Chemical Process Industries

McGRAW-HILL SERIES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
SIDNEY
D.
KIRKPATRICK,
Consulting Editor
THE CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES
McGRAW-HILL SERIES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

D. KIRKPATRICK, Consulting Editor
SIDNEY
EDITORIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

MANSON BENEDICT' Professor of Nuclear
Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
CHARLES F. BONILLA' Professor of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University
JOHN R. CALLAHAM Editor, Chemical
Engineering
HARRY A. CURTIS Commissioner, Tennessee Valley Authority
.J. V. N. DORR Chairman, The Dorr
Company
A. W. HIXSON Professor Emeritus of
Chemical Engineering, Columbia University
H. FRASER JOHNSTONE Chairman, Division of Chemical Engineering, University of Illinois
WEBSTER N. JONES' Vice President, Carnegie Institute of Technology
DONALD L. KATZ Chairman, Department of Chemical and Metallurgical
Engineering, University of Michigan
W. K. LEWIS Professor Emeritus of
Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
WALTER E. LOBO Director, Chemical

Engineering Division, The M. W.
Kellogg Company
PAUL D. V. MANNING' Vice President,
International Minerals and Chemical
Corporation
R. S. McBRIDE ConSUlting Chemical
Engineer
H. C. PARMELEE' Editor Emeritus, En,
gineering and Mining Journal
ROBERT L. PIGFORD Chairman, Depart,
ment of Chemical Engineering, Univerc
sity of Delaware
MOTT SOUDERS Associate Director of
Research, Shell Development Company
E. R. WEIDLEIN President, Mellon Institute of Industrial Research
M. C. WHITAKER . Director, American
Cyanamid Company
WALTER G. WHITMAN Chairman, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
RICHARD H. WILHELM Chairman, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Princeton University
BUILDING FOR THE FUTURE OF A PROFESSION

Fifteen prominent chemical engineers first met in New York more than thirty years
ago to plan a continuing literature for their rapidly growing profession. From industry
came such pioneer practitioners as Leo H. Baekeland, Arthur D. Little, Charles L.
Reese, John V. N. Dorr, M. C. Whitaker, and R. S. McBride. From the universities
came such eminent educators as William H. Walker, Alfred H. White, D. D. Jackson,
J. H. James, J. F. Norris, Warren K. Lewis, and Harry A .. Curtis. H. C. Parmelee,
then editor of Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering, served as chairman and was
joined subsequently by S. D. Kirkpatrick as consulting editor.
After several meetings, this Editorial Advisory Committee submitted its report to
the McGraw-Hill Book Company in September, 1925. In it were detailed specifications for a correlated series of more than a dozen text and reference books, including a
chemical engineers' handbook and basic textbooks on the elements and principles of
chemical engineering, on industrial applications of chemical synthesis, on materials
of construction, on plant design, on chemical-engineering economics. Broadly outlined, too, were plans fori monographs on unit operations and processes and on other
industrial subjects to be developed as the need became apparent.
From this prophetic b~ginning has since come the McGraw-Hill Series in Chemical
Engineering, which now numbers about thirty-five books. -More are always in preparation to meet the ever~growing needs of chemical engineers in education and in
industry. In .the aggregate these books represent the work of literally hundreds of
authors, editors, and collaborators. But no small measure of credit is due the
pioneering members of the original committee and those engineering educators and
industrialists who have succeeded them in the task of building a permanent literature
for the classical engineering profession.
THE SERIES
NEWTON-Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation

BA!'ICHERo-Introduction to Chemical Engineering
CLARKE-M anual for Proce.~s Engineering Calculations
COMINGS-High Pressure Technology
COULSON AND RICHARDSON-Chemical Engineering, Vols. 1 and 2
DODGE-Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
GRISWOLD-Fuels, Combustion, and Furnaces
GROGGINs-Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis
HUNTINGTON-Natural Gas and Natural Gasoline
JOHNSTONE AND THRINa-Pilot Plants, Models, and Scale-up Methods in Chemical
Engineering
KIRKBRIDE-Chemical Engineering Fundamentals
LEE-M aterials of Con.struction
LEWIS, RADASCH, AND LEWIs-Industrial Stoichiometry
MANTELL-Adsorption
MANTELL-lndustrial Electrochemistry
McADAMs-Heat Transmission
MCCABE AND SMITH-Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
MICKLEY, SHERWOOD, AND REED-Applied Mathematics in Chemical Engineering
NELSON-Petroleum Refinery Engineering
PERRY (EDITOR)-Chemical Business Handbook
PERRY (EDITOR)-Chemical Engineers' Handbook
PETERs-Elementary Chemical Engineering
PIERCE-Chemical Engineering for Production Supervision
RHODES, F. H.-Technical Report Writing
RHODES, T. J.-Industrial Instruments for Measurement and Control
ROBINSON AND GILLILAND-Elements of Fractional Distillation
SCHMIDT AND MARLIEs-Principles of High-polymer Theory and Practice
SCHWEYER-PrOcess Engineering Economics
SHERWOOD AND PIGFORD-Absorption and Extraction
SHERWOOD AND REED-Applied Mathematics' in Chemical Engineering
SHREVE-The Chemical Process Industries
'SMITH-Chemical Engineering Kinetics
SMITH-Introduction to Chemjcal Engineering Thermodynamics
STEPHENsoN-Introduction to Nuclear Engineering
TREYBAIr-Liquid Extraction
TREYBAIr-M ass-transfer Operations
TYLER-Chemical Engineering Economics
VILBRANDT-Chemical Engineering Plant Design
WALKER, LEWIS, McADAMS, AND GILLILAND-Principles of Chemical Engilleerillg
WILSON AND RIEs-Principles of Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
WILtlON ANI> WELLs-Coa.l, Coke, and Coal Chemicals
WINDING AND HAScHE-Plastics, Theory and Practice
ARIES AND
BADGER AND
The Chemical Process Industries
R. NORRIS SHREVE
Professor of Chemical Engineering
Purdue University ,
Lafayette, Ind.
INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

New York
Toronto
London
/,
KOGAKUSHA COMPANY, LTD.

Tokyo
a,.U!. '" o. !( \ D ' \
C-~O'
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THE CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION
Exclusive rights by Kogakusha Co., Ltd., for manufacture and export

from Japan. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to
which it is consigned by Kogakusha Co., Ltd.
Copyright @ 1956 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Copyright, 1945, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
All rights
reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form
without permission of the publishers.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 55-8293
III
TOSHO INSATSU PRINTING CO., LTD., TOKYO, JAPAN
This book represents a lifetime of experience in the chemical

industry. As such it should be and is dedicated to him who
helped to give the .author his start in the chemical field
EDWARD MALLINCKRODT, JR.
PREFACE
Chemical engineering underlies the chemical process industries, and the

emphasis on this has been the main objective in writing this book. Other
objectives, and the ways .in which they have been approached, are
explained in detail in Chapter 1.
This second edition represents a checking of the literature and of the
chemical industry since the first edition appeared. The literature covered
is to January 1954, with a very few notable articles which have been added
while the manuscript was being put into print. The statistics for the
inorganic field cover generally through 1952 because of the very serious
delay in getting out the recent statistics on the part of the U.S. Bureau
of the Census. However, most of the industries that fall within the
organic field actually have many figures through December, 1954,
because of the very prompt and up-to-date publications of these statistics
by the U.S. Tariff Commission.
The question of nomenclature is often a troublesome one, particularly
for industrial usage. It is difficult to get people in industry to employ the
scientific nomenclature such as has been adopted by Chemical Abstracts. In most cases this text follows the scientific nomenclature of
Chemical Abstracts with the exception that for long, complicated
organic names hyphens are inserted frequently to break these names into
their component parts. This is much better than the writing of these
names as separate words as is done so frequently in industry. An example
is the writing of chloro-nitro-benzene rather than chloronitrobenzene
or chloro nitro benzene. However, as a concession to wide industrial
usage, glycerine is used rather than glycerol al_!d gelatine rather than
gelatin.
I
This book has as an important part-many flow sheets. These have all
been gone over care~ully by the author and by experts in the respective
industries. Many have been corrected, some only in a minor way. Obsolete
flow sheets have been discarded and new ones added.
Many of the older references appearing in the first edition have been
dropped unless there was a special reason for such retention. Newer
references have been added.
One of the most disputed points in the first edition, particularly from
ix
PREFACE
the point of view of teachers in chemical engineering, was concerned

with the problems. The majority wanted these short problems dropped as
not worthwhile; however, an influential group considered them very
useful. After weighing the whole situation, these problems were removed
from the ends of the chapters and placed in a special appendix arranged
by chapter headings and supplemented very importantly by references
to the book by Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis entitled "Industrial Stoichiometry." The book by Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis will be of very great
service as a teaching aid particularly since the problems given by these
authors have their principles fully discussed in this special problem book.
Furthermore, comprehensive problems are included which are more
useful than short special problems. The author in his teaching of this
subject for over 25 years has found comprehensive problems particularly
helpful.
This book has a dual purpose. It is a college text to integrate various
courses and to give the young chemical engineer some comprehension
of the various fields into which he will enter or with which he will be
affiliated even if only indirectly. It is also a reference book for practicing
chemical engineers and chemists. For them the various outline flow sheets
are supplemented with references to pictured flow sheets in Chemical
Engineering which will furnish the details a practicing engineer will need
but which would be confusing to students. Also the many references in the
footnotes and under "Selected References" at the end of each chapter
will be of most value to the practicing chemical engineer and chemist.
However, the students should always look up the references to Perry's
third edition of "Chemical Engineers' Handbook." If it had not been for
the good coverage in Perry's Handbook on equipment, many more pages
would have needed to be added to this textbook.
As is true of a book of this nature, no one author can know the whole
field. Therefore, the policy pursued in the first edition has been carried
out in the second where chapters and-parts of chapters have been submitted to experts for checking. Not only did many experienced teachers
!.tnd practicing engineers help in the first edition but they have also
cooperated in this, supplemented by many new ones. In particular, it is a
pleasure to acknowledge the following who have aided materially:
Raymond H. Ewell, Robert C. Forney, George T. Austin, Charles
H. Prien, Donald F. Othmer, Kenneth A. Kobe, H. A. Lubs, Otto Stallmann, Brage Golding, Jacqueline Bailey, James D. Idol, H. M. Kurihara,
Eskell Nordell, U. B. Yeager, H. S. Turner, H. J. Rose, A. R. PoweU,
H. A. Gollm'ar, Carl Ulmer, Currey E. Ford, George W. Feus, W. W.
Palmqhist, Stanley E. Zager, J. C. Radamaker, Paul D. V. Manning,
R. W. Mumford, H. H. Bruhn, R. M. Hunter, R. C. Specht, W. M.
Leaders, Charles D. Harrington, E. F. Richner, G. E. Matthe~vs, T. H.
James, E. K. Carver, R. M. Evans, Max Spencer, R. E. Hall, G. P. Hal-
xi
PREFACE
berstadt, Foster D. Snell, Sylvan B. Lee, Jerome Martin, R. J. Hickey,

A. R. Miller, A. B. Welty, C. E. Springhorn, Gustav Egloff, HansZ. Lecher,
Walter M. Ralph, W. B. Hardy, W. D. Appel, and J. D. Fennesbresque.
The revision of this book could not have been done in this time without
the meticulous and skilled help given by Marilyn G. Forney and Elizabeth
Prentiss who have worked closely with me over the last few years.
Mrs. Forney and Miss Prentiss have also prepared the indexes.
As it is impossible to catch every mistake, the author requests that any
errors that are found be brought to his attention for correction in subsequent printings.
R.
NORRIS SHREVE
...
;'
\.
ix
Preface
1.
OBJECTIVES
2.
UNIT PROCESSES AND UNIT OPERATIONS
3.
GENERAL FUNDAMENTALS .
9
23
Materials of Construction, 23; Process Instrumentation, 29; Chemical Control, 30; Containers, 31; Safety and Fire Protection, 33; Patents, 36;
Research, 37; Waste Disposal, 38; Growth and Statistics, 39; Miscellaneous
Aspects, 40.
'
4.
WATER CONDITIONING AND \VASTE-WATER TREATMENT
44
Water Conditioning, 45; Methods of Conditioning Water, 46; Sewage and

Industrial Waste-water Treatment, 59.
5.
FUELS, POWER, AND
6.
COAL CHEMICALS
AIR
CONDITIONING.
63
Fuels, 66; Power Generation, 71; Refrigeration, 76; Air' Conditioning, 78.
80
The Destructive Distillation of Coal, 81; Coking of Coal, 85; Distillation of

Coal Tar, 96; Miscellaneous Uses of Coal Tar, 100; Liquid Fuels, 100;
Hydrogenolysis, 101.
7.
104
FUEL GASES.
Natural Gas, 106; Coal Gas, 116; Water Gas (Blue Gas), 117; Producer Gas,
121; Liquefied Petroleum Gases, 123.
8.
INDUSTRIAL GASES-,
125
Carbon Dioxide, 125; Hydrogen, 133; Hydrogen Manufacture, 134; Oxygen

and Nitrogen, 139; Rare Gases of the Atmosphere, 145;' Helium, 147; Acetylene, 147; Sulfur Dioxide, 149; Carbon Monoxide, 150; Nitrous Oxide, 150.
9.
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
152
Lampblack, 154; Carbon Black, 155; Carbon and Graphite Structural Materials, 11)0; Activated Carbon, 163; Graphite, 167; Industrial Diamonds, 170.
10.
THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES.
Basic Raw Materi~ls, 175; Unit Processes Including Fundamental Ceramic

Chemistry, 177; Whitewares, 179; Heavy Clay Products, 182; Refractories,
184; Enamels and Enameled Metal, 194; Kilns, 196.
xiii
173
xiv
11.
CONTENTS
CEMENTS, CJ\LCIUM J\ND MJ\GNESIUM COMPOUNDS.
199
Cement, 199; Cement Manufacture, 200; Special Cements, 211; Lime, 212;
Lime Manufacture, 214; Gypsum, 218; Miscellaneous Calcium Compounds,
219; Magnesium Oxychloride Cement, 221; Magnesium Compounds, 221.
12.
GLJ\SS INDUSTRIES .
229
Manufacture, 230; Methods of Manufacture, 238; Manufacture of Special

Glasses, 247; Rock or Mineral Wool, 250.
13.
POTJ\SSIUM SJ\LTS AND MIXED FERTILIZERS.
253
Potassium Chloride,' 254; Various Potassium Salts, 263; Mixed Fertilizers,

265.
14.
SALT AND MISCELLANEOUS SODIUM COMPOUNDS
271
Sodium Chloride or Common Salt, 271; Sodium Sulfate (Salt Cake and
Glauber's Salt), 274; Sodium Bisulfate or Niter Cake, 276; Sodium Bisulfite,
276; Sodium Sulfite, 277; Sodium Hydrosulfite, 278; Sodium Sulfide, 278;
Sodium Thiosulfate, 279; Sodium Nitrite, 280; Sodium Silicates, 280; Sodium
Peroxide, 282; Sodium Perborate, 282; Sodium Amide, 282; Sodium Cyanide
and' Ferrocyanide, 283.
15.
SODA ASH, CAUSTIC SODA, AND CHLORINE
285
Manufacture of Soda Ash, 289; Manufacture of Sodium Bicarbonate, 295;

Miscellaneous Alkalies, 295; Manufacture of Caustic Soda by the Lime-soda
Process, 296; Manufacture of Electrolytic Caustic Soda and Chlorine, 298;
Bleaching Powder, 309; Sodium Hypochlorite, 310; Sodium Chlorite, 311.
16.
ELECTROLYTIC INDUSTRIES
312
Aluminum, 315; Magnesium, 319; Sodium, 323; Hydrogen Peroxide, 324;

Chlorates and Perchlorates, 326; Other Products, 327; Organic Compounds,
328; Primary and Secondary Cells, 328.
17.
ELECTROTHERMAL INDUSTRIES
330
Artificial Abrasives, 331; Calcium Carbide, 334; Miscellaneous Electrothermal Products, 336.
18.
!
19.
PHOSPHORUS INDUSTRIES
338
Calcium Phosphates, 338; Phosphorus, 349; Manufacture of Ph!)sphorus

and Phosphoric Acid, 352; Sodium Phosphates, 355; Ammonium Phosphates,
359; Baking Powders, 360.
,
SULFUR AND SULFURIC ACID' .
362
Mining and Manufacture of Sulfur, 363; Sulfuric Acid, 367; Manufacture

by the Chamber Process, 371; Manufacture by the Contact Process, 383;
Contact Process Equipment, 388.
20.
NITROGEN INPUSTRIES.
Cyan~mide,
397; Synthetic Ammonia, 399; Ammonium Sulfate, 410; Ammonium Phosphates, 410; Ammonium Nitrate, 410; Urea, 412; Nitric Acid,
413; Sodium Nitrate, 417.
394
xv
CONTENTS
21. HYilROCHLORIC ACID AND MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC CHEMICALS
420
Hydrochloric or Muriatic Acid, 420; Bromine, 425; Iodine, 428; Fluorine and
Fluoro-chemicals, 431; Alumina, 434; Aluminum Sulfate and Alums, 435;
Aluminum Chloride, 437; Ferrous Sulfate, 438; Copper Salts, 438; Molybdenum Compounds, 439; Barium Salts, 439; Strontium Salts, 440; Lithium
Salts, 440; Boron Compounds, 441; Silver Nitrate, 442; Radium and Uranium Salts, 442; Rare-earth Compounds, 446; Sodium Dichromate, 447.
22. EXPLOSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHEMICAL WARFARE
449
Industrial and Military Explosives, 449; Military Explosives, 453; Industrial

Explosives, 462; Chemical Warfare, 465; Pyrotechnics, 474; Matches, 475;
Propellants of Rockets and Guided Missiles, 476; Atomic Bombs, 477.
23. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INDUSTRY
480
24. PAINT, VARNISH, LACQUER, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES
494
Paints, 495; Pigments, 502; White Pigments, 502; Black Pigments, 510;
Blue Pigments, 510; Red Pigments, 511; Yellow Pigments, 512; Green Pigments, 512; Brown Pigments, 513; Toners and Lakes, 513; Metallic Powders,
514; Pigment Extenders, 514; Oils, 515; Varnishes, 516; Enamels and Japans,
520; Lacquers, 520; Printing Inks, 524; Coated Fabrics, 525; Linoleum, 526.
25. LEATHER, GELATINE, AND GLUE.
528
Leather, 528; Animal Skins, 529; Manufacture, 531; Gelatine, 540; Glues and
Adhesives, 544; Manufacture, 547.
550
26. PESTICIDES .
Insecticides, 551; Rodenticides, 561; Fungicides, 561; ,Herbicides, 563;
Germicides, Antiseptics, Disinfectants, 565.
/
27. PERFUME AND FLAVORING INDUSTRIES .
569
The Perfume Industry, 569; Vehicle, 570; Fixative, 571; Odorous Substances,
573; Condensation Processes, 581; Esterification Processes, 582; Grignard
Processes, 583; Nitration Processes, 583; Oxidation Processes, 584; Miscellaneous Processes, 587; Perfume Formulation, 588; Industrial Applications
, of Perfumery, 589; The Flavoring Industry, 590; Natural Fruit Concentrates, 590; Flavor Essence Formulation, 594.
28. OILS, FATS, WAXES:
595
Vegetable Oils, 599;iAnimal Fats and Oils, 607; Waxes, 609; Hydrogenation,
610.
I
2!J. SOAP, DETERGENTS,: AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
615
Soap Manufacture, 1617; Detergents or Surface-active Agents (Other than

Soaps), 629; Glycerfne Manufacture, 635.
30. SUGAR AND STARCH INDUSTRIES .
640
Sugar, 640; Manufacture of Sugar, 642; Starches and Related Products,

