THERMODYNAMICS

SPEAKING
A. Discuss the following
Why are radiators important in vehicles?
Whats the function of the ozono layer in the atmosphere?
How does a microwave works?
How is chicken soup made?
What happen if I leave a bowl with water in the open air in a really sunny day?

READING / WRITING
B. Look and study the following notes.
Thermodynamics is a physical science that studies the effects on material bodies, and on radiation
in regions of space, of transfer of heat and of work done on or by the bodies or radiation. It interrelates
macrosqcopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical properties of
material bodies and radiation, which in this science are called thermodynamic systems.

Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam
engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who
believed that the efficiency of heat engines was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars.
Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854:

Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to
forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the
relation of heat to electrical agency.


C. Write one or two paragraphs that summarize the passage and the picture above.
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D. Look and study the following picture.



E. Conduction, Convection, or Radiation?
1. Between a stove and a pot. ____________________________
2. Walking across hot sand burns your feet. ____________________________
3. When nothing is touching the object. ____________________________
4. You accidentally touch a hot stove. ____________________________
5. An iron is used to iron your clothes. ____________________________
6. The doctor takes an X-ray of your body. ____________________________
7. How you get a sunburn. ____________________________
8. The metal part of your seatbelt burns your
leg when you sit on it after the car sat in
the sun all day. ____________________________
9. You sit near a campfire. ____________________________
10. In a microwave. ____________________________


F. Read the following passage.


LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
The four laws of thermodynamics
summarize the most important facts of
thermodynamics. They define fundamental
physical quantities, such as temperature, energy,
and entropy, to describe thermodynamic systems
and they describe the transfer of energy as heat
and work in thermodynamic processes.
Experimentally reproducible distinction between
heat and work is at the heart of thermodynamics,
and about processes in which this distinction
cannot be made, thermodynamics has nothing to
say.


ZEROTH LAW
The zeroth law implies that thermal
equilibrium, viewed as a binary relation, is a
Euclidean relation. If we assume that the binary
relationship is also reflexive, then it follows that
thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence relations are also transitive and
symmetric. The symmetric relationship allows
one to speak of two systems being "in thermal
equilibrium with each other", which gives rise to
a simpler statement of the zeroth law:

If two systems are in
thermal equilibrium
with a third, they are in
thermal equilibrium
with each other

However, this statement requires the
implicit assumption of symmetry and reflexivity,
rather than reflexivity alone.

The law is also a statement about
measurability. To this effect the law allows the
establishment of an empirical parameter, the
temperature, as a property of a system such that
systems in equilibrium with each other have the
same temperature. The notion of transitivity
permits a system, for example a gas thermometer,
to be used as a device to measure the temperature
of another system.

Although the concept of thermodynamic
equilibrium is fundamental to thermodynamics,
the need to state it explicitly as a law was not
widely perceived until Fowler and Planck stated it
in the 1930s, long after the first, second, and
third law were already widely understood and
recognized. Hence it was numbered the zeroth
law. The importance of the law as a foundation
to the earlier laws is that it allows the definition
of temperature in a non-circular way without
reference to entropy, its conjugate variable.

FIRST LAW
The first law of thermodynamics may be
expressed by several forms of the fundamental
thermodynamic relation:

A change in the internal
energy of a closed
thermodynamic system is
equal to the difference
between the heat supplied
to the system and the
amount of work done by
the system on its
surroundings

For a thermodynamic cycle the net heat
supplied to the system equals the net work done
by the system. The net change in internal energy
is the energy that flows in as heat minus the
energy that flows out as the work that the system
performs on its environment. Work and heat are
not defined as separately conserved quantities;
they refer only to processes of exchange of
energy.

These statements entail that the internal
energy obeys the principle of conservation of
energy. The principle of conservation of energy
may be stated in several ways:

Energy can be neither
created nor destroyed. It
can only change forms.

In any process in an isolated system, the
total energy remains the same.

SECOND LAW
The second law of thermodynamics
asserts the existence of a quantity called the
entropy of a system and further states that.

When two isolated systems in separate
but nearby regions of space, each in
thermodynamic equilibrium in itself (but not
necessarily in equilibrium with each other at first)
are at some time allowed to interact, breaking the
isolation that separates the two systems, allowing
them to exchange matter or energy, they will
eventually reach a mutual thermodynamic
equilibrium. The sum of the entropies of the
initial, isolated systems is less than or equal to the
entropy of the final combination of exchanging
systems. In the process of reaching a new
thermodynamic equilibrium, total entropy has
increased, or at least has not decreased.

