Examiners commentaries 2012

Examiners commentaries 2012

MT2116 Abstract mathematics
Important note
This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements for this course in the
academic year 201112. The format and structure of the examination may change in future years,
and any such changes will be publicised on the virtual learning environment (VLE).

Information about the subject guide

Unless otherwise stated, all cross-references will be to the latest version of the subject guide (2011).

General remarks
Learning outcomes
At the end of this course and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you should:
have used basic mathematical concepts in discrete mathematics, algebra and real analysis to
solve mathematical problems in this subject
be able to use formal notation correctly and in connection with precise statements in English
be able to demonstrate an understanding of the underlying principles of the subject
be able to solve unseen mathematical problems in discrete mathematics, algebra and real
analysis
be able to prove statements and formulate precise mathematical arguments.

Showing your working

We start by emphasising that you should always include your working. This means two things.
First, you should not simply write down the answer in the examination script, but you should
explain the method by which it is obtained. Secondly, you should include rough working (even if it is
messy). The Examiners want you to get the right answers, of course, but it is more important that
you prove you know what you are doing: that is what is really being examined.
We also stress that if you have not completely solved a problem, you may still be awarded marks for
a partial, incomplete or slightly wrong solution; but, if you have written down a wrong answer and
nothing else, no marks can be awarded. So it is certainly in your interests to include all your
workings.

Knowing the definitions

In this course, precision and clarity are extremely important. It is vital that you know the key
definitions and theorems exactly, so that you can quote them and use them. It is simply not possible

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

to prove something using a formal definition if you only have a vague and incorrect recollection of
what that definition is. How could you use the formal definition of convergence of a sequence to
prove that a sequence converges if you do not know what it is that you need to establish, because
you do not know the definition? Well, you cant. It is so important to know the definitions and there
are a number of marks to be picked up simply for knowing them.

Covering the syllabus and choosing questions

You should ensure that you have covered the bulk of the syllabus in order to perform well in the
examination: it is bad practice to concentrate only on a small range of major topics in the
expectation that there will be lots of marks obtainable for questions on these topics. The
examination paper has some element of choice: you choose three of the four questions from Section
A and three of the four questions from Section B. If you have not covered the whole syllabus, then
you will be limiting your choice. Assuming you have, however, covered the whole syllabus, it is a
very good idea to take a little time to choose carefully: it could be that a question on your favourite
topic is in fact more difficult than a question on another topic.

Expectations of the examination paper

Every examination paper is different. You should not assume that your examination will be almost
identical to the previous years: for instance, just because there was a question, or a part of a
question, on a certain topic last year, you should not assume there will be one on the same topic this
year. Each year, the Examiners want to test that candidates can reason precisely mathematically,
and that they know and understand a number of mathematical concepts and methods. In setting an
examination paper, they try to test whether the candidate does indeed know the methods,
understands them and is able to use them, not merely whether he or she vaguely remembers them.
Because of this, every year there are some questions which are likely to seem unfamiliar, or different
from previous years questions. You should expect to be surprised by some of the questions. Of
course, you will only be examined on material in the syllabus, so all questions can be answered using
the course materials.

Examiners commentaries 2012

Question spotting
Many candidates are disappointed to find that their examination performance is poorer
than they expected. This can be due to a number of different reasons and the Examiners
commentaries suggest ways of addressing common problems and improving your performance.
We want to draw your attention to one particular failing question spotting, that is,
confining your examination preparation to a few question topics which have come up in past
papers for the course. This can have very serious consequences.
We recognise that candidates may not cover all topics in the syllabus in the same depth, but
you need to be aware that Examiners are free to set questions on any aspect of the syllabus.
This means that you need to study enough of the syllabus to enable you to answer the required
number of examination questions.
The syllabus can be found in the Course information sheet in the section of the VLE dedicated
to this course. You should read the syllabus very carefully and ensure that you cover sufficient
material in preparation for the examination.
Examiners will vary the topics and questions from year to year and may well set questions that
have not appeared in past papers every topic on the syllabus is a legitimate examination
target. So although past papers can be helpful in revision, you cannot assume that topics or
specific questions that have come up in past examinations will occur again.
If you rely on a question spotting strategy, it is likely you will find yourself in
difficulties when you sit the examination paper. We strongly advise you not to
adopt this strategy.

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

Examiners commentaries 2012

MT2116 Abstract mathematics
Important note
This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements for this course in the
academic year 201112. The format and structure of the examination may change in future years,
and any such changes will be publicised on the virtual learning environment (VLE).

Information about the subject guide

Unless otherwise stated, all cross-references will be to the latest version of the subject guide (2011).

Comments on specific questions Zone A

Candidates should answer SIX of the following EIGHT questions: THREE from Section A and
THREE from Section B. All questions carry equal marks.

Section A
Question 1
(a) Let S be the following statement about natural numbers m and n:
If m and n are even, then m + n is even.

(i) Prove that S is true.

(ii) Write down the converse of S. Is the converse of S true or false? Justify your
answer.
(iii) Write down the contrapositive of S. Is the contrapositive of S true or false?
Justify your answer.
(iv) Write down the contrapositive of the converse of S.
This question builds on the material of Chapter 1 of the subject guide.
If m, n are even then, for some integers k, l, m = 2k, n = 2l. Then, m + n = 2(k + l), which
is even. This proves S is true.
The converse is: if m + n is even, then m and n are even. This is false. For example, 1 + 1 is
even but 1 is not even.
The contrapositive of S is: if m + n is odd, then m is odd or n is odd. This is true because
the contrapositive is logically equivalent to S, which is true. (In fact, something stronger is
true, as can easily be seen: if m + n is odd, then precisely one of m, n is odd, which implies
the weaker condition that m is odd or n is odd.)
The contrapositive of the converse is: if m or n is odd, then m + n is odd.