654; Miscellaneous'Starches, 661.
31. FERMENTATION INDUSTRIES
Industrial Alcohol, 667; Manufacture of Industrial Alcohol, 671; Absolute

or Anhydrous Alcohol, 676; Beers, Wines, and Liquors, 680; Butyl Alcohol
664
xvi
CONTENTS
and Acetone, 686; Vinegar and Acetic Acid, 690; Citric Acid, 691; Lactic
Acid, 692; Antibiotics, 694.
32.
700
WOOD CHEMICALS .
Distillation of Hardwood, 701; Manufacture, 703; Products from Softwood,

710; Manufacture, 713; Hydrolysis of Wood, 716; Cellulose Derivatives, 718.
33.
720
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRIES.
Manufacture of Pulp for Paper, 722; Manufacture of Paper, 736; Paperboard, 741.
34.
743
SYNTHETIC FIBERS.
Rayon and Acetate, 744; Reactions, 747; Viscose Manufacturing Process,

748; Cuprammonium Manufacturing Process, 753; Cellulose Acetate Manufacturing Process, 754; Synthetic Fibers Other Than Rayon, and Acetate,
756; Melt Spun Fibers, 757; Dry Spun Fibers, 761; Wet Spun Fibers, 762;
Finishing of Textiles, 763.
35.
766
PLASTICS.
Thermosetting Resins, 778; Thermoplastics Based on Cellulose, 783;

Thermoplastic Resins, 785; Miscellaneous Plastics, 793; Manufacture of
Laminates, 794.
36.
797
NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER
Natural Rubber, 797; Manufacture, 798; Synthetic Rubber, 806; Manufacture, 807.
37.
820
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Constituents of Petroleum, Including Petroleum Gases, 828; Products of

Refining, 832; Petroleum Chemicals or Petrochemicals, 834; Manufacture or
Refining, 836.
38.
INTERMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR ApPLICATION
861
Intermediates, 867; Nitration, 869; Amination by Reduction, 871; Amination by Ammonolysis, 874; Halogenation, 876; Sulfonation, 877; Hydrolysis,
880; Oxidation, 884; Alkylation, 887; Condensation and Addition Reactions
(Friedel-Crafts), 889; Miscellaneous Unit Processes, 892; Dyes, 892; Manufacture of Dyes, 901.
39.
ORGANIC CHEMICALS, NOT OTHERWISE CLASSIFIED
930
Nitration, 933; Esterification, 935; Amination by RedU!ltion, 937; Amination

by Ammonolysis, 937; Halogenation, 939; Sulfonation, 943; Hydrolysis and
Hydration, 943; Oxidation, 945; Hydrogenation, 949; Alkylation, 950; Condensation, 954; Miscellaneous Unit Processes, 954.
Appendix:
PROBLEMS
961
Name Index.
975
Subject Index
987
CHAPTER
OBJECTIVESl
Chemical engineering has been well defined for the American Institute
of Chemical Engineers as follows:
Chemical engineering is that branch of engineering concerned with the development and application of manufacturing processes in which chemical or certain
physical changes of materials are involved. These processes may usually be
resolved into a coordinated series of unit physical operations and unit chemical
processes. The work of the chemical engineer is concerned primarily with the
design, construction, and operation of equipment and plants in which these unit
operations and processes are applied. Chemistry, physics, and mathematics are
the underlying sciences of chemical engineering, and economics its guide in
practice. 2
These unit operations or physical changes and these unit processes or

chemical changes may be accepted as the units or blocks into which we
can break down the manufacturing processes of the various chemical
industries. Many now hold that these two concepts bring unifying
principles into what was previously a large, diversified group of apparently unrelated industries. Beginning in Chap. 2, this book correlates
these two concepts as they are applied to the various chemical process
industries.
Chemical engineering has been defined more fundamentally and yet i
more precise terms in the new Constitution, 1954, of the America
Institute of Chemical Engineers as "the application of the principles 0
the physical sciences together with the principles of economics and huma
relations to fields that pertain directly to processes and process equip
ment in which matter is tr~ated to effect a change in state, energy con ten
or composition."
The objectives so~ght are to present a cross section of the manu
facturing procedures employed by modern chemical industries, largel.
I This short chapter is act,ually an introduction to this book, its aims and methods.
The author would strongly urge that, when the book is employed as a text, the instruc
tor assign this chapter tq the students for study and discussion so that they may earl
gain a comprehension ofl the fundamental viewpoints as well as the objectives sought.
'NEWMAN, Development of Chemical Engineering Education, Trans. Am. Inst.
Chem. Engrs., Supplement to 34 (3a), 6 (July 25, 1938); see also Trans. Am. Inst.
Chem. Engrs., 32, 568 (1936).
1
OBJECTIVES
separated into their unit chemical processes and unit physical operations
through the help of flow charts. The presentation is from the viewpoint
of the fundamental chemistry involved in the changes necessary to make
the processes operate and of the energy released or absorbed in the
reactions, as well as the energy required for evaporation, fusion, and
related operations. Because we must have a yardstick to evaluate these
industries, domestic statistics of production and consumption are frequently cited with dollar values where available. Likewise costs and other
phases of the economic picture are included. Because these are industrial
processes, the equipment necessary to carry out the chemical reactions on
an industrial scale is of paramount importance.
These chemical process industries not only involve the manufacture
of chemicals as such, but they embrace many manufacturing processes
based on important chemical changes. Such processes naturally include
a considerable variety of operations based on data and principles from
other branches of science and engineering. Therefore, it may well be
maintained that the chemical process industries represent the summation
or the integration of the contributions of many scientists, engineers, and
technologists. Specifically, any description of these industries should show
the reason why a chemical engineer or an industrial chemist should be
interested in inorganic or organic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry, physics, mathematics, as well as the modern concept of
chemical engineering in its twofold application of unit operations and
unit processes. Nor should we forget, of course, that all these activities
are carried on to make money and hence exist under the enveloping
mantle of sound economics and business principles. Included in this
integration should be such other divisions of engineering as strength of
materials and the fundamentals of electrical engineering. Hence, to the
stud-ent, this book may well be the link, or tie, between many of his
basic scientific and technical courses, .on the one nand, and their industrial
application, on the other.
Because of space limitations, very 1ittle has been included pertaining
Ito the chemical industries of foreign countries. Their practice is available
from the detailed presentations,l in many volumes, by Thorpe arrd Ullmann, to which references are given at the end of this chapter. Nor is any
attempt made here to supply the names of companies in the various
branches of chemical industry, although there is an occasional reference
1 Reports on German and Japanese technology covering the period 1939-1945 are
obtainable from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C., and from the British Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee (the
BIOS reports), 32 Bryanston Square, London, W. I. Many foreign processes are also
covered in KIRK and OTHMER, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," 15 vols., The
Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947-1956. However, this most excellent
encyclopedia deals mainly with United States technology. Hereafter, this will be
referred to as KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit.
OBJECTIVES
to a specific company. However, the full listing of such companies is

obtainable from a number of trade directories and from the pages of
various chemical publications, including the "Chemical Engineering
Catalog."
Most chemical engineers do not have intimate contact with more than
one industry. With this in mind, the text emphasizes not details but
broad principles, or a distinguishing characteristic of a certain process
or industry. These should be a part of the working knowledge of even
the engineer who becomes a specialist, for he never knows when he can
translate to his own field a principle that has been put into practice in
another process. For the growing number of chemical engineers who
enter sales, executive, or management positions, a broader acquaintance
with the chemical industry in its entirety is essential. For all these, the
specialist, the salesman, and the manager, the flow sheets will present in a
connected logical manner an over-all viewpoint of many processes, from
raw materials to salable products, such as has been developed so excellently by our competitive system under the economic stimulus and wise
temporary protection of our patent laws.
The presentation of the chemical process industries around the flow
sheets and the energy changes ought to lead to a logical following through
of a connected series of unit operations and unit processes, rather than
to the memorizing of purely descriptive matter. These will emphasize
the why rather than the how of industrial procedures, or thinking rather
than memorizing.
An engineer has to do with the direction and cm).trol of energy. This
energy may be expended in the moving of raw materials by ship, rail, or
pipe line, it may be employed in the form of heat or steam or electricity, or
it may be the energy,that is given out in exothermic reactions or that
which is absorbed in endothermic chemical reactions. The chemical engineer works with chemical change involving chemical reactions but, on the
other hand, in these modern competitive times serious consideration
should be given to the other types of energy expenditure connected
particularly with the' process with which he is concerned. The unit
processes consider the 'change in chemical energy and the resultant effects.
Unit operations include the physical changes in energy or position, such
as heat flow, liquid flow, or separation; these frequently are an essential
part of the fundamental unit process. It is thoroughly believed that the
chemical engineer should also consider other broad energy expenditures,
such as those represented by the transportation of raw materials. All
of these enter into the cost.
The cost of things bust be always in th~ consciousness of the engineer,
since he is a part of ~ur industrial system. One of the primary objectives
of the engineer's endeavor should be to deliver the best product or the
most efficient service' at the lowest cost to the consuming public. There-
OBJECTIVES
fore, we may well say, quoting from Dean Emeritus A. A. Potter of

Purdue University, "No matter what the numerator may be in an
equation one may place before the students in an engineering institution,
the dollar sign should appear in the denominator, either apparent or
latent."
Every chemical engineer should be familiar with the current selling
prices of the principal chemicals with which he is concerned. There is no
use in publishing such a list in a book of this nature; these costs change
too much and too frequently. To be of any value, such quotations must
be secured when the chemical engineer is interested in them. They can
be readily obtained from such journals as the Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter
and Chemical and Engineering N eW8. Indeed, a corollary to the obtaining
of a list of current market prices is the introduction of the chemical
engineer to these essential periodicals.
Although this book is not a study in cost determination, there are
included many data on the basis of which a cost estimate can be made.
Particularly in the flow sheets and in a few other selected parts of the
book, approximate figures are given leading to at least the material cost
of the product considered, or to labor and material (the so-called L. & M.)
costs. On the other hand, it is impossible adequately to present or understand the determination of costs without long experience in a particular
industry, and too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the inadequacy
of the labor and material costs without there being added the various
so-called overhead costs, such as research and develOpment expense,
depreciation and obsolescence of plant and process, provision for taxes
and insurance, and interest on invested capital. These overhead and fixed
items often equal or exceed the direct labor and material charges. The
cost of chemicals tends to drop as processes are perfected and as production rises.
This book contains no separate chapters on equipment. Specialized
books on the subject are available. It was thought better to emphasize
equipment in conjunction with the description of the various processes
and with the flow sheets representing< those processes. On the other hand,
/ any chemical engineer should start early to familiarize himself with industrial equipment such as pumps, filter presses, nitrators, ;:tnd sulfonators.
The "Chemical Engineering Catalog'" includes the most available
and convenient information concerning the actual equipment that can
be supplied by various manufacturers. In short, it is a yearly resume of
the different catalogs put out by these suppliers. It should be employed
as the current apparatus supplement. When this book is used as a text,
it is suggested that the instructor so conduct his course that, from time
to tiqle, the students are required to go through this catalog and select
1 Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York. Distributed annually to practicing
chemical engineers.
OBJECTIVES
therefrom the various pumps or filter presses or reactors that would be

most suitable for the process or flow sheet being studied.
Every chemical engineer, whether in training or in practice, should
have as his constant companion the current edition of Perry's" Chemical
Engineers' Handbook."1 Not only are its voluminous tables of data
essential to the chemical engineer but also the descriptions and illustrations of apparatus present more about these tools than are contained in
any other one volume. The colleetion of formulas with illustrations is
also unexcelled elsewhere. Finally, each section starts with well-selected
references for anyone desiring even more details. Because of the excellence of this handbook, particularly covering equipment, many specific
references are given to it here when otherwise fuller presentation would
have been necessary.
Because of the very eonsiderable number of flow sheets included and
the desire to eonserve space, not many pictures or line drawings to
illustrate the proeess industries are included in this text. On the other
hand, as visual presentation of equipment is extremely helpful, it is
advised that instructors, to supplement this text, gather appropriate
photographs of plants and equipment from the industries being studied.
Quite frequently pictures can be obtained of plants which the students
have visited or are planning to visit on their inspection trips. By having
all these pictures on lantern slides, they can be used in the appropriate
places and in much greater number than would be possible in these pages.
The texts and advertising pages of such journals as Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Chemjcal and Engineering
News, Chemical Engineering Progress, Chemical Week, together with the
very many specialized journals such as Modern Plastics, Sugar, Petroleum
Refiner, and many others, should be consulted by the chemical engineer
for up-to-date information on equipment and fundamental data.
Usually a chapter is assigned to a given process industry like glass,
paper, rubber, or sulfuric acid. Such a chapter has its contents arranged
in somewhat the following order:
After a brief introduction, aimed to epitomize the industry, some aspect is
given of the historical side or background of the particular process. This is followed by a consideration of Uses and Economics, including statistical tabulations
by which the importance of the industry can be judged. It is well recognized that
trends in production, \\:hether on the increase or decrease, are found of more
importance than the m~rc statement that so many pounds or so many dollars'
worth of a given substance are being manufactured. This is shown by parallel
columns for different years and by statistical cunes. Under Manufacture, this
I
II., cdiior-in-chicf, with a staff 'of specialists, "Chemical Engineers'

Handbook," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950, 1,942 pages
of tabulated data and epitomized information. Hereafter this book will be referred
to as Perry, op. cit.
1 PERRY, JOHN
OBJECTIVES
being a book on chemical engineering, energy change, unit operations, and unit
processes are particularly brought to the attention of the reader. For some of the
important processes, the principal unit operations and unit processes are tabulated. Dividing the industries into these units helps greatly in the transference
of information from one industry to another. Indeed, flow sheets do this same
thing in a visual manner. It is felt that by this breakdown the reader will gain
a clearer comprehension that filtration or evaporation or hydrogenation or nitration is employed in a considerable number of industries. The source of the raw
materials and their relationship to the manufacturing procedures are discussed
in their economic and chemical relationship. The product of one industry is
frequently the raw material of another-indeed, it has been remarked frequently
that the chemical industry is its own best customer.l Ultimately chemicals stem
TABLE
1. ULTIMATE GEOLOGIC RAW MATERIALS FOR 150 IMPORTANT
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALSa b
Index
number"
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Water ................... .
Air ...................... .
COal. ............. " .... .
Sulfur ................... .
Mineral salt .............. .
Limestone ............... .
Sulfide ores .............. .
Brines ................... .
Petroleum ............... .
Natural gas ........ , .. " ..
Saltpeter ................ .
Potassium minerals ....... .
Gypsum ................. .
Lead ores ................ .
Sand .................... .
Aluminum minerals ..... , .,
Chromium ores ........... .
99
96
91
88
75
63
32
24
23
16
13
11
10
9
9
8
7
Index
number'
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Iron ores .................

Phosphate rock ...........
Sea water ................
Copper ores ..............
Fluorine minerals ..........
Arsenic minerals ..........
Magnesium minerals .......
Mercury ores .............
Zinc ores ..........: .......
Antimony minerals ........
Barium minerals ..........
Boron minerals ............
Manganese ores ...........
Tin ores ..................
Bismuth minerals .........
Silver ores ....... " ., .....
Titanium ores .............
6
6
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
I
1
KELLER and QUIRKE, Ind. Eng. Chern.,_News Ed., '17, 444 (1939).
Note that coal, petroleum, and natural gas combined equal 130; sulfur and sulfide
ores combined equal 120; and salt, brines, and sea water combined equal 104.
/
, Index numbers indicate relative frequency in use. The names of the 150 chemicals
are tabulated in the reference.I
a
from the minerals as shown in Table 1 (see also Fig. 1 in Chap. 39). The actual
manufacturing procedures, in the case of the principal industries, are woven in
and around the various flow sheets. Here the raw materials entering into unit
operations and unit processes, carried on in industrial equipment, are all connected toget~er. This is the heart,of each industry and, although the flow sheets
1 EWELL, Past and Future Growth at the Chemical Industry, Chem. Eng. New8,
29, 5228 (1950).
OBJECTIVES
show the general sequence of operations and processes, the text supplements this
and refers to the literature for further details.
The order of chapters was determined very largely from a teaching

viewpoint. When this book is used in college, the student will frequently
be taking physical chemistry and organic chemistry simultaneously.
Primarily because of this, it was thought wise to place first those chapters which would be easiest for the student to learn. Hence, such a
chapter as that presenting sulfuric acid, involving applications of equilibriums and certain other phases of physical chemistry, is placed after the
more purely descriptive chapters pertaining to water, fuels, distillation
of coal, gases, and carbon. The sequence of presentation as used in this
book has been employed in the classes at Purdue University for a number
of years, with an increased ease of learning on the part of students. This
seems much better than starting at the beginning of the year with a
chapter on sulfuric acid and trying to get the student to comprehend
the physical and chemical reasons for some of the procedures that have
been applied industrially in the manufacture of this important acid.
If" an instructor wishes to vary the order of the chapters, it will" be very
simple for him to make a mimeographed sheet, giving the sequence he
desires his students to use.
As the aim of a book such as this is to impress upon the reader the
quantitative engineering aspects and to lead him to think from raw
materials to salable products, the working of problems 1 is of great importance. They also disclose whether the reader has sufficiently mastered the
given industry to make calculations concerning its Procedures. Therefore,
at the end of the book there are a few typical problems pertaining to
many of the industries c!)ncerned. However, when this volume is used
as a college text, each instructor should supplement these problems with
some of his own devising which, for obvious reasons, should be changed
fr~m year to year. Since these problems are the so-called simple ones, it
would be very helpful if each instructor toward the end of the course
would devise comprehensive problems to be given to his class, involving
one or more industries, s"\lch as are given out each year by the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers. 2 In certain universities such comprehensive problems ar~ included in a special problem course. Too much
emphasis cannot be Iplaced upon quantitative thinking whethe!" in the
practice of chemical engineering or in the living of life in general.
I
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 333-357; HOUGEN, WATSON, and RAGATZ, "Chemical Process
Principles," Part 1, Material and Energy Balances, 2d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1954; LEWI~; RADASCH, and LEWIS,' "Industrial Stoichiometry," 2d ed.,
McGraw-HilI Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
2 "A.I.Ch.E. Student Contest Prohlems, and the Prize Winning SBlntions,"
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1950.
OBJECTIVF.s
The objectives sought in this volume may be summarized by stating

that it has been the endeavor to present the various chemical processes
in a generalized form through the correlation into flow sheets and descriptive text of the following:'
1. Unit processes: chemical change.
2. Unit operations: physical change.
3. Physical chemistry: equilibriums and reaction rates.
4. Economics: costs, statistics, and consumption.
5. Energy and power: chemical as well as electrical and mechanical.
SELECTED REFERENCES
General:
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," 14 vois.,
The Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947-.
Richter, Otto, "The German Chemical Industry," Badgandersheim, Hartz, 1954.
Ullmann, Fritz, "Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 3d ed., 13 vols., Urban &
Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1950--.
Thorpe, T. E., "Dictionary of Applied Chemistry," 4th ed., Longmans, Green & Co.,
Inc., New York, 1937.
Turner, F. M., "The Condensed Chemical Dictionary," 4th ed., Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1950.
Haynes, Williams, "This Chemical Age, The Miracle of Man-made Materials,"
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1942.
Perry, John H., editor-in-chief, "Chemical Engineers' Handbook," 3d ed., McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Costs and Economics:
"Chemical Economics Handbook," Stanford Research Institute, Stanford, Calif.,

