2000 by Knowledge by Design, Inc.

Reprinted with permission of Knowledge by Design, Inc.

Citation: Blackhurst, A.E., & Edyburn, D.L. (2000). A brief
history of special education technology. Special Education
Technology Practice, 2(1), 21-36.

A Brief History of
Special Education
Technology
A. Edward Blackhurst
Dave L. Edyburn

As a new century begins, we thought this

would be an opportune time to take a look
backwards. While the field known as special
education technology is not all that old, the
critical developments contributing to where we
are today, span a period longer than a lifetime.
Thus, the opportunity for introspection and
reflection seems timely.

and developments within a given era. To organize the information, weve arbitarily defined a
series of time periods:
Pre-Twentieth Century
1900 - 1949
1950 - 1979
1980 - 1984
1985 - 1989
1990 - 1994
1995 - 2000

The process of developing this feature

article, A Brief History of Special Education
Technology, allowed us to engage in a pleasurable period of reminiscing. On the pages that
follow, readers will find the result of our work in
a mix of timelines and thematic summaries.

We anticipate this historical analysis will be

useful to students, teacher educators, and workshop leaders interested in the historical context
of special education technology. Administrators,
researchers, and policy makers are also likely to
find this work valuable.

Weve selected six themes that serve to

capture many of the issues, trends, and developments regarding the use of technology in special
education:
Instructional Technology
Assistive Technology
Medical Technology
Technology Productivity Tools
Information Technology
Technology of Teaching

At the outset of this project, our ambition

knew no bounds. We discovered, however, that
despite having access to considerable historical
records and personal recollections, significant
gaps exist in the historical record. As a result,
perhaps a more appropriate title for this feature
should be, An Incomplete History of Special
Education Technology. In advance, we apologize
for any errors of omission or interpretation. We
now recognize this document as a work inprogress. We welcome your feedback in order to
create an accurate historical record documenting
the collective accomplishments of the field.

In addition, weve collected a variety of

factoids related to legislation, events, people,
products, publications, and technology in society
in order to gain a sense of the kinds of activities
21

Instructional Technology
of Exceptional Children for more details). The SEIMC
network eventually consisted of 14 regional SEIMCs, four
Regional Media Centers for the Deaf, the Council for
Exceptional Children (CEC) ERIC Clearinghouse, and a
Network Coordinating Office, covering the entire United
States and Trust Territories.
The Network provided practical information and
resources that could be used to support the instruction of
students with disabilities. Centers in the Network performed a variety of functions, including the loan of
instructional media and materials, dissemination of related
information, development and evaluation of instructional
materials, in-service training of teachers, materials
information storage and retrieval, and the development of
locally-accessible Instructional Materials Centers (IMCs).
In subsequent years, as special education teacher
preparation programs improved, state and local instructional support systems became more viable, and commercial vendors provided more instructional materials, the

The United States Congress has a long history of

supporting technology applications for people with
disabilities, dating back to 1879, when a $10,000 grant
was made to support the production of Braille materials at
the American Printing House for the Blind. Funding for
captioning films for people who are deaf was provided in
1958. The primary rationale for laws such as these was to
provide technology resources that could be used to
improve instruction for people with disabilities.
As public school programs for students with
disabilities increased, a need was identified to improve the
access to instructional materials, media, and technology by
special education teachers. In 1964, the federal government funded two prototype Special Education Instructional
Materials Centers (SEIMCs) to explore ways to make
instructional technologies more accessible to special
education teachers. The viability of the SEIMCs was
quickly established and a national network was established
by the mid-1960s. (See the December, 1968 special issue

Source Materials for the Special Education Technology Timelines

Legislation

Events

People

A history of special education. (1997). Teaching Exceptional Children 75th Anniversary Issue. 29(5).
Ahl, D.H. (1977). The best of Creative Computing, Vol. 1. (pp. 68-71). Morristown, NJ: Creative Computing Press.
Blackhurst, A.E., & Cross, D.P. (1993). Technology in special education. In A.E. Blackhurst & W.H. Berdine (Eds.), An
introduction to special education (3rd ed., 77-103). NY: HarperCollins.
Blackhurst, A.E., & Hofmeister, A.M. (1980). Technology in special education. In L. Mann & D.A. Sabatino (Eds.) The fourth
review of special education. (pp. 199-219). NY: Grune & Stratton.
Computer Museum History Center. (2000). Timeline of computer history. Available at http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/
index.page
Freiberger, P. (1985, January). The 10th anniversary of the personal computer. Popular Computing, pp. 72-90, 177-190.
Hofmeister, A. (1984). Microcomputer applications in the classroom. NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Microsoft Corp. (1999). Microsoft Museum Pre-Computer Timeline. Available at: http://channels.microsoft.com/MSCorp/
Museum/timelines/history/timeline.asp
Muuss, P. (1999). Historic computer images. Available at: http://ftp.arl.mil/ftp/historic-computers/
Nazzaro, J.N. (1977). Exceptional timetables: Historical events affecting the handicapped and gifted. Reston, VA: Council for
Exceptional Children.
Polsson, K. (1999). Chronology of events in the history of microcomputers. Available at: http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/
comphist.htm
Watching technology grow up. (1999, December). Technology and Learning (special issue).