Examiners commentaries 2012

(b) Let A and B be subsets of a set E. The symmetric difference of A and B,

denoted by AB, is the set of elements of E that belong to A or B, but not both
A and B. That is, using set notation,
AB = (A B) \ (A B)
or, equivalently,
AB = (A \ B) (B \ A).
Prove that, if X = AB, then AX = B.
(Hint: show that AX B and B AX.)
This is quite a challenging question. Suppose X = P Q. We follow the hint (which is
always a good idea): we show first that P X Q and then that Q P X. Let z P X.
Then either (i) z P \ X or (ii) z X \ P . In case (i), given that X = P Q, we must have
z Q (otherwise we would have z X). In case (ii), given that X = P Q, we must have
z P Q and hence z Q (since z 6 P ). This shows P X Q.
Now suppose z Q. Since X = P Q, if z X, then z 6 P and so z P X. If z 6 X,
then z P (otherwise we would have z P Q = X), so z P X.

Question 2
(a) Prove by induction that, for all natural numbers n,
2n
X

(1)r r3 = n2 (4n + 3).

r=1

Proof by induction is discussed in Chapter 3 of the subject guide.

The statement is easily seen to be true when n = 1. Both sides are equal to 7. This is the
base case.
Suppose, inductively, that it is true for n = k, and consider n = k + 1. We have
2(k+1)

(1)r r3

r=1

= (2k + 1)3 + (2k + 2)3 +

2k
X

(1)r r3

r=1

= (2k + 1)3 + (2k + 2)3 + k 2 (4k + 3)

= k 2 (4k + 3) (8k 3 + 12k 2 + 6k + 1) + 8(k 3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1)
= 4k 3 + 15k 2 + 18k + 7.
This is the same as
(k + 1)2 (4k + 7) = (k + 1)2 (4(k + 1) + 3),
as can be seen by expanding this expression. So the result is true for n = k + 1. Hence, by
induction, it is true for all n.
(b) Suppose f is the function f : N Z given by

n/2
if n is even,
f (n) =
(n 1)/2 if n is odd.
Prove that f is a bijection and determine a formula for the inverse function f 1 .
Functions and their properties are dealt with in Chapter 4 of the subject guide.
We need to show that f is injective and f is surjective.
Injective: (We need to prove if f (x) = f (y), then x = y.) Suppose f (x) = f (x0 ). Either: (i)
f (x) = f (x0 ) > 0, or (ii) f (x) = f (x0 ) 0. (This split into two cases is a crucial step.) In

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

case (i) x and x0 are both even and x2 = f (x) = f (x0 ) = x2 , so x = x0 . In case (ii) x, x0 are
x0 1
0
0
both odd and x1
2 = f (x) = f (x ) = 2 , so x = x . So f is an injection.
Surjective: (We need to prove that for any y Z, there is some x N such that y = f (x).)
If y 1, let x = 2y. Then x is even and so f (x) = x/2 = y. If y 0, let x = 1 2y. Then x
is odd and so f (x) = (x 1)/2 = y.
The formula for the inverse function follows immediately from the proof that the function is
surjective: we have

2n
if n 1
f 1 (n) =
1 2n if n 0.

(c) Let X = R \ {0} and let R be the relation on X given by x R y if and only if x/y
is rational. Prove that R is an
equivalence relation on X, and determine the
equivalence class containing 2.
Equivalence relations are discussed in Chapter 5 of the subject guide. Recall what it means
to say that a relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation. It means three things:
R is reflexive: for all x A, x R x.
R is symmetric: for all x, y A, x R y implies y R x.
x/x = 1 is rational, so the relation is reflexive. If x/y is rational, so is y/x, so it is
symmetric. Suppose next that xRy and yRz. Then x/y and y/z are rational numbers.
Their product is therefore also rational, but this product is x/z. So xRz, and R is transitive.

xR 2 if and only if x/ 2 is rational, which means that

[2] = {q 2 : q Q} = 2Q.

Question 3
(a)
(i) Use the Euclidean algorithm to prove that 55 and 576 are coprime, and
express 1 in the form 1 = 55x + 576y for some integers x, y.
(ii) Determine the inverse of 55 in Z576 .
(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to solve the congruence
55x 3 (mod 576).
This is a standard, easy, question. We use the Euclidean algorithm (of Chapter 6 of the
subject guide).
By the Euclidean algorithm, we have
576 = 10.55 + 26
55 = 2.26 + 3
26 = 8.3 + 2
3 = 1.2 + 1,
so 576 and 55 have the greatest common divisor (gcd) equal to 1 and are therefore coprime.
Then,
1

= 32
= 3 (26 8.3) = 9.3 26
= 9(55 2.26) 26 = 9.55 19.26
= 9.55 19(576 10.55) = 199.55 19.576.

Examiners commentaries 2012

It follows that 55 is invertible in Z576 and 551 = 199.

The solution to the congruence equation is given by
x 551 3 = 199 3 = 597 = 21.