1950--. Revised yearly.
Perry, John H., editor-in-chief, "Chemical Business Handbook," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
Perry, op. cit., pp. 1827-1845, with other references oni p. 1828.
1 It is recognized that the limitations of one volume have restricted the full application of all these factors to every process. However, frequent references from text as
well as in the Selected References at the end of each chapter will serve to supplement
what has been given. The author will welcome criticism of what has been chosen
/ as well as suggestions regarding what should be added.'
CHAPTER
In an inexact but expressive manner we may define chemical engineering in its modern sense by the following equation:
Chemical engineering = unit processes
(chemical changes)
unit operations
(physical changes)
The unit process is a very useful concept for technical chemical change
and has been described 1 as "the commercialization of a chemical reaction
under such conditions as to be economically profitable. This naturally
includes the machinery needed and the economics involved, as weli as the
physical and chemical phases." The unit operation is a physical change
connected with the industrial handling of chemicals or allied materials;
it frequently is tied in with the unit process as when heat flows into an
endothermic chemical reaction or out of an exothermic reaction. The
unit operation may also be distinctly separated from the chemical
change as when, by "flow of fluid," a liquid is movegfrom one part of an
industrial establishment to another.
Chemical engineering, if successfully practiced, requires that the
respective unit processes and operations be applied to the various manufacturing proQedures. The study of the unit operations on the one hand
and of the unit processes on the other is the characteristic of the present
stage of this branch of engineering. Indeed, the development of chemical
manufacturing procedur~s is largely through flow sheets which are
definitely constructed Ifrom a coordinated sequence of unit processes and
operations that fabricate the raw materials into the finished product and
by-products. In the actual technical application, both unit processes
and unit operations are carried on either simultaneously or independently
in suitable equipment under the guidance of skilled labor supervised by
chemical engineers. T~is is often called a chemical process.
These unit processes and unit operations are the common bond between
otherwise widely div!-lrgent chemical manufacturing procedures. They,
of course, are applied differently under the,necessarily varying conditions.
Although we hope that we shall have formulas that will enable the
1 SHREVE,
Unit ProceSses, Background and Objects, 11"d. Eng. Chern., 811, 145
(1940).
10
UNIT PROCESSES ANi> UNIT OPERATIONS
chemical engineer to calculate at his desk what is going to happen in the

factory, this millennium has not arrived. There are many more formulations for the unit operations than for the unit processes, as the latter
are more complicated and have only lately been receiving the attention
of chemical engineers. Indeed, broad experience is still necessary to
apply wisely and economically the formulas and knowledge that are
available. In the words of the eminent chemical engineer, W. L. Badger,'
. . the engineer is the man who must build equipment, assemble it into a
process, and make it run, whether or not he, has all the theoretical data necessary
for its calculation. He must think of equipment in terms not of strictly solved
differential equations but of actual chunks of cast iron and steel that somebody
shall be able to fabricate, assemble, and operate in terms of a working, practical,
economical process.
The characteristics of unit processes as applied to the manufacture of

chemicals may be summarized as follows:
1. Each unit process points out the unitary or like aspects in a group
of numerous individual reactions. This unitary aspect, apart from the
TABLE 1. PRINCIPAL UNIT PROCESSES AND UNIT OPERATIONS
Unit processes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
I
Combustion
Oxidation
Neutralization
Silicate formation
Causticization
Electrolysis
Double decomposition
Calcination, dehydration
Nitration
Esterification (Bulfation)
Reduction
Ammonolysis
Halogenation
Sulfonation
Hydrolysis, hydration
Hydrogenation, hydrogeriolysis
Alkylation
Condensation
Polymerization
Diazotization and coupling
Fermentation
Pyrolysis, cracking
Aromatization
Isomerization
Hydroformylation (oxa)
Ion exchange
Unit
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
operati~ns
Fluid dynamics
Heat transfer VS. cooling
Evaporation VB. evaporative cooling
Humidification
Gas absorption
Solvent extraction
Adsorption
Distillation and sublimation
Drying, high-vacuum distillation
Mixing
Classification or sedimentation VB.
fluidization
Filtration
Screening
Crystallization vs. extraction
Centrifugation
Size reduction vs./size enlargement
Materials handling
BADGER, Education, Experience and Engineers, Ind. Eng. Chem., 33, 1103 (1941).
11
basic chemical family, may be a similarity in energy change or corrosion

or pressure or reaction time or equilibrium or raw materials.
2. Frequently there is a factory segregation by unit processes wherein
a building or section of a building may be devoted to the making of many
chemicals under a given unit process as diazotization and coupling or
nitration or hydrogenation or esterification or fermentation or alkylation.
3. There frequently is a close relationship in the equipment used for
making many examples under a unit process. For instance, the cast-iron
well-agitated reactor, provided with cooling coils, called a nitrator, is
used for conducting the nitration unit process in the manufacture of a
number of chemicals such as nitro-benzene, nitro-naphthalene, or T.N.T.
4. Equipment may be conveniently transferred from the making of
one chemical to that of another within the same unit process. It is the
aim of a chemical superintendent to keep all his equipment constantly in
use. To do this he frequently must make first one chemical then another
in the same general reactor-a sulfonator, for example. This multiple
use of equipment is most easily realized under the unit process arrangement.
5. The unit process classification enables a chemical engineer to think
from group performance to that of a new individual chemical in the like
class. He needs chiefly to remember principles rather than specific
performances. This method of approach greatly facilitates the making
of any chemical by having available past knowledge regarding the
generalized data of this unit process. This procedure saves much memorizing of individual observations.
6. As the basis of unit process classification is a chemical one, this
places stress upon the chemical reaction. Here, usually a slight increase
in the chemical yield will materially affect the profit of the manufacturing
sequence. Hence the unit process conception lays emphasis upon the
necessity for an exhaustive study of the basic chemical change. The
cost of raw materials l looms up in the cost distribution, being from 50
to 80 per cent of the manufacturing expense. Following the obtaining
of the highest possible chemical yield or, if time is available, simultaneously with this s~udy, should go the careful investigation of every
unit operation involved, with the aim of saving power or heat or any
other physical factor. I
_.
7. The inorganic and the organic procedures need not be set apart
industrially. This, ofl course, involves no criticism of the t'raditional
separation as a teachlng aid. As the equipment and the manufacturing
problems are frequently so siInilar in both organic and inorganic chemicals,
it is industrially imp':ortant to group them together. "The principles!
involved in the phy~ical chemistry of the basic reactions or the con1 SHREVE, op. cit., NEWTON and ARIES, Preliminary Estimation of Operating Costs,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 2304 (1951).
I SHREVE, Inorganic Aspects of Unit Processes, Ind. Eng. Chem., 36, 411 (1944).
12

TABLE
2.
UNIT PROCESSES WITH EQUIPMENT
Chapter number and

industry or product
Unit process
1. Combustion (completed oxidation)
5. Fuel and power
2. Oxidation
4. Water and wastes

7. Water gas
8. Industrial gases (CO" H.)
18.
19.
20.
24.
24.
27.
31.
38.
39.
39.
\\9.
3. Neutralization
Equipment
Boilers (steel, firebrick)
Tanks (concrete)
Generators (steel, brick)
Boilers (steel, brick), reactors (alloy steel)
Oxidizers (carbon, graphPhosphoric acid (from P)
ite)
Sulfur burners (steel),
Sulfuric acid
converters (steel, cast
iron), chambers (lead
lined)
Oxidizers (steel)
Nitric acid (from NH,)
Reactors, kettles, mixers
Paints and pigments
(steel)
Oxidizing rooms (brick)
Linoleum
Perfumes
Reactors (enamel steel)
Fermentation: acetic, citric, Tanks (wood, stainless
and gluconic acids
steel) trays (aluminum)
Phthalic anhydride
Reactors (steel)
Formaldehyde
Oxidizers (steel), catalyst
(silver gauze)
Acetic acid (from CH,CHO) Reactors and condensers
(stainless steel)
Campbor
Reactors (stainless steel)
4. Water treatment
13. Ammoniated superphosphate

14. Sodium salts
18. Na and NH. phosphates
6. Ammonium sulfate
20. Ammonium nitrate
20. Urea
21. Aluminum sulfate
26. Arsenites, arsenates
29. Soap from fatty acids
Treaters (steeI), settlers

(steel or concrete), reservoirs (concrete)
Reactors and bins (steei,
concrete)
Kettles, crystallizers
(mostly steel)
Reactors (mostly steel)
(lead lined)
Absorbers (heavy lead)
Absorbers (ceramic lined)
Reactors (silver-lined
steel)
Tanks (lead lined)
Tanks (wood)
Tanks (stainless steel or
Monel)
13
TABLE 2. UNIT PROCESSES WITH EQUIPMENT (Continued)
Unit process
4. Silicate formation
Chapter number and

industry or product
Equipment
Molds (steel), kilns (ceramic brick) I
Presses (steel), retorts
(steel)
Kilns (mostly steel, brick
lined)
Glass furnaces (ceramic
blocks)
10. Ceramics
10. Sand-lime bricks
11. Cement
12. Glass
5. Causticization
15. Caustic soda
Causticizers (steel)
6. Electrolysis
8. Industrial gases (H., 0.)

15. Caustic soda and chlorine
Electrolytic cells (steel)

Electrolytic cells (concrete and steel)
Electrolytic cells (steel
and brick)
16. Aluminum
16. Magnesium
16. Sodium
7. Double decomposition
4. Water softening
11. Ca and Mg salts
/
13. Potassium salts

14. Sodium salts
15. Soda ash
18. Phosphoric acid

18. Superphosphate
21. Hydrochloric
21. Hydrofluoric
24. Pigments
8. Calcination
11. Lime
11. Gypsum
15. Soda ash
9. Nitration
22. Explosives
Tanks (steel), settlers

(concrete)
Tanks (steel and concrete)
Reactors (steel)
Reactors (steel, etc.)
Brine treaters (wood
tanks), absorbers (cast
iron)
Reactors (lead lined)
Mixers and bins (iron a.nd
concrete)
Stills (cast iron), condensers (earthenware,
tantalum, or carbon)
Stills (cast iron), condensers (lead)
Reactors (steel)
Kilns (rotary, brick-lined
steel, or upright of steel
and brick)
Driers (steel)
Calciners, rotary (steel)
Nitrators (cast iron or
stainless steel)
14

TABLE
2.
Unit process
UNIT PROCESSES WITH EQUIPMENT (Continued)
Chapter number and

industry or product
38. Intermediates for dyes,

nitro-benzene, etc.
39. Nitro-paraffins
27. Perfumes
10. Esterification
34. Rayon: xanthate or viscose

34. Rayon: acetate
39. Ethyl and vinyl acetate
11. Reduction
18. Phosphorus
19. Sulfur from SO.
38. Aniline from nitro-benzene
38. p-Phenylenediamine
12. Amination by am
monolysis
13. Halogenation
Steeping press, shredders,

agers, barratte (steel)
Mixers, acetylators
(aluminum)
Reactors (copper or stainless steel)
Furnaces (steel, brick)
Reactors (steel)
Reducers Acast iron or
wood)
Reducers (cast iron)
38 . .B-Naphthylamine
39. Ethanolamines
Autoclaves (steel)
Autoclaves (steel)
22. Chemicals for warfare

26. Insecticides
Reactors (steel)
Reactors (steel or ~ ceramic)
Reactors (steel or earthenware)
Halogenators (steel)
Chlorinators (ceramic),
reactors (lead lined)
38. Chioro-benzene
39. Benzyl chloride, carbon
tetrachloride
14. Sulfonation
Nitrators (cast iron or

stainless steel)
Nitrators and separating
columns, continuous
(stainless steel)
Reactors (copper)
38. Aniline from chloro-benzene Autoclaves (steel)
38. Intermediates for dyes
Equipment
38. Intermediates for dyes
Sulfonators (cast iron or

steel)
Burn~rs, sulfite towers,
digesters, beaters (mostly steel with towers concrete)
38. Benzene-sulfonate for

phenol

steel)
22. Explosives
33. Sulfite paper
steel~
15

TABLE
2.
Chapter number and

industry or product
Unit process
15. Hydration and hy- 11. Slaked lime

drolysis (saponification) (alkali fusion)
18. Phosphoric acid from phosphorus pentoxide
'19. Sulfuric acid from sulfur trioxide
25. Gelatine and glue
29.
29.
30.
30.
31.
32.
38.
39.
39.
(Continued)
Equipment
Hydrators (steel)
Hydrators (ceramic lining)

Absorbers (steel tower),
cooler coils (steel)
Extractors (steel), special
driers
Soap kettles (steel with
Glycerine
top stainless), evaporators and stills (steel)
Soap kettles (steel with
Soap
Monel or stainless-steel
top)
Acid-resistant low-presCorn sugar
sure autoclaves (copper)
Same as for corn sugar
Dextrin
Sucrose to glucose and fruc- Fermenters (wood tanks
or steel)
tose
Acid-resistant low-presHydrolysis of wood
sure autoclaves (copper)
Fusion pots (cast iron)
Phenol
Acetaldehyde from acety- R,eactors (Duriron)
lene
Alcohols from chlorides and Hydrolyzers (steel or lead
lined)
sulfates
Catalyst chambers (Cr

alloy)
Reactors (steel), absorbers (earthenware, tantalum or carbon)
128. Hydrogenated oils and fats Hydrogenators (steel),
catalyst (nickel)
'29. Detergents (Hymolal class) Hydrogenating auto.. claves (stainless steel
lined)
I
Catalyst chambers (steel
.37. Petroleum industry
or Cr alloy)
Compressors, heat ex39. Methanol from CO
changer, catalyst chambers (steel or Cr alloy)
16. Hydrogenation and 20. Ammonia from nitrogen

hydrogenolysis
21. Hydrochloric acid from
chlorine
17. Alkylation
23. Photography
36. Styrene
Autoclaves (steel)
Reactors (steel)
16

TABLE
2.
Chapter number and

industry or product
Unit process
37. Petroleum industry

38. Intermediates
38. Dimethyl-aniline
39. Medicinals
39. Tetraethyl lead
18. Condensation
24. Resinification
38. Benzoyl-benzoic
anthraquinone
39. Phenolphthalein
Equipment
Alkylatofs (steel), bubble
towers (steel)
Reactors (steel), stills
(copper)
Autoclaves (steel)
Autoclaves (copper)
Reactors (steel)
Reactors (steel, nickel,
stainless steel)
for Reactors (steel or enamel)
Reactors (steel)
19. Polymerization
36. Rubber
Polymerizers (steel)
Polymerization reactors
(steel)
20. Diazotization and

coupling
38. Dyes
Vats (wood), filters (wood

or cast iron)
21. Fermentation
8. Industrial gases (CO.)

31.
31.
31.
31.
31.
acid
(Continued)
22. Pyrolysis or cracking (thermal decomposition)
Fermenters (wood or
steel)
Fermenters (wood or steel
Alcohol and CO. from
tanks)
monosaccharides
Alcohol, acetone, and bu- Fermenters (steel tanks)
tanol from carbohydrates
Fermenters (steel, wood,
Wines, beers, and liquors
concrete)
Fermenters (wood tanks)
Lactic acid
Penicillin
Fermenters (steel tanks)
Retorts (steel-braced firebrick with steel and castiron connections)
Fuel (coal) gases
Retorts (steel-braced firebrick)
Oil gas for carbureted water Carburetors (brick-lined
steel)
gas
Carbon black
Channel coolers (steel)
Lampblack
Distillation chambers
(steel, brick)
Distillation of wood
Retorts (steel)
Petroleum industry
Reaction chambers (steel)
6. Distillation Of coal
7.
7.
9.
9.
32.
37.
11
TABLE 2. UNIT PROCESSES WITH EQUIPMENT (Continued)

Unit process
Chapter number and

industry or product
Equipment
23. Aromatization
Reaction chambers (steel)
24. Isomerization
Isomerizers (steel)
25. Miscellaneous (ion

exchange) (allotropic change), etc.
4. Water
9. Graphite
17. Calcium carbide
17. Silicon carbide
17. Carbon disulfide

23. Photographic industry
25. Leather
Tanks (steel)
Electrothermal furnaces
(steel and brick)
(steel protected by
charge)
(steel protected by
charge)
(steel and brick)
Tanks and s~cial equipment (nickel, silver, eeramics, rubber)
Tanks (wood)
struction and control of the equipment or the economics involved are the
same whether organic or inorganic products an, obtained." For example,
there is surprisingly little differentiation in the conditions or equipment
used to hydrogenate nitrogen to ammonia, or carbon monoxide to
methanol, except in raw materials charged and catalyst employed.
8. The des'z"gn of equipment is greatly aided by the generalizations arising from the unit process arrangement rather than by considering each
reaction separately. What experience has indicated for a number of
reactions aliied under a unit process is an excellent guide for a new
reaction in this same grouping.
In handling unit proc~sses, the more that is understood about the
underlying physical chemistry of the equilibriums and the reaction rates,
the better will be the control, the higher the conversion, and the lower
the costs. It is very important to know how fast a reaction will go and
how far. Many times, as is pointed out in conm!ction with the manufacture of sulfuric acic;l by the oleum process (Chap. 19), conditions that
increase the rate decrease the equilibrium. Therefore, as is shown in
the design of the sulfur trioxide converter, conditions are first secured to
cause a high rate of ~eaction and then, toward the end, are changed to
favor the equilibrium'. 1'he work that Hougen' and others are doing in
1 HOUGEN and WATSON, "Chemical Process Principles," 3 vols., 2d ed., Vol. 1
with RAGATZ, 1954. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1943-1954; LAIDLER,
"Chemical Kinetics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
18

TABLE
3.
UNIT OPERATIONS WITH EQUIPMENT
Chapter number and

industry or product
Unit operation
1. Fluid flow or fluid
4. Water and wastes
dynamics
28. Oils and fats
2. Heat transfer
5. Fuels and power

6. Distillation of coal
7. Fuel gases
8. I ndustrial gases
10. Ceramics
11. Cement
12. Glass
15. Soda ash

18. Phosphorus
19. Sulfurie acid
20. Ammonia
3. Evaporation
13. Potassium salts
14. Salt
15. Caustic soda

18. Phosphoric acid
29. Glycerine
30. Sugar
,4.
Humidification
5. Gas absorption
Equipment
Pumps
(steel,
Pumps
Pumps
(steel), tanks
concrete)
(steel)
(steel)
Boilers and heat exchangers (steel)

By-product ovens and regenerators' (firebrick)
Generators (steel and
brick), exchangers and
coolers (steel)
Exchangers and liquefiers
(steel)
Kilns (steel and firebrick)
Rotary kilns (steel, firebrick)
'Furnaces and regenerators~(ceramic blocks and
bricks)
Calciners (steel)
Electrothermal or blast
furnaces (steel, brick)
Burners and converters
(steel)
Converters and exchangers (steel)
Pipe furnaces, exchangers, condensers' (steel)
Multiple evaporators
(cast iron)
(cast iron)
(nickel lined)
Evaporators (lead lined)
(steel)
(steel)
34. Textile fibers

6. Distillation of coal
Factories (brick, concrete, wood)

Absorbing towers (steel)
19

TABLE
3.
UNIT OPERATIONS WITH EQUIPMENT
Chapter number and

industry or product
Unit operation
7. Fuel gases
8. Industrial gases
15. Bleach
20. Nitric acid
21. Hydrochloric acid
25. Leather
6. Solvent extraction
7.
26.
27.
28.
32.
Coal gas
Insecticides
Perfumes
Oils
Acetic acid
32. tosin
37. Lubricating oils
7. Adsorption
Equipment
Absorbers or purifying
towers (steel)
Absorbing towers (steel)
Shelves ar rotary (concrete)
Absorbers and oxidizcr~
(Cr-steel)
Absorbers (ceramic, tantalum, or carbon)
Vats (wood)
Towers (steel)
Percolators (steel)
Percolators (steel)
Extractors (steel)
Extractors (copper or
stainless steel)
Extractors (copper or
stainless steel)
Extractors (steel)
4. \Vater and wastes purifica- Tanks (concrete) for carbon

tion
24. Artificial ieath('r solvent re- Tanks (steel) for carbon
covery
8. Distillation and
sublimation
6. Distillation coal
8. Industrial gases (0" N 2)
27. Perfumes
2\1. Glycerine
31. Alcohol, acetone
37. ~etroleum industry
38.
9. Drying
(Continued)
Intermediates
~o. Ceramics
14. Sodium salts
I
24. Pigments
29. eoap
I.
30. Sugar
.33. Pulp and paper
By-product OVCllS (firebrick), stills (steel)