It follows that the entropy of an isolated
macroscopic system never decreases. The second
law states that spontaneous natural processes
increase entropy overall, or in another
formulation that heat can spontaneously be
conducted or radiated only from a higher-
temperature region to a lower-temperature
region, but not the other way around.

The second law refers to a wide variety of
processes, reversible and irreversible. Its main
import is to tell about irreversibility.

The prime example of irreversibility is in
the transfer of heat by conduction or radiation. It
was known long before the discovery of the
notion of entropy that when two bodies of
different temperatures are connected with each
other by purely thermal connection, conductive
or radiative, then heat always flows from the
hotter body to the colder one. This fact is part of
the basic idea of heat, and is related also to the
so-called zeroth law, though the textbooks'
statements of the zeroth law are usually reticent
about that, because they have been influenced by
Carathodory's basing his axiomatics on the law
of conservation of energy and trying to make
heat seem a theoretically derivative concept
instead of an axiomatically accepted one. ilahv
(1997) notes that Carathodory's approach does
not work for the description of irreversible
processes that involve both heat conduction and
conversion of kinetic energy into internal energy
by viscosity (which is another prime example of
irreversibility), because "the mechanical power
and the rate of heating are not expressible as
differential forms in the 'external parameters'".

The second law tells also about kinds of
irreversibility other than heat transfer, and the
notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider
scope of the law.

According to the second law of
thermodynamics, in a reversible heat transfer, an
element of heat transferred, Q, is the product of
the temperature (T), both of the system and of
the source or destination of the heat, with the
increment (dS) of the system's conjugate variable,
its entropy (S)



The second law defines entropy, which
may be viewed not only as a macroscopic variable
of classical thermodynamics, but may also be
viewed as a measure of deficiency of physical
information about the microscopic details of the
motion and configuration of the system, given
only predictable experimental reproducibility of
bulk or macroscopic behavior as specified by
macroscopic variables that allow the distinction
to be made between heat and work. More exactly,
the law asserts that for two given macroscopically
specified states of a system, there is a quantity
called the difference of entropy between them.
The entropy difference tells how much additional
microscopic physical information is needed to
specify one of the macroscopically specified
states, given the macroscopic specification of the
other, which is often a conveniently chosen
reference state. It is often convenient to
presuppose the reference state and not to
explicitly state it. A final condition of a natural
process always contains microscopically
specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly
predictable from the macroscopic specification of
the initial condition of the process. This is why
entropy increases in natural processes. The
entropy increase tells how much extra
microscopic information is needed to tell the
final macroscopically specified state from the
initial macroscopically specified state.

Heat cannot
spontaneously flow from
a colder location to a
hotter location.

THIRD LAW
The third law of thermodynamics is
usually stated as follows:

The entropy of a perfect
crystal at absolute zero
is exactly equal to zero.

This is explained in statistical mechanics
by the fact that a perfect crystal has only one
possible microstate (microscopic state) at
extremely low temperatures: The locations and
energies of every atom in a crystal are known and
fixed. (In quantum mechanics, the location of
each atom is not exactly fixed, but the wave
function of each atom is fixed in the unique
ground state for its position in the crystal.)
Entropy is related to the number of possible
microstates, and with only one microstate, the
entropy is exactly zero.

The third law is also stated in a form that
includes non-crystal systems, such as glasses:

As temperature
approaches absolute
zero, the entropy of a
system approaches a
minimum.

The minimum, not necessarily zero, is
called the residual entropy of the system.







G. Write a well-structure paragraph with title LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS. (Summarize
the previous reading in two or three paragraphs)
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VOCABULARY
H. Unscramble the words and match them with their definitions.
1. Bsaoluet rzoe The branch of physical science concerned with the interrela-
tionship and interconversion of different forms of energy and
the behavior of macroscopic systems in terms of certain basic
quantities, such as pressure or temperature.
2. Ryefilxevit A quantitative measure of the amount of thermal energy not
available to do work.

3. Etnyrpo A state in which all parts of a system are at the same
temperature.
4. Tdherycmiosnaam A collection of ordered pairs of elements.
5. Tyratvnsitii A relationship of characteristic correspondence, equivalence,
or identity among constituents of an entity or between
different entities.