(b) Let a, b and c be natural numbers such that a | c and b | c. Prove that if a and b
are coprime, then ab | c. (You may use, without proof, the fact that if a and b are
coprime, then there are integers x and y such that xa + yb = 1.)
The relevant background material can be found in Chapter 6 of the subject guide.
For this part, we could invoke the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Or, more directly,
as hinted, we use the fact that there are x, y such that 1 = xa + yb. Now, the facts about c
imply that there are integers k, l such that c = ka, c = lb. Then,
c = c.1 = c(xa + yb) = (lb)xa + (ka)yb = ab(lx + ky),
so ab divides c.

(c) Prove that 3 is irrational. (You may use, without proof, the fact that if n is
an integer and 3 | n2 , then 3 | n.)
Reading related to this question can be found
in Chapter 8 of the subject guide. This proof
closely resembles the standard proof that 2 is irrational.

Suppose there are a, b such that a/b = 3 and assume, without loss, that gcd(a, b) = 1.
Then we have a2 = 3b2 , so 3 divides a2 . By the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, 3 | a,
so a = 3c for some c. Then a2 = 9c2 = 3b2 , so b2 = 3c2 . So 3 | b2 and hence 3 | b. This
contradicts the fact that a, b are coprime.

Question 4
(a) Express the recurring decimal 0.1133 as a rational number p/q, where p and q
are integers.
See Chapter 8 of the subject guide for a discussion of how to solve questions of this kind.
Suppose the number is x. Then 1000x = 113.3133 and
1000x x = 999x = 113.3 0.1 = 113.2 =
so
x=

1132
,
10

1132
.
9990

(b) DeMoivres formula tells us that

(cos + i sin )4 = cos(4) + i sin(4).
Use this to prove that, for any angle ,
cos(4) = cos4 6 cos2 sin2 + sin4 .
Show, further, by using the fact sin2 + cos2 = 1, that
cos(4) = 8 cos4 8 cos2 + 1.
For this, and the next, part of the question, see the discussion of complex numbers in
Chapter 8 of the subject guide.

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

Let c = cos and s = sin . Then we have

(c + is)4 = c4 + 4c3 (is) + 6c2 (is)2 + 4c(is)3 + (is)4 = c4 + 4ic3 s 6c2 s2 4ics3 + s4 .
Equating real parts in (c + is)4 = cos(4) + i sin(4), we have
cos(4) = c4 6c2 s2 + s4 ,
as required. Furthermore, since s2 = 1 c2 ,
cos(4) = c4 6c2 (1 c2 ) + (1 c2 )2 = 8c4 8c2 + 1.

(c) Let X = C \ {0}, and let f : X X be given by f (z) = z|z|2 , for z X. Prove
that f is a bijection.
First, we prove the function is injective. Suppose f (z) = f (w). Then z|z|2 = w|w|2 . Taking
the modulus of each side, |z|3 = |w|3 , so |z| = |w|, Thus (since |z|2 = |w|2 6= 0) we may
cancel in z|z|2 = w|w|2 to obtain z = w.
Surjectivity is a little harder. Suppose z is given. We need to find w so that w|w|2 = z. This
suggests taking w = z for some R. If w = z then
f (w) = z|z|2 = ||3 |z|2 z.
So this will work if ||3 |z|2 = 1. So we may take = |z|2/3 . So, z = f (w) where
w = |z|2/3 z.

Section B
Question 5
(a) Define what it means for a sequence (an )nN to converge to L R.
Use this definition to prove that if (an )nN is increasing and the subsequence
(a3n )nN converges to L, then (an )nN also converges to L.
See Chapter 10 of the subject guide for the background material to this part of the question.
A sequence (an )n1 converges to L R if, for every  > 0, there is an N such that for all
n > N we have |an L| < .
Since a3n L, for  > 0, there is an N 0 such that, for n > N 0 , we have |a3n L| < . Set
N = 3N 0 + 3. Then, suppose n > N . We have an a3n < L + . But we also have
an a3n0 > L , where n0 = bn/3c > N 0 . It follows that, for such n, |an L| < . This
shows that an L.
(b) Define what it means for a function f : R R to be continuous at c.
Let f : R R and g : R R be functions that are continuous at 0, with f (0) = g(0).
Prove that if h : R R is a function such that f (x) h(x) g(x) for all x R,
then h is continuous at 0.
See Chapter 11 of the subject guide for background material on limits of functions and
continuity.
A function f : R R is continuous at a point c R if for every  > 0 there exists > 0 such
that for every x satisfying |x c| < , we have |f (x) f (c)| < .
We use the Sandwich Theorem, together with the alternative definition of continuity in
terms of sequences, which is that f : R R is continuous at c if and only if, for every
sequence (xn ) converging to c, we have that f (xn ) f (c).
First, notice that f (0) h(0) g(0) = f (0), and hence f (0) = h(0) = g(0) = L.

Examiners commentaries 2012

Now, suppose that a sequence (xn ) is converging to c. Hence, we have that f (xn ) L and
g(xn ) L. We also have that f (xn ) h(xn ) g(xn ) for all n. By the Sandwich Theorem,
h(xn ) L = h(0). So, h is continuous at 0.
(c) State the Intermediate Value Theorem.
Let f : [1, 1] R be a continuous function that satisfies 1 f (x) 1 for all
x [1, 1]. Show that there exists c [1, 1] such that f (c) = c.
The Intermediate Value Theorem states the following: Let f be a function continuous on
[a, b]. Suppose that y is such that f (a) < y < f (b). Then there exists c [a, b] such that
f (c) = y.
Let g(x) = f (x) + x. Since f and any polynomial are continuous on [1, 1], g is also
continuous on [1, 1]. We also have g(1) = f (1) 1 0 and g(1) = f (1) + 1 0. By the
Intermediate Value Theorem, there is c [1, 1] such that g(c) = 0; hence, f (c) = c.