Rectifiers for liquid air
(steel)
Stills (copper)
Vacuum stills (steei)
Stills (copper)
Bubble towers, stills
(steel)
j;tills (cast iron, steel)
Driers (steel or brick)
Rotary and pan driers
(Monel, steel)
Box driers (steel)
Drying rooms (brick and
wood)
Rotary driers (steel)
Stca.m-heated cylinders
(steel)
20
UNIT PROCESSES AND UNIT OPERATiONS

TABLE
3.
UNIT OPERATIONS WITH EQUIPAfEN'f (Col'ltirwed}
Chapter number and

industry or product
Unit operation
36. Rubber
Driers (steel)
10. Mixing
13.
22.
24.
38.
Mixers
Mixers
Mixers
Mixing
11. Classification or
11. Cement rock
Fertilizers
Dynamite
Paints, lacquers
Dyes
sedimentation
18. Phosphate rock
13. Potassium salts

15. Caustic soda
12, Filtration
10. Ceramics
11. Ca and Mg salts

13.
14.
30.
34.
Potassium salts
Sodium salts
Sugar
Rayon
37. Paraffin
38. Intermediates and dyes
39. Organic chemicals
13. Screening
Equipment
14. Crystallization
11.
15.
17.
30.
Cement
Soda ash
Silicon carbide
Sugar
11. Ca and Mg salta

Potassium salts
,13.
14, 18. Sodium salts

30. Sugar
15. Centrifugation
6. NH. Bullate
11. C~ and Mg salts

13. Potassium salts
(steel)
(wood)
(steel)
vats (wood)
Beneficiation equipment
(steel)
Beneficiation equipment
(steel)
Thickeners (steel)
Thickeners (steel)
Plate and frame filters
(iron)
Filters (iron and brass)
Filte~s (iron)
Filters (iron and wood)
Filters (iron)
Filters before fiber formadon (brass)
Filters (iron}
(iron, wood)
(iron, wood}
Screens
Screens
Screens
Screens
(iron)
(iron and wood)
(iron and wood}
(iron and wood)
Tanks (steel)
Vacuum and open crystallizers (steel)
Crystallizers (steel)
Crystallizers (steel)
Centrifuges (copper anI!
iron)
Centrifuges (copper and
iron)
iron)
21
UNIT PROCESSES ANI) UNIT OPERATIONS
TABLE 3. UNIT OPERATIONS WITH EQUIPMENT (Continued)

Chapter number and
industry or product
14. Sodium salts
Unit operation
30. Sugars
Equipment
iron)
Centrifuges (copper amI
iron)
10.
11.
12.
12.
16. Size reduetion
Ceramics
Cement
Glass raw materials
RO('k wool
24. Paints
35. Resins
17. Matf'rials handlinl!;
5. Fuels
7. Fuel gases
10. Ceramics
11.
12.
15.
32.
36.
Cement
Glass
Soda ash
Wood
Rubber
Mills (steel)
Mills, many types (steel)
Mills (steel)
Fiber making (steel and
brick)
Ball, cylinder, and disk
mills (steel, stone)
Mills (steel)
Conveyers (rubber, canvas)
Pumps and pipes (steel)
Screws, conveyers (steel,
rubber)
Conveyers (steel, rubber)
Special conveyers (steel)
Screw conveyers (steel)
Trucks (steel)
,Trucks. conveyers (steel)
NOTE: Table 3 is intended to point out only important or striking applications of

the unit operation. Indeed it would be difficult to find a chemical industry in which
such important unit operations as fluid flow, heat transfer, drying, mixing, and
filtration are not used.
studying kinetics is of the utmost significance. It is to be hoped that more

chemical engineers and physical chemists will direct their attention to the
fundamental facts of the reaction rates and reaction equilibriums. All of
this will aid in making the unit process conception more quantitative
and bring into the unit process field more equations for calculating
results.
The unit oper~iop.s have been given very intensive and fruitful study
by most of the college research laboratories in the field of chemical engineering. Since 19151 when Arthur D. Little called particular attention
to the importance of these physical aspects and laid the foundation
for the modern copception of chemical engineering, these principles
have been so well presented by Williart:\ H. Walker and his coworkers,
Lewis, McAdams, and Gilliland l together with Badger and McCabe 2
1 WALKER, LEWIS, McADAMS, and GILLILAND, "Principles of Chemical Engineering," 3d ed., McGraw~HiIl Book Company, Inc., New York, 1937.
BADGER and MCCABE, "Elements of Chemical Engineering," 2d ed., McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1936.
22
UNIT PROCESRES AND UNIT OPERATIONS
that anyone desiring an understanding of the principles connected with

unit operations need only refer to the writings by these authors and
many others.l
Throughout this book, attention is constantly called to unit processes
and unit operations since the numerous flow charts are broken down into a
coordinated sequence of these units. However, at least a naming of both
the principal unit processes and the principal unit operations is in order
here and is given in Table 1. The unit processes are the basis of the
classification of the various intermediates presented in Chap. 38 and of
the miscellaneous organic chemicals included in Chap. 39. Under each
unit process in these chapters is included much of a general nature pertaining to that particular unit process. In Table 2 is arranged a listing
of the principal unit processes occurring in the various industries together
with the main equipment as used in the different fields of the chemical
process industries. Likewise, Table 3 presents this same aspect for unit
operations.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Groggins, P. H., editor, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., McGraw-Hili
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
Walker, William H., Warren K. Lewis, William H. McAdams, and Edwin R. Gilliland,
"Principles of Chemical Engineering," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Badger, Walter L., and Warren L. McCabe, "Elements of Chemical Engineering,"
2d ed., McGraw-Hili Book Company, Inc., New York, 1936.
Furnas, C. C., editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," vols. 1, 2, D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
McCormack, Harry, editor, "The Applications of Chemical Engineering," D. Van
Brown, G. G., "Unit Operations," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
Hougen, O. A., and K. M. Watson, "Chemical Process Principles," 3 vols., 2d ed.,
Vol. 1 with RAGATZ, 1954, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1943-1954.
Unit Process Symposia, Ind. 'Eng. Chem., each year since 1937. Since 1955 published
as "Chemical Processes."
Annual Unit Processes Review, Ind. Eng. Chem., each year since 1918.
Annual Unit Operations Review, Ind. Eng. Chem., each year since 1946.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Editorial Staff, "Modern Chemical Processes,u Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York; 1950 for vol. 1. Each volume includes the "Staff Industry" reports from 2 years' publication in Ind. Eng. Chem. References in thi.q
text to latter
1 Cf. BROWN, et al., "Unit Operations," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950;
LAUER and HECKMAN, "ChemICal Engineering Techniques," Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, :New York 1952.
CHAPTER
GENERAL FUNDAMENTALS
To carry out commercially the unit processes and the unit operations
in any chemical plant presupposes factory-scale equipment. To keep
the factory itself from corroding away, proper materials of construction
should have been selected by the designing chemical engineer. To regulate
properly the chemical processes requires instruments for recording and
controlling the procedures. To avoid harmful impurities in the raw
materials, to follow the course of the chemical reactions, and to secure
the requisite purity of products require careful cnemical control by
periodic analyses. To transmit goods in a clean and economical manner
from the manufacturer t9 the customer, suitable containers must be
provided. To effect the safety of the workman and the plant, all these
procedures must be carried on in' a nonhazardous manner. To secure
the processes from unfair competition and to ensure an adequate return
for the large sums spent on research, the chemical ~teps and the equipment in the factory must be protected for the limited period granted by
the American patent laws. To guarantee progress, to continue profits,
and to replace obsolescent processes and equipment, much attention and
money must be spent upon appropriate research. To prevent contamination of streams and interference with the rights of neighbors, factories
must avoid the discharge of waste materials either into the air or into the
streams of their locality.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION'
In chemical factories1the successful consummation of chemical reactions.

and the maintenance of equipment depend not so much upon the strength
of the materials as uJon their proper selection to resist corrosion and
withstand the effects of elevated temperatures and pressures. Mechanical
failures are seldom experienced unless there has been a previous corroding
or a weakening by cheinical attack on the material used for the construction of either the equipment or the building. Thus corrosion is a constant
and continuing problem with the chemical engineer in industry.
1 See the Materials of Construction reviews in Ind. Eng. Chem., October issue
during 1947-1954, September supplement since 1955.
23
24
In some cases corrosion cannot be prevented; it can only be mInImized. In these instances the designing engineer must provide for periodic
replacements. Fortunately, however, particularly since about 1920, the
advance of chemical engineering has provided many corrosion-resisting
materials. Among such relatively new materials are the following: rubbercovered steel, resin-bonded carbon, and tantalum-all to resist hydrochloric acid-stainless steel to resist the action of aqueous nitric acid even
under pressure, and nickel or nickel-clad steel to resist caustic solutions,
hot or cold.
Among construction materials used by chemical engineers are to be
found many of the commonest products as well as some of the rarestbrick, iron, cement, and wood on the one hand and platinum, tantalum,
and silver on the other. To choose the proper material, namely, one
that will have the strength necessary and the chemical resistance needed,
requires that the chemical engineer have an accurate knowledge of the
chemical processes for which the materials of construction are needed.
He must also know the corrosion resistance of the materials he thinks will
be employed. Frequently actual testing will be in order. When any
corrosion tests are made, they should not be carried out with pure
laboratory chemicals but with the commercial grades not only of the
chemicals to be used in the factory but also of the actual construction
material to be tested. It frequently happens that a small amount of
contaminant in a commercial raw material affects the corrosion very
appreciably. An example of this is the attack upon aluminum by dilute
nitric acid carrying a small quantity of halogen.
In recent years many data have been collected and added to the
literature pertaining to corrosion, particularly about the properties
of the structural materials employed in our chemical factories. For
classified specific information reference should be made especially to
the books by Speller,' Lee,2 and Perry.3 Also the current issues of our
engineering journals should be consulted, especially the pages of Chemical
Engineering' and Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.5 Where metals
are concerned, stress c,orrosion and corrosion fatigue may become very
important in high-pressure vessels that are subject to vibration.
'SPELLER, "Corrosion: ,Causes and Prevention," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
2 LEE, "Materials of Construction for Chemical Process Industries," McGraw-Hili
3 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1458-1558; here LEE, et al., present directions for conducting
corrosion tests. Many excellent tables of properties are given for recommended
materials ~f construction for various uses.
~ Chemical Engineering has published extensive tables on the properties and materials of construction and corrosion. Many of these tables are reprinted in PERRY, op.
cit., or have been published as separate pamphlets.
Cf. the important Materials of Construction reviews in Ind. Eng. Chern., October
issue, published annually since 1947.
FERHOUS MATERIALS
25
The following pages present a general outline of some of the chief

materials of construction and their applications to the chemical industries:
Ferrous Materials. Steel is still our main structural material. It is the
metal almost universally employed in the construction of most buildings
and in the reinforcing of concrete. It is widely used in pipes, tanks,
reaction vessels, pumps, valves, and other tools of the chemical process
industries.
Under certain conditions its corrosion resistance is excellent, as, for
example, in the handling of cool, concentrated sulfuric acid 1 or of mixed
nitric and sulfuric acids containing not more than 25 per cent of water.
In general, however, practically all dilute acids, even moisture of the air,
will cause serious corrosion of unprotected steel surfaces.
Steel is employed extensively, together with cast and wrought iron,
for handling dilute alkaline solutions or the neutral organic liquids met in
the petroleum and coal-tar industries. When the concentration of alkalies
is high or the temperature is raised, there is often some attack upon the
ferrous metals, in which case a more costly material such as nickel,
Monel metal, or even silver is substituted.
Wrought iron has behind it a long history of service in the chemical
industries. Presumably its inclusions of chemically resistant slag provide
an increased measure of protection against many corrosives. \V roughtiron pipe is often used in applications where steel or qast iron proves
unsatisfactory.
Cast iron resists sulfuric acid and hlkali a little better than does steel.
Also, when it does corrode, this takes place much more slowly and evenly.
Consequently, cast-iron pipe or vessels are preferable when their enhanced
weight and greater brittleness do not prevent their use.
High-silicon irons, such as Duriron and Corrosiron containing 14 per
cent of Si, are very resistant materials for use with nitric acid, even in low
concentrations. They are also preferred for boiling nitric acid. The highsilicon irons cannot be forged or welded, and their castings are I!.omewhat
more brittle than ordinary cast iron.
The stainless steels 2 consist essentially of iron, chromium, and nickel,
with minor but important other constituents. A typical formula is
"18:8," containing 18 per cent chromium and 8 per cent nickel. Stainless steels, now among the most important of the construction materials
used by the chemical engineer, can be fabricated and welded like other
steels, can be forg~d or east, and they resist organic acids and nitric
acid of all concentrations.
1 For details of corrosion resistance of various materials against different strength
acids, see Furnas, "R6gers' Manllal of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., pp. 243, 308
311, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942; SPELI,ER, op. cit.
SANDS, Stainless Steel Developments in Process Industries, Chern. & Met. Eng,
49 (4), 88; (5), 132 (1942).
26
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys. Copper for many decades has been a
stand-by of the chemical engineer in multitudinous applications. It is
relatively inexpensive and can be fabricated into complicated shapes and
possesses fair strength. Its chemical resistance against ordinary atmospheric moisture and oxygen is excellent as there is formed an adherent
protective coating usually of copper oxide. Copper resists alkali (except
ammonia) better than does steel. It resists organic acids except in high
concentrations. It should not be used, however, where any mercury will
touch it because of the amalgams that are formed. Even a broken mercury
thermometer in a copper vessel may give trouble. In the factory it is
employed extensively as the material for the construction of kettles, stills,
heat exchangers, tanks, and many reactors. It should not be used in
contact with ammonia or amines. Copper alloys such as brass, bronze,
and admiralty metals are often superior in corrosion resistance and
possess better mechanical properties than the pure metal.
Aluminum is applicable to specialized situations where its lightness
and relative ease of fabrication are advantageous. Chemically, it resists
strong organic acids, nitric acid, and nitrates providing halogens are
absent. Corrosion resistance of aluminum is due to the formation of an
adherent film or hydrated aluminum oxide; the removal of this film by
halogen acids or alkalies exposes the metal to what may be rapid corrosion. As in the case of copper, a wide range of special alloys is available
for the chemical engineer's use.
Nickell is widely employed 'for its excellent resistance to alkalies
including ammonia. In the manufacture of iron-free caustic soda, nickel
or nickel-clad steel is chosen for tanks, evaporator t~bes, evaporator
bodies, and even for tank cars. Nickel and its alloys also possess very
superior mechanical properties. Most widely used of these is Monel
metal which is a natural alloy of nickel (67 per cent) and copper (30 per.
cent). Monel is especially important in the food industries.
Lead 2 is another old stand-by' in the ch~mical industries. Its use is
particularly advantageous because.of its high resistance to dilute sulfuric'
acid. It is almost universally used in the building of chamber plants for
the making of sulfuric acid and for the lining of tanks for storage of dilute_
sulfuric acid. Its disadvantage is its lack 'Of ~echanical strength and its
tendency to creep. Different lead sections are joined together by what is
called lead burning, a reducing flame (hydrogen) being used for this
purpose.
Silver,3 particularly in its pure form, has excellent ehemical resistance
I FRIEND and LA QUE, Corrosion.resisting Nickel Alloy" and Chemical Progress,
Ind. Eng. 'Chern., 44, 965 (1952)!
'.ROLL, 'Lead in Modern Chemical Construction, Chern. Eng., 69 (1), 281 (1952) .
BuTl'S and GIACOBBE, Silver Offers Resistance to Many Chemicals, Chem. &:
Met. Eng., 48 (12), 76 (1941); AI>DICKS, "Silver in Industry," extensive bibliography,
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1940.
INORGANIC MATERIALS OTHER THAN METALS
27
to alkalies as well as to many organic acids, particularly when hot.

Consequently in the preparation of the purest grade of alkali, silver
is the metal used. The autoclaves for the manufacture of urea from
carbon dioxide and ammonia are lined with silver. This metal is likewise
used for the handling of acetic acid. The disadvantage of silver lies in its
mechanical weakness. Consequently it is employed whenever possible
as a liner to protect metals mechanically stronger.
Tantalum has a high resistance to hydrochloric acid and has
consequently been used in such specialized equipment as immersion
heaters and condensers designed for heat transfer involving hydrochloric
acid solutions.
Platinum has long been employed in the chemical industry. At present
its application is most essential as one of the catalysts for the contact
sulfuric acid process an~ in the Ostwald ammonia oxidation procedure.
In the latter application, to lessen volatilization loss, the platinum is
alloyed with 10 per cent rhodium.
Inorganic Materials Other Than Metals. Glass, long the main material
used in chemical laboratories, is rapidly moving out into industrial
processing.! Glass is used in three forms in the plant: (1) in bulk, in
fairly large pieces of equipment, such as pipe, towers, and pumps; (2) as
a coating, over cast iron and steel, as in tanks, reactors, and pipe; and
(3) as fibers, in insulation, fabrics, tower packing, and plastic laminates.
The biggest plant use is in piping. It has the advantage of transparency,
corrosion resistance, and ease of cleaning. The resistance of glass to almost
everything except hydrofluoric acid, strong alkalies, and mechanical
stress is very satisfactory. Special precautions should be observed for
operations involving higher temperatures (around 200C.) because of
thermal shock. Tempered glass and high-silica glass are less vulnerable
to this.
Silica equipment in a great variety of shapes has long been available
~nd is used for particular applications where bad thermal shock is
encountered. Silica is also hard and greatly resists erosion. It is, however,
attacked by alkalies, is easily broken, and is expensive.
Ceramic materials, such as chemical stoneware and porcelain, are
available for vessels, pipes, and valves of medium capacity and have
been employed wh~re acid conditions prevaiC-Even large tanks are
made out of ceramic bricks 2 or tile held together by acid-resisting
I
cements.
Concrete is cheap, ea~ily fabricated, and widely employed where nonacid conditions prevail. Even where mild acid conditions occur, concrete
I
Glass-Its Place in Chemical Processing, Chem. Eng., 68 (.f), 117 (1951);

cf. Chap. 12.
2 KINGSBURY, Ceramic Linings for Chemical Equipment, Ind. Eng. Chern., 29, 402
(1937).
1
SMITH,
28
ean he proteded hy varIOus integrating eompotlndt>, such as oleie

soaps, and hy heing coated on the outside with speeial asphalt
paints.
Carbon is very resistant ehemically. With the advent of aeid-ret>isting
resins, various shapes of carbon produets held together by these resins
are now on the market. Phenol-formaldehyde resin is one that seems quite
suitable for the binding. These earbon I materials are supplied in the form
of various brieks and building bloeks as well as jJipi'ng, valves, and fittings.
Much of the eonstruction material used in the newer hydrochloric aeid
plants is one of these carbon-resin materials sold under the name of
Karbate.
Organic Materials of Construction. tVood, by virtue of its cheapness
and ease of working, is widely used for equipment handling, neutral
solutions, or even occasionally for weak aeids sucn as dilute aeetic acid.
Wood also resists saline solutions, such as sodium ehloride. Consequently
wooden tanks, filter presses, and pipes have long been important factors
in the construction of our ehemical plants. The new synthetic fibers
such as Orlon, Vinyon, nylon, and glass fibers are superseding the use
of cotton as a filter medium for specialized applications because of their
excellent chemical resistance and durability. Cloth made out of Monel
or stainless steel is also used.
Rubber is assuming increasing importance as a material of construction
for the chemical engineer as different varieties are manufactured and
made available at reasonable costs. Natural rubber as a liner for steel
tanks and pipes has greatly facilitated the handling of hydrochloric aeid.
Indeed, this acid is now shipped in rubber-lined tank cars. Several
synthetic rubbers possess resistance against nonaqueous solvents such as
the various products of the petroleum industry. Consequently they have
found wide acceptance for the lining of' hose to transport these solvents
and also as gasket materials.
Some of the plaslics 2 are sufficiently resistant to be very important
materials for the chemical indust_ries. Of the thermosetting plastics,
asbestos-filled phenolic resins (Haveg) are used successfully with nonoxidizing acids, and equipment based on "filled" cast furfuryl alcohol
resins are satisfactory against certain alkalies. The thermoplastics most
acceptable for equipment fabrication are poly methyl methacrylate,
polyethylene, Saran, and polyvinyl chloride.
The lack, at present, of corrosion-resistant alloys has stimulated
further work on furan resin linings bonded to steel or concrete in the
construction of acid proof chemieal procet>s equipment. Furan resin
1 See Chap. 9, Industrial Carhon, where Karhate material~ are described and
pictured.
2 Chap. 35; SEYMOUR and FRY, Plastie Processing Equipment Today, Chern. Eng.,
69 (3), 136 (1952).
PROCESS INS'fRUMENTATION
29
cements, phenol-formaldehyde resin cements, and sulfur cements are

