.
Applying the second
Kirchhoffs rule for the
outside loop we get,
+12 - 10I - 5I - 8 - 1/2I - 1/2I = 0
+4 - 16I = 0
I = 4A
b
-V
a
is found by applying the second Kirchhoffs
rule at point a and move across the upper branch to reach point b we get,
V
b
-V
a
= +10I - 12 + 1/2I + 4
V
b
-V
a
= - 8 + 10.5I = - 8 + (10.54) = 34volt

12V
4V
8V
10
5
2
1
2
1
2
1
b a

Figure 8.22
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Example 8.14
The circuit has been connected as shown in figure 8.23 for a long time. (a)
What is the voltage across the capacitor? (b) If the battery is disconnected,
how long does it take for the capacitor to discharge to 1/10 of its initial
voltage? The capacitance C=1F.

4
2
8
1
10V a b
c
d

Figure 8.23
Solution
After long time the capacitor would be fully charged and the current in the
branch ab equal zero.
The resistors in the left hand (1, and 4) are connected in series and
assume the current in this branch cbd is I
1
. The resistors in the right hand
(8, and 2) are connected in series and assume the current in this branch
cad is I
2
.
The potential difference across the points c and d is the same as the emf =
10volt. Therefore,
A I 2
4 1
10
1
=
+
= A I 1
8 2
10
2
=
+
=
The total current,
I = I
1
+ I
2
= 3A

The potential difference across the capacitor V
b
-V
a
is
V
b
-V
a
= 8I
2
- 1I
1
= 8 1 - 1 2 = 6volt

To find the answer of (b) we need to find the equivalent resistance,
10
3
10
1
5
1 1 1 1
2 1
= + = + =
R R R

Where R
1
is the equivalent resistance for (1, and 4), and R
2
is the
equivalent resistance for (2, and 8)
R=3.3
From equation 8.17
RC t
Qe q

=
Divide by the capacitance C, therefore
RC t
e
C
Q
C
q

=
RC t
Ve v

=
RC t
e
V
v

=
The time for the capacitor to discharge to 1/10 of its initial voltage
RC t
e
=
10
1

Ln1 - Ln10 = -t/RC
t = Ln10RC
t = 7.7s

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8.7 Electrical Instruments
8.7.1 Ammeter and Voltmeter
A device called ammeter is used to measure the current flow in a circuit, the
ammeter must connected in series in the circuit so that the current to be
measured actually passes through the meter. In order that the ammeter will
not affect the current in the circuit it must has very small resistance.
A device called voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference
between two points, and its terminal must be connected to these points in
parallel.
A
V
R
2
R
1
r
a
b
d
c
I

Figure 8.24

In figure 8.24 shows an ammeter (A) measure the current I in the circuit.
Voltmeter (V), measure the potential difference across the resistor R
1
, (V
c
-
V
d
). In order that the voltmeter will not affect the current in the circuit it
must has very large resistance.
Note that the ammeter is connected in series is the circuit and the voltmeter
is connected in parallel with the points to measure the potential difference
across them.

8.7.2 The Wheatstone Bridge
This is a circuit consist of four resistors, emf, and galvanometer. The
Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to measure unknown resistance. In figure
8.25 show three resistors R
1
, R
2
, and R
3
are known with R
1
is a variable
resistance and resistor R
x
is the unknown one.
R
1
R
2
G
R
3
R
x
a b
I
2
I
1

Figure 8.25

To find the resistance R
x
the bridge is balanced by adjusting the variable
resistance R
1
until the current between a and b is zero and the galvanometer
reads zero. At this condition the voltage across R
1
is equal the voltage
across R
2
and the same for R
3
and R
x
. Therefore,
I
1
R
1
= I
2
R
2

I
1
R
2
= I
2
R
x

Dividing the to equation and solving for R
x
we get,
1
3 2
R
R R
R
x
= (8.23)
This shows how unknown resistor can be determined using the Wheatstone
bridge.

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8.7.3 The potentiometer
This circuit is used to measure potential differences by comparison with a
slandered voltage source. The circuit is shown in figure 8.26 where the
working emf is
w
and the unknown emf is
x
. The current flow in the
circuit is I in the left branch and I
x
is the current in the right branch and I-I
x

is the current flow in the variable resistor. Apply second Kirchhoffs rule
on the right branch abcd we get,
G
w
R
x
x
I I
x
I - I
x
a b
d
c

Figure 8.26

-(I-I
x
)R
x
+
x
= 0
When the variable resistance adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero, this
mean that I
x
=0.
x
= IR
x

In the next step the emf
x
is replaced with standard emf
s
, and adjusted
the resistance until the galvanometer reads zero, therefore,
s
= IR
x

Where the current I remains the same, divide the two equations we get,
s
s
x
x
R
R
= (8.24)
This shows how unknown emf can be determined using known emf.

8.8 Problems

8.1) A battery with an emf of 12V
and internal resistance of 0.9 is
connected across a load resistor R.
If the current in the circuit is 1.4A,
what is the value of R?
8.2) What power is dissipated in the
internal resistance of the battery in
the circuit described in Problem
8.1?
8.3) (a) What is the current in a
5.6 resistor connected to a battery
with an 0.2 internal resistance if
the terminal voltage of the battery
is 10V? (b) What is the emf of the
battery?
8.4) If the emf of a battery is 15V
and a current of 60A is measured
when the battery is shorted, what is
the internal resistance of the
battery?
8.5) The current in a loop circuit
that has a resistance of R
1
is 2A.
The current is reduced to 1.6A
when an additional resistor R
2
=3
is added in series with R
1
. What is
the value of R
1
?
8.6) A battery has an emf of 15V.
The terminal voltage of the battery
is 11.6V when it is delivering 20W
of power to an external load
resistor R. (a) What is the value of
R? (b) What is the internal
resistance of the battery?
8.7) A certain battery has an open-
circuit voltage of 42V. A load
resistance of 12 reduces the
terminal voltage to 35V. What is
the value of the internal resistance
of the battery?
8.8) Two circuit elements with fixed
resistances R
1
and R
2
are connected
in series with a 6V battery and a
switch. The battery has an internal
resistance of 5, R
1
= 32, and
R
2
=56. (a) What is the current
through R
1
when the switch is
closed? (b) What is the voltage
across R
2
when the switch is
closed?
8.9) The current in a simple series
circuit is 5.0A. When an additional
resistance of 2.0 is inserted, the
current drops to 4.0 A. What was
the resistance of the original
circuit?
8.10) Three resistors (10, 20, and
30) are connected in parallel.
The total current through this
network is 5A. (a) What is the
voltage drop across the network (b)
What is the current in each
resistor?
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8.11) (a) Find the equivalent
resistance between points a and b in
Figure 8.27. (b) A potential
difference of 34V is applied
between points a and b in Figure
28.28. Calculate the current in each
resistor.
4 9
7
10
b a

Figure 8.27
8.12) Evaluate the effective
resistance of the network of
identical resistors, each having
resistance R, shown in figure 8.28.
R
R R R
R R
a b

Figure 8.28
8.13) Calculate the power dissipated
in each resistor in the circuit of
figure 8.29.
18V
2
3 1
4

Figure 8.29
8.14) Consider the circuit shown in
Figure 8.30. Find (a) the current in
the 20 resistor and (b) the
potential difference between points
a and b.
b a
20
6
12
V 24
6
12

Figure 8.30
8.15) (a) In Figure 8.31 what value
must R have if the current in the
circuit is to be 0.0010A? Take &
1
=2.0V,
2
=3.0V, and
r
1
=r
2
=3.0. (b) What is the rate of
thermal energy transfer in R?
R
1
r
1
r
2