The Abacus

Products

Publications

1642 Pascals Arithmetic Machine

1614 John Napier builds

Napiers Bones; rods to
serve as mechanical aids
for calculation

1646 First known use of the word computer

in the English language is used by Sir Thomas
Browne to describe persons who reckon the
passage of time by making up calendars
1752 Ben Franklin
discovers electricity
by flying a kite in a
thunderstorm

Technology in Society

Pre-Twentieth Century
22

1781 James Watt

invents the steam
engine

SEIMC Network was disbanded. The Network produced a

lasting legacy, however. Following are several of the more
notable outcomes:
In response to the need for a practical journal for special
education teachers, the journal TEACHING Exceptional
Children was conceptualized by SEIMC Network
personnel and the first issue was produced in the Fall of
1968. Published by CEC, that journal continues to be
distributed to the more than 50,000 of its members and to
most major professional libraries.
SEIMC personnel established The Association for
Special Education Technology (ASET) as a Special
Interest Group of the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology (AECT) in 1972.
ASET published the first issue of the Journal of Special
Education Technology (JSET) in March, 1978.
ASET affiliated with CEC as its Technology and Media
(TAM) Division in 1984 and received its official
Division charter in 1989. TAM has become the major

professional organization for people interested in

technology applications in special education.
Responsibility for the publication of JSET was assumed
by TAM. That journal has become the major outlet for
the publication of professional articles and research
reports related to special education technology.
A large number of professional personnel emerged from
the SEIMC Network who have become, researchers,
teacher educators, and leaders who are advocates for the
use of technology in special education.
Many of the current uses of instructional technology
in special education can trace their roots, in part, to work
that was done in the SEIMC Network. These include
activities associated with computer assisted instruction,
distance education, accessing electronic databases of
information to support instruction, anchored instruction,
multimedia instructional programs, and the use of communication satellites and telecommunication systems for
delivering web-based instruction.

1879 P.L. 45-186 provides funds to the

American Printing House for the Blind
to produce Braille materials

Legislation

Events

1834 Louis
Braille invents
the braille code
using patterns
of six dots
1804 Punched Card
Loom invented by
Joseph Marie
Jacquard

1835 Charles
Babbage designs the
Analytic Engine that
operates as a
mechanical computer

1874 The Audiophone Bone

Conduction Amplifer is invented

1859 Charles Darwins

Origin of Species is
published

1811 Luddite rioters in

Nottingham, England
smash machines that took
away their jobs

People

1844 The first public

telegram is sent by
Samuel Morse: What
hath God wrought!

Products

Publications

1867 The typewriter

is first described in
Scientific American

23

1890 Dr. Herman Hollerith

uses electrical tabulating
equipment to analyze
statistical data at the U.S.
Census Office

Technology in Society

Pre-Twentieth Century

Assistive Technology

Section 300.6 of IDEA goes on to define AT services

that include assessment of needs for AT, acquiring AT
devices, modification and maintenance of AT devices,
coordination of other services related to AT, teaching
students and their families to use AT devices, and providing training to professionals who will deliver services to
that child to improve functional capabilities.
Most significantly, however, IDEA requires that AT
must be considered for each student for whom an Individualized Education Program (IEP) is developed. This
requirement clearly places greater emphasis on AT for
students with disabilities than was the case prior to the
enactment of that legislation. School personnel are now
required to develop policies and procedures for meeting
this provision of the law.
IDEA clearly addresses the need for schools to focus
on using AT to enhance functional capabilities of students;
however, there is very little in the law to guide the implementation of this provision. One interpretation of this
requirement describes a functional model for the applica-

Federal policy related to assistive technology was

solidified with the passage of Public Law (PL) 100-407,
the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with
Disabilities Act of 1988, which was the first major
legislation solely directed to assistive technology (AT).
That legislation provided funding to support statewide
planning and support for the delivery of AT services.
The "Tech Act," as it has come to be known,
provided definitions of AT devices and services. Those
definitions were slightly modified in the re-authorization
of PL 105-17, The Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA), to make the wording of the definitions
applicable to children with disabilities in schools. As
defined in Section 300.5 of IDEA...
Assistive technology device means any item, piece
of equipment, or product system, whether acquired
commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve
the functional capabilities of a child with a
disability.

1904 P.L. 58-171 promotes

circulation of reading
matter among the blind

Legislation

Events

People

Products

1917 Teletypewriters
appear foreshadowing the
development of todays
TTY devices

1901 Guglielmo Marconi sends

the first transatlantic wireless
signal

1902 Albert Einstein begins his

work in Switzerlands Patent
Office where he developed his
Theory of Relativity

1900 The first electrical

amplifying device for the
hearing impaired is invented

1903 Nikola Tesla patents

electrical logic circuits called
gates or switches

1926 Pressey develops a

teaching machine that uses
programmed instruction

1928 Radios are distributed to blind citizens by

the American Foundation
for the Blind

Publications

Technology in Society

1900 - 1949

1920 First commercial radio

broadcast from KDKA in Pittsburgh
announcing the results of the
Presidential Election (Harding won)