meeting increased acceptance.
PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
At one time labor was plentiful and chemical operations were carried
out on a small scale in individual batches. The skilled chemical engineer
now finds that very many of his manufacturing projects, particularly
those operated on a large scale, proceed much more economically as
continuous processes rather than as small-batch operations. These
continuous processes have been and can be controlled by the workman,
but they give much more uniform results if, after the best conditions
are ascertained, these conditions are maintained throughout by the
use of modern instruments for automatic control. The chemical engineer
should not choose instruments simply to record temperatures or pressures but as reliable tools to control and maintain desired operating
conditions. In these large-scale continuous operations, the function
of the workman and the supervising chemical engineer is largely to
maintain the plant in its proper running order. Under this maintenance,
instruments playa very important part.
When chemical. manufacturing is on a small scale or when it is not
adaptable to continuous procedures, the batch sequence should be used.
This requires more supervision on the part of the workman and the
chemical engineer because usually the conditions of procedure differ
from the start through to the finish. Even with ~this changing picture,
instruments give a record which can be compared from batch to batch
and which leads frequently to the choice of superior operating conditions.
Instrumentation' for the indicating, recording, and control of process
variables is an almost universal outstanding characteristic of modern chemical
manufacture. In many chemical plants the instrument expense amounts
to 20 per cent of the total cost of the plant. Instrumentation has been
forced to this position of eminence by the increase of continuous procedures, by the increase in the cost of labor and supervision, by the
decrease in the cost of capital, by the increase in the scale of chemical
procedures, and by' the standardization of cheIJ.lical procedures under
unit operations and ""nit processes.
Instruments are available that furnish a wide variety of data and
controls, such as, I'
1 RHODES, "Industri~l Instruments for Measurement and Control," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., 'New York, 1941; PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1265-1;3;~7 contains an
up-to-date presentation of the principles and details of instrumentation; Symposium,
Instrumentation, Ind. Eng. Chern., 43, 2694 (1951); Process Instrumentation, Chern.
Eng., 69 (5), 161 (1952), plus a most eX('ellent chart.
30
1. Instantaneous data from mercury thermometers for temperature, ordinary

scales for weighing, and pressure gages for pressure.
2. Continuous records from special instruments for recording temperature,
pressure, weight, viscosity, flow of fluids, percentage of carbon dioxide, and many
other physical and chemical data. In such cases clocks frequently move a chart
so that various readings are eorrelated with time. Recording of electrical energy'
required frequently indicates a certain state in carrying out a chemical procedure
when a change ought to be made, as in "beating" pulp in a Jordan or crystallizing
sugar in a vacuum pan.
3. Automation or automatic control of different variables through special instruments for maintaining a desired pressure or temperature or pH or flow of
material. These are more or less complicated devices. The simple thermostat,
used in almost every home as a necessary adjunct to a modern furnace, is a sample of a very simple controlling instrument. This division of instrumentation is a
specialty in itself, but is growing rapidly.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
Chemical control has a threefold function in factory' procedures:

(1) analysis of incoming raw materials, (2) analysis of reaction products
during manufacturing, i.e., so-called "process control," and (3) analysis
of the outgoing finished products.

The chemical manufacturer sh.ould not' only know the character of the
raw materials he is buying but should often set up strict quality specifications to assure the minimum or complete absence of certain undesirable
impurities. For instance, the presence of arsenic in the acid employed
would be deleterious for hydrolyzing starch to dextrose for food purposes
although of lesser significance if the hydrolysis were to produce dextrin
adhesives. Well over 90 per cent of the raw materials of the chemical
process industries are probably purchased on the basis of chemical
analysis.
Process control, the second of our functions, is an essential part of
practically all manufacturing operations involving chemical change.
Otherwise the reactions may occasionally get out of hand, with resulting
losses of time and materials. To avoid this, many "in-process tests"
/ should be made at various steps during th~ progress of manufacturing.
This does not mean that an extensive laboratory should be provided
in connection with ev~ry unit process or operation. Frequently the
plant chemist in the control laboratory can devise fairly simple tests
to indi('ai e the progress of a given reaction, and these are sufficiently
simple and reliable so that the nonchemical workman can be taugh~ to
carry them out. If chemical changes are at all complicated, check samples
should be drawn and submitted 'to the control laboratory for a more
'SHREVE,
(1934).
Gmphic Instruments in Chemical Processes, Ind. Eng. Chern., 26, 1021
CONTAINERS
31
careful analysis than is possible by the workman in the factory. For

proper operation of a plant, close cooperation between the manufacturing and control divisions is essential. They should, howev,er, be
independent of each other to the extent that the laboratory results are
not subject to the influence of the man in charge of production.
Finally, to ensure that the customer ,gets material which meets his
specifications and which does not vary beyond predetermined limits, a
rather complete analysis should be made of the finished product. Most
customers, if their purchases represent any considerable sum of l,l1oney,
maintain a laboratory for checking the purity of what they purchase.
In case of any dispute between the seller and the purchaser, this is
usually settled by referee analysis on the part of some well-recognized
and accepted public analyst.
It is interesting to see the increasing importance of physical means
for control of chemical procedures. Such instruments as refractometers,
spectrophotometers, and photographing apparatus are now being used,
often in the hands of specialists, to supplement the old readings of
hydrometers and thermometers.
There is no use spending time and money in the careful making of an
analysis unless the sampling! has been adequate. Too often the drawing
of the sample is left to an untrained boy, and a highly skilled <;hemist
will spend hours upon the analysis of the sample brought to him. As much
thought, care, and supervision should be placed upon the taking of a truly
representative sample as are expended upon the chemical analysis.
Sampling is a specific application of the unit operation of size, separation and is so presented hy Perry 2 where directions with diagrammatic
representation of accepted operations are given in detail.
CONTAINERS
The most economical containers are the refillable bulk ones such as
tank ears, hoxcars, gondola cars, barges, or even tank steamers. Under
this class might even come pipe lines for the transportation of petroleum
products, acid, or brine, and many other liquid chemicals. Coal is shipped
in bulk containers and stored in bins in houses or in stock piles in factorie::;.
The United Statefl has been most progressive in th~ development of bulk
means of transportation such as are now used not only for coal, oil, and
gasoline but also for alcohol, mola::;ses, sulfur, soda ash, nitric acid,
sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, caustic soda, liquid ammonia, etc. Tank
ears and boxcars or harges make many trips between seller and purchaser
and afford a very low-cost container. The railroad car is low in its original
capital cost as well ~s in its handling expense.
1 DEMING,
2
"Theory of Sampling," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954.
cit., pp. '] 095-1102.
PERRY, op.
32
Many chemicals are shipped in smaller containers which may be either

of the returnable or of the one-trip variety. Among the returnable containers are
Metal drums, 55 and 100 gal., for acins, oil, solvents, and many liquids.
Steel cylinders, for compressed gas such as hydrogen and oxygen and for
liquids such as ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Wooden barrels, bJ gal., for very many liquids and solids.
Wooden kegs, 1 to 10 gal.. for very many liquids and solids.
Glass carboys, 12 gal., for acids and other liquids.
Glass demijohns, 1, 2, and 2H gal., for liquids.
Glass-stoppered acid bottles, usually about 1 g:LI. or smaller.
Cotton bags for cement.
Among the nonreturnable or one-trip containers may be listed the

following:
Thin steel drums, for caustic soda, asphalt, and tar.
Fiber drums, for solid chemicals.
Fiber! cans, for small amounts of solid chemicals.
Cotton bags, for soda ash, salt, and many bulk chemicals.
Light wooden barrels, for solid chemicals.
Light wooden boxes and crates, mostly for protecting other containers.
Paper sacks, lined or multiwalled, for even hydroscopic chemicals.
Tinned or other thin metal cans, for liquids or solids.
Small glass bottles of various sizes, for very many solid and liquid chemicals.
The choice of a suitable container is often one for a specialist. 2 Many

containers are lined with paper, which mayor may not be 'Naterproofed.
or with a plastic.
The cost of containers varies from 6 to 10 cents for paper bags, around
$1 for wooden barrels for solids, $3 to $4 for iron drums, $4.50 for glass
carboys, $11 for steel cylinders, up to around ~3,000 to $4,000 for 10,000gal. low-pressure tank cars, or $6,000 to $7,000 for high-pressure cars
used in transporting such gases as ht:lium. To reduce the cost of container
and handling and to effect a saving of warehouse space, the use of multiwalled heavy-quty paper containers 3 is on the increase.
Under the unit operation of movement and storage of materials ocp-urs
the subdivision of bulk-packing equipment wherein the chemical engineer
handles the equipment needed to put his product economically into a
1
BIGGER,
Fiber Cans, Alternates for Metal Containers, Chem. Eng.
New.~,
21, 1430
(1943).
Industrial Engineering Chemistry conducts a department called "Materials

Handling" under the leadership' of T. W. Rhodes. This is devoted to the various
phases of packaging, such as production, improvements, availability, new inventions,
and governmental statistics and regulations.
S ANON., Bulk Packaging of Chemicals. Chern. Eng., 66 (4), 127 (1948).
33
SAFETY AND FIRE PROTECTION
TABLE 1. METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION
~'OR
THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
Inbound shipments
Material
Tons
Outbound shipments
Per
cent
Via
Product
Solid fnels and raw 230,OOO,OOO}

materials
17
f7
Liquid fuels and raw
materials ......... . 175,000,000
6
Tons
Railway
Solid.... 180,OOO,OOO}
Waterway Liquids ... 125,000,000
Highway
Gases .....
1,000,000
Per
cent
r
2
12
6
Via
Railway
Waterway
Highway
Chern. &: Met. Eng., ".557 (1937). In recent years, highway or truck transportation has increased
proportionally.
barrel, drum, or sack, Perryl presents this with regard to the various
laborsaving and automatic devices that are in use.
The superintendent of a chemical factory pays much attentIon to

the safety of his men and to protection against fire. Safety measures
not only keep an employee regularly on the job and the equi'pment
working but actually save money in the reduction of the premiums
paid by employers for liability and fire insurance. One of the principal
jobs of the chemical engineer, if there is no safety engineer, is the establishment of adequate safety measures to protect w9rkmen and also the
chemical engineer himself. Too frequently, familiarity with chemicals
breeds carelessness. To ensure against this attitude, well-run plants have
safety committees in which men from other departments check up the
safety devices and recommendations of those actually working with the
given process. There is only one thing more disturbing than a bad
accident and that is a conflagration. Although both can be insured against,
it is cheaper and interrupts production less to prevent such accidents
or fires.
Adequate safety and fire protection measures require expert guidance.
Whereas much information 2 is available in the literature, more specific
help can be obtaine4 from the National Safety -Council,3 a cooperative
organization for the! purpose of disseminating information among its
members and of promoting safety in all its aspects.
Table 2 summarizes the disabling injuries met with throughout the
chemical industries. Certain companies by proper organization and
I
lOp. cit . pp. 1381-1414.
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1847-1884, excellent presentation with bibliography; ANON .
Fire Prevention, Chem. Eng., 66 (12), 123 (1949).
425 North Michigan Drive, Chicago 22, Ill.
OO~C"I~~"""''''''OO-C''IC''I~
0 l1'?OOOO
r:J:) ...... O':ICi.lC"lOO~

C'lC'\IO:OC\l~-.::t'O:OO:O
0000,",,0""'000-0
OOOC'-l..-4cqOO
..-4
'oo::tt
l1'?O':IM '<1'
'oo::tt
. . . . . . .
oo:>..;<oo"''''oooC'Oo:>~o
~OOOOOr-...O':IMr-...~t.r.)r-...M
ef')
~
.......
e'\
t'\
.......
35
trammg have greatly reduced the number and severity of harmful

accidents to life, limb, and plant. This is true of even those industries
which are inherently dangerous.
The National Safety Council, reporting on 400 accidents in '1942,
tabulates the following causes:
Agency of injury
Number of
injuries
Presses, rolls, and other machinery ....................... " 139

Acids, alkalies, and other chemicals ....... , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Floors, ladders, and other working surfaces ..... , ........ , .. , 34
Trucks, railroad cars, and other vehicles, , , , , . ' , .. , ..... ' .. , 33
Pipe lines, boilers, and other pressure apparatus, , , .......... , 27
Elevators, cranes, and other hoisting apparatus ...... , ...... , 22
Hand tools ............ , .. , . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Conveyers ....................... ' ...................... , 14
Mechanical power transmission apparatus .................. , 11
Other ........................ , . , , ...................... , 59
Total. ................................................ 400
From this tabulation it is seen how very important it is to continue

training men to protect themselves from moving machinery as well as
from chemicals. Unsafe practires caused 85 per cent of these 400 injuries.
Some of these unsafe practices are cleaning, adjusting, or repairing
in the vicinity of moving machinery, using defective machinery or tools,
starting or stopping machinery without signaling other workmen,
standing under suspended loads or assuming unsafe positions, failure
to wear protective devices such as goggles or safety shoes, entering
dangerous areas, removing safety devices, mixing chemicals to cause
explosion or fire.
Equipment should be tested initially and periodically to ensure safety
and efficiency. The chemicals handled most frequently have certain
hazardous aspects, which should be ascertained and guarded against.
Flammable, liquids! can be safely processed. Specific chemicals, such as
ammonia and hydrofluoric acid and many others that are hazardous,
can be so handled by, the chemical engineers who are conversant with
their properties that safety of plant and of workman can be secured.
Among the large number of materials handled in the chemical industry.
there are many that ,Yill cause illness to employees handling them unless
adequate safeguards a're provided and used. Materials that are toxic may
enter the body in thr4e ways: ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption.
The chemical engineer should be able to recommend precauti6nary
measures which will !-lliminate or minimize these hazards and save not
only health but man-hours and tend to in'crease production.
1 "National Fire Codes," Vol. I, "Flammable Liquids, Gases, Chemicals, and
Explosives," N.F.P.A., Boston, 1951.
36
PATENTS
In order to encourage new discoveries for the benefit of the nation

the Constitution provides for patents. These are limited monopolies
extending over 17 years and given in exchange for something new and
beneficial. However, as it takes an average of about 7 years between
the time an invention is patented until it is commercialized, the monopoly
exists practically for only about 10 years. After this the public has a
right to use the invention freely. Patents are necessary in: this competitive system of free enterprise in order that research funds can be generously spent for improvements on old processes and for new and useful
discoveries. The system of inventions enables a concern to reimburse
itself for its large expenditure for research. The United States patent
system also discourages secret processes by guaranteeing the limited
monopoly only in case of an adequate disclosure. There is no quicker
way to have a patent declared invalid than to show before an impartial
court that an inventor has held back some essential step in the disclosure
of his idea.
Dean A. A. Potter, when Executive Director of the National Patent
Planning Commission, wrote the following about patents.!
A clear understanding is essential of the difference between an invention, a
patent, and a marketable product. Invention is the act of finding something
that is new. A patent is a grant of exclusive right to the inventor to his invention
for a limited period of time. An invention is not a product, and the patent by
itself does not produce a product. To produce a marketable product a new idea
in the form of an invention must be developed and embodied in a form suitable
for manufacture, and appropriate tools must be available so that the product can
be manufactured at a cost acceptable to the public. The patent serves to protect the inventor and those who develop, manufacture, and sell the product from
the uncontrolled competition of parties who have not shared the burden of inven~
tion and its commercialization.
Inventions, by bringing these l!ew products to the commercial world,

benefit the public at large and for all time. The inventor himself receives
only a limited reward. The inventor, however, creates something that.
did not exist before. In the field of the chemical industries, the American
patent system is accountable for much of the recent growth by encouraging the research upon which this growth is founded. The obtaining
of a patent is a procedure requiring skilled and experienced guidance.
The patent office does not require that an inventor proceed with the help
of a patent attorney but sound business jqdgment does. The patent
must be of something new and must be fully disclosed, and the essentials
of the invention must be properly covered by the claims. There are
1
POT'rtJR,
(1944).
The Engineer and the American Patent System, Meeh. Eng., 66, 15-2()
RESEARCH
37
also a number of pitfalls that an inexperienced inventor might fall into,

SlIeh as attempting to cover more than one inven!;ion in one patent or
Bot keeping the necessary records of the conception of his invention
01' of its reduction to practice. All these requirements, and more too,
are largely avoided by the association of reputable patent counsel with
the inventor.
RESEARCH
It is certainly true that adequate and skilled research with patent

protection guarantees future profits. In the chemical prG~ess industries
some of the outstanding characteristics are changing procedures, new
raw materials, new products, and continual increase from laboratory
test tube to tank car shipments. Research creates or utilizes these
changes. Without this forward-looking investigation or research, a
company would be left behind in the competitive progress of the industry.
A company might possibly have so fundamental a raw material and
such a well-developed process that research could not improve the
product. Though this latter statement is rarely true, it is a fact that
the progress of industry opens up new markets for even the most fundamentally established products. The results and benefits of research 1
may be tabulated as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S.
l"J.
10.
11.
12.
New and improved processes.

Lower costs and lower prices of products.
New services and new products never before known.
Change of rarities to commercial supplies of practical usefulness.
Adequate supply of chemicals previously obtained only as by-products.
Freedom for American users from foreign monopoly control.
Stabilization of business and of industrial employment.
Products of greater purity.
Products of superior service, e.g., light-fast dyes.
New medicines and. other new health aids.
More efficient use of raw materials.
More efficient by-product recovery.
These results, just quoted, may also in their own words be summarized
by the expression" creation of new industry and stabilization of old."
There has been a tapid growth in research in-the chemical process
industries. According to Perazich,2 in 1927 these industries employed
3,500 researchers and' their assistants. In 1940 the total was 15,000, a
growth of about 330 per cent or something like 25 per cent per year.
In the next decade this same group grew to nearly 33,000, or a net annual
gain of ahout 12 pJr cent. Hesearch personnel of all manufacturing
industries, including the chemical and allied industries, has grown in
1
Chem. & Met. Eng., 44,545 (1937).
o 1'I!;RAZICH, Research: Who, Where,
How Much, Chem. Week, 69 (17), 17 (1951).
38
the period 1927-1950 from 17,000 to over 165,000; the number of laboratories themselves increased from 1,147 to 3,313. Another measurement
of research growth is the ratio of research staffs to the total number of
workers engaged in production. For the chemical process industries
between 1927 and 1950 the ratio of total research staff personnel per
10,000 production workers increased from 137 to 657.
The cost of research varies widely between individual industries and
between individual companies in the same field. One companyl estimates
that the average cost to maintain one technically trained man in research
is $24,000 annually and involves an average investment of over $30,000
in laboratory facilities. Including salaries, equipment, and materials, the
most recent estimates place the chemical process industries annual cost
per laboratory worker at about $7,000, but 60 per cent of this one company's sales in 1950 came from propucts that were either unknown or in
their commercial infancy in 1930. The country's total university, governmental, and industrial research and development expenditures amounted
to almost 3 billion dollars for 1952,2 with Federal funds supplying over
half of this large sum.
Another way of evaluating research is as a percentage of each sales
dollar. For the chemical field this varies from 1 to 5 per cent.
As a result of research, the characteristics of the chemical process
industries are change and improvement. Finally it may be remarked that,
in a business and financial sense, it would be unWIse either to work for or
to continue to hold the securities of any firm which, in these competitive
days, is not research-minded.
The risks of research are high and success comes only when good
judgment is coupled with research ability. Many companies spend large
sums before the payoff arrives. The Du Pont company spent around 38
million dollars on their I 1950 research budget. Looking back, this companyinvested 43 million dollars in dyes before thelprofits were large enOugh to
offset the losses. Similarly for ammonia they invested at their Belle,
W. Va., plant 27 million dollars before the process became a profitableone. In nylon they invested 27 million dollars before getting into satisfactory commercial prC?duction.
WASTE DISPOSAL
There was a time when any product that a manufacturer did not want
was turned loose into the air or run into the nearest stream irrespective
of odor, color, or toxicity. Fortunately those days are past.
However, it is not always an easy procedure to dispose of wastes.
Sometimes a long-drawn-out study is required to ascertain how either to
I E. I. du Pont de NemoUl'ti and Company Annual Report, 1951.
Chem. Eng. News, 31, 228 (1953).
39
GROWTH AND STATISTICS
neutralize the waste, to destroy it, or to turn it to something useful.