Figure 8.31
8.16) In Figure 8.32 (a) calculate the
potential difference between a and
c by considering a path that
contains R and
2.

r
1
I
a b r
2
R
c
1

2

Figure 8.32
8.17) In Figure 8.33 find the current
in each resistor and the potential
difference between a and b. Put
1
=6.0V,
2
=5.0V,
3
=4.0V,
R
1
=100 and R
2
=50.
R
2
R
1
1
b
a

Figure 8.33
8.18) (a) Find the three currents in
Figure 8.34. (b) Find V
ab
. Assume
that R
1
=1.0, R
2=
2.0,
1
=2.0 V,
and
2
=
3
=4.0V.
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
2
2
R
1
b
a
1

Figure 8.34
8.19) (a) Find the potential difference
between points a and b in the
circuit in Figure 8.35. (b) Find the
currents I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
in the circuit.
a
b
5 7
3
V 10
V 5
I
3
I
1
I
2

Figure 8.35
8.20) Determine the current in each
of the branches of the circuit shown
in figure 8.36.
6V
24V
3
6
1
3
10

Figure 8.36
8.21) Calculate the power dissipated
in each resistor in the circuit shown
in figure 8.37.
16V 12V
I
3
I
1
I
2
4
4
1

Figure 8.37
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8.22) Consider a series RC circuit for
which R=1M, C=5F, and
=30V. Find (a) the time constant
of the circuit and (b) the maximum
charge on the capacitor after the
switch is closed. (c) If the switch
in the RC circuit is closed at t=0.
Find the current in the resistor R at
a time 10s after the switch is
closed.
8.23) At t=0, an unchanged capacitor
of capacitance C is connected
through a resistance R to a battery
of constant emf (Figure 8.38). (a)
How long does it take for the
capacitor to reach one half of its
final charge? (b) How long does it
take for the capacitor to become
fully charged?
emf
R
C
Close at t =0

Figure 8.38
8.24) A 4M resistor and a 3F
capacitor are connected in series
with a 12V power supply. (a) What
is the time constant for the circuit?
(b) Express the current in the
circuit and the charge on the
capacitor as a function of time.

Multiple Choice Questions

Part 2
Applications of Electrostatic


Attempt the following question after the
completion of part 2
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220
[1] (a) How much charge is on a plate of a 4.00F capacitor when it is
connected to a 12.0 V battery? (b) If this same capacitor is connected to a
1.50 V battery, what charge is stored?

a. (a) 3.00 C; (b) 2.67 C
b. (a) 3.00 C; (b) 0.375 C
c. (a) 0.333 C; (b) 2.67 C
d. (a) 48.00 C; (b) 6.00 C

[2] Calculate the equivalent capacitance between points a and b in Figure 1.
3uF
7uF
3uF
1uF
1uF
aa
Ab
3uF
7uF
3uF
1uF
1uF
aa
Ab

Figure 1

Note that this is not a simple series or parallel combination. (Hint: Assume a
potential difference V between points a and b. Write expressions for V
ab

in terms of the charges and capacitances for the various possible pathways
from a to b, and require conservation of charge for those capacitor plates that
are connected to each other.)

a. 4.68 F
b. 15.0 F
c. 0.356 F
d. 200 F

[3] Two capacitors C
l
=27.0 F and C
2
= 7.00 F, are connected in parallel
and charged with a 90.0 V power supply. (a) Calculate the total energy
stored in the two capacitors. (b) What potential difference would be required
across the same two capacitors connected in series in order that the
combinations store the same energy as in (a)?

a. (a) 0.0225 J ; (b) 25.7 V
b. (a) 0.0225 J ; (b) 36.4 V
c. (a) 0.138 J ; (b) 223 V
d. (a) 0.13 8 J ; (b) 157 V

221
[4] Each capacitor in the combination shown in Figure 2 has a breakdown
voltage of 19.0V.
12 F u
24 F u
24 F u 24 F u
24 F u

Figure 2
What is the breakdown voltage of the combination?

a. 57.0 V
b. 28.5 V
c. 95.0 V
d. 19.0 V

[5] When a potential difference of 190 V is applied to the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor, the plates carry a surface charge density of 20.0 nC/cm
2
.
What is the spacing between the plates?

a. 8.41 m
b. 0.119 m
c. 0.429 m
d. 2.3 3 m

[6] A parallel plate capacitor is constructed using a dielectric material whose
dielectric constant is 4.00 and whose dielectric strength is 2.50 10
8
V/m.
The desired capacitance is 0.450F, and the capacitor must withstand a
maximum potential difference of 4000V. Find the minimum area of the
capacitor plates.

a. 3.25 m
2

b. 0.203 m
2

c. 0.795 m
2

d. 0.814 m
2

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222
[7] Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and b in the
combination of capacitors shown in Figure 3.
3uF
4uF
7uF
6uF
aa Ab

Figure 3

a. 1.12 F
b. 1.94 F
c. 1.12 F
d. 20.0 F

[8] The inner conductor of a coaxial cable has a radius of 0.500 mm, and the
outer conductor's inside radius is 4.00 mm. The space between the
conductors is filled with polyethylene, which has a dielectric constant of
2.30 and a dielectric strength of 20.0 10
6
V/m. What is the maximum
potential difference that this cable can withstand?

a. 30.4 kV
b. 70.0 kV
c. 20.8 kV
d. 166 kV

[9] Two capacitors when connected in parallel give an equivalent
capacitance of 27.0 pF and give an equivalent capacitance of 4.00 pF when
connected in series. What is the capacitance of each capacitor?

a. 10.4 pF, 16.6 pF
b. 9.76 pF, 44.2 pF
c. 9.77 pF, 17.23 pF
d. 4.88 pF, 22.12 pF

[10] An isolated capacitor of unknown capacitance has been charged to a
potential difference of 100 V. When the charged capacitor is then connected
in parallel to an unchanged 10.0 F capacitor, the voltage across the
combination is 30.0 V. Calculate the unknown capacitance.
a. 7.00 F
223
b. 2.31 F
c. 4.29 F
d. 13.0 F
[11] Four capacitors are connected as shown in Figure 4.

Ab
aa
19uF 5uF
24uF
6uF

Figure 4

(a) Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and b. (b) Calculate the
charge on each capacitor if V
ab
=11.0 V.
a. (a) 28.8 F; (b) q
19
= 1254, q
5
=330, q
6
=396, q
24
=317
b. (a) 7.04 F; (b) q
19
=30.8, q
5
=30.8, q
6
=46.7, q
24
=77.4
c. (a) 28.8 F; (b) q
19
=1584, q
5
=1584, q
6
=396, q
24
=317
d. (a) 7.04 F; (b) q
19
=148, q
5
=38.9, q
6
=46.7, q
24
=77.4

[12] A 40.0F spherical capacitor is composed of two metal spheres one
having a radius four times as large as the other. If the region between the
spheres is a vacuum, determine the volume of this region.

a. 5.18 10
18
m
3

b. 1.46 10
13
m
3

c. 1.37 10
13
m
3

d. 5.26 10
18
m
3

[13] A 18.0 m metal wire is cut into five equal pieces that are then connected
side by side to form a new wire the length of which is equal to one-fifth the
original length. What is the resistance of this new wire?

a. 90.0
b. 3.60
c. 0.720
d. 19.0

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224
[14] A small sphere that carries a charge of 8.00 nC is whirled in a circle at
the end of an insulating string. The angular frequency of rotation is 100
rad/s. What average current does the rotating rod represent?