1900 Eastman Kodak Co.

sells the new Brownie
box camera for $1

24

1927 - First use of

the human voice in
movies (refered to as
the "talkies")

tion of AT services (Blackhurst & Lahm, 2000). That

model is based on areas of human function identified by
Melichar (1978) that can be supported by AT devices and
services. Seven areas in which students with disabilities
may have problems and examples of how AT devices and
services can assist in improving functional abilities are as
follows:
Existence problems are associated with the functions
needed to sustain life, such as eating, grooming, dressing, elimination, and hygiene. Solutions may include
adapted utensils, dressing aids, adapted toilet seats, toilet
training, and occupational therapy services.
Communication problems are associated with the
functions needed to receive, internalize, and express
information, such as oral and written expression, visual
and auditory reception, and social interaction. Solutions
may include hearing amplifiers, captioned video, speech
aids, sign language training, magnifiers, picture boards,
writing and drawing aids, pointers, alternative input and
output devices for computers, augmentative communica-

tion services, social skills training, and speech/language

pathology services.
Body support, protection, and positioning problems are
associated with the functions needed to stabilize, support,
or protect a portion of the body, such as standing, sitting,
alignment, stabilizing, and preventing injury from falls.
Solutions may include prone standers, furniture adaptation, support harnesses, stabilizers, slings, head gear, and
physical therapy services.
Travel and mobility problems are associated with the
functions needed to move horizontally or vertically, such
as crawling, walking, using stairs, lateral and vertical
transfers, and navigating in the environment. Solutions
may include wheelchairs, scooters, hoists, cycles,
ambulators, walkers, crutches, canes, and orientation and
mobility services.
Environmental interaction problems are associated with
the functions needed to perform activities across

AT continued on page 34

1920 P.L. 66-236 Vocational

rehabilitation services previously
authorized for World War I veterans
are extended to civilians

1936 P.L. 74-732 Blind persons are

authorized to operate vending stands
in federal buildings

1923 Vladimir Zworykin

demonstrates the iconscope and
claims it will provide a picture
in your radio set using signals
traveling through the air

1934 Talking Books for the

Blind are produced on longplaying records

1935 The Waldman Air Conduction

Audiometer is developed to detect
hearing impairments

1945 The Electronic Numerical Integrator

and Calculator (ENIAC) completes
calculations in 30 seconds that would take a
skilled human more than 20 hours

Events

1947 William Shockley invents

the transitor, a solid-state
replacement of the vacuum tube

People

1947 The Perkins Brailler is

developed; printing of large-type
books is initiated by the American
Printhing House for the Blind

1945 Vannevar Bush publishes, As we may

think in Atlantic Monthly envisioning an
information organization and retrieval system
that would later become known as hypertext

1937 Howard H. Aiken

develops the Mark I, the
first large scale automatic
digital calculator

1940 CBS demonstrates color television

to the press

Legislation

1945 First computer bug was identified. It was an actual

bug, a moth, that had gotten into the mechanical relays in
the Mark I computer at Harvard University, causing it to
stop. It was located by Grace Hopper, a captain in the
Navy, who then coined the term, "debugging.

Products

Publications

Technology in Society

1900 - 1949
25

Medical Technology
stay alive. Terms, such as technology-dependent or
medically fragile, emerged to describe individuals with
such needs.
It is necessary for some individuals to receive
periodic treatment that is provided via machines. An
example is weekly dialysis treatments for those whose
kidneys do not function properly. Periodic blood platelet
transfusions may be required for others, such as in the case
of people with sickle cell anemia.
Other children and adults require more constant use
of technologies in order to ensure their survival. For
example, some people lack the muscle control to breathe.
Devices, called ventilators, are used to perform mechanical
breathing for those individuals. A ventilator is attached to a
tube that has been inserted into the persons neck, via a
tracheostomy.
Trach tubes must be cleaned on a regular basis in
order to keep the airway clear. Suction machines are
sometimes used to assist with this process. Other machines

A wide range of medical achievements during the

20th Century resulted a variety of rather remarkable
devices to facilitate the health and vitality of people. These
developments range from the low-tech Simplex Hearing
Tube, created in 1914, that used a funnel to catch sound
and transmit it to the ear to facilitate hearing, to the hightech cochlear implant that can be surgically implanted to
enable some people with severe auditory impairments to
hear sounds.
Many complex machines were developed for use by
medical personnel in diagnosing and treating a variety of
physical conditions. These include treatment of visual loss
via laser surgery, continuous glucose monitoring for
people with diabetes, cardiac pacemakers for those with
heart conditions, implantation of electrodes in the brain to
control epilepsy, and the use of robotic arms to minimize
the invasiveness of different surgical procedures (Hales,
1999). A number of very specialized devices also were
developed to help people with unique medical problems to

1958 P.L. 85-905 Federal

funds allocated for the
purchase of captioned films
and distribution through
schools of the Deaf

Legislation

1958 P.L. 85-926 Colleges

and universities receive
funds to aid in preparing
teachers of the mentally
retarded

1959 IBMs Watson Research

Center experiments with CAI
teletype and terminals to schools

Events

1960 The PLATO

Project is initiated at the
University of Illinois

1966 The ERIC

System was created

1968 Doug Engelbart

demonstrates the use of a
mouse as a way to interact
with a computer

People

1953 The megascope is

invented to project and
magnify printed
material

Products

Publications

1963 P.L. 88-164 Funds are

provided to train teachers for all
disabilities and establish research
and demonstration projects to study
education of exceptional children

1951 Samuel Kirk &

G. Orville Johnson
publish, Educating the
Retarded Child textbook

Technology in Society

1966 The laser cane is

developed for use by
the blind

1954 B.F. Skinner

publishes The Science
of Learning and the Art
of Teaching

1954 First successful

FORTRAN computer
program

1960 Lumsdaine & Glaser

publish Teaching Machines
and Programmed Learning

1957 The Russians launch

Sputnik, prompting
American schools to refocus
their emphasis on math and
science

1950 - 1979
26

1966 Color TV
becomes popular

1968 A device is invented for

compressing speech to more than
320 words per minute without
distortion
1962 Mager publishes
Preparing Objectives for
Progammed Instruction

1969 ARPANet enables researchers

at UCLA and SRI International in
Menlo Park, CA to communicate.
This system would eventually
evolve into the Internet.