Chemical wastes are particularly bothersome because they are so variable
in their properties. The colored liquor running from a dyeing establishment should be treated entirely differently from the acid liquors escaping
from a coal mine. Hence, the treatment of chemical wastes is largely
in the .hands of the experienced chemical engineer who inust first determine the exact chemical nature and properties of a waste product.
He should then endeavor to prevent its formation or to turn it into
something useful. When this is impossible, his efforts should be directed
to neutralize economically the harmful effect of the waste so that neither
the air nor the rivers are contaminated.
GROWTH AND STATISTICS
Statistics are available from a number of sources: the U.S. Bureau of

Mines and its "Mineral Resources" as well as the U.S. Bureau of the
(!ensus. The monthly issues of Chemical Engineering and the weekly issues
of Chemical and Engineering News are most helpful. For a comprehensive
survey on economic data on individual chemicals and raw materials,
TABLE
3.
PosTwAn GnOWTH OF SOME CHEMICAL Gnoups"
Millions of pounds
Ratio 1952
- - - - . - - - - 1 to 1945
1952
1945
Production
Resins and plastics ........................... .

Synthetic rubbers ........................... .
Synthetic detergents ......................... .
Pesticides, etc ................................ .
Synthetic fibers (excluding rayon and acetate) ... .
Drugs ....................................... .
2,333
1,889
741
418
261
67
818
1,904
184
43
52
44
2.8
1.0
4.0
9.7
5.0
1.5
.. U.S. Tariff Commission, "Synthetic Organic Chemicals, U.S. Production and

Sales," except synthetic fibers from "Textile Organon."
TABLE
4.
AMEnlcAN SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY"
Growth rate ............ i ..............

Employees ............................
Research workers ....... t
Annual research bill ..... 1............
Rate of production gain. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Rate of sales increase .... 1
Average hourly wages ... I................
Annual payrolls .........................
Value of products ...... ! ...............
4 Times average of all American industry

153,000
12,203
$204,000,000
$2.08
$717 ;000,000
$4,500,000,000
.. Chem. Eng. News, 82, 3719, 3912 (1954).
40
on the principal chemical-consuming industries, and on financial aspects

of the chemical industry, reference should be made to "Chemical Economics Handbook," instituted by Raymond H. Ewell and published and
revised yearly by Stanford Research Institute, Stanford, Calif. This
most excellent book utilizes a base period of 1910-1950 with emphasis on
long-range trends.
Tables 3 and 4 indicate the high growth rate of the manufacture of
organic chemicals in comparison with all industry.
MISCELLANEOUS ASPECTS
Whereas the first part of this chapter has considered in more or less
outline the general fundamentals in connection with the operation of
chemical plants, there are many other aspects of importance, among
which are plant location, consideration of competing processes, the
labor market, and the sales outlet. Furthermore, every growing concern
should have a number of adjuncts to its manufacturing operations, among
which may be mentioned an efficient pilot plant and a library.
Plant Location. 1 Naturally, the proper location for a chemical plant or
a branch plant is conditioned largely by raw materials, transportation,
and markets. Yet, many other factors appear, such as power, water,
availability of efficient labor, cost of land, and ability to dispose of
wastes. There is a very strong tendency on the part of chemical concerns
to leave congested cities and to move out either into smaller towns or
actually into the country.
Competing Processes. As change is almost the outstanding characteristic of chemical procedures, this phase of any process is not only of
importance when the plant is first designed but should be always in the
consciousness of any chemical executive. Indeed, one of the functions
of a research organization is to keep abreast with the progress of the
basic sciences and to make available for the organization any improvements or even fundamental changes leading to the making of any given
product in which the organization is interested. The research organization should also keep informed regarding developments in other companies and be in a position to advise the'executiv~s of the relative competitive position of actual or contemplated processes or products.
Labor. The conduct of chemical plants requires, as a rule, rather
skilled labor with a limited requirement for ordinary backbreaking
work. Most of the help needed is for men who can repair, maintain, and
control the various pieces of equipment necessary to carry out the
unit pro(:eS8es and the unitr operati~ns. As each year passes, the chemical
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1719-1730; c/. the most excellent Symposia on Resources for
the Chemical Industry. Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 1723, 2647 (1951).
LIBUARY
41
industry hy virtue of a wider use of instruments and a greater complexity

of equipment requires more and more of the higher type of skilled labor.
Sales. There is no reason to manufacture anything unless it can be
used or sold. In order to sell goods properly in these competitive times,
"sales service" must frequently accompany the delivery of the manufactured article. A customer can be shown more appropriately how to use
a given product by the salesman fully acquainted with its properties.
An understanding of the customer's problems often helps in planning
manufacturing operations. By reason of these sales aspects many chemically trained men are enteI:ing sales or sales service as their life, work.
Pilot Plants. No new process should be moved from the laboratory
into the plant without going through a pilot plant. A good principle is
to insist that the product be made first on the small scale. It, is much
cheaper to make errors and quicker to correct them when operatingin a
pilot plant than in the factory. Furthermore, if a new venture is being
undertaken, it is difficult to design the large-scale procedure effectively
without having first run the process in a small pilot plant. Ther the
equipment should be made out of the same materials as the best engineering judgment indicates should be chosen for the large plant. There,
also, the corrosion, wear, and tear on these materials can actually be
observed under small-scale manufacturing conditions. In the pilot plant
the installation should be of replica equipment usually on the smallest
scale available. The pilot plants also serve to train foremen for the
factory procedures.
Library. Any plant of any size sh(l'.lld have available present and
past literature,l in its field as well as the records of its past experience.
In the library there should be collected and made available statistics l
pertaining to the domestic manufacture and imports of any products
the company makes or is considering.
SELECTED REFERENCES
General:
Perry, John H., editor-in-chief, "Chemical Engineers' Handbook," 3d ed., McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950. This is the.one absolutely essential
reference book and constant technical companior: for every chemical engineer.
"Chemical Engineering Catalog," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York. Annual compilation of manufacturers' catalogs.
:
Vilbrandt, Frank C., "Chemical Engineering Plant Design," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill
Riegel, Emil, "Chemical Process Machinery," 6th ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 194fJ.
'
For exceptional articles on the Literature of Chemical Technology, see' KIRK and
op. cit., Vol. 8, pp. 418-448; KOBE, "Inorganic Chemical Processes," Chap.
1, The Macmillan Comp~ny, New York, l!)4!:!.
1
OTHMER,
42
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Literature Resources for Chemical Process Industries, Washington, D.C., 1954.
Chemical Processing, New Processes, Materials, Machinery, Putnam Publishing Co.,
Chicago.
Haynes, Williams, American Chemical Industry, 6 vols., D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1945--1954.
Materials of Construction and Corrosion:
Lee, J. A., "Materials of Construction for Chemical PJ'occ~s Industries," McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Uhlig, H. H., "The Corrosion Handbook," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1948.
Habald, Erich, "Corrosion Guide," Elsevier Press, Inc., New York, 1951.
Speller, F. N., "Corrosion: Causes and Prevention," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Process Instrumentation:
Rhodes, Thomas J., "Industrial Instruments for Measurement and Control," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941.
Eckman, D. P., "Industrial Instrumentation," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1950.
Instrumentation iol' the Pl'Oeess lndustl'ies, Bulls. 100 and 103, Agl'icultuml and
Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Tex., 1946--1947.
Chemical Control:
Griffin, Roger C., "Technical Methods of Analysis," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Allen, A. H., "Commercial Organic Analysis," 5th ed., 10 vols. covering years 19231933, Blakiston Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York.
Containers:
Modern Packaging Magazine, Breskin Publishing Corporation, New York.
Safety and Fire Protection:
Manufacturing Chemists ,Association, various "Safety Data Sheets," Washington,
I
D.C.
General Safety Committee of the Ma'nufacturing Chemists Association, "Guide fOJ:
Safety in the Chemical Laboratory," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New
York, 1954.
Perry, op. cit., Sec. 30, pp. 1847-1884. Excellent bibliography.
National Safety Council, ~ooperative organization with publications and data available to members, 425, N. Michigan Ave., Chicago.
Henderson, Yandell, and H. W. Haggard, "Noxious Gases and the Principles of
Respiration Influencing Their Action," 2d ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1943.
National Fire Protection Association, Boston, excellent publications: "National Fire
Codes," Vol. I; "Flammable Liquids, Gases, Chemicals, and Explosives,"-1951;
"N.F.P.A. Handbook of Fire Protection," 10th ed., 1948.
"Handbook of Dangerous Materials," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
Sax, N.
I
New York, 1951.
Patty, F. A., editor, "Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology," 2 vols., Interscience
Publishers, Inc., New York, 1948.
I.;
SELECTED REFERENCES
43
Patents:
Biesterfeld, Chester H., "Patent Law for Chemists, Engineers and Students," 2d ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1949.
Rossman, Joseph, "Law of Patents for Chemists," 2d ed., The Williams & Wilkins
Company, Baltimore, 1934.
Thomas, Edward, "Chemical Inventions and Chemical Patents," Matthew Bender
and Company, Inc., Albany, 1950.
Symposium, Evolution of a Patent, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 2487 (1951). The second half
of this symposium is published in Chem. Eng. News, 29 (43, 44), 1951.
Research:
Mees, C. E. lC, and J. A. Leermakers, "The Organization of Industrial Scientific
Research,'" 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Furnas, C. C., "Research in Industry," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York,
1948.
Hertz, D. B., "The Theory and Practice of Industrial Research," McGraw-Hill
Waste:
Besselievre, E. B., "Industrial Waste Treatment," McGraw-Hill Book, Company,
Rudoifs, William, editor, "Industrial Wastes, Their Disposal and Tr!'atment," A.C.S.
Monograph 118, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1953.
Lipsett, C. H., "Industrial Wastes," Atlas Publishing Company,' Inc., New York,
1951.
Cost and Economics:

Corley, H. M., "Successful Commercial Development," 106 coauthors, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1954.
'
Perry, J. H., editor, "Chemical, Business Handbook," McGrtw-Hill Book Company,
Aries, R. S., and R. D. Newton, "Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation," Chemonomics, Inc., New York, 1950.
Tyler, Chaplin, "Chemical Engineering Economics," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Syrriposium, Plant Cost Estimation, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 2295-2311 (1951).
Sales and Use8:

Gregory, T. C., "Uses and Applications of Chemicals and Related Materials,"
Schoengold, M. D., "Erlcyclopedia of Substitutes or Synthetics," Philosophical
Library, Inc., New Y9rk, 1943.
Statistics:
"Chemical Statistics Handbook," with semiannual summaries, 4th ed., Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Washington, 1955.
"Census of Manufactures/, biennial publication, U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1947.
"Synthetic Organic Chemicals," U.S. Tariff Commission, annually since 1917.
"Minerals Yearbook," U,S. Bureau of Mines, annually.
Ii Chemical Economics Handbook," Stanford Research Institute, Stanford, Calif.,
annually.
CHAPTER
WATER CONDITIONING AND WASTE-WATER TREATMENT
Water conditioning and waste-water treatment have long been essential

functions of municipalities. However, the importance of suitably preparing water for the chemical industry is sometimes underemphasized,
although the chemical manufacturing processes consume large quantities
of water ranging in quality from untreated to deionized. Industrial waste
waters present a complex and challenging problem to the chemical engineer. Besides moral and publicity considerations, laws prohibiting and
limiting the pollution of streams force this problem to be considered a
necessary operating expense. While the solution is specific with each
industry (indeed, almost with each plant or factory), a few general
principles may be observed: reuse of waste waters, recovery of by-products
to lessen the expense of treatment, and pooling of wastes to distribute
pollution or to effect a saving in neutralization costs.
As is well known, the purity and the quantity of available water are
very important in the location I of a chemical plant. Both the surface
and the ground water should be considered. The latter is more suitable
usually for cooling purposes because of its uniformly low summer and
winter temperature, but such water is generally harder, may cause scale,
and hence may interfere with heat transfer.
The impurities contained in water2 vary greatly from one, section
of the country to another. Hard waters, are those containing objectionable amounts of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium. These
are present as bicarbonates, chlorides, or sulfates. These salts give
insoluble precipitates with soap and form clogging scales with low thermal
conductivities when used in boilers.
1 ANON" Water Supply, Chem. Eng., 66 (1), 137 (1948), a most excellent report;
cf. ANON., The Water Problem, Chem. Eng., 66 (7), 119 (1949).
Typical water analyses are tabulated in many books and articles. See CLARKE,
Composition of River and Lake Waters of the U.S., U.S. Gwl. Survey, Profess. Paper
Ja5, Washington; CERNA, Industrial Water Conditioning Processes, J. Chem. Educ.,
20, 108 (1943). Maps showing hardness of surface waters and of ground waters for
the United States are given by OLSON, Benefits and Savings from Softened Water,
.T. Am. Water Works Assoc., 81, 609 (1939); MONTGOMERY, How Process Industries
Me Meeting Their Water Supply Problems, Chem" & Met. Eng., 47, 622 (1940). See ~lso
MASON and BUSWELl" "Bxamination of Water," 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Iuc.,
New York, 1936.
44
HISTORICAL
45
Hardness is usually expressed in terms of the dissolved calcium and

magnesium salts calculated as calcium carbonate equivalent, CaC0 3 ;
when these constituents are measured by titrating with a standard
soap solution, this is frequently called soap hardness. The common
units used in expressing water analyses are parts per million (p.p.m.)
and grains per gallon. One grain per gallon is equivalent to 17.1 p.p.m.
Water hardness may be divided into two classes: carbonate and noncarbonate, also frequently known as temporary and permanent. Temporary hardness can usually be greatly reduced by boiling; permanent
hardness requires the use of chemical agents. Carbonate or temporary
hardness is caused by bicarbonates of lime and magnesia; noncarbonate
or permanent hardness is due to the sulfates and chlorides of :ime and
magnesia. In addition to hardness, there may also be present varying
amounts of sodium salts, silica, alumina, iron, or manganese. The total
dissolved solids may range from a few parts per million in snow water
to several thousand parts per million in water from mineral springs.
Other water impurities that may be present are suspended insoluble
matter (classed usually as turbidity), organic matter, color, and dissol:ved
gases. Such gases are carbon dioxide (largely as bicarbonate), oxygen,
nitrogen, and, in sulfur waters, hydrogen sulfide.
WATER CONDITIONING
Water conditioning must be adapted to the particular use for which

the water is designed. It is furthermore a complicated phase of chemical
engineering practice, and problems should be referred to the experts in
this field. The use of elevated pressures (1,400 lb. per sq. in. and higher
for steam generation) requires the employment of more carefully purified
boiler feed water. And each industry! has its special water-conditioning
requirements, e.g., laundries require zero hardness to prevent precipitation of calcium and magnesium soap on the clothes. Likewise calcium
and magnesium salts cause undesirable precipitates with dyes in the
textile industries or with the dyes in paper manufacture.
Historical. In this country an abundance of fairly soft water h!l,s long
been available from ~urface supplies of the industrial Northeast. Cities
such as New York and Boston obtain comparatively soft water from
rural watersheds over igneous rocks. However, as the Middle West and
the West were developed, it became necessary to use the harder water
that prevails in these limestone areas. This hard water needs to be
softened for many uses. Furthermore, as the advantages of really soft
water are recognized,' more and more even fairly soft waters are being
1 FURNAS, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," pp. 199-205, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
46
WATER (;ONDITIONING AND WASTE-WATER 'rREATMENT
completely softened for laundries, homes, textile mills, and certain chemical
processes.
Thomas Clark of England, in 1841, patented the lime processes for the
removal of carbonate or temporary hardness. A short time lliter Clark':,;
patent, Porter developed the use of soda ash in removing the noncarbonate
or permanent hardness of water. In spite of earlier work by Thompson,
Way, and Eichhorn on zeolite base exchange, it was not until 1906 that
Robert Gans, a German chemist, applied zeolites to actual commercial
use for water-softening purposes. The two earliest softening plants for an
entire city supply were installed at Canterbury and Southampton,
Oo-u
_3.5-1
_1-10.5
_
10.5
+ .,rains..., QGIIon
FIG. 1. A hard-water map of the United States ahowl few parts have 80ft water (white
areas). Most of country has water of varying hardness (gray and black areas).
England, about 1888. 1 Only since the 1930's has softening been extended
to municipal supplies to any appreciable extent. The explanation may be
that many people, lacking in experience with water other than hard
waters, were ignorant of the advantages of softened water. Figure 1
shows the varying hardness of waters in use in the United States.
METHODS OF CONDITIONING WATER
The purification and softening of water may be accomplished by

different methods. Table 1 presents a summary of the principal watersoftening processes. The use to which the water is to be put determines,
frequently , the treatment chosen. Softening is the term applied to those
processes which remove or reduce the hardness of the water. Purification,
1
OLSON, op. cit., 31 (4), 612 (1939).
47
ZEOLITE EXCHA NGE
...._1Id from 8Ofte(ling, usually refers to the removal of organic

JDioroorganisms from the water.
Iow,' ''''- 1.
W ATEB-SOl"TENING INSTALLATIONS I N THIl