a. 251 nA
b. 400 nA
c. 127 nA
d. 160 nA

[15] An aluminun wire with a cross sectional area of 4.00 10
-6
m
2
carries a
current of 5.00A. Find the drift speeds of the electrons in the wire. The
density of aluminum is 2.70 g/cm
3
. (Assume that one electron is supplied by
each atom.)

a. 9.45 10
-4
m/s
b. 1.30 10
-4
m/s
c. 1.78 10
-7
m/s
d. 7.71 10
-3
m/s

[16] A 16.0 V battery is connected to a 100 resistor. Neglecting the
internal resistance of the battery, calculate the power dissipated in the
resistor.

a. 0.0625 W
b. 1.60 W
c. 16.0 W
d. 0.391 W

[17] An electric current is given by I(t) = 120.0 sin(l.10t), where I is in
amperes and t is in seconds. What is the total charge carried by the current
from t = 0 to t =1/220 s?

a. 0.347 C
b. 120 C
c. 415 C
d. 1.09 C

[18] A resistor is constructed of a carbon rod that has a uniform cross
sectional area of 3.00mm When a potential difference of 19.0 V is applied
225
across the ends of the rod, there is a current of 2.00 10
-3
A in the rod. Find
(a) the resistance of the rod and (b) the rod's length.

a. (a) 1.05 k; (b) 998 mm
b. (a) 9.50 k; (b) 111 mm
c. (a) 9.50 k; (b) 814 mm
d. (a) 1.05 k; (b) 902 mm

[19] A copper cable is designed to carry a current of 500 A with a power loss
of 1.00 W/m. What is the required radius of this cable?

a. 3.68 cm
b. 6.76 cm
c. 13.5 cm
d. 7.36 cm

[20] In a certain stereo system, each speaker has a resistance of 6.00 Q. The
system is rated at 50.0 W in each channel, and each speaker circuit includes
a fuse rated at 2.00 A. Is the system adequately protected against overload?

a. yes
b. no
c. n/a
d. n/a

[21] Compute the cost per day of operating a lamp that draws 1.70 A from a
110 V line if the cost of electrical energy is $0.06kWh.

a. 0.458 cents/day
b. 45.8 cents/day
c. 1.12 cents/day
d. 26.9 cents/day

[22] Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor of the circuit of Figure 5.
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226
18V
2Ohm
3Ohm
4Ohm
1Ohm

Figure 5

a. P
2
=14.2 W, P
4
=28.4 W, P
3
=1.33 W, P
1
=4.00 W
b. P
2
=162 W, P
4
=81 0 W, P
3
=60.8 W, P
1
=20.3 W
c. P
2
=14.2 W, P
4
=28.4 W, P
3
=12.0 W, P
1
=0.444 W
d. P
2
=162 W, P
4
=81.0 W, P
3
=20.3 W, P
1
=60.8 W

[23] When two unknown resistors are connected in series with a battery, 225
W is dissipated with a total current of 7.00 A. For the same total current,
45.0 W is dissipated when the resistors are connected in parallel. Determine
the values of the two resistors.

a. 3.32 , 2.40
b. 3.32 , 7.92
c. 1.27 , 5.86
d. 1.27 , 3.32

[24] A fully charged capacitor stores 14.0 J of energy. How much energy
remains when its charge has decreased to half its original value?

a. 3.50 J
b. 7.00 J
c. 56.0 J
d. 14.0 J

227
[25] For the current shown in Figure 6, calculate (a) the current in the 1.00
resistor and (b) the potential difference between the points a and b.

a
b
6Ohm
1Ohm
8Ohm
18 V
6 V

Figure 6

a. (a) 2.90 A; (b) -2.90 V
b. (a) 1.74 A; (b) -1.74 V
c. (a) 1.74 A; (b) 1.74 V
d. (a) 2.90 A; (b) 2.90 V

[26] Three 4.00 resistors are connected as in Figure 7.
4Ohm
4Ohm
4Ohm

Figure 7

Each can dissipate a maximum power of 34.0 W without being excessively
heated. Determine the maximum power the network can dissipate.

a. 434 W
b. 22.7 W
c. 51.0 W
d. 102 W

[27] Consider the circuit shown in Figure 8.
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228

b a
18Ohm
18Ohm
5Ohm
5Ohm
12Ohm
5 V

Figure 8

Find (a) the current in the 12.0 resistor and (b) the potential difference
between points a and b.

a. (a) 0.0554 A; (b) 0.665 V
b. (a) 0.294 A; (b) 5.00 V
c. (a) 0.250 A; (b) 4.25 V
d. (a) 0.0442 A; (b) 0.751 V

[28] Two resistors connected in series have an equivalent resistance of 590
. When they are connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance is 125 .
Find the resistance of each resistor.

a. 327 , 263
b. 327 , 202
c. 180 , 410
d. 180 , 54.8

pppppppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp
pppppppp
229

Solution of the multiple choice questions

Q. No. Answer Q. No. Answer
1 d 15 b
2 d 16 c
3 c 17 a
4 b 18 c
5 a 19 a
6 b 20 a
7 c 21 d
8 c 22 a
9 d 23 d
10 c 24 a
11 b 25 b
12 a 26 c
13 c 27 d
14 b 28 c

pppppppppppppppppp

229

APPENDICES

Appendices
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230
APPENDIX (A)

Some practical application of
electrostatic

231
Understanding the Van de
Graaff generator
Now that you understand something about electrostatics and static
electricity, it is easy to understand the purpose of the Van de Graaff
generator. A Van de Graaff generator is a device designed to create static
electricity and make it available for experimentation.
The American physicist Robert J emison Van de Graaff invented the Van de
Graaff Generator in 1931. The device that bears his name has ability to
produce extremely high voltages - as high as 20 million volts. Van de Graaff
invented the Van de Graaff Generator to supply the high energy needed for
early particle accelerators. These accelerators were known as atom smashers
because they accelerated sub-atomic particles to very high speeds and then
"smashed" them into the target atoms. The resulting collisions create other
subatomic particles and high-energy radiation such as X-rays. The ability to
create these high-energy collisions is the foundation of particle and nuclear
physics.
Van de Graaff Generators are described as "constant current" electrostatic
devices. When you put a load on a Van de Graaff generator, the current
(amperage) remains the same. It's the voltage that varies with the load. In
the case of the Van de Graaff generator, as you approach the output terminal
(sphere) with a grounded object, the voltage will decrease, but as stated
above, the current will remain the same. Conversely, batteries are known as
"constant voltage" devices because when you put a load on them, the
voltage remains the same. A good example is your car battery. A fully
charged car battery will produce about 12.75 volts. If you turn on your
headlights and then check your battery voltage, you will see that it remains
relatively unchanged (providing your battery is healthy). At the same time,
the current will vary with the load. For example, your headlights may
require 10 amps, but your windshield wipers may only require 4 amps.
Regardless of which one you turn on, the voltage will remain the same.
There are two types of Van de Graaff generators, one that uses a high
voltage power supply for charging and one that uses belts and rollers for
charging. Here we will discuss the belts and rollers type.
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232
Van de Graaff generators are made up of a motor, two rollers, a belt, two
brush assemblies, and an output terminal (usually a metal or aluminum
sphere), as shown in the figure:
When the motor is turned on, the lower roller (charger) begins turning the
belt. Since the belt is made of rubber and the lower roller is covered in
silicon tape, the lower roller begins to build a negative charge and the belt
builds a positive charge. By now, you should understand why this charge
imbalance occurs, but you may want to look at the Triboelectric Series
again (see chapter 1). Silicon is more negative than rubber; therefore, the
lower roller is capturing electrons from the belt as it passes over the roller. It
is important to realize that the charge on the roller is much more
concentrated than the charge on the belt. Because of this concentration of
charge, the roller's electric field is much stronger than the belt's at the
location of the roller and lower brush assembly. The strong negative charge
from the roller now begins to do
two things:

1. It repels the electrons near
the tips of the lower brush
assembly. Metals are good
conductors because they are
basically positive atoms
surrounded by easily
movable electrons. The
brush assembly now has
wire tips that are positively
charged because the
electrons have moved away
from the tips, towards the
connection at the motor
housing.
2. It begins to strip nearby air molecules of their electrons. When an
atom is stripped of its electrons, it is said to be plasma, the fourth
state of matter. So we have free electrons and positively charged
atoms of air existing between the roller and the brush. The electrons
repel from the roller and attract to the electron-less brush tips while
the positive atoms attract to the negatively charged roller.
233
The positively charged atomic nuclei from the air molecules try to move
toward the negatively charged roller, but the belt is in the way. So now the
belt gets "coated" with the positive charge, which it then carries away from
the roller.
You should now understand that as long as there is air between the lower
roller and brush assembly, the Van de Graaff generator will continue to
charge the belt. Theoretically, the Van de Graaff generator can continue to
charge forever. Unfortunately, dirt and other impurities in the surroundings
will limit the actual charge that develops on the sphere.
Let's return to the belt. The belt, as we left it, is positively charged and
rolling toward the upper roller and upper brush assembly. Since I used
nylon for my upper roller, it wants to repel the charge on the belt. The upper
brush assembly is connected to the inside of the sphere and hangs near the
upper roller and belt location. The electrons in the brush move to the tips of
the wires, because they are attracted to the positively charged belt. Once the
air breaks down as before, the positive atomic nuclei of air are attracted to
the brush. At the same time, the free electrons in the air move to the belt.
When a charged object touches the inside of a metal container, the container
will take all of the charge, leaving the object neutral. The excess charge then
shows up on the outside surface of the container. Here our container is the
sphere. It is through this effect that the de Graaff generator is able to
achieve its huge voltages (over one million volts). For the Van de Graaff
generator, the belt is the charged object delivering a continuous positive
charge to the sphere.
One last note is a neutral material is used for the upper roller; thus the belt
becomes neutral after the sphere sucks its excess charge away.

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Appendices
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234
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

OSCILLOSCOPE, electronic instrument that records changes in the
voltage of an electric or electronic circuit by a trace of light on the face of a
cathode-ray tube (CRT). Oscilloscopes are widely used throughout industry
and in scientific laboratories to test and adjust electronic equipment and to
follow extremely rapid oscillations in electric voltages; the oscilloscope is
capable of following changes that occur within several billionths of a
second. Special converters attached to an oscilloscope can convert
mechanical vibrations, sound waves, and other forms of oscillatory motion
into electrical impulses that can be observed on the face of the CRT.
Oscilloscopes measure 2 things: voltage and time (and with time, often,
frequency). An electron beam is swept across a phosphorescent screen
horizontally (X direction) at a known rate (say 1 sweep in a millisecond).
An input signal is used to change the position of the beam in the Y
direction. The trace left behind can be used to measure the voltage of the
input signal (off the Y axis) and the duration or frequency can be read off
the X axis.
.

qV mv =
2
2
1

q V .
235

. X-plate
Y-plate . X-plate Y-
plate . X-plate
sawtooth waveform
) Time base (
Y-plate Channel
CRT .

.
Speed of response is the cathode-ray oscilloscope's chief advantage over
other plotting devices. General-purpose oscilloscopes have plotting
frequencies of up to 100 megahertz (MHz). Response times as rapid as
2,000 MHz are achievable with special-purpose, high-speed oscilloscopes.

volt
time
CRO screen
Appendices
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236
XEROGRAPHY (Photocopier)
XEROGRAPHY, electrostatic dry-printing process for the reproduction of
images or documents, widely employed in commerce and industry in
copying machines
The process was invented by the American printer Chester F. Carlson
(190668) in 1937 and first commercially developed in 1950. It makes use
of the principle of photoconductivity, that is, that certain substances resist
passage of an electric current except when struck by light. Silicon,
germanium, and selenium are poor conductors of electricity, but when light
energy is absorbed by some of their electrons, the electrons are able to pass
from one atom to another, thus allowing a current to flow when a voltage is
applied. When the light is removed, their conductivity again becomes low.
Xerography employs a photoconductive insulating layer, such as selenium,
on an aluminum or other conductive metal support.
The layer is charged electrostatically, either with
positive or negative ions, the polarity of the charge
depending on the type of photoconductive
insulating layer selected. When the plate is
exposed, in a camera or photographic machine,
those areas of the coating subjected to light lose a
varying portion of the charge, depending upon the
intensity of the illumination. Thus, the variation of
the amount of charge retained on the coated metal
plate is established as an electrical or electrostatic
pattern of the image. The image is rendered visible
by sprinkling over the exposed plate a special,
charged powder, which carries an opposite charge
to the initial charge applied to the plate and insulating layer. The powder
adheres to those areas that have retained their charge. The print is obtained
by covering the plate with paper, then applying a charge over the back of
the paper of the same polarity as the initial charge applied to the
photoconductive insulating layer. In this way the opposite charged powders
are transferred to the paper surface. The powder image is then fused onto
the paper by exposure to solvent vapors or heat to make the image
permanent.
The entire xerographic process can be carried out, in high-speed
mechanized equipment, in less than 5 seconds, and it is comparatively
237
inexpensive to make these images because the photoconductive insulating
layer can be recycled many thousand times. The process has found its
primary usefulness in copying office documents and in low-volume
duplication of data.

(a) The photoconductive surface is positively charged. (b) Using a light source and lens, an
image is formed in the surface in the form of hidden positive charges. (c) The surface
containing the image with a charged powder, which adheres only to the image area. (d) A
piece of paper is placed over the surface. This transfer the visible image to the paper,
which is heated to ix the powder to the paper.
The xerographic method also permits the making, quickly and cheaply; of
paper offset masterplates for low-to-medium-volume runs on office offset-
printing presses. The method has also been applied to the production of X-
ray images in a technique that is known as xeroradiography and is used in
mammography for early detection of breast cancer. Xerography is applied in
industrial nondestructive testing.
A variety of automatic xerographic machines are available today that make
office copies on the push of a button and that are almost unable to fail.
Xerographic machines can reproduce half-tone photographs and can enlarge
or reduce copy. They can be set to print on either one or both sides of paper,
to produce automatically a large or small number of copies without further
intervention by the operator, and to sort and collate. A development of the
late 1970s is color xerography. The economy, versatility, and flexibility of
the xerographic process have created legal problems relating to copyright
and helped stimulate numerous changes in the copyright laws in the U.S.
and elsewhere.
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239
Battery
Battery, is a devices that convert chemical energy directly into electrical
energy. Although the term battery, in strict usage, designates an assembly of
two or more voltaic cells capable of such energy conversion, it is commonly
applied to a single cell of this kind.
The mechanism by which a battery generates an electric current involves the
arrangement of constituent chemicals in such a manner that electrons are
released from one part of the battery and made to flow through an external
circuit to another part. The part of the battery at which the electrons are
released to the circuit is called the anode, or the negative electrode; the part
that receives the electrons from the circuit is known as the cathode, or the
positive electrode. (In a device that consumes current--e.g., electroplating
cell, electron tube, etc.--the term anode is often applied to the positive
electrode, while the negative electrode is called the cathode.)