Bionic extremities have been developed and

robots have been developed to enable people to feed
themselves by controlling the actions of robots with their
voices (Morris, 1985). Experiments are continuing on the
development of devices that use electronic stimulation of
the muscles to elicit movement in non-functional limbs,
the goal being to enable those who are paralyzed to regain
their ability to walk. As knowledge and technology
continue to improve, and microchips become increasingly
smaller and more powerful, it is anticipated that even more
remarkable medical technologies will be developed in the
21st century.

are used to mist medication into the trach tube for those
who may require respiratory therapy.
Special equipment also may be necessary to assist
those who are unable to eat independently. Body supports
are needed for those who cant maintain an upright
position while eating. Feeding tubes may be necessary for
those who cant take food orally. A nasogastric tube that is
inserted through the nose into the stomach may be required
for some, while a gastronomy tube that is inserted directly
into the stomach may be required for others.
Some people with heart conditions may require
constant monitoring of their circulatory systems. A device,
called a pulse oximeter, can be attached to a finger or toe
to monitor the heart rate and oxygen content in the blood.
This device, no larger than a small bandage, feeds data to a
display that can be set to sound an alarm if an abnormal
reading is detected. It also can store information in a
computer.

1968 P.L. 90-247 Elementary and Secondary

Education Amendments expanded the Instructional Media Program to include production and
distribution of educational media for use by
individuals with disabilities
1969 Penn States Care Project creates a
mobile computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) classroom for teachers

1974 Ted Nelson publishes

Computer Lib providing a
glimpse of the potential of
technology

1979 Compuserve
Information Services
goes online

Hales, D. (November 28, 1999). Medical miracles in a

microchip. Parade: The Sunday newspaper magazine,
New York, NY: Parade Publications.
Morris, B. (1985). The world of robotics. New York, NY:
W. H. Smith Publishers, Inc.

1973 P.L. 93-112 Rights of handicapped

individuals in employment and educational institutitions are guaranteed
through Section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Amendments

1975 P.L. 94-142 Free appropriate

public education and other
procedural guarantees are mandated
for all handicapped children

1973 Minnesota Educational

Computing Corporation
(MECC) is formed

1975 Bill Gates and Paul

Allen found Microsoft

1975 First issue of Byte

magazine published
(September)

1975 The personal

computer age begins as
Popular Electronics
describes the MITS Altair,
in its January, 1975 issue

Legislation

1979 First NECC

Conference features
32 sessions

Events

1976 Raymond Kurzweil

develops The Kurzweil Reader
that translates printed material
into synthesized speech for
visually impaired persons

People

1977 Apple introduces the Apple II

computer; Commodore introduces
the PET computer; Tandy releases
the TRS-80

1979 VisiCalc is introduced

1974 First issue of Oregon Computing Teacher

Magazine published. Later to become known
as The Computing Teacher. Now known, as
Learning and Leading with Technology
1972 Atari is
founded. It produces 1974 Intel
Pong, the first video introduces the
8080 processor
game.

References

1978 First issue of the

Journal of Special
Education Technology
is published

1976 First Cray

supercomputer
1977 Apple II
is shipped to
shipped
Los Alamos
Laboratories

1978
5.25 inch
floppy disks
become
standard

Products

Publications

Technology in Society

1950 - 1979
27

Technology Productivity Tools

children. His parents would like to see him have as normal
a school experience as possible and are concerned with his
isolation on the playground. His medical team doesn't
want him to use a wheelchair because they think he may
develop a premature dependency on it.
Ms. Alvarez, the school's special education resource
teacher, schedules a meeting with the school district's
itinerant physical therapist, Mr. Holmes, to explore
possible solutions to this problem. They decide to use a
computer software program, the Adaptive Device Locator
System (ADLS; Academic Software, Inc., 1997), to see if
they can find a piece of equipment that Lee could use to
travel around on the playground.
They sit at the computer and engage in a dialogue
with the software program. The dialogue is in the form of
options that are presented in responses to choices that they
make. The computer guides them through a decisionmaking process through a series of questions and possible
answers from which the team selects the best response.

As the name implies, technology productivity tools

are computer software, hardware, and related systems that
enable people to work more effectively and efficiently. For
example, computer software such as database programs
can be used to store and rapidly retrieve information; word
processing programs can be used to easily edit text
material; FAX machines can facilitate the transmission of
written documents over long distance; video conferencing
facilities can reduce the need for travel; and expert
systems, which are constructed as artificial intelligence
systems, can aid people in decision making.
Following is an example of how an expert system
can be used to enhance the productivity of special education personnel.
Lee is a third grader with a degenerative muscled
disease. He has some use of his legs and uses canes to help
him walk. When he goes to the playground with his
classmates, however, he often stands or sits by himself
because he can't engage in the active games with the other

Legislation

Events

People

Products

Publications

1980 Seymour Paperts Mindstorms is

published and LOGO programming is
introduced in schools

early 1980s The most common use of

computers in schools is for fostering
computer literacy.