Question 6
(a) Let S be a subset of real numbers. State the definition of a lower bound of S
and of the infimum of S.
Use the definition to show that 1 is the infimum of the interval (1, 1).
See Chapter 9 of the subject guide for related material.
An ` is a lower bound of S if, for all x S, we have ` x.
An ` is the infimum of S if ` is a greatest lower bound of S; that is, ` is a lower bound of S
and, for every other lower bound `0 of S, we have `0 `.
Let S := (1, 1) = {x R | 1 < x < 1}. It follows from the definition of S that 1 is a
lower bound of S.
Suppose that there is a lower bound `0 such that `0 > 1. Since 0 S, we have `0 0. Take
x = (`0 1)/2. Then x < (`0 + `0 )/2 = `0 0 and x > (1 1)/2 = 1, so x S. However,
this is a contradiction because x < `0 .
(b) State the greatest lower bound property of R.
Let A be a nonempty set of positive real numbers, and let

B = { a | a A}.

Prove that inf B exists, and that inf B = inf A.

The greatest lower bound property is: every non-empty set bounded below has an infimum.
For every a A, we have a 0, hence 0 is a lower bound of
we must have inf A 0.
A and
Consequently, for all a A, we have a inf A 0 and so a inf A. Hence, B is
non-empty and bounded below, from which we deduce that inf B exists and inf B inf A.

If inf B > inf A, then (inf B)2 > inf A and (inf B)2 could not be a lower bound of A.
2
Hence, there
would be an a A such that (inf B) > a. This would mean, however, that
inf B > a a contradiction.

So, inf B = inf A.

(c) Show that the polynomial p(x) = 2x3 + 2x2 10x + 5 has two real roots in the
interval (0, 2).
Since p(x) is a polynomial function, we know that it is continuous on [0, 1] and [1, 2]. We
note that p(0) = 5 > 0, p(1) = 1 < 0 and p(2) = 9 > 0, so, by the Intermediate Value
Theorem, there are c1 (0, 1) and c2 (1, 2) such that p(c1 ) = p(c2 ) = 0.

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

Question 7
(a) Let F = R \ {0} and for each a, b F define a b = ab.
(i) Show that (F, ) is a group.
(ii) Give an example of a finite subgroup of (F, ) of order larger than 1 and an
example of an infinite subgroup of (F, ) not equal to (F, ).
See Chapters 12 and 13 of the subject guide for relevant reading. Recall, from Chapter 12 of
the subject guide, that (S, ) is a group if and only if the following properties hold:

x, y S, x y S [G0, closure property]

x, y, z S, (x y) z = x (y z) [G1, associativity property]
e S such that x S, e x = x e = x [G2, identity property]
x S, x1 S such that x x1 = x1 x = e [G3, inverse property]

We verify the group axioms, as follows.

(G0): for every a, b G, we have a, b 6= 0, hence a b = ab 6= 0 and a b G.
(G1): for every a, b, c G, we have
(a b) c = (a b)c = (ab)c = abc = a(bc) = a(b c) = a (b c).
(G2): 1 G is the identity because a (1) = a(1) = a and (1) a = (1)a = a.
(G3): for every a G, 1/a G (because a 6= 0 and 1/a = 0 has no solution) and
a (1/a) = a(1/a) = 1 and (1/a) a = (1/a)a = 1.
H = {1, 1} is a finite subgroup of G with group table
*
-1
1

-1
-1
1

1
1
-1

H 0 = Q \ {0} is an infinite subgroup that is not equal to G

(b) Let G be a group with identity e.
(i) State the definition of the order of an element a G.
(ii) Let H be a subgroup of G. Is it true that, for every element h H, the order
of h in H is the same as the order of h in G ?
Justify your answer by either giving a proof or by providing a
counterexample.
(iii) Let H and K be subgroups of G such that |H| = 20 and |K| = 11. Prove that
H K = {e}.
See Chapter 13 of the subject guide for relevant reading.
(i) We say that a G has finite order if there is a natural number m such that am = e.
Otherwise, we say that a has infinite order. If a has a finite order, then the order of a is
min{m N|am = e}.
(ii) Since H is closed under the group operation, for every h H and for every n N, we
have that hn H. Hence, hn = e in H if and only if hn = e in G. From this it follows that,
for every h H, the order of h is the same in both H and G.
(iii) One must realise that H K is a subgroup of both H and K. Then, by Lagranges
Theorem (see Chapter 14 of the subject guide), |H K| divides |H| and |K|, but
gcd(20, 11) = 1, so |H K| = 1. We know that the identity e is in H K, hence
H K = {e}.
We have seen that H K is non-empty.
If a, b H K, then a b H (because H is a subgroup and a, b H) and a b K
(because K is a subgroup and a, b K). So, a b H K.
Similarly, if a H K, then a1 H (because H is a subgroup and a H) and a1 K
(because K is a subgroup and a K). So, a1 H K.