The first battery appears to have been constructed about 1800 by Alessandro
Volta, a professor of natural philosophy at the University of Pavia in Italy.
This device, later known as the voltaic pile, was composed of a series of
silver and zinc disks in pairs, each of which was separated with a sheet of
pasteboard saturated in salt water. A current was produced when the
uppermost disk of silver was connected by a wire to the bottom disk of zinc.
In 1836 the English chemist J ohn Daniell developed what is considered the
classic form of the voltaic cell.
A voltaic cell is composed of two chemicals with different electron-
attracting capabilities that are immersed in an electrolyte and connected to
each other through an external circuit. These two chemicals are called an
electrochemical couple. In a zinc-acid cell, for example, the electrochemical
Appendices
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240
couple is a zinc-hydrogen ion couple. The reaction that occurs between an
electrochemical couple in a voltaic cell is an oxidation-reduction reaction.

At rest, a voltaic cell exhibits a potential difference (voltage) between its
two electrodes that is determined by the amount of chemical energy
available when an electron is transferred from one electrode to the other and
is thus subject to the chemical nature of the materials used in the electrode.
The current that flows from a cell is determined by the resistance of the total
circuit, including that of the cell itself. A low-resistance cell is required if
extremely large currents are desired. This can be achieved by the utilization
of electrodes with large areas. In short, the maximum current that can be
drawn from a cell is dependent on the area of the electrodes. Whenever a
current flows, the voltage of a cell decreases because of internal resistance
of the cell and the slowness of the chemical process at the electrodes.
A voltaic cell has a limited energy content, or capacity, which is generally
given in ampere-hours and determined by the quantity of electrons that can
be released at the anode and accepted at the cathode. When all of the
chemical energy of the cell has been consumed--usually because one of the
electrodes has been completely exhausted--the voltage falls to zero and will
not recover. The capacity of the cell is determined by the quantity of active
ingredients in the electrode.
241
There are two major types of voltaic cells: primary batteries and secondary,
or storage, batteries. (The latter are sometimes also called accumulators.)
Primary cells are constructed in such a way that only one continuous or
intermittent discharge can be obtained. Secondary devices, on the other
hand, are constructed so that they can be discharged and then recharged to
approximately their original state. The charging process is the reverse of the
discharge process; therefore, the electrode reactions in these batteries must
be reversible.

Primary batteries.
Several varieties of primary cells are available. These include dry, wet, and
solid electrolyte.
Dry cells are not actually dry but contain an aqueous electrolyte that is
unspillable or immobilized. Many of these cells are sealed to prevent
seepage of the electrolyte or reaction products. Common examples of such
primary batteries are acidic dry cells (e.g., carbon-zinc cells), used in
flashlights, toys, and certain transistorized portable radios; alkaline dry
cells, employed in cameras, tape recorders, and electric razors; and mercury
cells, utilized in hearing aids and photographic flash guns.
Wet cells contain a free and mobile electrolyte. They are used when service
requirements include large capacity and moderately high currents, as, for
example, in telephone and telegraph circuits and in signal systems for
marine, mine, highway, and railway use. The Lalande cell of zinc-copper
oxide--sodium hydroxide and the zinc-air-sodium hydroxide cell have been
widely employed for such applications. Often included among wet primary
cells is the so-called reserve battery, in which either magnesium-silver
chloride or magnesium-cuprous chloride serves as the electrode material.
Because these compounds are readily attacked by electrolytes (either
seawater or liquid ammonia), the battery is assembled with the electrolyte
stored in a separate container. The electrolyte is added immediately before
use. The reserve battery has been utilized primarily for military applications.
Solid electrolyte cells contain electrolytes of crystalline salts such as silver
iodide or lead chloride that have predominantly ionic conductivity. They are
suitable for long-term operations that require very low drain or for stand-by
services. Miniature versions of solid salt electrolyte batteries have been
developed for use in various kinds of electronic devices.
Appendices
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242
Secondary batteries.
Such batteries consist of an assemblage of several identical voltaic cells. Of
the various types of storage batteries available, the lead-acid type is the
most widely used. It serves as the power source for the electrical systems of
many kinds of motor vehicles, particularly automobiles and trucks. It is also
commonly used to provide electricity for emergency lighting and
communication circuits. The active constituents of a lead-acid battery are
sulfuric acid and two sets of plates (electrodes)--one containing pure lead
and the other lead dioxide. Each component cell consists of several of these
plate pairs connected in parallel and is capable of delivering approximately
two volts. Three or six cells are connected in series to make a 6- or 12-volt
battery, respectively. The sulfuric-acid electrolyte in each of the cells is
stored separately in its own compartment. During discharge, the plate
materials are converted into lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is depleted.
Discharge stops before all component chemicals are exhausted, usually
when the acid can no longer reach the active materials. Charging the battery
by passing a direct current through it reverses the chemical changes,
displacing the sulfate from the plates and causing a rise in the specific
gravity of the sulfuric acid.
Another important type of storage battery is the nickel-cadmium battery,
which operates much like the lead-acid variety but with different chemical
ingredients. It consists of a nickel hydroxide cathode and a cadmium anode
immersed in an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide solution. The nickel-
cadmium battery is lighter in weight than are other storage batteries and can
be hermetically sealed. Because of these features, nickel-cadmium cells are
utilized in many kinds of cordless appliances and other portable equipment.
A third storage battery of significance is the silver-zinc type. The anode of
this device is composed of a porous plate of zinc, the cathode of a silver
screen pasted with silver oxide, and the electrolyte of a solution of
potassium hydroxide saturated with zinc hydroxide. Silver-zinc batteries can
be charged and discharged only a limited number of times because of the
structure used to separate the electrodes. They do have, however, a high
energy-to-weight ratio and are suitable for applications in which light
weight is important.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%
243

APPENDIX (B)
Answer of Some Selected Problems

Appendices
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244
APPENDIX (B)
Answer of Some Selected Problems
Chapter 2
2.1) 1.610
-9
N repelling each other
2.4) 1.210
-5
C and 3.810
-5
C
2.5) q=1/2Q
2.6) 8.510
-2
N in the positive x-axis
2.8) 0.873N at 330
o

2.11) (0,0.853m)
2.13) (b) 2.410
-8
C

Chapter 3
3.2) (a) (-5.5810
-11
N/C)j,
(b) (1.0210
-7
N/C)j
3.3) (a) (-5.2010
3
N/C)j, (b)
(2.9310
3
N/C)j and (c) 5.8510
3
N/C at
225
o
.
3.4) 5.610
-11
C
3.7) 110
3
N/C in the direction of the
beam
3.8) (a) 1.510
3
N/C, (b) 2.410
-16
N up,
(c) 1.610
-26
N and (d) 1.510
10
.
3.15)
2
a
q
E
o
c t
= along the bisector,
away from the triangle
3.17) (a) 2.710
6
m/s, (b) 110
3
N/C

Chapter 4
4.2) 5.5610
5
N.m
2
/C
4.7) (a) zero, (b) 5.410
3
N/C and (c)
540N/C both radially outward
4.9) (a) zero, (b) 12510
4
N/C radially
outward, (c) 639N/C radially outward and
(d) no charge
4.10) (a) zero, (b) 810
7
N/C radially
outward (c) zero and (d) 7.3510
6
N/C
radially outward
4.11) (i)
3
4 a
r Q
E
o
c t
=
,
(ii)
2
4 r
Q
E
o
c t
=
,
(iii) zero (iv) zero and (v) inner Q; outer
zero.
4.12) (a) zero, (b) 3.6610
5
N/C, (c)
1.4610
6
N/C and (d) 6.510
5
N/C radially
outward
4.13) (a) 0.713C, (b) 5.7C
4.14) (i)
r l
q
E
o
c t 2
=
radially outward,
(ii)-q on both inner and outer surfaces,
(iii)
r l
q
E
o
c t 2
= radially outward
4.15) (a) zero, (b) 7.210
6
N/C away from
the center
4.16) 5.0810
5
N/C up
4.17) (i) zero, (ii)
o
c
o
= E
, and (iii) zero
245
Chapter 5
5.2) 6.4110
-19
C
5.4) 0.89m
5.5) 2m
5.6) 119nC, 2.67m
5.11) (a) 4500V, (b) same as (a) because
potential is scalar quantity
5.13) (a) 2.510
6
V, (b) 5.1J , and (c) 6.9J
5.15) (a) 386nJ positive binding energy
would have to be put in to separate them.
(b) 103V