Jackie Brand founds the Disabled Childrens

Community Group. Her work in developing a
community-based technology resource center
later becomes a model for the formation of the
Alliance for Technology Access (ATA)

1981 IBM Personal

Computer is introduced

1982 Budd and Delores Hagan

start Closing the Gap

The Adaptive Firmware Card allowed the

Apple II computer to be operated by
switches or alternative keyboards providing
individuals with disabilities access to
learning and productivity tools
1981 The computer
in the school: Tutor,
tool, tutee by Robert
Taylor is published

1980 Linda Burkhart publishes

Homemade battery powered
toys and educational devices for
severely handicapped children

1981 OTA Report

Computers and the
Handicapped is
published

Computer owners obtain new

software each month by typing
program code from listings in
Creative Computing magazine
into their computer

Technology in Society

1980 - 1984
28

Irish Mails. They will receive the catalogs and be able to

do comparative shopping for the features and prices of the
products produced by different manufacturers.
In a matter of a few minutes, Ms. Alvarez and Mr.
Holmes were able to conduct a search and locate a device
that could potentially meet Lee's functional needs. The
expert system search strategy employed in the ADLS
program enabled them to find an appropriate device
without advance knowledge of its name or manufacturer.
For those who have access to the Internet, ADLS can
be located at http://acsw.com/adlsweb1.html. Often, ADLS
is used in conjunction with the Hyper-ABLEDATA electronic database developed by the Trace Center at the
University of Wisconsin. It is located online at http://
trace.wisc.edu/tcel/.

Upon completion of the questions, the computer

reaches a conclusion and recommends three types of
devices that might work for Lee. The first is a handoperated tricycle, the second is a motorized play car, and
the third is a device called an Irish Mail. The Irish Mail is
a scooter that is operated with hand controls that are
pumped back and forth. It is steered with slight movements of the legs. Drawings of both devices are presented
so they can get an idea of what they look like, and a
generic description of each device is displayed on the
screen.
Mr. Holmes recommends the Irish Mail because it
will allow Lee to continue to exercise his legs. In addition,
it is equipped with a seat belt for added safety. Once the
selection has been made, the computer provides a list of
companies that manufacture or sell various versions of the
Irish Mail. The computer then permits them to enter names
and addresses and will print mailing labels and letters to
each company, requesting a catalog and information about

References
Academic Software, Inc. (1997). Adaptive device locator
system [Computer program]. Lexington, KY: Author.

1983 P.L. 98-199 is passed to amend P.L.

94-142 to provide additional emphasis on
parent education, preschool, secondary, and
postsecondary programs for handicapped
children and youth

1983 First Closing the Gap conference,

Minneapolis, MN

Legislation

1984 First Technology and Media (TAM)

Conference, Hartford, CT

Harry J. Murphy founder of the California

State University-Northridge (CSUN)
Technology and Persons with Disabilities
conference

1982 Lotus announces Lotus

1-2-3; WordPerfect introduces
WordPerfect DOS

1982 Microsoft
releases MS-DOS
1.1 to IBM for the
IBM-PC

1983 Microcomputers in Special

Education: Selection and Decision
Making Process by Florence M.
Taber is published

1983 Apple
Computer
introduces the
Apple IIe

1983 IBM
introduces the
PCjr home
computer

1983 First issue of

Closing the Gap
newspaper published
(April)
1983 Radio Shack Model 100
is introduced and will
become one of the first and
most popular portable
computers

Events

People

1983
Print Shop
Math Blaster
Writing to Read
AppleWorks

1984 Apple
Products
introduces the
Macintosh computer

1984 First issue of the

Closing the Gap
Resource Directory is
published (February)

1983 Time magazine names

the computer as Man of
the Year for 1982

Publications

Technology in Society

1980 - 1984
29

Information Technology
ments, such as Resources in Education (RIE) and Current
Index to Journals in Education (CIJE).
If the number on an abstract retrieved via an ERIC
search includes an "ED," the full text of the article can be
retrieved from one of more than 900 libraries that contain
microfiche of those articles or they can be purchased from
the ERIC Document Reproduction Service.
The ERIC Clearinghouse most relevant to those who
work with people who have exceptionalities is located at
the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). The Home
Page for the CEC Clearinghouse (http://ericec.org/) has
numerous links to other special education-related resources. The CEC Clearinghouse also produces Fact
Sheets, Mini-bibliographies, and other reports in addition
to contributing ERIC Digests about topics related to
special education.
When conducting searches of the ERIC database, it
is necessary to use descriptors that were assigned to each
abstract as it was entered into the database. These descrip-