10

Examiners commentaries 2012

Question 8
(a) Let (F, ) be a group with identity e. Let a, b, c be elements of F such that
a c2 = b and c3 = e. Find c in terms of a and b.
Since c3 = c2 c = c c2 = e, we have that c2 = c1 . Hence, b = a c2 = a c1 , from which
we get that a = b c or c = b1 a.
(b)
(i) Explain what is meant for a group to be abelian.
(ii) What is meant by an isomorphism from a group (G, ) to a group (H, )?
(iii) Let (G, ) and (H, ) be two isomorphic groups. Prove that (G, ) is abelian if,
and only if, (H, ) is abelian.
Isomorphisms are discussed in Chapter 14 of the subject guide.
(i) A group (G, ) is abelian if, for all a, b G, a b = b a.
(ii) An isomorphism from a group (G, ) to (H, ) is a bijection f : G H such that all
a, b G, f (a b) = f (a) f (b).
Let f : G H be a bijection such that all a, b G, f (a b) = f (a) f (b).
Suppose that H is abelian. Take any a, b G, then
f (a b) = f (a) f (b) = f (b) f (a) = f (b a).
Since f is a bijection, we must have a b = b a.
Suppose that G is abelian. Take any a0 , b0 H. Since f is a bijection, there exists a, b G
such that a0 = f (a) and b0 = f (b). Then,
a0 b0 = f (a) f (b) = f (a b) = f (b a) = f (b) f (a) = b0 a0 .

(c) Let M = GL(n, R) be the group of invertible n n real matrices, with the
group operation being matrix multiplication. (You may assume this is a group.)
Define : M M by
(A) = (AT )1 ,
where AT denotes the transpose of the matrix A. Prove that is an
isomorphism.
is a bijection, because (A) = (B) implies that (AT )1 = (B T )1 , implying AT = B T ,
and hence A = B.
is surjective: for, if A is invertible, then A1 and (A1 )T are also invertible and
((A1 )T ) = (((A1 )T )T )1 = (A1 )1 = A.
We also have
(AB) = ((AB)T )1 = (B T AT )1 = (AT )1 (B T )1 = (A)(B).
So is a bijective homomorphism; that is, it is an isomorphism.

11

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

Examiners commentaries 2012

MT2116 Abstract mathematics
Important note
This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements for this course in the
academic year 201112. The format and structure of the examination may change in future years,
and any such changes will be publicised on the virtual learning environment (VLE).

Information about the subject guide

Unless otherwise stated, all cross-references will be to the latest version of the subject guide (2011).

Comments on specific questions Zone B

Candidates should answer SIX of the following EIGHT questions: THREE from Section A and
THREE from Section B. All questions carry equal marks.

Section A
Question 1
(a) Let S be the following statement about natural numbers m and n:
If m is even or n is even, then mn is even.

(i) Prove that S is true.

(ii) Write down the converse of S.
(iii) Write down the contrapositive of the converse of S.
(iv) Is the converse of S true or false? Justify your answer.
(v) Write down the contrapositive of S.
This question builds on the material of Chapter 1 of the subject guide.
Suppose (without loss of generality) that m is even. Then m = 2k, for some integer k.
Then, mn = (2k)n = 2(kn), which is even.
The converse is: if mn is even, then m is even or n is even.
The contrapositive of the converse is: if m and n are odd, then mn is odd.
We prove the contrapositive of the converse: if m = 2k + 1 and n = 2l + 1, then
mn = (2k + 1)(2l + 1) = 2(2kl + k + l) + 1,
which is odd. It follows that the converse is true, since it is logically equivalent to its
contrapositive.
The contrapositive of S is: if mn is odd, then m is odd and n is odd.

12

Examiners commentaries 2012

(b) Let A and B be subsets of a set E. The symmetric difference of A and B,

denoted by AB, is the set of elements of E that belong to A or B, but not both
A and B. That is, using set notation,
AB = (A B) \ (A B)
or, equivalently,
AB = (A \ B) (B \ A).
Prove that, if X = AB, then AX = B.
(Hint: show that AX B and B AX.)
This is quite a challenging question. Suppose X = P Q. We follow the hint (which is
always a good idea): we show first that P X Q and then that Q P X. Let z P X.
Then either (i) z P \ X or (ii) z X \ P . In case (i), given that X = P Q, we must have
z Q (otherwise we would have z X). In case (ii), given that X = P Q, we must have
z P Q and hence z Q (since z 6 P ). This shows P X Q.
Now suppose z Q. Since X = P Q, if z X, then z 6 P and so z P X. If z 6 X,
then z P (otherwise we would have z P Q = X), so z P X.

Question 2
(a) Prove by induction that, for all natural numbers n,
n
X

r(n2 r2 ) =

r=1

You may use the fact that

k
X

1 2 2
n (n 1).
4

r = k(k + 1)/2.

r=1

Proof by induction is discussed in Chapter 3 of the subject guide.

The statement is easily seen to be true when n = 1. Both sides are equal to 0. This is the
base case.
Suppose the statement is true for n = k, and consider n = k + 1. We have
k+1
X

r((k + 1) r )

r=1

k
X

r(k 2 + 2k + 1 r2 )

r=1

(2k + 1)

k
X
r=1

=
=
=

r+

k
X

r(k 2 r2 )

r=1

1
1
(2k + 1) k(k + 1) + k 2 (k 2 1)
2
4


1
2k(2k + 1)(k + 1) + k 2 (k 2 1)
4


1 4
k + 4k 3 + 5k 2 + 2k .
4

For the case n = k + 1 to be true, this should be the same as

1
(k + 1)2 ((k + 1)2 1).
4
We have
(k 2 + 2k + 1)(k 2 + 2k) = k 4 + 4k 3 + 5k + 2,
as required. So the result is true, by induction, for all values of n.