UNITED STATES FOR 1954"
SVJOlARY OJ'
TfI1HJ and field
Number
1, 750, 000
50, 000
300
4 , 500
700
_,.1""_
Nordell of the Permutit Co. The chemical-pre._"....
_1Il type includes coldEskel
and hot lime-soda installations.
communication,
Exchange. In 1852, Way discovered that the removal of ammonia

aqueous liquids on passing through certain soils was really an
irlebange with the calcium of a particular type of silicate occurring in
eoils. Way's prime interest in ion exchange was in its possible appli.aon to agriculture. It required Borne 50 years after Way's discovery
for ion exchange to assume any industrial importance. The first decade
Of the twentieth century marked the beginning of zeolite water softening,
1IIl industry which has grown to large proportions. The ad vent of sulfcmated-coal cation-exchange materials initiated the modern era of ion
. change. The real stimulus for organic exchange resins came when Adams
and Holmes l published their paper on purely synthetic organic exchange
resins and described the anion exchange resillB for the first time. From
\his humble beginning ion exchange has grown to be a valuable chemical
engineering unit process. Its utilization on a largtl industrial scale has
been widespread, including the commercial production and use of water
having an electrical resistivity of conductivity and the recovery of
antibiotics. 2
Zeolite Exchange. The most important method for softening water is
the cation-exchange system commonly referred to as the zeolite system.
The present-day usage of the term "zeolite" loosely covers a variety of
ion exchangers, such as processed greensand, bentonitic clay, synthetic
gel-type minerals, and the new synthetic-resin exchangers. 3 As in the
case of soils with base exchange properties, the "inorganic " zeolites are
composed principally of hydrated alkali alumina-silicates that contain
easily exchangeable ions such as sodium or potassium. Chemical treatJ. Soc. Chem. Ind., M, 1-6T (1935).
Ion Exchange seetion of Unit Operations Review, annual in the January issue of
Ind. Eng. Chem., since 1946; c/. ANON. , Ion Exchange, C'Mm. Eng., N (7), 123 (1947) ;
Symposia, Ion Exchange, Ind. Eng. Chem., '" 1062 (1961) ; U, 447 (1949}.
I Chap. 18, Zeolitp Water...softening Process, in Nordell, "Water TreatmeDt for
Industrial and Other Uses," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1951.
1
WATER CONIHl'lON INO AND
WAST E-WA'l'J~H
T IU:ATM.~NT
. . .t of natural greensand improves its base exchange and physical

properties. Research developed synthetic I inorganic materials similar to
natural "zeolites" but with a higher base exchange.
During the softening process, the Ca and Mg ions are exchanged from
the hard water by the zeolite for the Na ions. When the zeolite becomes
almost all changed to calcium and magnesium compounds, it is regenerated to restore the sodium zeolite. This is usually done with salt solution
and in t he pH range between 6 and 8. Industry largely uses the sodium
cycle for softening water.t Regeneration is with common salt, at a
chemical efficiency which varies between the limits of 0.275 and 0.5 lb.
of salt per 1000 grains of hardness removed as compared with the stoichiometric efficiency of 0.17 lb. of salt. Choice of exchanger is governed by
cost and conditions of use.
The two most widely used hydrogen cation exchangers for water treatment are the polystyrene-base sulfonated-synthetic-resin type and the
sulfonated-coal type. The former has only -S03H exchange groups. It is
exceptionally stable at high temperatures and pH, and it is resistant to
oxidizing conditions. The exchange capacity of the best of these is up to
40,000 grains of CaC0 3 per cubic foot of ion exchanger on a hydrogen
cycle and up to about 35,000 grains of CaC0 3 per cubic foot on a sodium
cycle. T he usual practical operating capacities are not that high. For
removing metal cations at low concentrations, the sulfonated-coal-type
resin having -SOaH and -COOH exchange groups is very efficient.
The exchange capacity of this type of resin will run about 8,000 grains
of CaC0 3 per cubic foot. The equations for the exchange and regeneration
of these resins will be found on the following pages. Both of the ahove
exchangers may be regenerated with either acid or salt.
Using water containing calcium bicarbonate, for example, a typical
equation for zeolite softeners follow!!, where Z representoR thp romplex
cation exchanger radical:
Ca(HC0 3h
CaCh
+ NatZ -+ CaZ + 2NaHCOa

+ Na,Z -+ CaZ + 2N aCI
(1)
(2)
Similar reactions may be written for the other bicarbonates found in

water such as magnesium. For regeneration the reaction is
CaZ
+ 2NaCI
(excess)
-+
NatZ
+ CaCh + [excess -
2(NaCI) (3)
The equipment for the process, shown in Fig. 2, is a large closed

cylindrical tank in which the zeolite is supported on graded gravel.
The water to be saftened may flow down through t he tank. Auxiliary
apparatus includes both brine- and salt-storage tanks. The washing and
I
CALLAH AM,
Synthetic Zeolite, Clunn. Eng., 66 (!l), !l2 (1949), with a pictured flow
flheet, p. 140.
I GUSTAFSON,
Ion Exchange in Water Treatment, Ind. Eng. Clunn., oU, 464 (1949)
ORGANIC ION F.XCHA NGE
49
l'. ;i. . . . ...tion may be carried out automatically as well as manu all~ .
_teners are installed in the water lines and operated under
;4IIIIII_tAnrel' water pressure is necessary. As the zeolite bed also exerts a
...II1II_1 action, any sediment from the water or from the salt must be
...... oft' by an efficient backwash. This step suspends and hydraulically
; " " 'es the zeolite bed.
The water from zeolite treatment is usually practically zero in hardIn cases where very hard water is encountered, it is often desirable
. . VeAt the water first by the lime process and follow this by a zeolite
FIG. 2. Automatic zeolite softener. (Courtesy of the Permutit Com pan y. )
unit. The lime process actually removes bicarbonate hard ness from the
water while the zeolite process exchanges Ca and Mg ions with Na ions.
The great advantage of the zeolite softeners is their cOII"enience and
the fact that they furnish a water of zero hardness without attention 01'
adjustment until regeneration is required even though the raw water varies
in hardness from one day to the next.
Organic Ion Exchange. Because of the development of the organic ion
exchangers, this process is now used in many industries other than water
treatment. Some of these industries are chemical, especially process
liquor and waste treatment, biological, drug and pharmaceutical, glues
and gelatine, insecticide, rare earth separations, and sugar. T hese ion
exchangers may be divided into two classes : cation and anion.
The cation organic exchangers are employed to treat solutions in a
relatively wide pH range. They may be roughly divided into
50
WATER CONDITIONING AND WASTE-WATER T REATMENT
1. Synthetic organi c resins such as sulfonateci styrene resins (m ost

widely used), sulfonated phenolic resins, and carhoxylic acid resi ns.
2. Processed natural organic materials such as sulfonat.ed coal, coke,
charcoal, lignite, and wood shavings.
These contain an exchangeable hydrogen ion and can he employed to
remove all cations according to the following react.ions:
Ca(HCO a)2 + 2HSOaR
---+
Ca(S03Rh + 2C0 2 + 2H 20
(4)
T he acid formed; H 2CO a in this case, decomposes and can be removed
H'rO ~OGEN CATION

EltCH ..... GEfIIU'm
,..,,"
ft~EHEltAHT
TANK
F IG. 3. D emine.alization equipment in two steps. (Courte8y of the Perm-utit Co'mpanll.)
easily. A similar reaction would be true for magnesium or sodium bicarbonates. Sulfates and chlorides react as follows:
caSo 4 + 2HSO zR ---+ Ca(SOaRh + H 2SO,
NaCI + HSOaR ---+ NaSOaR + H CI
CaCh + 2HSOaR ---+ Ca(SOaR)2 + 2HCI
(5)
(6)
(7)
The regeneration is usually effected by sulfuric acid as follows:

Ca(SOaR)2 + H 2SO, (excess)
2NaSOaR + HtSO, (excess)
---+
---+
2HSOaR +'caSo,
2HSOaR + NatSO,
(8)
(9)
Such cation exchangers are naturally rugged and a]so possess considerable exchange capacity, up to 30,000 grains per cu. ft. T heir application is shown in Fig. 3. If these cation exchangers are regenerated by
sodium chloride instead of acid, they function like the ordinary zeolite
softeners (Fig. 2) .
LIME-80DA PROCESS
51
water is not desirable for most purposes and, therefore, the

from the hydrogen cation-exchange treatment is either neutralized
demineralization is required, is passed through an anion-exchange
as shown in Fig. 3.
euhangers are of two types- highly basic type and weakly
type. Such anion exchangers are for the most part basic resins.l
types will removestrongly ionized acids such as sulfuric, hydroor nitric, but only the highly basic anion exchangers will remove
~'_iiioioIirhr ionized acids such as silicic and carbonic as well as the strongly
_ __ acids. For the anion exchange of a strongly ionized acid, where
represents the complex anion exchanger radical, the reactions follow
of the R's may be hydrogen) :
(10)
(ll)
basic anion exchangers are regenerated with caustic soda, while

weakly basic anion exchangers may be regenerated with caustic soda,
_"r __ ash, or sometimes ammonium hydroxide.
speaking the complete deionization or demineralization of
is conducted in a two-bed process as shown in Fig. 3. Single mixeddemineralization units are available. 2 For complete deionization the
_lDOltMlO unit must consist of a strong base and strong acid resin com,.aatilon. This produces water at approximately half the cost of distilled.
only other process for removing all the ions in water is distillation.
distilled water and deionized water should be handled in special
to keep the soft water from dissolving smail amounts of the metal
thus becoming contaminated. Block tin has been employed for t his
JII'P08e for many years but has the disadvantage of extreme softness.
.Albminum and molded polyvinylidine chloride pipes are now satisfactory
tutes for conducting "pure" water.
time-aoda Process. The use of slaked lime and of soda ash to remove
IiIIIdneu in water has long been important. The modern application has
. . divided into the cold lime process and the hot lime-soda process.
calcium ions in the hard water are removed as CaC0 3 and t he
lfIIIcnesium ions as Mg(OHh. Typical equations for these reactions are
'For carbonate hardness,
Ca(HCOah
Mg(HCOah
+ Ca(OHh + Ca(OHh -
2CaCO a + 2H 20
MgCO a + CaCOa + 2H 20
(12)
(13)
WUATON and BAUMAN, Properties of Strongly Basic Anion Exchange Resins,

lOBS (1951) .
KVNIN and MCGARVlIT, Monobed Deionization with (on Exchange UesiDa, I nd.
CIwm., a, 734 (1951).
I
Irttl. B,.,. Chem., a,
52
WAT.I!:ll CONDI'l'IONING AND WASTE-WATEU THEATMENT
Then, since t.he MgCO a is fairly soluble,

MgCOa
+ Ca(OH)! -+ Mg(OHh + CaCO a
(14)
For non carbonate soluble calcium and magnesium salts,
MgSOc
MgCh + Ca(OH)2 -CaCh + Na 2 CO a -+

CaSO( + Na 2CO a -+
Na 2 CO a + Ca(OHh -+
Mg(OH)2 + CaCh
CaCO a + 2NaCI
CaCO a + Na2S04
Mg(OHh + CaCO a + NaJ30c
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
From these reactions it is apparent that, for carbonate hardness, each

unit of calcium bicarbonate requires one mole of lime while for each unit
of magnesium bicarbonate there is needed two moles of lime. For noncarbonate hardness, likewise, the magnesium salts require more reagents
(one mole each of soda ash and lime) while the calcium salts require only
one mole of soda ash.
Based on a price of $15 per ton for lime (quicklime of 90 per cent purity)
and of $35 per ton of soda ash (98 per cent purity), the following material
costs have been figured for removing 100 p.p.m. of hardness from 1,000,000
gal. of water.
Calcium bicarbonate hardness (expressed as CaCO,), 520 lb. lime ........ '"
3.90
Magnesium bicarbonate hardness (expressed as CaCO.), 1,040 lb. lime. . . . . . . 7.80
Calcium noncarbonate hardness (expressed as CaCO.), 900 lb. soda Mh .... " 15.75
Magnesium noncarbonate hardness (expressed as CaCO.), 900 lb. soda ash,
520 lb. lime ....................................................... " 19.65
The cold lime process is employed chiefly for partial softening and
ordinarily uses only the cheaper lime for its reagent reactions (12) to
(15) above. It reduces the calcium hardness to 35 p.p.m. if proper oppor- _
tunity is given for precipitation of the hardness, thus discharging the
"supersaturation" so frequently met with in this process. This cold lime
process is particularly applicable .to partial softening for municipal water (Figs. 5 and 6), to the conditioning of cooling water where calcium
I bicarbonate hardness may be the scale former, and to certain paper-mill
waters where calcium bicarbonate is troublesome. The magnesium
carbonate hardness can be removed to any desired or economical amount
but, if a low residual is wanted, an excess of hydroxyl ions is needed to
depress the solubility of the magnesium hydroxide. Usually to aid in the
precipitations, a coagulant, aluminum sulfate or ferrous sulfate; is added
to Jessen afteroeposit.
A succei;sful method of eliminating supersaturation in the cold limesoda process is contacting previously precipitated sludge (see Fig. 5).
When this material is exposed to the raw water and chemicals, the like
surfaces or "seeds" accelerate the precipitation. The result is a more
LIME-SODA PROCESS
53
rapid and more complete reaction with larger and morp. easily Rettled
particles in the newly formed precipitate.
The equipment developed for this contact by the International
Filter Company is called the Accelator.1 In this apparatus there is a
special device for mixing the treating chemicals with the suspension of
the previously precipitated sludge. Following this, the raw water is
introduced into the mixture of chemically impregnated slurry wh'ereupon
the positive contact of solid particles and water to be softened with 'the
softening chemicals affords an improved opportunity for precipitation
of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide, thus resulting in
" desupersaturation."
The Permutit Spaulding Precipator 2. consists of two compartments:
one for mixing tJ,nd agitating the raw water with the softening chemicals
and with the previously formed sludge, and the other for settling and
filtering the softened water as it passes upward through the suspended
blanket of sludge. Machines of these types reduce sedimentation time
from 4 hr. to less than 1 hr. and usually effect savings in chemicals
employed. A newer machine, the Spiractor, has a detention period
of about 10 min. and also functions in the cold lime-soda process. a Inl the
Spiractor the hard water plus the necessary softening chemicals travels
upward and spirally around granules upon which the hardness precipitates.
The hot lime-soda process is employed almost entirely for conditioning
boiler feed water. Since it is operated near the boiling point of the water,
the reactions proceed faster, the coagulation and the precipitation are
facilitated, and much of the dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and
air is driven out.
The hot lime-soda treatment for softening may consist of the following coordinated sequences of unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.)
which are frequently carried out in such equipment, as illustrated by
Fig. 4:
Analysis of the raw ",ater (Pr.).
Heating of the raw water by exhaust steam (Op. and Pr.).
Mixing and proportiiming of the lime and soda ash in conformance with the
raw water analysis (Op.).
_
Pumping of the limelsoda mixture into the raw water (Op.).
Reacting of the lim.e soda, facilitated by mixing with or without previous
heating (Pr. and Op.).1
1 BEHRMAN and GREEN, Accelerated Lime Soda Water Softening, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
81, 128 (1939).
I,
I SPAULDING, Conditioning of Water Softeni~g Precipitates, J. Am. Water Works
Assoc., 29, 1697 (1937); NORDELL, op. cit., pp. 413-420 (1951).
I TIGER and GII:'WOOD, The New Sludgeless Cold J~ime Soda Water Softener, Paper
Trade J., 118 (13),27 (1942); NORDELl" op. cit., pp. 421-425.
54
Coagulation or release of the" supersaturation" by various methods such as

slow agitation or contact with" seeds" (Pr. and Op.).
Settling or removal of precipitate with or without final filtration (Op.).
Pumping away of softened water (Op.).
Periodic washing away of the sludge from the cone tank bottom (and from the
clarifying filters) (Op.).
To sewer
To sewer
FIG. 4. Hot lime-soda water softener. (Courte8y of the Permutit Company.)
If the chemical reactions involved could be carried to completion,

the hardness of the water would be reduced to ,the theoretical solubilities
of the calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. This would leave a
hardness of approximately 20 to 25 p.p.m. in pure water and a little less
/ at the pH of 10 to 11 involved in the lime-soda process. Frequently for
feed water, a sodium phosphate treatment follows the lime soda in order
to soften the water more completely. The newest development is the use
of resinous ion exchangers for the more complete deionizing of the
effluent of a hot-lime process. 1 This is particularly necessary when feeding
high-pressure boilers.
Phosphate Conditioning. Various phosphates are employed, usually in
conjunction with one of the previously described procedures. M o"no1 IJINDSEY, et al., Ion Exchange in High Temperature Industrial Applications, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 43, 1062 (1951).
DEAERATION
55
sodium, disodium, and trisodium phosphates are often added to water to

precipitate the hardness ions in the form of easily removed soft phosphate
sludges. Sodium hexametaphosphate, (N aPO 3)6, 1 likewise softens water
but instead of precipitating the hardness ions it forms soluble complexes
with the Ca, Mg, Fe, and Al ions and sequesters them or prevents the
formation of scale or insoluble soaps when the phosphate is present in
excess and when the 'Yater is not t.oo hot. This chemical also possesses
the valuable property of dispersing previously formed insoluble soaps.
These properties led to the so-called threshold treatment 2 of wat.er with an
addition of as little as one-half to 5 p.p.m. of this hexametaphosphate,
resulting in prevention of the aft.erprecipitation of calcium carbonate
from soft.ening operat.ions, which would cause scale format.fon in pipes
with consequent reduction in fluid flow and in heat transfer. This is
important in domestic hot-water heaters, in water pipes, in heat exchangers, and also in washing and laundering. The addition of the sodium
hexametaphosphate also reduces corrosion, particularly in nondeaerated
waters.
Silica Removal. Silica is not removed by hydrogen cation exchange or
sodium zeolite exchange, and usually is only partially removed in the
cold or hot lime-soda processes. It may be a very objectionable impurity,
especially in boiler feed water, as it can form a tenacious scale. Its
presence may be due to dissolved silica in the feed water, or it may be
introduced by filtering hot alkaline waters through sand in preiiminary
softening treatments. In the latter case the use of a different filtering
medium, such as anthracite, is indicated. Silica may be removed from the
feed water by the use of dolomitic lime or activated magnesia. If preiiminary coagUlation and settling are carried out, the use of a ferric
coagulant will remove some silica. Thase are especially suitable where
the silica concentration of make-up water would be high. Such methods
do not entirely take away the dissolved silica, but they do lower its
concentration to a point where careful use of a blowdown will eliminate
danger of scale. l-3ilica may also be removed completely from the feed
water when it is demineralized by hydrogen cation exchange plus anion
exchange with a highly basic anion exchanger.
Deaeration. The rerroval of oxygen dissolved in_water is often necessary to condition the' water properly for industrial purposes, although
this is unnecessary for municipal waters. Dissolved oxygen hastens
,
1 The formula is sol1letiil1e~ given as NaPO., which is also called sodium phosphate
glass or Calgon. See Chap. 18, under Sodium Phosphates.
HATCH and RICE, Surface-active Properties of Hexametaphosphate, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 81, 51 (Hl39); SCHWARTZ and MUNTER, Phosphates in Water Conditioning,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 84, 32 (1,942); PARTRIDGE and TJ!lNTER, Calgon, Chem. Eng. News, 27,
840 (1949).
56
corrosion by a number of reactions, 1 depending on conditions. The following is a typical presentation of an important phase of iron water corrosion
accelerated by oxygen in alkaline or neutral conditions. Iron in contact
with water exerts a certain solution pressure and sets up the oxidation
or anodic half reaction:
Fe(s) -+ Fe++(aq)
+ 2e
This would cease after a certain potential was reached. However, oxygen
can react with water to give OH ions at cathode areas:
02(g)
+ 2H 20(l) + 4e -+ 40H-(aq)
The Fe++ and the OH- ions would react and the electrons would neutralize
by flow of current between the adjacent anode and cathode areas:
Fe++(aq)
+ 20H-(aq) -+ Fe(OHMs)
The initial reactions would then proceed further. This electrochemical

corrosion can be summarized:
2Fe(s)
+ 02(g) + 2H 20(l) -+ 2Fe(OHh(s)
Naturally air and water can change the ferrous into the ferric hydroxide.
Anything that stops the foregoing sequences will stop tp.e corrosion.
This may be by the removal of the dissolved oxygen, by electrode
polarization, by organic inhibitors, or by protective salts. Such protective salts would be chromates, silicates, phosphates, or alkalies which
probably act as anodic inhibitors by forming a film over the anodic or
active areas and thus interrupting the electrochemical sequences.
Water ordinarily saturated with air at 50F. contains about 8 cc
oxygen per liter. Oxygen is removed by spraying or by cascading the
water down over a series of trays contained in a tank. During the downward flow the water is scrubbed by uprising steam. An open feed-water
heater of the spray type will usually lower the 'dissolved oxygen content
to below 0.3 cc. per liter. Scrubbing devices will remove even this small
amount, or it can be chemically combined using a scavenger like sodium
/ sulfite:
Such complete deoxyge~ation is necessary to avoid corrosion in the
modern high-temperature high-pressure boiler.
Water Purification. This usually signifies the removal of organic
material and harmful microorganisms from municipal supplies. Coagulation and filtration through sa~d or hard coal and oxidation by aeration
1 An excellent summary with references to the various phases of the corrosion of
metals, largely based on this electrochemical mechanism, is presented by J. C. Warren
in Chap. 9 of LEIGHOU, "Chemistry of Engineering Materials," 4th ed., McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
57
MUNICIPAL WATER CONDITIONING
are usually sufficient to remove organic matter. This treatment also