6. Itseolad symstse The property of a binary relation that expresses the fact that
the relation holds between an object and its mirror image.
7. Ybnria rtienlao The quality of being measurable
8. Meaytsiulriab A relationship between three elements such that if the
relationship holds between the first and second elements and
between the second and third elements, it necessarily holds
between the first and third elements.
9. Smyrmyet The total heat o system
10. Tamhler Eiqruimliubm A system that cannot exchange matter or energy with its
Surroundings.
11. Nte htae The temperature at which molecular activity is at a minimum.
12. Dcseol Semsty Emission and propagation and emission of energy in the form
of rays or waves.
13. Cntnioveoc A physical system that does not interact with other systems.
14. Rpssreue Heat transfer in a gas or liquid by the circulation of currents
from one region to another.
15. Rdaiatoin Force applied uniformly over a surface, measured as force per
unit of area.

GLOSSARY
Absolute Zero
Closed System
Conduction
Conductor
Convection
Efficiency
Entropy
First Law of Thermodynamics
Heat Engines
Insulator
Isolated System
Pressure
Principle of Conservation of
Energy
Radiation
Residual Entropy
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Steam Engines
Thermal Equilibrium
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermodynamic System
Thermodynamics
Third Law of Thermodynamics
Transfer of Heat
Work
Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics












MANUFACTURING
A. Discuss the following
Where does the sugar come from?
How are chocobananas made?
If you would have money for investing in a home-made product, which product would you
produce?
Which are the materials used for producing wooden tables and chairs?
Which process is described in the picture.

WRITING
B. Look at the picture.

1. Whats the picture about? _______________________________________________________
2. According to the picture, which are the materials needed for manufacturing tires.
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3. Describe the process of tire fabrication.
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READING
C. Read the following passage and make a sketch of self study applying a notetaking
system.
MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods for use or sale. The term
may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to
industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such
finished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products, such as aircraft, household
appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to
end users the "consumers".

Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for the production and
integration of a product's components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers
use the term fabrication instead.

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Craft or Guild System
A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliest types of guild were formed
as confraternities of workers. They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel,
and a secret society. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds is the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting
places.

Putting-out system
The putting-out system was a means of subcontracting work. It was also known as the workshop
system. In putting-out, work was contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who completed the work
in their own facilities, usually their own homes. The domestic system was a popular system of cloth
production in Europe.

Mass production
Mass production, flow production, repetitive flow production, series production, or serial
production, is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on
assembly lines. The concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and
particulates handled in bulk (such as food, fuel, chemicals, and mined minerals) to discrete solid parts (such
as fasteners) to assemblies of such parts (such as household appliances and automobiles).

Just In Time manufacturing
Just-in-Time (JIT) is a production strategy that strives to improve a business' return on investment
by reducing in-process inventory and associated carrying costs. This production method is also called the
Toyota Production System. To meet JIT objectives, the process relies on signals or Kanban (,
Kanban) between different points in the process, which tell production when to make the next part.
Kanban are usually 'tickets' but can be simple visual signals, such as the presence or absence of a part on a
shelf. Implemented correctly, JIT focuses on continuous improvement and can improve a manufacturing
organization's return on investment, quality, and efficiency. To achieve continuous improvement key areas
of focus could be flow, employee involvement and quality.

Quick notice that stock depletion requires personnel to order new stock is critical to the inventory
reduction at the center of JIT. This saves warehouse space and costs. However, the complete mechanism
for making this work is often misunderstood.

Lean manufacturing
Lean manufacturing, lean enterprise, or lean production, often simply, "Lean," is a production
practice that considers the expenditure of resources for any goal other than the creation of value for the
end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination. Working from the perspective of the
customer who consumes a product or service, "value" is defined as any action or process that a customer
would be willing to pay for.

Lean manufacturing is a variation on the theme of efficiency based on optimizing flow; it is a
present-day instance of the recurring theme in human history toward increasing efficiency, decreasing
waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing
ideas.

Flexible manufacturing
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount
of flexibility that allows the system to react in the case of changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This
flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, which both contain numerous subcategories.
The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product
types, and ability to change the order of operations executed on a part. The second category is called
routing flexibility, which consists of the ability to use multiple qmachines to perform the same operation
on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or
capability.

The main advantages of an FMS are its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like
time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. The best application of an FMS is found in the
production of small sets of products like those from a mass production.

Mass customization
Mass customization, in marketing, manufacturing, call centers and management, is the use of
flexible computer-aided manufacturing systems to produce custom output. Those systems combine the low
unit costs of mass production processes with the flexibility of individual customization.