13

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

(b) Suppose f is the function f : N Z given by


n/2
if n is even,
f (n) =
(n 1)/2 if n is odd.
Prove that f is a bijection and determine a formula for the inverse function f 1 .
Functions and their properties are dealt with in Chapter 4 of the subject guide.
We need to show that f is injective and f is surjective.
Injective: (We need to prove if f (x) = f (y), then x = y.) Suppose f (x) = f (x0 ). Either: (i)
f (x) = f (x0 ) > 0, or (ii) f (x) = f (x0 ) 0. (This split into two cases is a crucial step.) In
0
case (i) x and x0 are both even and x2 = f (x) = f (x0 ) = x2 , so x = x0 . In case (ii) x, x0 are
x0 1
0
0
both odd and x1
2 = f (x) = f (x ) = 2 , so x = x . So f is an injection.
Surjective: (We need to prove that for any y Z, there is some x N such that y = f (x).)
If y 1, let x = 2y. Then x is even and so f (x) = x/2 = y. If y 0, let x = 1 2y. Then x
is odd and so f (x) = (x 1)/2 = y.
The formula for the inverse function follows immediately from the proof that the function is
surjective: we have

2n
if n 1
f 1 (n) =
1 2n if n 0.
(c) The relation R is defined on N by: a R b ab = n2 for some n N. Prove
that R is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence relations are discussed in Chapter 5 of the subject guide. Recall what it means
to say that a relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation. It means three things:
R is reflexive: for all x A, x R x.
R is symmetric: for all x, y A, x R y implies y R x.
aa = a2 is a square, so it is reflexive. ab = ba so it is symmetric. Suppose aRb and bRc, so
ab = n2 , bc = m2 for some integers m, n. Then
(ab)(bc)  mn 2
=
.
ac =
b2
b
Now, because ac is an integer, mn/b must be an integer too. (If it were not, there would be
some prime p and some integer k such that pk divides b but not mn. Then the denominator
of (mn/b)2 could not be reduced to 1, as it would have to in order to give an integer.) So ac
is a square and the relation is transitive.

Question 3
(a)
(i) Use the Euclidean algorithm to prove that 25 and 572 are coprime, and
express 1 in the form 1 = 25x + 572y for some integers x, y.
(ii) Determine the inverse of 25 in Z572 .
(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to solve the congruence
25x 2 (mod 572).
This is a standard, easy, question. We use the Euclidean algorithm (of Chapter 6 of the
subject guide).
By the Euclidean algorithm, we have
572 = 22.25 + 22
25 = 1.22 + 3
22 = 7.3 + 1,

14

Examiners commentaries 2012

so 572 and 25 have gcd equal to 1 and are therefore coprime.

Then,
1

= 22 7.3
= 22 7(25 22) = 8.22 7.25
= 8(572 22.25) 7.25 = 8.572 183.25.

It follows that 25 is invertible in Z572 and 251 = 183 = 389.

The solution to the congruence equation is given by
x 251 2 = 389 2 = 778 = 206.

(b) Let a, b and c be natural numbers such that a | c and b | c. Prove that if a and b
are coprime, then ab | c. (You may use, without proof, the fact that if a and b are
coprime, then there are integers x and y such that xa + yb = 1.)
The relevant background material can be found in Chapter 6 of the subject guide.
For this part, we could invoke the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Or, more directly,
as hinted, we use the fact that there are x, y such that 1 = xa + yb. Now, the facts about c
imply that there are integers k, l such that c = ka, c = lb. Then,
c = c.1 = c(xa + yb) = (lb)xa + (ka)yb = ab(lx + ky),
so ab divides c.

(c) Prove that 5 is irrational. (You may use, without proof, the fact that if n is
an integer and 5 | n2 , then 5 | n.)
Reading related to this question can be found
in Chapter 8 of the subject guide. This proof
closely resembles the standard proof that 2 is irrational.

Suppose there are a, b such that a/b = 5 and assume, without loss, that gcd(a, b) = 1.
Then we have a2 = 5b2 , so 5 divides a2 . By the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, 5 | a,
so a = 5c for some c. Then a2 = 25c2 = 5b2 , so b2 = 5c2 . So 5 | b2 and hence 5 | b. This
contradicts the fact that a, b are coprime.

Question 4
(a) Express the recurring decimal 0.3122 as a rational number p/q, where p and q
are integers.
See Chapter 8 of the subject guide for a discussion of how to solve questions of this kind.
Suppose the number is x. Then 1000x = 312.2122 and
1000x x = 999x = 312.2 0.3 = 311.9 = 3119/10,
so
x=

3119
.
9990

(b) DeMoivres formula tells us that

(cos + i sin )4 = cos(4) + i sin(4).
Use this to prove that, for any angle ,
sin(4) = 4 cos3 sin 4 cos sin3 .