Information technologies provide access to knowledge and resources on a wide range of topics. The Internet
and its World Wide Web (Web) component is the most
prominent example of information technology. However,
the most notable information technology for professional
educators is the Educational Resources Information
Center (ERIC) system, which enables people to search
much of the world's literature related to education, in
general, and special education, in particular.
Established in 1966, ERIC is operated by the
National Library of Education (http://www.accesseric.org)
under a grant from the U. S. Department of Education.
ERIC system personnel review and abstract publications
and enter them in an electronic database, which contains
more than 950,000 abstracts. Users searching for information about an educational topic can retrieve the abstracts
by using combinations of descriptors. ERIC can be
accessed via the Web, by using CD-ROMs that contain the
ERIC abstracts, or through conventional printed docu-

Legislation

1986 P.L. 99-457 is passed to amend

P.L. 94-142 to extned its provisions to
infants and toddlers from birth through
age 2

SpecialNet is a telecommunications
system enabling the special education
community to post messages on an
electronic bulletin board and share
information

Events

People

1987 P.E. 99-457 Education of the

Handicapped Amendments of 1986, Part
G, established the Technology, Educational Media, and Materials program for
the purpose of enhancing research and
development advances and efforts.

1986 P.L. 99-506 amended the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 by adding Section 508
which requires accessibility to computers
and other electronic office equipment in
places of federal employment

Alan Hofmeisters work on

expert systems captures the
imagination of many special
education leaders

Products

1985 Microsoft
ships Microsoft
Windows 1.0

Publications

1986 Apple Special

Education brochure
helps special educators
understand the potential
of technology

Gregg Vanderheiden and colleagues at the

TRACE Center at the University of Wisconsin
work with the computer industry to incorporate
access tools into the system software reducing the
need for after-market accommodations for
individuals with special needs

1985 Miliken
Word Processor

The Sloan Report by Edie

Sloan provides special
education readers with
industry insider information

Technology in Society

1985 - 1989

30

MACS (Multisensory Authoring Communication System) is distributed as public domain

software by Johns Hopkins University that
enables teachers to create custom software for
students with disabilities
1988 Mike Behrmanns book,
Integrating computers into the
curriculum: A handbook for
special educators is published

tors can be combined with words like "AND", "OR" and

"NOT" to broaden or narrow a search. (More information
about how to conduct searches is available online at http://
ericir.syr.edu/Eric/s-hints.html.)
The most traditional way to use ERIC is through
print resources, such as RIE and CIJE, at an education
library. Searches can be made of the ERIC system with the
help of an electronic "Wizard" that is provided at the Web
site maintained by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment
and Evaluation. The Wizard helps by locating the correct
descriptor from the ERIC Thesaurus of Descriptors. You
can type a descriptor that you believe will help you locate
information, submit it, and the Wizard will display the
correct descriptor to use and any related ones that can
enable you to narrow or broaden your search. The online
Wizard is located at http://ericae.net/scripts/ewiz/
amain2.asp.
AN IMPORTANT NOTE: Although the ERIC

1987 Technology, Media, and Materials

Program established in the Office of Special
Education Programs (OSEP)

database is very comprehensive, a typical ERIC search

WILL NOT retrieve all of the information related to a
topic. The CEC-ERIC Clearinghouse abstracts articles and
collects information about special education topics that are
not included in the main ERIC collection, due to limitations that are placed on the size of the main ERIC system.
The excess information is collated into the Exceptional
Child Education Resources (ECER) database and print
publication. There are approximately 80,000 abstracts in
the ECER collection, only one-half of which are in the
main ERIC collection. The print version of ECER is
located in most education libraries, while the electronic
form of the database is available on CD-ROM. Therefore,
if you are conducting an ERIC search for information on a
special education topic, be sure you search the ECER
database as well as the ERIC database to increase the
likelihood of retreiving the most comprehensive information.

1988 P.L. 100-407 Technology-Related

Assistance Act for Individuals with Disabilities
(The Tech Act) provides funding for state-wide
systems and services to provide assistive
technology devices and services to individuals
with disabilities

The CEC Center for Special

Education Technology serves
as a national clearinghouse
for the developing field

Events

Ted Hasselbring, Vanderbilt

University, sets new standards
for research-based software
products

1986 Magic Slate;

Muppet Learning Keys
1988 Mindscape publishes
the book, Curriculum
methods for mastery ...Or
how to make education
special for all learners

Legislation

Maddie Pugliese is an awardwinning teacher, trainer, and

consultant

FrEdWriter

1987 Talking Textwriter

1988 Sunburst
Communications distributes
the Curriculum
Planner to
assist software
uers in
technology
integration

People

1989 HyperStudio

Products

1989 Beyond drill and

practice: Expanding the
computer mainstream by
Russell, Corwin, Mokros,
& Kapisovsky is published

Publications

Technology in Society

1985 - 1989
31

Technology of Teaching
3-second delay, Ann names the letter: "This is an H." If
they answer incorrectly, they are told, "No. Wait if you
don't know."
As the students get used to the procedure, they
gradually associate the name of the letter with its shape
and are able to name it correctly before the 3-second delay
is up. When they are able to answer correctly on three
consecutive presentations, another letter is introduced.
The above example illustrates the application of one
of the technologies of teaching. It comes from the research
of Ann Blackhurst (1997), who successfully taught letter
recognition to several of her preschool students with
disabilities. This particular technology of teaching is
known as constant time delay, which is one of a number of
response prompting strategies that research has shown to
be effective with students who have disabilities (Wolery,
Ault, & Doyle, 1992).
Technologies of teaching refer to instructional
approaches that are systematically designed and applied in