Agile manufacturing
Agile manufacturing is a term applied to an organization that has created the processes, tools, and
training to enable it to respond quickly to customer needs and market changes while still controlling costs
and quality.

Rapid manufacturing
Direct digital manufacturing, sometimes called additive, rapid, direct, instant, or on-demand
manufacturing, is a manufacturing process which creates physical parts directly from 3D CAD files or data
using computer-controlled additive and subtractive fabrication and machining techniques with minimal
human intervention. When a small, low-cost device is used, it is called desktop or personal manufacturing.

Prefabrication
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other
manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where
the structure is to be located. The term is used to distinguish this process from the more conventional
construction practice of transporting the basic materials to the construction site where all assembly is
carried out.

Fabrication
This term refers to building metal structures by cutting, bending, and assembling. The cutting part
of fabrication is via sawing, shearing, or chiseling, torching with handheld torches (such as oxy-fuel torches
or plasma torches); and via CNC cutters (using a laser, torch, or water jet). The bending is via hammering
or via press brakes and similar tools. The assembling is via welding, binding with adhesives, riveting,
threaded fasteners, or even yet more bending in the form of a crimped seam. Structural steel and sheet
metal are the usual starting materials for fabrication, along with the welding wire, flux, and fasteners that
will join the cut pieces. As with other manufacturing processes, both human labor and automation are
commonly used. The product resulting from fabrication may be called a fabrication. Shops that specialize
in this type of metal work are called fab shops. The end products of other common types of metalworking,
such as machining, metal stamping, forging, and casting, may be similar in shape and function, but those
processes are not classified as fabrication.

D. Read the following passage and write the main idea of each paragraph.
Additionally write next to the picture the number of paragraph that correspond to
the each step of the process.
P
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1

Portland Cement is a carefully blended
combination of lime, silica, alumina and iron
oxide. These components are found in
materials which fall into two main categories;
calcareous (or lime bearing), such as
limestone, and argillaceous (or clay-like) such
as shale.

Main Idea



P
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2

The main raw material component of cement
is Limestone, which is obtained from our
Kleins Point Quarry on the Yorke Peninsula
and shipped across St. Vincent Gulf on the
Companys ship M.V. Accolade II, to our
Birkenhead plant.
Main Idea



P
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3

Once the Accolade II reaches the Birkenhead
plant, the Limestone is transported via
conveyor belts to the Limestone Pre-blend

Building, where it is stockpiled into pre-
blended heaps of around 25,000 tonnes.
Main Idea


P
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4

A reclaimer (pictured in the diagram to the
right) moves back and forth along the heap
scraping a cross section of the limestone. As
the newer raw material is stacked on top of
older material, the cross-sectioned reclaiming
process ensures an even blend of material is
reclaimed.
Main Idea


P
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N
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5

The reclaimed limestone is then transported
via belt conveyors to the weigh building
where other raw materials, known as fringe
materials, such as shale, sand and iron oxide
are added to the limestone. This blend of
materials is fed into a ring roller mill, where it
is dried and crushed to a fine state.
Main Idea


P
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6

This material is now referred to as raw meal
and is the feed for the kiln. The drying
process in the raw mill uses the hot gases
from the kiln, which also transport the raw
meal through large electrofilters which
separate the solid particles from the gas,
allowing the clean gasses to pass into the
atmosphere.
Main Idea


P
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7

The raw meal is then extracted from the
electrofilters and conveyed to the 6,000 tonne
blending silo. This silo serves, not only as a
storage silo, but also thoroughly blends the
raw meal into a physically and chemically
consistent material, ensuring well controlled,
quality product.
Main Idea

P
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8

The raw meal travels through a preheating tower and reaches approximately 900C before
it enters the kiln. Once the raw meal reaches the rotating kiln, it is heated further which
releases carbon dioxide from the limestone. As the heated raw meal proceeds further
down the kiln into the burning zone, temperatures reach in excess of 1400C causing
chemical reactions which convert the raw meal into hard nodules ranging in size from 5-
35mm in diameter known as clinker.
Main Idea



P
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9

The clinker is then cooled, with the heat recovered from this process being re-used in the
kiln to increase energy efficiency. After cooling, the clinker is transported from the storage
area, via belt conveyers, to the cement mill.

