D1

Compensation Techniques

• Performance specifications for the closed-loop system

• Stability
• Transient response Æ T , M (settling time, overshoot)
s s
or phase and gain margins
• Steady-state response Æ e (steady state error)
ss

• Trial and error approach to design

Performance specifications

Root-locus or
Frequency Synthesis
response
techniques

Analysis of closed-loop system

No
Are specifications
met?

Yes
 D2

Basic Controls
1. Proportional Control

+ E(s) M(s)
K G(s)

M (s)
= K m (t ) = K ⋅ e (t )
E (s)

2. Integral Control

+ E(s) K M(s)
G(s)
s
-

M ( s) K
= m ( t ) = K ∫ e ( t ) dt
E (s) s

Integral control adds a pole at the origin for the open-loop:

• Type of system increased, better steady-state performance.

• Root-locus is “pulled” to the left tending to lower the

system’s relative stability.
 D3

3. Proportional + Integral Control

+ E(s) K M(s)
Kp + i G(s)
s
-

K K p s + Ki
M ( s)
= Kp + i = m (t ) = K p e (t ) + ∫ K i e (t )dt
E ( s) s s
Ki
A pole at the origin and a zero at − are added.
K p

4. Proportional + Derivative Control

+ E(s) K p + K d s M(s) G(s)

de (t )
M ( s)
= K p + Kd s m ( t ) = K p e (t ) + K d
E ( s) dt

• Root-locus is “pulled” to the left, system becomes more

stable and response is sped up.
• Differentiation makes the system sensitive to noise.
 D4

5. Proportional + Derivative + Integral (PID) Control

M(s)

+ E(s) Ki
K p + Kd s + G(s)
s
-

M ( s) K
= K p + Kd d + i
E ( s) s
de (t )
m ( t ) = K p e (t ) + K d + K i ∫ e (t )dt
dt

• More than 50% of industrial controls are PID.

• More than 80% in process control industry.
• When G(s) of the system is not known, then initial values
for Kp, Kd, Ki can be obtained experimentally and than
fine-tuned to give the desired response (Ziegler-Nichols).

6. Feed-forward compensator
 D5

+ E(s) Gc (s ) M(s)
G(s)

Design Gc(s) using Root-Locus or Frequency Response

techniques.
 D6

Frequency response approach to

compensator design

Information about the performance of the closed-loop system,

obtained from the open-loop frequency response:

• Low frequency region indicates the steady-state behavior.

• Medium frequency (around -1 in polar plot, around gain
and phase crossover frequencies in Bode plots) indicates
relative stability.
• High frequency region indicates complexity.

Requirements on open-loop frequency response

• The gain at low frequency should be large enough to give

a high value for error constants.
• At medium frequencies the phase and gain margins should
be large enough.
• At high frequencies, the gain should be attenuated as
rapidly as possible to minimize noise effects.

Compensators
• lead:improves the transient response.
• lag: improves the steady-state performance at the expense
of slower settling time.
• lead-lag: combines both
 D7

Lead compensators

1
s+
Ts + 1
Gc (s ) = K c a = Kc T
aTs + 1 1 T > 0 and 0 < α < 1
s+
aT

• Poles and zeros of the lead compensator:

1 1
− −
aT T

• Frequency response of Gc(jω):

The maximum phase-lead angle φm occurs at ωm , where:

1−α
sin φm = and
1+α
1 1
logωm = logT + log 
2 aT Æ ωm =
1
a T
 D8

Since

1 + jω T 1
=
1 + jω aT ω =ω m
a

the magnitude of Gc(jω) at ωm is given by:

Gc ( jωm) = Kc a

Polar plot of a lead network

a ( jω T + 1)
( jωaT + 1) where 0 < a < 1

is given by
 D9

Lead compensation based on the

frequency response
Procedure:

1. Determine the compensator gain Kcα satisfying the given

error constant.
2. Determined the additional phase lead φm required (+
10%~15%) for the gain adjusted (KcαG(s)) open-loop
system.
1− a
3. Obtain α from sin φ m =
1+ a

4. Find the new gain cross over frequency c from

Kc a G( jωc ) = 10 log a

5. Find T from c and transfer function of Gc(s)

1
T = and
a ωc
Ts + 1
Gc (s ) = K c a
aTs + 1

General effect of lead compensator:

• Addition of phase lead near gain crossover frequency.

• Increase of gain at higher frequencies.
• Increase of system bandwidth.
 D10

Example:

Consider
+
Gc(s) G(s)

4
where G (s) =
s (s + 2 )

Performance requirements for the system:

Steady-state: Kv = 20
Transient response: phase margin >50°
gain margin >10 dB

Analysis of the system with Gc(s) = K

For Kv = 20 Æ K = 10

This leads to: phase margin § 17°

gain margin § ’ G%

Design of a lead compensator:

Ts + 1
G c (s ) = K c a
aTs + 1

s →0
4K a
1. K v = lim sGc (s )G(s ) = 2 = 2K c a = 20
c
Æ K α=10
c
 D11

2. From the Bode plot of KcαG(jω), we obtain that the

additional phase-lead required is: 50° - 17° = 33°.
We choose 38° (~33° + 15%)

3. sin φ m = sin 38 , =
1− a
1+ a
Æ α = 0.24
4. Since for m, the frequency with the maximum phase-lead
angle, we have:

1 + jωmT 1
=
1 + jωmaT a

We choose c , the new gain crossover frequency so that

ωm = ωc and G c (s )G (s ) s = jω = 1
c

This gives that:

40
K c aG( jωc ) =
jωc ( jωc + 2)
has to be equal:
−1
 1 
  = −6.2dB
 a 

From the Bode plot of KcαG(jω) we obtain that

c = 9 rad/sec
40
= − 6 .2 dB at
jω c ( jω c + 2 )
 D12

5. This implies for T

Æ
1 1 1
ωc = = = 9rad/ sec = 4.41
aT 0.24T T
and
20
Kc = = 41 .7
2a
s + 4 . 41
G c (s ) = 41 . 7
s + 18 . 4

The compensated system is given by:

+ 41.7(s + 4.41) 4
s + 18.4 s(s + 2)
-

The effect of the lead compensator is:

• Phase margin: from 17° to 50° Æ

better transient response
with less overshoot.
• Æ
c : from 6.3rad/sec to 9 rad/sec the system response is
faster.
• Gain margin remains \ .
• Kv is 20, as required Æ
acceptable steady-state response.
 D13

40
Bode diagram for K c ⋅ a ⋅ G ( jω ) =
jω (jω + 2)

Bode diagram for the compensated system

j ω + 4 . 41 4
G c ( j ω )G ( j ω ) = 41 . 7 ⋅
j ω + 18 . 4 j ω (j ω + 2)
 D14

Lag compensators
1
s+
Ts + 1
G c (s ) = K c β = Kc T
T>0, >1
β Ts + 1 s+
1
βT

Poles and zeros:

1 1
T βT

Frequency response:

Polar plot of a lag compensator K.(jT+1)/(jT+1)

 D15

Bode diagram of a lag compensator with Kc   

1 1
βT T

-20log

Magnitude of (jT+1)/(jT+1)
 D16

Lag compensation based on the

frequency response
Procedure:

1. Determine the compensator gain Kcβ to satisfy the

requirement for the given error constant.
2. Find the frequency point where the phase of the gain
adjusted open-loop system (KcβG(s)) is equal to -180° +
the required phase margin + 5°~ 12°.
This will be the new gain crossover frequency c.
3. Choose the zero of the .425038,947   % ,9 ,-4:9 
octave to 1 decade below c .
4. Determine the attenuation necessary to bring the
magnitude curve down to 0dB at the new gain crossover
frequency
− K c β G ( j ω c ) = − 20 log β Æ
5. Find the transfer function Gc(s).

General effect of lag compensation:

• Decrease gain at high frequencies.

• Move the gain crossover frequency lower to obtain
the desired phase margin.
 D17

Example:

Consider
+
Gc(s) G(s)

where
1
G (s ) =
s (s + 1 )(0 . 5 s + 1 )

Performance requirements for the system:

Steady state: Kv =5
Transient response: Phase margin > 40°
Gain margin > 10 dB

Analysis of the system with Gc(s) = K

K v = lim KG (s ) = K = 5
s →0

for K = 5, the closed-loop system is unstable

Design of a lag compensator:

1
s+
G c (s) = K c T = K β Ts + 1
β Ts + 1
c
1
s+
βT
 D18

1. K v = lim Gc (s )G(s ) = K c β = 5
s→0

Æ
2. Phase margin of the system 5G(s) is -13°
the closed-loop system is unstable.

From the Bode diagram of 5G(jω) we obtain that the

additional required phase margin of 40° + 12° = 52° is
REWDLQHG DW    rad/sec.

The new gain crossover frequency will be:

c = 0.5 rad/sec
3.
  
    
   %  
rad/sec( at about 1/5 of c).

4. The magnitude of 5G(jω) at the new gain crossover

frequency c =0.5 rad/sec is 20 dB. In order to have c as
the new gain crossover frequency, the lag compensator
must give an attenuation of -20db at ωc.

Æ
Therefore
- 20log  = - 20 dB  = 10

5 1
5. Kc = = 0 .5 , pole : = 0 . 01
β βT
and
s + 0 .1
G c (s ) = 0 . 5
s + 0 . 01
 D19

Bode diagrams for:

• G1(jω) = 5G(jω) (gain-adjusted KcβG(jω) open-loop
transfer function),
• Gc(jω)/K = Gc(jω)/5 (compensator divided by gain Kcβ =
5),
• Gc(jω)G(jω) (compensated open-loop transfer function)

The effect of the lag compensator is:

• The original unstable closed-loop system is now stable.

• The phase margin § ƒ Æ acceptable transient response.
• The gain margin § G% Æ acceptable transient response.
• Kv is 5 as requiredÆ acceptable steady-state response.
• The gain at high frequencies has been decreased.
 D20

Lead-lag compensators

1 1
s+ s+
T1 T2 β sT1 + 1 sT2 + 1
Gc (s) = Kc ⋅ = Kc ⋅
γ γ s + 1 sβT2 + 1
1 T1
s+ s+
aT1 βT2 γ

T1, T2 > 0 ,  > 1 and γ > 1

Frequency response:

Bode diagram of a lag-lead compensator given by

 1  1 
s+  s + 
T1 T2
Gc (s ) = K c   
 γ  1 
s+  s + 
 T1  βT2 

with Kc = 1, =  = 10 and T2 = 10 T1
 D21

Polar plot of a lag-lead compensator given by

 1  1 
s+  s + 
Gc (s ) = K c   
T1 T2
 γ  1 
s+  s + 
 T1  βT2 

with Kc = 1 and = 

Comparison between lead and lag compensators

Lead compensator Lag compensator
o High pass o Low pass
o Approximates o Approximates integral plus
derivative plus proportional control
proportional control
o Contributes phase lead o Attenuation at high
frequencies
o Increases the gain o Moves the gain-crossover
crossover frequency frequency lower
o Increases bandwidth o Reduces bandwidth