1

Foundation for Leadership

Leadership Behaviors
and Styles
The use of work-centered
Authoritarian
Authoritarian behavior designed to ensure
Leadership
Leadership task accomplishment.
The use of work-centered
Paternalistic
Paternalistic behavior coupled with a
Leadership
Leadership protective employee
centered concern.
The use of both work- or task-
Participative
Participative centered and people centered
Leadership
Leadership approaches to leading
subordinates.
 Leader–Subordinate Interactions

Authoritarian Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

One-way downward flow of information

and influence from authoritarian leader
to subordinates.

Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reser
 Leader–Subordinate Interactions

Paternalistic Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

Continual interaction and exchange of

information and influence between
leader and subordinates.

Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reser
 Leader–Subordinate Interactions

Participative Leader

Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate

Continual interaction and exchange of

information and influence between
leader and subordinates.

Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reser
 The Managerial Grid
Hig 1,9 Management Style 9,9 Management Style
9

h Thoughtful attention to needs of Work accomplishment is from

Concern for People/Relationships

people for satisfying relationships committed people; interdependence

8

leads to a comfortable friendly through a “common stake” in

organization atmosphere and organization purpose leads to
work tempo relationships of trust and respect
7

5,5 Management Style

6

Adequate organization performance is

possible through balancing the necessity
5

to get out work with maintaining morale

of people at a satisfactory level
4
3

1,1 Management Style 9,1 Management Style

Exertion of minimum effort to Efficiency in operations results from
2

get required work done is arranging conditions of work in such

appropriate to sustain a way that human elements
Low
1

organization membership interface to a minimum degree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low High
Concern for Production/Task
Adapted from Figure 13–2: The Managerial Grid
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reser
Leadership in the International
Context
How do leaders in other countries attempt to
direct or influence their subordinates?
Are their approaches similar to those used in the
United States?

Research shows that there are both similarities and

differences – most international research on
leadership has focused on Europe, East Asia, the
Middle East, and developing countries such as India,
Peru, Chile, and Argentina.
 7

Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European European managers tend to use a
participative approach. Researchers
Managers Toward investigated four areas relevant to
Leadership Practices leadership.

Capacity Does the leader believe that employees

Capacity for
for Leadership
Leadership and
and
Initiative
Initiative prefer to be directed and have little
ambition? (Theory X)
OR
Does the leader believe that characteristics
such as initiative can be acquired by most
people regardless of their inborn traits and
abilities? (Theory Y)
 8

Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European Most evidence indicates European
managers tend to use a participative
Managers Toward approach. Researchers investigated four
Leadership Practices areas relevant to leadership.

Capacity Does the leader believe that detailed,

Capacity for
for Leadership
Leadership and
and
Initiative
Initiative complete instructions should be given to
subordinates and that subordinates need only
Sharing this information to do their jobs?
Sharing Information
Information
and
and Objectives
Objectives OR
Does the leader believe that general
directions are sufficient and that
subordinates can use their initiative in
working out the details?
 9

Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European Most evidence indicates European
managers tend to use a participative
Managers Toward approach. Researchers investigated four
Leadership Practices areas relevant to leadership.

Capacity Does the leader support participative

Capacity for
for Leadership
Leadership and
and
Initiative
Initiative leadership practices?

Sharing
Sharing Information
Information
and
and Objectives
Objectives

Participation
Participation
 10

Leadership in the International Context

Attitudes of European Most evidence indicates European
managers tend to use a participative
Managers Toward approach. Researchers investigated
Leadership Practices four areas relevant to leadership.