Ann is teaching letter recognition to her preschool

students with disabilities. She has presented the letters of
the alphabet to her students and identified those that the
students are unable to recognize. She selects groups of two
unidentified letters for each student.
Her classroom is organized into learning centers.
She decides to imbed instruction on letter recognition into
the natural activities that are conducted in the learning
centers. She constructs felt letters for use on the flannel
board in the Book Center, selects blocks with the letters
for the Fine Motor Center, and writes the letters on the
dry-erase board in the Writing Center.
After systematically orienting each student to one of
the target letters, she says, "Look! What letter?" and then
waits 3 seconds for a response. If students answer correctly, Ann provides verbal praise (e.g., "Very good! That
was an H." Students are instructed to wait if they do not
know the answer. If they don't provide a response after the

Legislation

Events

1990 P.L. 101-476 Education of the

Handicapped Amendments of 1990, IDEA,
included assistive technology provisions for
students with disabilities.

1990 P.L. 101-336 Passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act is landmark
legislation defining protections for
individuals with disabilities and mandating
accessability

1990 Microsoft releases Windows 3.0

People

Products

Publications

1990 The TRACE Center releases the

second edition of Hyper-ABLEDATA
cataloging over 16,000 rehabilitation and
assistive technology devices

1993 Okolo, Bahr, & Rieths research

review on CAI in special education is
published in the Journal of Special
Education Technology

Technology in Society

1991 Kid Pix

1992 Co:Writer

1993 Rena Lewis book

Special education technology:
Classroom applications is
published

1992 Microsoft
releases Windows 3.1

1990 - 1994
32

1993 Apple Computer

releases the Newton
MessagePad 100
1993 Boone & Higgins create
hypermedia software that is bound as an
insert in the journal LD Forum, 19(1),
for teachers to use in making customized
hypermedia reading materials

very precise ways. Many are embellishments and extensions of the work of B. F. Skinner (Greer, 1991). Although
there are different technologies of teaching, most include
the use of well-defined objectives, precise instructional
procedures based on the tasks that students are required to
learn, small units of instruction that are care-fully sequenced, a high degree of teacher activity, high levels of
student involvement, liberal use of reinforcement, and
careful monitoring and evaluation of student performance.
Another common feature shared by technologies of
teaching is that they are based on theories of learning and
theories of instruction. They also have been validated
through empirical research (Lovitt, 1995; Algozzine &
Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1992).
Among the many successful examples of technologies of teaching are the application of applied behavior
analysis (Wolery, Bailey, & Sugai, 1988) for teaching
social and academic skills (Alberto & Troutman, 1995);
direct instruction of academic skills (Carnine, Silbert, &

Kameenui, 1990); and teaching students how to apply

learning strategies (Deshler & Schumaker, 1986).
In most cases, technologies of teaching can be
applied without the use of computers or other instructional
media. Sometimes, however, software and multimedia
programs can be developed that have been based on
technology of teaching principles. Examples include the
use of computer-controlled video anchored instruction
programs to teach problem solving (Hasselbring, Goin, &
Wissick, 1989) and the use of constant time delay to teach
the memorization of spelling words (Stevens, Blackhurst,
& Slaton, 1991), abbreviations (Edwards, Blackhurst, &
Koorland, 1995) and math facts (Bausch, 1999). The latter
researcher also used an alternate keyboard with students
who had learning disabilities, thus illustrating how
assistive technology and instructional technology also can
facilitate the application of the technology of teaching.

Teaching continued on page 33

1990, P.L. 101-431 The Television Decoder

Circuitry Act of 1990 requires built-in closed
caption decoders in all new television sets with 13inch screens (or larger) manufactured or sold in the
U.S. after July 1, 1993

1992 Unicorn Engineering

changes its name to IntelliTools

1994 Mary Males

Technology for Inclusion
book is published

Events

1993 The listserv, SPEDTALK, organized by

John Lloyd of the University of Virginia debuts.

1994 Joy Zabala presents

the SETT model at
Closing the Gap

1993 Encarta

Legislation

Pat Morrissey, Congressional staffer

advocates for technology and disabilities and
impacts a wide range of federal laws

1994 IBM Access DOS

1997 Boone & Higgins edit a special issue

of Journal of Learning Disabilities that is
subsequently released on CDROM with
hypermedia enhancements and in book form

People

1994 Iomega introduces the

Zip Disk and Zip Drive

1997 ISTE releases

national technology
standards for students

Products

Publications

Technology in Society

1990 - 1994
33

AT continued from page 25

exercise, games, and hobbies. Solutions may include
modified rules and equipment, Special Olympics,
adapted aquatics, switch-activated cameras, Braille
playing cards, and adapted physical education services.
Those planning IEP services can use the above areas
to guide their consideration about whether AT devices or
services are needed to enhance the availability of given
students to function within their various school environments. Such consideration will meet the requirements of
IDEA.

environments, such as operating equipment and accessing facilities. Solutions may include the use of switches
to control equipment, remote control devices, adapted,
ramps, automatic door openers, modified furniture,
driving aids, and rehabilitation engineering services.
Education and transition problems are associated with the
functions needed to participate in learning activities and
to prepare for new school settings or post-school settings
such as assessment, learning, access to the general
education curriculum, creative and performing arts, using
instructional materials, and preparing for new environments. Solutions may include adapted instructional
materials, educational software, computer adaptations,
community-based instruction, creative arts therapy,
assistive technology, and other related services.
Sports, fitness, and recreation problems are associated
with the functions needed to participate in individual or
group sports, play, hobby and craft activities such as
individual and group play, leisure activities, sports,

People

Products

Publications

Blackhurst, A. E., & Lahm, E. A. (2000). Technology and

exceptionality foundations. In J. D. Lindsey (Ed.).
Technology and exceptional individuals (3rd ed., pp 3 45). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Melichar, J. F. (1978) ISAARE: A description. AAESPH
Review. 3, 259-268.