Main Idea



P
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1
0

Just before entering the mill, other additives such as gypsum and limestone are added to
the clinker in very specific quantities. The mill is a large rotating ball mill which is filled to
a certain level with steel balls ranging in size from 17-90mm in diameter. The clinker and
additives are crushed and ground between the steel balls until the desired fineness is
attained.
Main Idea



P
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N
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1
1

The resultant cement powder then exits the mill and passes through a separator, which
extracts the coarse cement powder that has not been milled to the required fineness and
returns it back into the mill for further milling. The cement meal that passes through the
separator is stored in various silos, ranging in size from 500-30,000 tonnes, where it awaits
bagging or bulk transportation.
Main Idea




P
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1
2

From the bulk silo, the cement is dispatched from our plants in various ways. The
majority of our cement is loaded into bulk pneumatic tankers via 24 hour automated
weighbridges, where the driver simply drives the vehicle onto the weighbridge, weighs his
empty truck, connects the loading chute to the tank and selects the appropriate product.
Once loading is finished, the vehicle is then weighed again to determine exactly how much
product was loaded, the driver departs and the weighbridge system automatically records
the transaction for processing.
Main Idea



P
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N
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1
3

Some of the cement is transported from the bulk silo to the Despatch Silo where it is
packed into 20kg paper bags on the automated Rotopacker and then arranged onto pallets.
The cement is also available in 1 tonne bulk bags for manufacturing and construction
purposes and is often loaded into ships where it is transported via sea to various
destinations across Australia.
Main Idea




E. Read the following passage.
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process by
which a liquid material is usually poured into
a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which is
ejected or broken out of the mold to complete
the process. Casting materials are usually metals
or various cold setting materials that cure after
mixing two or more components together;
examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay.
Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods.



Metal casting is one of the most common
casting processes. Metal patterns are more
expensive but are more dimensionally stable and
durable. Metallic patterns are used where
repetitive production of castings is required in
large quantities.

Plaster and other chemical setting
materials such as concrete and plastic resin may
be cast using single-use waste molds as noted
above, multiple-use 'piece' molds, or molds made
of small rigid pieces or of flexible material such as
latex rubber (which is in turn supported by an
exterior mold). When casting plaster or concrete,
the finished product is, unlike marble,
unattractive, lacking in transparency, and so it is
usually painted, often in ways that give the
appearance of metal or stone. Alternatively, the
first layers cast may contain colored sand so as to
give an appearance of stone. By casting concrete,
rather than plaster, it is possible to create
sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use.
A simulation of high-quality marble may be made
using certain chemically-set plastic resins (for
example epoxy or polyester) with powdered stone
added for coloration, often with multiple colors
worked in. The latter is a common means of
making attractive washstands, washstand tops
and shower stalls, with the skilled working of
multiple colors resulting in simulated staining
patterns as is often found in natural marble or
travertine.

Molding
Molding is the process
of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material
using a rigid frame or model called a pattern.
A mold is a hollowed-out block that is filled with
a liquid like plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw
materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside the
mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the
counterpart to a cast. The manufacturer who
makes the molds is called the moldmaker.
A release agent is typically used to make removal
of the hardened/set substance from the mold
easier. Typical uses for molded plastics include
molded furniture, molded household goods,
molded cases, and structural materials.



Forming
Forming, or metal forming, is
the metalworking process of fashioning metal
parts and objects through mechanical
deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without
adding or removing material, and its mass
remains unchanged. Forming operates on
the materials science principle of plastic
deformation, where the physical shape of a
material is permanently deformed.



Forming processes tend to be typified by
differences in effective stresses. These categories
and descriptions are highly simplified, since the
stresses operating at a local level in any given
process are very complex and may involve many
varieties of stresses operating simultaneously, or
it may involve stresses which change over the
course of the operation.

Compressive forming
Compressive forming involves those processes
where the primary means of plastic deformation
is uni - or multiaxial compressive loading.
Rolling, where the material is passed through
a pair of rollers.
Extrusion, where the material is pushed
through an orifice.
Die forming, where the material
is stamped by a press around or onto a die.
Forging, where the material is shaped by
localized compressive forces.
Indenting, where a tool is pressed into the
workpiece.

Tensile forming
Tensile forming involves those processes where
the primary means of plastic deformation is uni-
or multiaxial tensile stress.
Stretching, where a tensile load is applied
along the longitudinal axis of the workpiece
Expanding, where the circumference of a
hollow body is increased by tangential
loading
Recessing, where depressions and holes are
formed through tensile loading

Combined tensile and compressive
forming
This category of forming processes involves
those operations where the primary means of
plastic deformation involves both tensile stresses
and compressive loads.