Chapter 6
6.1) 18C
6.3) 4.3pF
6.5) (a) q
1
=9C; q
2
=16C; q
3
=9C;
q
4
=16C.
(b) q
1
=8.4C; q
2
=17C; q
3
=11C;
q
4
=14C.
6.6) (a) V
f
=2V; (b)
d
AV
U
i
2
2
1
o
c
=
,
U
f
=2U
i
; (c)
d
AV
W
2
2
1
o
c
=
6.7) (a) 4.810
-4
C, (b) V
4
=120V; V
6
=80V
6.11) 3300
6.12) (b) 3.2F
6.14) 800pJ , 5.79mJ /m
3

6.16) (a) 4F, (b) 8V; 24C, 4V; 24C,
12V, 24C
6.18) 0.188m
2

6.19) (a) q
1
=2.110
-4
C; q
2
=1.110
-4
C;
q
3
=3.210
-4
C. (b) V
1
=V
2
=21V; V
3
=79V.
(c) U
1
=2.210
-3
J ; U
2
=1.110
-3
J ;
U
3
=1.310
-3
J ;
Chapter 7
7.1) (a) 1.210
3
C, (b) 7.510
21
electron
7.2) 1.510
-15
m/s
7.6) 3.2310
6
/O.m
7.9) (a) 2.4 iron being larger, (b) no
7.10) 6.43A
7.12) 210
6
s
7.13) (a) 15V copper; 85V iron, (b)
8.510
7
A/m
2
, (c) 1.5V/m copper; 8.5V/m
iron
7.18) (a) 11A, (b) 11O and (c) 1100kcal

Chapter 8
8.1) 7.67O
8.3) (a) 1.79A, (b) 10.4V
8.5) 12O
8.7) 2.4O
8.9) 8O
8.10) (a) 27.3V, (b) 2.73A; 1.37A; 0.91A
8.11) (b) 1.99A; 1.17A; 0.819
8.12) (6/11)R
8.13) 14W; 28.5W; 1.33W; 4w
8.17) i
1
=50mA to the right; i
2
=60mA
down; V
ab
=9V
8.18) (a) the left branch, 0.67A down;
center branch, 0.33A up; the right branch,
0.33A up
8.19) (a) -10.4V
Appendices
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246
APPENDIX (C)
The international system of
units (SI)

247
APPENDIX (C)
The international system of units (SI)

SI Units http://tcaep.co.uk/science/siunits/index.htm

SI Units and Definitions

The Fundamental SI Units
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electrical current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr

SI Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol Factor
yatta Y 10
24
deci d 10
-1

zetta Z 10
21
centi c 10
-2

exa E 10
18
milli m 10
-9

peta P 10
15
micro 10
-6

tera T 10
12
nano n 10
-9

giga G 10
9
pico p 10
-12

mega M 10
6
femto f 10
-15

kilo k 10
3
atto a 10
-18

hecto h 10
2
zepto z 10
-21

deca da 10
1
yocto y 10
-24

Appendices
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248
SI Derived Units expressed in terms of base units
Quantity Name Symbol
area square meter m
2

volume cubic meter m
3

speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second square m/s
2

wave number 1 per meter m
-1

density, mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m
3

specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m
3
/kg
current density ampere per square meter A/m
2

magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
concentration mole per cubic meter mol/m
3

luminance candela per square meter cd/m
2

SI Derived Units with special names
Expression
in terms of
other units
Expression
in terms of
SI base units
frequency hertz Hz s
-1

force newton N m kg s
-2

pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m
2
m
-1
kg s
-2

energy, work, quantity
of heat
joule J N m m
2
kg s
-2

power, radiation flux watt W J /s m
2
kg s
-3

electric charge coulomb C s A
electric potential
difference
volt V W/A m
2
kg s
-3
A
-1

electromotive force volt V W/A m
2
kg s
-3
A
-1

capacitance farad F C/V m
-2
kg
-1
s
4
A
2

electric resistance ohm O V/A m
2
kg s
-3
A
-2

electric conductance siemens S A/V m
-2
kg
-1
s
3
A
2

magnetic flux weber Wb V s m
2
kg s
-2
A
-1

magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m
2
kg s
-2
A
-1

inductance herny H Wb/A m
2
kg s
-2
A
-2

temperature
degree
celsius
o
C K
luminance flux lumen lm cd sr
luminance lux lx lm/m
2
m
-2
cd sr
activity of radionuclide becquerel Bq s
-1

absorbed dose gray Gy J /kg m
2
s
-2

dose equivalent sievert Sv J /kg m
2
s
-2

249
SI Derived Units Expressed by Means of Special Names
Expression in terms
of SI base units
Dynamic Viscosity pascal second Pa s m
-1
kg s
-1

Moment of Force newton meter N m M
2
kg s
-2

Surface Tension newton per metre N/m kg s
-2
Heat Flux Density /
Irradiance
watt per square
metre
W/m
2
kg s
-3

Heat Capacity / Entropy joule per kelvin J /K M
2
kg s
-2
K
-1

Specific Heat Capacity /
Specific Entropy
joule per kilogram
kelvin
J /(kg K) m
2
s
-2
K
-1

Specific Energy joule per kilogram J /kg M
2
s
-2
Thermal Conductivity
watt per metre
kelvin
W/(m
K)
m kg s
-3
K
-1

Energy Density
joule per cubic
metre
J /m
3
m
-1
kg s
-2

Electric Field Strength volt per metre V/m m kg s
-3
A
-1

Electric Charge Density
coulomb per cubic
metre
C/m
3
m
-3
s A
Electric Flux Density
coulomb per
square metre
C/m
2
m
-2
s A
Permittivity farad per metre F/m m
-3
kg
-1
s
4
A
2

Permeability henry per metre H/m m kg s
-2
A
-2

Molar Energy joule per mole J /mol m
2
kg s
-2
mol
-1

Molar Entropy / Molar Heat
Capacity
joule per mole
kelvin
J /(mol
K)
m
2
kg s
-2
K
-1
mol
-1

Exposure (x and rays)
coulomb per
kilogram
C/kg kg
-1
s A
Absorbed Dose Rate gray per second Gy/s M
2
s
-3

Appendices
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250
SI Supplementary Units
Quantity Name Symbol Expression in terms of SI base units
Plane Angle radian rad m m
-1
=1
Solid Angle steradian sr m
2
m
-2
=1

SI Derived Units Formed Using Supplementary Units
Angular Velocity radian per second rad/s
Angular Acceleration radian per second squared rad/s
2

Radiant Intensity watt per steradian W/sr
Radiance watt per square metre steradian W/(m
2
sr)

251
Metric and Imperial Measures

Length
1 centimeter cm =10 mm =0.3937 in
1 meter m =100 cm =1.0936 yd
1 kilometer km =1000 m =0.6214 mile
1 inch in =2.54 cm
1 yard yd =36 in =0.9144 m
1 mile =1760 yd =1.6093 km