15

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

Show, further, by using the facts sin2 + cos2 = 1 and sin(2) = 2 sin cos , that
sin(4) = 2 sin(2) 4 sin(2) sin2 .
For this, and the next, part of the question, see the discussion of complex numbers in
Chapter 8 of the subject guide.
Let c = cos and s = sin . Then we have
(c + is)4 = c4 + 4c3 (is) + 6c2 (is)2 + 4c(is)3 + (is)4 = c4 + 4ic3 s 6c2 s2 4ics3 + s4 .
Equating imaginary parts in (c + is)4 = cos(4) + i sin(4), we have
sin(4) = 4c3 s 4cs3 ,
as required. Furthermore, since s2 = 1 c2 and since 2cs = sin(2),
cos(4) = 2c2 (2cs) 2s2 (2cs) = 2 sin(2)(c2 s2 ) = 2 sin(2)(1 2s2 ),
which gives the required identity.
(c) Let X = C \ {0}, and let f : X X be given by f (z) = z|z|2 , for z X. Prove
that f is a bijection.
First, we prove the function is injective. Suppose f (z) = f (w). Then z|z|2 = w|w|2 . Taking
the modulus of each side, |z|3 = |w|3 , so |z| = |w|, Thus (since |z|2 = |w|2 6= 0) we may
cancel in z|z|2 = w|w|2 to obtain z = w.
Surjectivity is a little harder. Suppose z is given. We need to find w so that w|w|2 = z. This
suggests taking w = z for some R. If w = z then
f (w) = z|z|2 = ||3 |z|2 z.
So this will work if ||3 |z|2 = 1. So we may take = |z|2/3 . So, z = f (w) where
w = |z|2/3 z.

Section B
Question 5
(a) Define what it means for a sequence (an )nN to converge to L R.
Use this definition to prove that if (an )nN is decreasing and the subsequence
(a2n )nN converges to L, then (an )nN also converges to L.
See Chapter 10 of the subject guide for the background material to this part of the question.
A sequence (an )n1 converges to L R if, for every  > 0, there is an N such that for all
n > N we have |an L| < .
Since a2n L, for  > 0, there is an N 0 such that, for n > N 0 , we have |a2n L| < . Set
N = 2N 0 + 2 and suppose n > N . Then we have an a2n > L . But we also have
an a2n0 < L + , where n0 = bn/2c > N 0 .
(b) Define what it means for a function f : R R to be continuous at c.
Let f : R R and g : R R be functions that are continuous at 0, with f (0) > g(0).
Prove that there is an > 0 such that f (x) > g(x) for all x (, ).
See Chapter 11 of the subject guide for background material on limits of functions and
continuity.

16

Examiners commentaries 2012

A function f : R R is continuous at a point c R if for every  > 0 there exists > 0 such
that for every x satisfying |x c| < , we have |f (x) f (c)| < .
Using this definition, we notice that:
(A) For every  > 0 there exists 1 > 0 such that for every x, |x| < 1 , we have
|f (x) f (0)| < .
(B) for every  > 0 there exists 2 > 0 such that for every x, |x| < 2 , we have
|g(x) g(0)| < .
Let  = (f (0) g(0))/2. Since f (0) > g(0), we have  > 0. For 1 , 2 given by (A) and (B),
we set = min{1 , 2 }.
If x (, ), then |x| < 1 , hence, by (A), f (x) > f (0) . Similarly, |x| < 2 , hence, by
(B), g(x) < g(0) + . Since g(0) +  = f (0) , we have f (x) > g(x).
(c) State the Intermediate Value Theorem.
Let f : [0, 1] R be a continuous function that satisfies 0 f (x) 1 for all
x [0, 1]. Show that there exists c [0, 1] such that f (c) = 2c.
The Intermediate Value Theorem states the following: Let f be a function continuous on
[a, b]. Suppose that y is such that f (a) < y < f (b). Then there exists c [a, b] such that
f (c) = y.
Let g(x) = 2x f (x). Since f and any polynomial are continuous on [0, 1], g is also
continuous on [0, 1]. We also have g(0) = 2 0 f (0) 0 and g(1) = 2 1 f (1) 1 > 0. By
IVT, there is c [0, 1] such that g(c) = 0, hence, f (c) = 2c.

Question 6
(a) Let S be a subset of real numbers. State the definition of an upper bound of
S and of the supremum of S.
Use the definition to show that 1 is the supremum of the interval (1, 1).
See Chapter 9 of the subject guide for related material.
An ` is an upper bound of S if, for all x S, we have ` x.
An ` is the supremum of S if ` is the least upper bound of S, that is, ` is an upper bound of
S and, for every other upper bound `0 of S, we have `0 `.
Let S := (1, 1) = {x R | 1 < x < 1}. It follows from the definition of S that 1 is an
upper bound of S.
Suppose that there is an upper bound `0 such that `0 < 1. Since 0 S, we have `0 0. Take
x = (`0 + 1)/2. Then x > (`0 + `0 )/2 = `0 0 and x < (1 + 1)/2 = 1, so x S. However, this
is a contradiction because x > `0 .
(b) State the least upper bound property of R.
Let A be a nonempty set of real numbers which is bounded below, and let
B = {a | a A}.
Prove that sup B exists, and that sup B = inf A.
The least upper bound property of R is: every non-empty set bounded above has a
supremum.
Since A has a lower bound, by the greatest lower bound property of R, inf A exists. Since
for every a A, a inf A, we have that a inf A. Hence, inf A is an upper bound of
B. We deduce that sup B exists and, consequently, sup B inf A.
We also see that, for all a A, a sup B. Hence, for all a A, a sup B, so sup B is
a lower bound of A. By the definition of the infimum, we have sup B inf A.