Bending

This category of forming processes
involves those operations where the primary
means of plastic deformation is a bending load.

Bending is a manufacturing process that
produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape
along a straight axis in ductile materials, most
commonly sheet metal. Commonly used
equipment include box and pan brakes, brake
presses, and other specialized machine presses.
Typical products that are made like this are boxes
such as electrical enclosures and rectangular duct
work.

In press brake forming, a work piece is
positioned over the die block and the die block
presses the sheet to form a shape. Usually
bending has to overcome both tensile stresses
and compressive stresses. When bending is done,
the residual stresses cause the material to spring
back towards its original position, so the sheet
must be over-bent to achieve the proper bend
angle. The amount of spring back is dependent
on the material, and the type of forming. When
sheet metal is bent, it stretches in length.
The bend deduction is the amount the sheet
metal will stretch when bent as measured from
the outside edges of the bend. The bend
radius refers to the inside radius. The formed
bend radius is dependent upon the dies used, the
material properties, and the material thickness.

There are three basic types of bending on
a press brake; each is defined by the relationship
of the end tool position to the thickness of the
material. These three are Air Bending, Bottoming
and Coining. The configuration of the tools for
these three types of bending is nearly identical. A
die with a long rail form tool with a radiuses tip
that locates the inside profile of the bend is called
a punch. Punches are usually attached to the ram
of the machine by clamps and move to produce
the bending force. A die with a long rail form
tool that has concave or V shaped lengthwise
channel that locates the outside profile of the
form is called a die. Dies are usually stationary
and located under the material on the bed of the
machine. Note that some locations do not
differentiate between the two different kinds of
dies (punches and dies.) The other types of
bending listed use specially designed tools or
machines to perform the work.

Shearing
This category of forming processes
involves those operations where the primary
means of plastic deformation is a shearing load.



Shear forming, also referred as shear
spinning, is similar to metal spinning. In shear
spinning the area of the final piece is
approximately equal to that of the flat sheet metal
blank. The wall thickness is maintained by
controlling the gap between the roller and the
mandrel. In shear forming a reduction of the wall
thickness occurs.

Before the 1950s, spinning was
performed on a simple turning lathe. When new
technologies were introduced to the field of metal
spinning and powered dedicated spinning
machines were available, shear forming started its
development in Sweden.

In shear forming, the starting workpiece
can have circular or rectangular cross sections.
On the other hand, the profile shape of the final
component can be concave, convex or a
combination of these two. A shear forming
machine will look very much like a conventional
spinning machine, except for that it has to be
much more robust to withstand the higher forces
necessary to perform the shearing operation.

The design of the roller must be
considered carefully, because it affects the shape
of the component, the wall thickness, and
dimensional accuracy. The smaller the tool nose
radius, the higher the stresses and poorest
thickness uniformity achieved.

Machining
Machining is any of various processes in
which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired
final shape and size by a controlled material-
removal process. The many processes that have
this common theme, controlled material removal,
are today collectively known as subtractive
manufacturing, in distinction from processes of
controlled material addition, which are known
as additive manufacturing.

The precise meaning of the term
"machining" has evolved over the past two
centuries as technology has advanced. During
the Machine Age, it referred to (what we today
might call) the "traditional" machining processes,
such
as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching,
sawing, shaping, planning, reaming,
and tapping. In these "traditional" or
"conventional" machining processes, machine
tools, such as lathes, milling machines, drill
presses, or others, are used with a sharp cutting
tool to remove material to achieve a desired
geometry. Since the advent of new technologies
such as electrical discharge machining,
electrochemical machining, electron beam
machining, photochemical machining, and
ultrasonic machining, the retronym "conventional
machining" can be used to differentiate those
classic technologies from the newer ones. In
current usage, the term "machining" without
qualification usually implies the traditional
machining processes.

Machining is a part of the manufacture of
many metal products, but it can also be used on
materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic,
and composites. A person who specializes in
machining is called a machinist. A room,
building, or company where machining is done is
called a machine shop. Machining can be
a business, a hobby, or both. Much of modern
day machining is carried out by computer
numerical control (CNC), in which computers are
used to control the movement and operation of
the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.

Turning operations are operations that
rotate the workpiece as the primary method
of moving metal against the cutting tool.
Lathes are the principal machine tool used
in turning.
Milling operations are operations in which
the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting
edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling
machines are the principal machine tool
used in milling.