Surface or Area
1 sq cm cm
2
=100 mm
2
=0.1550 in
2

1 sq m m
2
=10000 cm
2
=1.1960 yd
2

1 sq km km
2
=100 ha =0.3861 mile
2

1 sq in in
2
=6.4516 cm
2

1 sq yd yd
2
=9 ft
2
=0.8361 m
2

1 sq mile mile
2
=640 acres =2.59 km
2

Volume and Capacity
1 cu cm cm
3
=0.0610 in
3

1 cu m m
3
=1000 dm
3
=1.3080 yd
3

1 liter l =1 dm
3
=0.220 gal
1 hectoliter hl =100 l =21.997 gal
1 cu in in
3
=16.387 cm
3

1 cu yd yd
3
=27 ft
3
=0.7646 m
3

1 pint pt =20 fl oz =0.56831 l
1 gallon gal =8 pt =4.546 l

Mass
1 gram g =1000 mg =0.0353 oz
1 kilogram kg =1000 g =2.2046 lb
1 tonne t =1000 kg =0.9842 ton
1 ounce oz =437.5grains =28.35 g
1 pound lb =16 oz =0.4536 kg
1 ton =20cwt =1.016 t

US Measures

1 US dry pint =33.60 in
3
=0.5506 l
1 US liquid pint =0.8327 imp pt =0.4732 l
1 US gallon =0.8327 imp gal =3.785 l
1 short cwt 100 lb =45.359 kg
1 short ton 2000 lb =907.19 kg

Appendices
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252

Symbols
Greek Alphabet
http://tcaep.co.uk/science/symbols/greek.htm

alpha

xi

beta

omicron

gamma

pi

delta

rho

epsilon

sigma

zeta

tau

eta

upsilon

theta

phi

iota

chi

kappa

psi

lambda

omega

mu

xi
nu

253

Periodic Table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
I II III IV V VI VII VIII I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1
1
H

2
He
2
3
Li
4
Be

5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
3
11
Na
12
Mg

13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
4
19
K
20
Ca

21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
5
37
Rb
38
Sr

39
Y
40
Zr
41
Nb
42
Mo
43
Tc
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd
47
Ag
48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe
6
55
Cs
56
Ba

La
71
Lu
72
Hf
73
Ta
74
W
75
Re
76
Os
77
Ir
78
Pt
79
Au
80
Hg
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn
7
87
Fr
88
Ra

Ac
103
Lr
104
Rf
105
Db
106
Sg
107
Bh
108
Hs
109
Mt
110
Uun
111
Uuu
112
Uub
113

114
Uuq
115

116
Uuh
117

118
Uuo

Lanthanides
57
La
58
Ce
59
Pr
60
Nd
61
Pm
62
Sm
63
Eu
64
Gd
65
Tb
66
Dy
67
Ho
68
Er
69
Tm
70
Yb

Actinides
89
Ac
90
Th
91
Pa
92
U
93
Np
94
Pu
95
Am
96
Cm
97
Bk
98
Cf
99
Es
100
Fm
101
Md
102
No

Obtained from http://tcaep.co.uk/science/periodic/index.htm
Appendices
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254

APPENDIX (D)
Physics Resources on the Web

255
APPENDIX (D)
Physics Resources on the Web
Astronomy and Astrophysics
Center for Particle
Astrophysics
http://physics7.berceley.edu/home.hml
NASA Home Page http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/NASAhomepage.html
Institutes of Astronomy http://www.yahoo.com/Science/Astronomy/Institutes
WebStars: Astrophysics on
the Web
http:// .gsfc.nasa.gov/WebStars/About.html
Astrotext:(Online hyper-
textbook)
http://uu.gna.mit.edu:8001/uu-gna/text/astro
Earth Views http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/html/earth.htm
National Optical
Observatories
http://www.noao.edu/noao.html
Observatories Around the
World
http://www.yahoo.com/Science/Astronomy/Observatories
Space Telescope Science
Institute
http://marvel.stsci.edu/top.html
Strasburg Astronomical
Data Center
http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/CDS.html
WebStars: Astrophysics in
Cyberspace
http://guinan.gsfc.nasa.gov
NASA Research Labs
http://www.yahoo.com/Government/Research_Labs/NAS
A
Astronomy Resources http://www.stsci.edu/net-resources.html
Computers in Physics and Laboratory Automation
The Computer Society http://www.computer.org/
Physical Computing A
hands-on Tutorial.
http://www.itp.tsoa.nyu.edu/~alumni/dano/physical/physical.htm
l
ADAC Manufacturers
of Labtech Notebook.
http://www.adac.com/adac/index.html
Keithely. http://www.keithley.com/
Strawberry Tree. http://www.strawberrytree.com/
National Instruments. http://www.natinst.com/
Links to TEX/LATEX
Resources
http://www.it.kth.se/misc/external/teX-links.html
Computers in
Physics(J ournal)
http://www.aip.org/cip/ciphome.html
IEEE http://www.ieee.org/spectrum/spechome.html
Appendices
www.hazemsakeek.com
256
Spectrum(J ournal)

Condensed Matter Resources
Condensed Physics Labs http://www-
cmt.physics.brown.edu/cmt/resources/groups.html
Society of Vacuum Coaters http://www.svc.org
Materials Research Society http://www.mrs.org
Energy Research Resources
Department of Energy (DOE) http://www.ofr.er.doe.gov/
DOE Office of Energy Research http://www.er.doe.gov/
National Renuable Energy Laboratory
(NREL)
http://www.nrel.gov/
Solar Energy www.netins.net/showcase/solarcatalog
/
High Energy Physics (HEP)
Fermilab http://fnnews.fnal.gov/
HEP Labs Around the World http://www.cern.ch/Physics/HEP.html
HEP Information Center http://www.hep.net/
Experiments On-Line: home pages of
individual HEP experiments
http://www-
slac.slac.stanford.edu/find/explist.html
Institute of High Energy Physics
(China)
http://www.ihep.ac/ihep.html/
PDG - The Particle Data Group http://pdg.lbl.gov/
FreeHEP - Library of High Energy
Physics Software
http://heplibw3.slac.stanford.edu/find/fhmai
n.html
HEPIC - High-Energy Physics
Information Center
http://www.hep.net/
Nuclear Physics
The American Nuclear Society http://www.ans.org/
DOE/NSF Nuclear Science Advisory
Committee Home Page
http://www.nsf.gov/mps/phy/nuclear.htm
Radioactive Waste http://www.nea.fr/html/trw/index.html/
Fusion http://www.yahoo.con/Science/Physics/Fusion/
Austin Fusion Studies http://w3fusion.ph.utexas.edu/
KVI Research Network gopher://kviexp.kvi.nl/

257
Optics
OpticsNet (Optical Society of America) http://www.osa.org/homepage.html
Particle Physics
Particle Physics and
Cosmology
http://www.eagle.co.uk/ppi/home.html
Stanford Linear Accelerator
Center
http://www.heplibw3.slac.stanford.edu/FIND/slac.html
Relativity
Einstein in 3D http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/Apps/GenRel/SC93/HOME_sc93.html
Relativity http://www.yahoo.com/Science/Physics/Relativity
X-ray Resources
Advanced Photon Source Mosaic Home
Page
http://www.aps.anl.gov/welcome.html
Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source http://www.tn.cornell.edu/
Harvard X-Ray Group - studies various
interfaces: liquid helium films, liquid
metals, langmuir monolayers etc.
http://hutrough.harvard.edu/
IIT Synchrotron Radiation Program http://www.csrri.iit.edu/
International XAFS Society(2) http://www.birzeit.edu/Science/Physics/
X_Ray/International_XAFS_Society/"
Real Time Studies of Crystal Growth with
X-rays
http://www.tn.cornell.edu/SIG/RTgrowt
h/RTgrowth.contents.html
SUNY Stony Brook X-ray Physics http://xray1.physics.sunysb.edu/
Synchrotron Radiation Materials Research
Lab
http://syli34.physik.uni-bonn.de
UWXAFS - XAFS analysis programs from
the University of Washington
http://krazy.phys.washington.edu/
X-Ray - development of industrial
application of radiation after the discovery
of x-rays.
http://www.ricoh.co.jp/net-
messena/NDTWW/J SNDI/XRAY.html
X-ray absorption data http://www.csrri.iit.edu/periodic-
table.html
X-Ray WWW Server http://xray.uu.se/
XAFS Database http://xafsdb.iit.edu/database/