Capacity Does the leader believe that the most

Capacity for
for Leadership
Leadership and
and
Initiative
Initiative effective way to control employees is
through rewards and punishment?
Sharing
Sharing Information
Information OR
and
and Objectives
Objectives
Does the leader believe that employees
respond best to internally generated control?
Participation
Participation

Internal
Internal Control
Control
 Leadership in the International
Context
Attitudes of European The Role of Level, Size, and
Managers Toward Age on European Managers’
Leadership Practices Attitudes Toward Leadership
• Higher-level managers tend to express more democratic
values than lower-level managers in some countries – in other
countries, the opposite was true

• Company size tends to influence the degree of participative-

autocratic attitudes

• Younger managers were more likely to have democratic values

when it came to capacity for leadership and initiative and to
sharing information and objectives
 Leadership in the International
Context
Attitudes of European
Conclusion About European
Managers Toward
Leadership Practices
Leadership Practices
• Most European managers tend to reflect more participative and
democratic attitudes – but not in every country

• Organizational level, company size, and age seem to greatly

influence attitudes toward leadership

• Many of the young people in this study now are middle-aged –

European managers in general are highly likely to be more
participative than their older counterparts of the 1960s and 1970s
 Differences in Middle Eastern and
Western Management

Adapted from Table 13–5: Differences in Middle Eastern and Western Management
 Differences in Middle Eastern and
Western Management

Adapted from Table 13–5: Differences in Middle Eastern and Western Management
Management and working styles
1

JAPAN WEST
generalists specialists
promotion by seniority promotion by performance
conflict is solved privately conflict is solved in public
people-oriented task-oriented
long-term planning short-term planning
informal communication formal communication
decision by consensus decision by majority
interdependency Summary
interdependency is viewed sceptically
Management and working styles
2

JAPAN WEST
reciprocal commitment between less bonds
managers and workers

open-plan offices working space is structured according

to individual needs

formalized and ritualized interactions informal interactions more common

intuitive, nonverbal communication is analytical, logical argumentation style

important

face-to-face communication more written communication more important

important
Summary
• Advantages and Disadvantages of the Leadership Styles Each of the
leadership styles has advantages and disadvantages. Usually a good
leader is a combination of several of these styles. You must tailor your
personal leadership style to fit each situation. The coercer style is
especially effective during a wartime situation when the command is
in combat or under fire. However, this style of leadership can have
some negative effects if the command, work center, or individual is
performing at a high rate of efficiency. Subordinates will not respond well
to the repeated use of threats during normal situations. You might find
the authoritarian leadership style useful when seeking information on a
particular situation or before inspections. However, it is normally not a
good style to use in personal counseling sessions. This leadership style
doesn’t allow enough flexibility to provide alternative solutions to
subordinates’ personal problems. Using this style by jumping in and
taking over in situations when you have technically competent workers is
counterproductive. 3-16
 DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
Russia -authority is clearly centred at the top
and strikes are illegal
Trade Unions in Russia appear to serve the
employer (state) rather than the workforce
and the attempt to set up a free (unofficial)
trade union for representation of the actual
workforce has been countered by
repression.
Spain
• Not so long ago the authority in Spain was
clearly centred at the top and strikes were illegal
but the workers did strike and bitter
confrontations and struggle developed between
workers and employers. This placed Spain pretty
close to the completely authoritarian end of the
scale where authority is centred at the top and
strikes are illegal.
USA
• The United States is a democratic country and it is more difficult to
determine to what extent authority is centred at the top and to what extent it
is balanced by the authority of the working population exercising their power
through the withdrawal of their labour. The Taft-Hartly Act limits the right to
strike, seemingly shifting responsibility for declaring a strike from the factory
floor to the union head office. A cooling-off period may be ordered which
delays the beginning of a strike by some months, in this way giving
management and workers another chance to negotiate an agreement
before engaging in open confrontation, giving both sides another chance to
avoid large scale national economic damage which could otherwise arise.
• The relative position of one country with respect to another on the scale
seems fairly clear. The right to strike exists and is openly used but the right
to strike is limited. Ownership is in private hands rather than in the hands of
the state as in Russia and so we place the USA a good bit further towards
the participative style of management, roughly just over half of the way
along the scale towards participative management
• United Kingdom-Hence it would seem in
this case that movement along the scale,
towards greater freedom to withdraw one's
labour, was countered by giving greater
power to the union's establishment. One is
left with the impression that the style of
management moved further towards a
more authoritarian style of management,
under a supposedly pro-Labour
government