Drilling operations are operations in which
holes are produced or refined by bringing a
rotating cutter with cutting edges at the
lower extremity into contact with the
workpiece. Drilling operations are done
primarily in drill presses but sometimes on
lathes or mills.

Miscellaneous operations are operations
that strictly speaking may not be machining
operations in that they may not
be swarf producing operations but these
operations are performed at a typical
machine tool. Burnishing is an example of
a miscellaneous operation. Burnishing
produces no swarf but can be performed at
a lathe, mill, or drill press.

An unfinished workpiece requiring
machining will need to have some material cut
away to create a finished product. A finished
product would be a workpiece that meets the
specifications set out for that workpiece by
engineering drawings or blueprints. For example,
a workpiece may be required to have a specific
outside diameter. A lathe is a machine tool that
can be used to create that diameter by rotating a
metal workpiece, so that a cutting tool can cut
metal away, creating a smooth, round surface
matching the required diameter and surface
finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the
shape of a cylindrical hole. Other tools that may
be used for various types of metal removal are
milling machines, saws, and grinding machines.
Many of these same techniques are used
in woodworking.

More recent, advanced machining
techniques include electrical discharge
machining (EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser
cutting, orwater jet cutting to shape metal
workpieces.

As a commercial venture, machining is
generally performed in a machine shop, which
consists of one or more workrooms containing
major machine tools. Although a machine shop
can be a stand-alone operation, many businesses
maintain internal machine shops which support
specialized needs of the business.

Machining requires attention to many
details for a workpiece to meet the specifications
set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints.
Beside the obvious problems related to correct
dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the
correct finish or surface smoothness on the
workpiece. The inferior finish found on the
machined surface of a workpiece may be caused
by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or
inappropriate presentation of a tool. Frequently,
this poor surface finish, known as chatter, is
evident by an undulating or irregular finish, and
the appearance of waves on the machined
surfaces of the workpiece.

There are many kinds of machining
operations, each of which is capable of generating
a certain part geometry and surface texture.
In turning, a cutting tool with a single
cutting edge is used to remove material
from a rotating workpiece to generate a
cylindrical shape. The speed motion is
provided by rotating the workpiece, and
the feed motion is achieved by moving the
cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is
accomplished by a rotating tool that
typically has two or four helical cutting
edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel
to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to
form the round hole.
In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed
tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in
a spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the
hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine
finishing operation used in the final stages
of product manufacture.
In milling, a rotating tool with multiple
cutting edges is moved slowly relative to
the material to generate a plane or straight
surface. The direction of the feed motion is
perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation.
The speed motion is provided by the
rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms
of milling are:

Joining
Welding

Welding is the fabrication or sculptural
process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is
often done by melting the workpieces and adding
a filler material to form a pool of molten material
(the weld pool) that cools to become a strong
joint, with pressure sometimes used in
conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the
weld. This is in contrast with soldering and
brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-
point material between the workpieces to form a
bond between them, without melting the
workpieces.



Many different energy sources can be
used for welding, including a gas flame,
an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction,
and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding may be performed in many different
environments, including open air, under water
and in outer space. Welding is a potentially
hazardous undertaking and precautions are
required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision
damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and
fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet
radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the
only welding process was forge welding, which
blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron
and steel by heating and hammering. Arc
welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first
processes to develop late in the century,
and electric resistance welding followed soon
after. Welding technology advanced quickly
during the early 20th century as World War I and
World War II drove the demand for reliable and
inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars,
several modern welding techniques were
developed, including manual methods
like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the
most popular welding methods, as well as semi-
automatic and automatic processes such as gas
metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, flux-
cored arc welding and electroslag welding.
Developments continued with the invention
of laser beam welding, electron beam
welding, electromagnetic pulse
welding and friction stir welding in the latter half
of the century. Today, the science continues to
advance. Robot welding is commonplace in
industrial settings, and researchers continue to
develop new welding methods and gain greater
understanding of weld quality

Brazing
Brazing is a metal-joining process
whereby a filler metal is heated above melting
point and distributed between two or more close-
fitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is
brought slightly above its melting (liquidus)
temperature while protected by a suitable
atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the
base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled
to join the workpieces together. It is similar
to soldering, except the temperatures used to
melt the filler metal are higher.