Other Physics Topics on the Web
Appendices
www.hazemsakeek.com
258
Electromagnetic Fields and Microwave
Electronics
http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/"
Plasma Physics http://plasma-
gate.weizmann.ac.il/PlasmaI.html
Sounds From Chaos http://www.ccsr.uiuc.edu/People/gmk/Pape
rs/Chua/SndRef.html
Periodic Tables of the Elements
The Periodic Table of
Elements
http://www.cs.ubc.ca/elements/periodic-table
Periodic Table in Hypertext
Format
http://www.cchem.berkeley.edu/Table/
Periodic Table of the Elements
(Online)
http://kuhttp.cc.ukans.edu/cwis/reference/Periodic/pe
riodic.html
Webelements Dept. of
Chemistry, Univ. of Scheffield
http://www2.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/
Physics Laboratories Worldwide
Fermilab http://fnnews.fnal.gov/
High energy physics labs
around the world
http://www.cern.ch/Physics/HEP.html
Condensed matter labs
around the world
http://www-cmt.physics.brown.edu/cmt/resources/groups
Brookhaven National
Laboratory
http://www.bnl.gov/
Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center
http://www.heplibw3.slac.stanford.edu/FIND/slac.html
Cornell High Energy
Synchrotron Source
http://www.tn.cornell.edu/
NIST Physics Laboratory http://physics.nist.gov

Physics Related Journals
American J ournal of Physics http://www.amherst.edu/~aip/menu.html
Computers in Physics http://www.aip.org/cip/ciphome.html
IEEE Spectrum http://www.ieee.org/spectrum/spechome.html

Physics and Related Societies Worldwide
259
American Physical Society (APS) http://aps.org/
American Institute of Physics http://www.aip.org
American Mathematical Society http://e-math.ams.org
National Science Foundation http://stis.nsf.gov
The Electrochemical Society http://www.electrochem.org
Society of Vacuum Coaters http://www.electrochem.org
American Nuclear Society http://www.ans.org
Optical Society of America http://www.osa.org/homepage.html
The Computer Society http://www.computer.org
The European Physical Society http://www.nikhef.nl/www/pub/eps/eps.html
Materials Research Society http://www.mrs.org
Publishers and Published Resources
Addison Wesley - Physics http://www.AW.com/he/Physics/PhysIndex.html
J ohn Wiley :Wiley
College(Physics)
http://www.wiley.co.uk/college/math/phys/index.html
AIP Press Catalog http://www.aip.org/aippress
Institute of Physics Publishing http://iop.org
Index of Abstracts http://xxx.lanl.gov
Other Physics Resource Sites
TIPTOP: The Internet Pilot TO
Physics
http://www.tp.umu.se/TIPTOP
World Wide Web Virtual
Library - Physics
http://www.w3.org/vl/Physics/Overview.html
Einet Galaxy - Physics
(Science)
http://www.einet.net/galaxy/Science/Physics.html
AIP's LinkLIST http://www.aip.org/aip/physres.html
Yahoo: A Guide to the WWW
- Physics
http://www.yahoo.com/Science/Physics
World Wide Web Index -
Physics
http://www.het.brown.edu/Physics/index.html
Physics Servers and Services
Around the World
http://www.physics.mcgill.ca/deptdocs/physics
services.html
The Virtual Review http://www.het.brown.edu/physics/review/index.html
Astronomical Internet
Resources
http://marvel.stsci.edu/net-resources.html

Appendices
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260

APPENDIX (E)
Bibliography

261
APPENDIX (E)
Bibliography

The Subject of this book Electrostatic: Principles and Applications may,
of course, found in many textbooks of general physics. Some of the books,
in particular, have good and interesting discussions of electrostatic (for
example, R. A. Serway, Physics for scientists and engineering with modern
physics. In the following list comprises books that relate either to
individual topics or to the whole scope of the present text. In general these
references are comparable in level to the present books.

Borowitz and Beiser Essentials of physics. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., 1971.
Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. Physics (part two). J ohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1978.
Kubala, T.S., Electricity 2: Devices, Circuits and Materials, 2001
Nelkon, M. and Parker, P. Advanced level physics. Heinemann
Educational Books Ltd., 1982.
Ryan, C.W., Basic Electricity : A Self-Teaching Guide, 1986
Sears, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. University physics
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1982.
Serway, R. A. Physics for scientists and engineering with modern physics.
Saunders College Publishing, 1990.
Weidner, R.T. and Sells, R.L. Elementary physics: classical and modern.
Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1973.
Valkenburgh, N.V., Basic Electricity: Complete Course, 1993
Appendices
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262

APPENDIX (F)
Index

263
APPENDIX (F)
Index

A
Ammeter, 213
Ampere, 157

B
Battery, 182, 238

C
Capacitance, 125, capacitor,
effect of dielectric, 145
parallel,129
series,130
Capacitor, 125
Energy stored in capacitor, 135
Charge density, 63
Charge distribution, 63
Charging a capacitor, 205
Circuit, 183
multiloop, 195
single-loop, 190
Conduction electrons, 9
Conductivity, 159
Conductor, 9
Conservation of charge, 11
Coulomb's law, 16
Current density, 157
and drift speed, 157
Current loop, 190, 195

D
Dielectric constant, 145
Direction of current, 157
Discharging a capacitor, 207

E
Electron, 12
Electric dipole, 36
Electric dipole moment, 37
Electric force, 16
Electric field, 32
Electric flux, 54
Electromotive force, 182
Electron volt, 89
Energy density 136
Equipotential surface, 85
Equivalent capacitance, 129
Equivalent resistance, 165

F
Flux 54
Field lines of force 38

G
Gauss's law, 59
infinite line of charge, 64
infinite plane of charge, 65
spherically symmetric
charge, 67
Gaussian surface, 57

Appendices
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264
I
Internal resistance, 183

J
J unction, in circuit, 187
Loop theorem, 195

K
Kirchhoff's first rule, 187
Kirchhoff's second rule, 188

N
Net flux, 55

O
Ohm's law, 159
Oscilloscope, cathode-ray, 234

P
Permittivity constant, 16
Plasma, 8
Potentiometer, 215
Power, 163

Q
Quantization, 12

R
Resistivity, 159
Resistance, 159
parallel connection, 166
Series connection, 165

S
Semiconductor, 9
Series connection of, capacitors,
130, resistors, 165

SI units of, capacitance, 110
charge, 16
conductivity, 159
current, 157
electric field, 32, 86
electric flux, 54
electric potential, 84
RC circuit, 205
Stored energy, in capacitor, 135
Stable equilibrium, 48

T
Triboelectric series, 6

U
Unstable equilibrium, 48

V
Van de Graff generator, 5, 231
Volt, 84
Voltmeter, 213

W
Wheatstone bridge, 214

X
Xerography, 236

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due to a charged particle 33

for a group of point charge 34

is known as the Permittivity constant of free space.

= (for r>a) (4.10)

= (for r<a) (4.13)

Multiple Choice Questions

Lectures in General Physics

Lectures in General Physics

Lectures in General Physics

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