17

MT2116 Abstract mathematics

(c) Show that the polynomial p(x) = x3 + x2 6x + 3 has two real roots in the
interval (0, 2).
Since p(x) is a polynomial function, we know that it is continuous on [0, 1] and [1, 2]. We
note that p(0) = 3 > 0, p(1) = 1 < 0 and p(2) = 3 > 0, so, by the IVT, there are c1 (0, 1)
and c2 (1, 2) such that p(c1 ) = p(c2 ) = 0.

Question 7
(a) Let F = R \ {0} and for each a, b F define a b = ab.
(i) Show that (F, ) is a group.
(ii) Give an example of a finite subgroup of (F, ) of order larger than 1 and an
example of an infinite subgroup of (F, ) not equal to (F, ).
See Chapters 12 and 13 of the subject guide for relevant reading. Recall, from Chapter 12 of
the subject guide, that (S, ) is a group if and only if the following properties hold:
x, y S, x y S [G0, closure property]
x, y, z S, (x y) z = x (y z) [G1, associativity property]
e S such that x S, e x = x e = x [G2, identity property]
x S, x1 S such that x x1 = x1 x = e [G3, inverse property]
We verify the group axioms, as follows.
(G0): for every a, b G, we have a, b 6= 0, hence a b = ab 6= 0 and a b G.
(G1): for every a, b, c G, we have
(a b) c = (a b)c = (ab)c = abc = a(bc) = a(b c) = a (b c).
(G2): 1 G is the identity because a (1) = a(1) = a and (1) a = (1)a = a.
(G3): for every a G, 1/a G (because a 6= 0 and 1/a = 0 has no solution) and
a (1/a) = a(1/a) = 1 and (1/a) a = (1/a)a = 1.
H = {1, 1} is a finite subgroup of G with group table
*
-1
1

-1
-1
1

1
1
-1

H 0 = Q \ {0} is an infinite subgroup that is not equal to G

(b) Let (G, ) be a group with identity e.
(i) State the definition of the order of an element a G.
(ii) Let H and K be subgroups of G such that |H| = p and |K| = q, where p and q
are primes such that p 6= q. It is known that H K is a subgroup of G. Prove
that H K = {e}.
(iii) In addition, assume that G is finite. Prove that, for every a, b G, the order
of a b is the same as the order of b a.
Hint: notice that (b a)n = b (a b)n1 a.
See Chapter 13 of the subject guide for relevant reading.
(i) We say that a G has finite order if there is a natural number m such that am = e.
Otherwise, we say that a has infinite order. If a has a finite order, then the order of a is
min{m N|am = e}.
(ii) Since H K is a subgroup of both H and K, by Lagranges Theorem (see Chapter 14 of
the subject guide), |H K| divides |H| = p and |K| = q, but gcd(p, q) = 1, so |H K| = 1.
We know that the identity e is in H K, hence H K = {e}.

18

Examiners commentaries 2012

(iii) Suppose that, for some n N and a, b G, we have that (a b)n = e. Hence,
(a b)n1 = (a b)1 = b1 a1 and
(b a)n = (b a) (b a) (b a) = b (a b)n1 a = b (b1 a1 ) a = e.
From this it follows that: If a b has order n, then (b a)n = e, and if b a has order m,
then (a b)m = e. So, we must have m n and n m.

Question 8
(a) Let (G, ) be a group. Let a, b, c, x be elements of G such that x2 a = b x c1
and a c x = x a c. Find x in terms of a, b and c.
From the first equation, we see x (x a c) = b x. Since x a c = a c x, we have that
x a c x = b x. We multiply both sides by x1 , x a c = b, from which we get that
x a = b c1 or x = b c1 a1 .
(b)
(i) Explain what is meant for a group to be abelian.
(ii) What is meant by an isomorphism from a group (G, ) to a group (H, )?
(iii) Let (G, ) and (H, ) be two isomorphic groups. Prove that (G, ) is abelian if,
and only if, (H, ) is abelian.
Isomorphisms are discussed in Chapter 14 of the subject guide.
(i) A group (G, ) is abelian if, for all a, b G, a b = b a.
(ii) An isomorphism from a group (G, ) to (H, ) is a bijection f : G H such that all
a, b G, f (a b) = f (a) f (b).
Let f : G H be a bijection such that all a, b G, f (a b) = f (a) f (b).
Suppose that H is abelian. Take any a, b G, then
f (a b) = f (a) f (b) = f (b) f (a) = f (b a).
Since f is a bijection, we must have a b = b a.
Suppose that G is abelian. Take any a0 , b0 H. Since f is a bijection, there exists a, b G
such that a0 = f (a) and b0 = f (b). Then,
a0 b0 = f (a) f (b) = f (a b) = f (b a) = f (b) f (a) = b0 a0 .

(c) Let M = GL(n, R) be the group of invertible n n real matrices, with the
group operation being matrix multiplication. (You may assume this is a group.)
Define : M M by
(A) = (AT )1 ,
where AT denotes the transpose of the matrix A. Prove that is an
isomorphism.
is a bijection, because (A) = (B) implies that (AT )1 = (B T )1 , implying AT = B T ,
and hence A = B.
is surjective: for, if A is invertible, then A1 and (A1 )T are also invertible and
((A1 )T ) = (((A1 )T )T )1 = (A1 )1 = A.
We also have
(AB) = ((AB)T )1 = (B T AT )1 = (AT )1 (B T )1 = (A)(B).
So is a bijective homomorphism; that is, it is an isomorphism.

19