A variety of alloys are used as filler metals
for brazing depending on the intended use or
application method. In general, braze alloys are
made up of 3 or more metals to form an alloy
with the desired properties. The filler metal for a
particular application is chosen based on its
ability to: wet the base metals, withstand the
service conditions required, and melt at a lower
temperature than the base metals or at a very
specific temperature. Some of the more common
types of filler metals used are
Aluminum-silicon
Copper
Copper-silver
Copper-zinc (brass)
Gold-silver
Nickel alloy
Silver


Cast iron "welding"
The "welding" of cast iron is usually a
brazing operation, with a filler rod made chiefly
of nickel being used although true welding with
cast iron rods is also available. Ductile cast iron
pipe may be also "cadwelded," a process which
connects joints by means of a small copper wire
fused into the iron when previously ground down
to the bare metal, parallel to the iron joints being
formed as per hub pipe with neoprene gasket
seals. The purpose behind this operation is to use
electricity along the copper for keeping
underground pipes warm in cold climates.

Fastening

A fastener is a hardware device that
mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects
together. Fasteners can also be used to close a
container such as a bag, a box, or an envelope; or
they may involve keeping together the sides of an
opening of flexible material, attaching a lid to a
container, etc. There are also special-purpose
closing devices, e.g. a bread clip. Fasteners used
in these manners are often temporary, in that
they may be fastened and unfastened repeatedly.

Some types of woodworking joints make
use of separate internal reinforcements, such
as dowels or biscuits, which in a sense can be
considered fasteners within the scope of the joint
system, although on their own they are not
general purpose fasteners.

Items like a rope, string, wire (e.g. metal
wire, possibly coated with plastic, or multiple
parallel wires kept together by a plastic strip
coating), cable, chain, or plastic wrap may be
used to mechanically join objects; but are not
generally categorized as fasteners because they
have additional common uses.
Likewise, hinges and springs may join objects
together, but are ordinarily not considered
fasteners because their primary purpose is to
allow articulation rather than rigid affixment.

There are three major steel fasteners used
in industries: stainless steel, carbon steel,
and alloy steel. The major grade used in stainless
steel fasteners: 200 series, 300 series, and 400
series.
VOCABULARY
F. Write the word that correspond to the definition. Use the words in the box.

1. A large edge tool that cuts sheet metal by passing a blade through it.
__________________________
2. A machine or device, such as an airplane, helicopter, glider, or dirigible, that is capable of
atmospheric flight. __________________________
3. A person who buys. __________________________
4. A product made by artisans __________________________
5. A sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium carbonate, deposited as the calcareous
remains of marine animals or chemically precipitated from the sea: used as a building stone
and in the manufacture of cement, lime, etc. __________________________
6. A sequence of machines, tools, operations, workers, etc., in a factory, arranged so that at
each stage a further process is carried out. __________________________
7. An appliance that does a particular job in the home. __________________________
8. An edge tool with a flat steel blade with a cutting edge
9. An unprocessed natural product used in manufacture. _______________________
10. Association of artisans. __________________________
11. It consist in joining (metals) by applying heat, sometimes with pressure and sometimes with
an intermediate or filler metal having a high melting point. __________________________
12. It is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods. __________________________
13. One that assumes some of the obligations of the primary contractor. ___________________
14. Process in which power-driven machine tools are used with a sharp cutting tool to
mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. ________________________
15. Processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals. ______________________
16. The act or process of producing something. __________________________
Aircraft Assembly line Casting
Chisel Customer Forging
Guild Guildhall Handicraft
Household appliance Manufacturing Kilns
Coarse Production weighbridge
Oxy-fuel torches Limestone Raw Material
Serial production Shear Standardize
Subcontractor Weld Machining

17. The hall of a guild or corporation. __________________________
18. The manufacture of goods in large quantities, often using standardized designs and
assembly-line techniques. __________________________
19. The process of forming (metal, for example) by heating in a forge and beating or
hammering into shape. __________________________
20. The process of transferring molten steel to a mould. __________________________
21. To test by or compare with a standard. __________________________
22. Ovens for hardening, burning, or drying substances such as grain, meal, or clay, especially a
brick-lined oven used to bake or fire ceramics. __________________________
23. A machine for weighing vehicles by means of a metal plate set into a road.
__________________________
24. Not fine in texture, rough. __________________________

LISTENING
G. Watch the video in this link and describe the process.
www.glasswebsite.com/video/fgmd.asp
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GLOSSARY
Assembling
Brazing
Bulk Product
Casting
Clinker
FMS
Forging
Forming
Guild
JIT
Machining
Manufacturing
Mass Production
Raw Material
Reclaimer
Standardization
Structural Steel
Torching