1996 P.L. 104-104 Telecommunications Act of 1996

mandates that telecommunication systems and devices
must be accessible for individuals with disabilities and
provides funds for schools and libraries to access
telecommunications (e-rate)

Legislation

Events

References

1995 U.S. Department of Education

creates Regional Educational Technology
Centers (RTECs) to assist schools in
using technology effectively

1996 Initial offering of RESNAs

Assistive Technology Practioner (ATP)
Certificate Test

Richard Wanderman, noted

workshop leader and creator
of LD Resources

1995 Microsoft releases

Windows 95, selling more
than 1 million copies in the
first four days

1995 Assistive technologies:

Principles and practices by
Cook & Hussey is published

1995 Power On! report is

released by the Office of
Technology Assessment (OTA)

1998 A special issue on The World Wide

Web and Special Education in Teaching
Exceptional Children, 30(5), is simultaneously published on the web at: http://
www.cec.sped.org/bk/tec-jour.htm

Technology in Society

1995 - 2000
34

1996 CD-ReWritable (CD-RW)

is announced

1997 Has technology been considered?

by A.C. Chambers is published by the
CASE/TAM Assistive Technology
Policy and Practice Group

Teaching continued from page 33

Edwards, B. J., Blackhurst, A. E., & Koorland, M. A. (1995).

Computer-assisted constant time delay prompting to teach
abbreviation spelling to adolescents with mild learning
disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 12(4),
301-311.
Greer, R. D. (1991) Teaching practices to save America's schools:
The legacy of B. F. Skinner. Journal of Behavioral Education, 1(2), 159-164.
Hasselbring, T. S., Goin, L. I., & Wissick, C. (1989). Making
knowledge meaningful: Applications of hypermedia. Journal
of Special Education Technology, 10, 62-72.
Lovitt, T.C. (1995). Tactics for teaching. (2nd ed.). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Stevens, K. B., Blackhurst, A. E., & Slaton, D. B. (1991).
Teaching memorized spelling with a microcomputer: Time
delay and computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 24, 153-160.
Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., & Doyle, P. M. (1992). Teaching
students with moderate and severe disabilities: Use of
response prompting procedures. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Wolery, M., Bailey, D. B., & Sugai, G. M. (1988). Effective
teaching: Principles of applied behavior analysis with
exceptional students. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

References
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (1995). Applied behavior
analysis for teachers (4th Ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Algozzine, R., & Ysseldyke, J. (1992). Strategies and tactics for
effective instruction. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Bausch, M. E. (1999). A comparison of standard computer
keyboard input to alternate keyboard input when using the
constant time delay response prompting procedure during
computerized mathematics instruction. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Kentucky, Lexington.
Blackhurst, A. (1997). Teaching letter recognition to preschool
children with and without disabilities using constant time
delay via embedded instruction. Unpublished masters thesis,
University of Kentucky, Lexington.
Carnine, D. W., Silbert, J., & Kameenui, E. J. (1990). Direct
instruction reading (2nd. Ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1986). Learning strategies:
An instructional alternative for low-achieving adolescents.
Exceptional Children, 52(6), 583-590.

1997, P.L. 105-17 Reauthorization of the Individual

with Disabilities Act (IDEA) mandates that every
IEP team consider assistive technology when
planning for the individualized educational needs of
an individual with a disability
1996 Closing the Gap
web site launched

1998, P.L. 105-394 The Assistive Technology Act of

1998 extends funding of the 1988 Tech Act to assist
the states in promoting awareness about assistive
technology, provide technical assistance, outreach,
and foster interagency coordination

Legislation

1999 Five-year grant awarded to

the Center for Applied Special
Technology (CAST) to design
universally accessible curriculum
materials

1998 Assistive Technology

Industry Association (ATIA)
founded (April)

Gary Moulton, head of

Microsofts Office on
Accessability and Disability

People

2000 Ed Meyen, University of Kansas,

launches the Online Academy

1998 Assistive technology in special

education: Policy and practice by
Diane Golden is published by the
CASE/TAM Assistive Technology
Policy and Practice Group

Amazon.com blazes a trail soon to

be known as e-commerce

Events

1998 A curriculum every

student can use: Design
principles for student access
is published as an ERIC/OSEP
Topical Brief

1999 Assistive technology

competencies for special
educators by Lahm & Nickels
is published in Teaching
Exceptional Children 32(1)

1998 America Online purchases Netscape

Communications for 4.2 billion in stock

2000 Technology and

exceptional individuals,
(3rd ed.) edited by
Jimmy Lindsey is
published

2000 America Online

announces a deal to
purchase Time Warner

Products

Publications

Technology in Society

1995 - 2000
35

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