removes some of the microorganisms. As a further decrease is usually
considered necessary in order to produce safe or potable water, treatment
with chlorine is indicated. Large quantities are consumed in this manner
to protect the health of the nation. Chloramine and chlorine dioxide are
also employed, and the former is made by feeding ammonia into the
chlorinated water:
This produces a better-tasting water in certain instances. Chlorine and
glassy phosphates are applicahle to...cooling water to prevent the growth
of organisms on the condenser interfaces with consequent increase therein
in the fouling factor in the heat-transfer coefficient.
GravifY
filler,'
Well pum,:,
,,
--,--
rPump
,
,,
.1
Clear well
/
'-Chemicol reed and pump
'-Spaulding preci'pifafor
FIG. 5. Municipal cold-lime water softener and iron-remo-Cal plant. (Courtesy of the
Permlltit Company.. )
Municipal Water Conditioning. Treatment of municipal water supplies

is usually necessary to produce potable and safe water.l Prior to widespread municipal treatment, epidemics particularly of typhoid fever were
caused by contaminated water. The requisites of a safe munIcipal water
supply are freedom from pathogenic microorganisms and freedom from
suspended solids. It IS also desirable, but not necessary, that the water
be soft.
Figures 5 and 6 ~how a flow sheet for a municipal water-treating
plant in which both purification and softening are carried out. The raw
water is aerated to remove iron, odor, and taste, partly softened with
lime, and the precipitate coagulated and filtered. Chlorine may be added
to destroy pathogen'ic microorganisms, and activated carbon may be
employed to remove.odors and to improve flavor.
More than 600 mtinicipalities have adppted softening as part of their
water treatment, but the public as yet does not realize the economic
1 BUSWELl"
594 (1951).
Changes in Purity Standards for Drinking Water, Ind . .Eng. Chern., 4S,
58
advantages of this process. The savings in soap alone are sufficient to

more than pay for the cost. The many other advantages of soft water
are therefore essentially free to the user.l
Industrial Water Conditioning. The necessary quality of water for
industrIal purposes depends upon the special use to which it is to be put.
In most cases hard waters cannot be utilized without treatment. Many
process industries employ several kinds of water, each of which serves a
particular demand and is previously treated specially for this purpose.
One of the most important industrial applications of water is for
boiler feed. Untreated water, even if reasonably low in hardness, is
usually not completely adapted to that use. It is, therefore, common
practice to treat all water for use in boilers. Among the damages that
Raw water (22 groins)
750.000 gal.
Hydrated lime
Aluminum sulfate
Activated carbon
2.145 lb.:!:
110 lb.:!:
5 lb.:!:
Chlorine
Electricify
Direct labor
5.0 Ib.
} To produce
725.000 gol.%
per day of
4.5 groin water
75 kw.-hr.
24 mon-hr.
FIG. 6. Municipal water-treatment flow diagram. (Courtesy of lnfllco, Inc.)
untreated feed water may cause are rapid corrosion of boiler plates,
tubes, and fittings, development of leaks caused by unequal expansion
and contraction arising from overheating due to deposition of heatinsulating scale, bulging of tubes, loss of heat, and complete clogging
of tubes due to scale deposits. 2 Silica and oxygen are not removed by
ordinary softening and must be especially treated for high-pressure
boilers as is outlined before.
The quality of the water required for various operations in the process
I industries varies widely. Untreated water ca~ be utilized satisfactorily
for many purposes, especially if it is not too hard. Many processes,
however, require very soft water. The textile industry must have softened
water to ensure level dyeing. Other industries requirl1', or find it advantageous to use, deionized or distilled water. The deionized exchange
process has reduced the cost of this pure water and has been installed in
many process industries.
1 QLSON, op. cit., p. 607.
2 DXSTELHORST, Modern
Methods of Feedwllter Condit.ioning for High Pressure

Boiler Plants, Paper TrUde J., .July :n, 1947.
MUNICIPAL WASTE WATERS
59
SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE-WATER TREATMENT
Municipal Waste Waters. Efficient sewage disposal is important to the

health of any community. The easy method of disposal is py dilution,
the waste being dumped into an available body of water such as a river
or lake where the already present oxygen would in time destroy the
organic sewage. This was the first method employed and is !!till used by
many cities. However, public condemnation of this even temporary
pollution of streams and lakes bas led to the development of'methods of
treating the sewage so that it is no longer objectionable.
The present procedures may be divided into three main classes:
mechanical treatments, chemical treatments, and activated sludge
processes. Each of these classes entails the separation of the solids from
the liquid followed by treatment of the two parts separately,
Ave"'ge techni~1 ~: Air required, 0.35 to 1.94 cu. ft. per gal. sewage; delMtlon i,n aeration lank,
4-6 hrs.; detention .n settling lank, ot-2 hr.; sludae retum to aeralar, 10-50 percent of Iolal
FIG.
7. Activated-sludge sewage dispo~l.
The impurity in a particular sewage or, in other words, the amount

of treatment required is usually measured on one of two bases: (1) The
amount of suspended solids, needs no explanation. (2) 'rhe biological
oxygen demand (B.O.D.), measures the amount of impurities by the
amount of oxygen required to oxidize it.
Mechanical me'thods of removing solids are passing the sewage through
screens, or filters, grit chambers (shallow rectangular tanks in which the
velocity of Bow is checked so as to cause the grit to settle 'out, carrying
some of the organic material with it), sedimentation basins, and trickling
filters. In some installations, the various methods-are employed in series.
The procedures of Fig. 7 depict mechanical screening, followed by
activated sludge treatment, thickening, and filtering.'
Chemical treatment' precipitates the solids by coagulation. The coagulated materials are removed by sedimentation or filtration. Coagulants
of importance are ferric sulfate or chloride or aluminum sulfate with lime.
1 PER~Y, op. cit., p. 986, presents bewage dewatering after sludge conditioning. Such
cake mOistures are high (65 to 85 per cent water). Ct. p. 1012 for centrifugating of
sewage sludges.
60
Activated sludge provides one of the most effective methods for removing
both suspended and dissolved substances from sewage. The activated
sludge contains aerobic microorganisms which digest the raw sewage.
Some activated sludge from the previous run is introduced into the raw
sewage and air blown in, not in excess but only in the amount needed
(see Fig. 7).
The disposal of the solids removed by any of these processes depends
upon the local conditions. In some cases they are buried, burned, or
sold as fertilizer material after filtering and drying.! The liquids remaining after the removal of the solids are usually chlorinated to destroy
harmful microorganisms and then discharged into near-by streams.
Induslrial Waste Waters. The disposal of waste waters is of widespread
national concern. In the chemical field alone there is a large volume 2
of literature. The problem of adequately handling industrial waste waters
is more complex and much more difficult than sewage. Increasingly
stringent Federal, state, and other laws haye been enacted prohibiting or
limiting the pollution of streams, lakes, and rivers. Economic and technical studies are necessary to determine the 'least expensive way to comply
with legal requirements and to reduce expenses or to show a profit
through the recovery of salable materials. Other factors, such as reduction
of real estate values, danger to the inhabitants, and de~truction of
wildlife are present.
The great variety of chemical wastes produced in the nation's factories
forces a specific treatment in many instances. A few general practices are
in use in many fields. One such is that of storing or "lagooning" wastes.
This may serve many different purposes. In factories having both acid
and basic wastes it reduces the cost of neutralization. In plants having
waste water containing large amounts of organic material (e.g., some
paper mills) this results in a decrease in suspended matter and a reduction
of the B.O.D. Dow Chemical Company stores its salt waste water
(concentration eight times that of sea water)' until the river nearby
is at high water, when the brine may be discharged slowly without increasing unduly the salinity of the river.3 Tlie use of flocculating agents (alum
9r FeSO.) to remove susp,ended solids, and aeration to improve the
:B.O.D. is also common to many industries.
'
A general problem in all, industries is the disposal of wastes obtained
as a result of water-softening treatment. Lime sludges may be lagooned
J ANON., Flash Drying of Sludge, Chern. & Met. Eng., 48 (H, 108 (1941). This
article gives a detailed pictured flow sheet for disposal of activated sludge from
Chicago's large Southwest Works treating 400,000,000 gal. daily.
For various symposia and reports,on Industrial Waste Disposal, sec Chern. Eng.,
52 (8), 117 (1945); 56 (3),96 (1949), 58 (5), 111 (1951); Ind. Eng. Chern., 39, 539
(1947); 41, 2434 (1949); 42, 594 (1950); Chem. Eng. Progr., 46, 377 (1950).
HARLOW and POWERS, Poilution Control at a Large Chemical Works, Ind. Eng,
Chern., 39, 572 (1947).
MUNICIPAL WASTE WATERS
61
and settled, or they may be dewatered and calcined for rense. This
sltldge also finds sotne. application in ahsorbing oil from other ,wastes.
Brine used in regenerating zeolite plants is best stored and then added to
streams by controlled dilution at high water.
When the industry uses raw materials of complicated organic nature
an activated sludge process may work to treat the wastes. 'This ,process
can be adapted to wastes from canneries, meat-packing plants, milkprocessing plants, rendering plants, and others.
Tannery wastes may be treated by flocculation and sedimentation or
filtration. Brewery wastes are subjected to trickling filters to reduce the
B.O.D. and remove most of the suspended solids. Paper .mills' have a
serious problem, especially in treating sulfite wastes (see Chap. 33).
Processing of wastes from large chemical plants is exceedingly complex
because of the variety of chemicals produced. Dow Chemical Company at
Midland, Mich., for example, manufactures 400 chemicals in, 500 buildings, with a total of 200,000,000 gal. per day of waste waters.' Equalization of acid and basic wastes, storage of brine for high-water disposal,
and other general practices are followed, but many of the wastes are,given
treatment at the source, with an eye to recovery of valuable materials
and by-products. Calco Chemical Division 2 also institutes recovery treatment at the source. Here acid wastes are reacted in a settling' basin with
waste lime from the near-by Johns Mansville factory to a pH of 4.0 and
lagooned. Ten tons of solids per day settle in the basin and 'lagoon.
Increasing emphasis in industrial waste treatment, is being placed on
the recovery of useful materials. Phenol extraction from coal wastes
is practiced. Fermentation wastes (" slop") after e~aporation and drying
are being sold as animal food. The use of ion exchangers promises the
recovery of chromium and other metals from plating procedures. Ferrous
sulfate is being obtained from pickling operations to a limited
extent.
Air pollution 3 or atmospheric contamination is an acute problem in
many areas. There are. many contributors, ranging from industrial operations and the transport vehicles to the incineration of rubbish and waste
by individuals. If the contaminant is an air-borne solid, it is much easier
to collect at the poirit of: production. For this purpose filters take most of
the load, but many other types of dust- or mist-collection equipment are
needed. Electrostati~ precipitators are widely used for dust collecting in
cement plants, fly ash in coal-fired powerhouses, salt-cake fumes from
black-ash furnaces iln paper mills, and acid mist from chemical plants.
1
and POWERS, op. cit.

et al., Relati6n of Stream Characteristics to Disposal of Chemical Manu-
HARLOW
S KING,
fllcturing Effluent, Sew,age Work.! J., 21, 534 (1949).

Symposium, Atmospheric Contamination and Purification, Ind. Eng. Chem. 4.1.
2434 (1949); Symposium, Pollution Control, Chem. Eng., G8 (5), 111 (1951).
62
WATER CONDITIONING AND WASTE-WATER 'fREATMENT
Centrifugal separators, packed beds, scrubbers, and sonic collection

equipment are also widely employed in the chemical industry.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Anon., "Water Conditioning Handbook," The Permutit Company, New York, 1954.
Many diagrams and illustrations of equipment.
Nordell, Eskel, "Water Treatment for Industrial and Other Uses," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1951. This very thorough and plainly written
book has become a standard reference work.
Rudolfs, William, editor, "Industrial Wastes: Their Disposal and Treatment," A.C.S.
Monograph 118, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1953.
American Society for Testing Materials, "Manual on Industrial Water," A.S.T.M.
Special Technical Publication 148, American Society for Testing Materials, 1953.
Besselievre, E. B., "Industrial Waste Treatment," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
California Institute of Technology, "Water Quality Criteria," State Water Pollution
Control Board, Sacramento, 'Calif., S.W.P.C.B. Publications No.3, 1952.
Thomas, H. E., "The Conservation of Ground Water," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Kunin, R., and R. J. Myers, "Ion Exchange Resins," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1950.
American Water Works Association, "Water Quality and Treatment," Ameriean
Water Works Association, New York, 1950.
Nachod, F. C., et al., "Ion Exchange Theory and Application," Academic Press, Inc.,
New York, 1949.
Ryan, W. J., "Water Treatment and Purification," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1946.
CHAPTER
FUELS, POWER, AND AIR CONDITIONING
As a rule, a chemical engineer is not enough of a specialist to be capable

of adequately designing plants for the production of power, for refrigeration, or for conditioning air. Since chemical process industries consume
20
40
60
80
Pulp and paper

Industrio/ argonic chemi'co/s
100
120
140
-_I.
160
180
Cement, lime, rackwaa!

Petraleum refining
Cloy praducts
Inarganic chemicals, n.e.
c.
Glass
Rubber praducts
~Fuel
AlKalies, chlarine and salt

Misc nan -metallics
[::=:J Purchased electricity
Primary aluminum
Census af Manufacturers, 1941
Vegetable and animol O/~S

Refined cane and beet sugar
Paint, varnish, pigments
Cake and bypraducts
Leather tanning, finishing
Soap and related products
Carn praducts
Drugs and medicines
Compressed and liquefied gases
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
.Cost of energy. millions of dollars
FIG. 1. Energy consumption in process industries as represented by fuel and purchased

electricity.
more than a third oLall energyl used by all the manufaeturing industries,
the chemical engineer should be familiar with the. broad technical aspects
of the production of power, cold, and air. He should also be prepared to
work with power and refrigeration engin~ers in the proper coordination
I.
ANON., Process Energy, Chem. Eng., 67 (5), 103 (1950); AYRES, Look Ahead at
Our Energy Sources arid Resources, Chern. Eng., 67 (5) 110 (l950).
1
63
64
of the production of these essential tools and theirusein chemical processes

in order to attain the cheapest manufacturing costs. Frequently the cost
of power, particularly if it is going to be used electrochemically,l is the
deciding factor in the location of a given factory. Those process industries
under the direction of chemical engineers are in most instances outstanding consumers of steam for evaporation, heating, and drying.
Consequently these industries need large quantities of steam, usually in
the form of low-pressure or exhaust steam from turbines or steam engines.
Occasionally, however, certain exothermic reactions,2 as in the contaet
sulfuric acid process, can be employed to generate steam for use.
H only electricity is desired from a steam power plant, naturally the
turbines are run condensing; if, on the other hand as in the chemical
process industries, both steam and power are needed, it is economical to
take the high-pressure steam directly from the boilers through noncondensing turbines obtaining exhaust steam from these prime movers to
supply the heat necessary for drying, evaporation, and endothermic chemical reactions throughout the plant. Figure 1 presents, by industry, the fuel
burned for power and heat in comparison with purchased electricity.
Chemical engineers and chemical companies are contributing to the
practial development of nucleonic energy. The chemical field is especially
attractive because of its large need for heat energy.
TABLE 1. COMPARISON
Heat operation, B.t.u. per

lb. by condensation of
lb. by expansion from consteam exhausted from work
Superheat, dition 1 to saturated steam
operation, to water at
OF.
at 15 lb. gage
212F.
Gage pressure,
lb. per sq. in.
ENERGY FROM STEAM BY ExPANSION FOR POWER AND

BY CONDENSATION FOR HEAT"
IWork operation, B.t.u. per
Condition 1
300
200
150
100
50
O~
348
279
235
177
95
240
192
161
121
65
984
984
984
984
984
NOTE: Superh!'at is necessa~y to prevent erosion of turbine blades by moisture in

the steam. The amount is figured to furnish saturated steam after expansion to 15 lb.
gage .
Data calculated from Keenan and Keyes, "Thermodynamic Properties of Steam,"
I For an excellent chart giving unit consumption of electricity in the manufacture
?f over 11~ ch~mical products, see Chem. Eng., 68 (3), 115 (1951); cf. ANON., Estimatlllg ReqUirements for Process Steam and Process Waier, Chem. Eng., 68 (4), III
(IU5!).
2 CFBln;RI,Y, Waste Heat Recovery Has Almost Limitless Possibilities, Chern. Eng.,
6'1 (5), 140 (l!J50).
HEAT BALANCE
Heat Balance. The economics of the dual use of heat and power
concerns the desirability of coordinating the generation of steam for
power and for process heat so that the power needed is obtained as a
by-product of the process steam demand. The first step in balancing these
two energy demands should be a careful, accurate surveyl of the heat
and power requirements of the various processes.
Since superheat usually retards the rate of heat transfer for process
operations, the condition of the steam at the turbine exhaust or at the
bleeding point should be such that it will have sufficient superheat to
overcome transmission losses but yet have little or no superheat whclI it
reaches the point of use. This will result in the full utilization of thc
latent heat of steam for heating purposes.
TABLE 2. SOURCES
All manufacturing
industries
Source
OF
INDUSTRIAL ENERGya
Process
industries
Industrial
inorganic
chemicals
Industrial
organic
chemicals
MineralCeramic
based
indusindustries
tries
--Coal, M tons:
5,2\)6
Bituminous ..........
7,749 11,155
10:3.778
56,344 6,187
\)4
225
395
135
Anthracite ...........
7,081
3,372
/428
:352
1:J
Coke, M tons ..........
66,171
2,592 1,562
6,64(;
832
Fuel oils, M bbl. .......
5,383
166,947
48,605 4,454
7,
1
Gas, 10' cu. ft ......... 4,004,953 1,228,506 li8,126 82,155 101,381 154,484
Electricity, 10" kw.-hr.:
1,\)74
3\),074 4,565
4,369 13,0181
Purchased ...........
102,822
25,357 3,179
4,278
C~n,mted...........
1,961[
192
Total cost (thousands of
dollars) ............. ,$3,331,518 $926,911 $99, 8071$105.813 $157,777 $113,187
43,9361
a 1947 Census of Manufactures, later data not available. In the process industries
about 4. per cent of the g~nerated electricity is sold. For further breakdown and more
complete data, see refereilCes.
The fundamental ihtportance of this principle ~f coordination of the

steam for power and ~he steam for process heating .can be seen by inspection of Table 1 which gives the B.t.u. converted to power by expansion
of steam at various pres~ures and superheat to saturated steam at 15 lh.
gage as contrasted with the B.t.u. supplied by the condensation of this
exhaust steam. As ptocess steam must be furnished for the heat-transfer
1 SWAIN, Byproduct l'ower in Process Industries, Chem. & lIfet. Eng., 48 (3), 94
(1941), several different balances of steam and powcr are herc described and diagrammed; STUDLEY, Heat and Power Balauce in Chemical Plants, Chelll. & ]I[ e/. Enf}.,
41, 464 (1934); PEltRY, op. cit., p. 1635, for hcat-balallee caIClllatioll~.
66
FUELS , POWER , AND AIR CON DITIONING
operations, it may be seen from Table 1 that the obtaining of what

power is available by expansion is probably t he most economical power
a plant can get. Consequently the ideal plant would expand all of its
steam through turbines for power and then lead the exhaust steam
into the factory for the various heat-transfer operations. When there
is no contamination of this process steam, the water fro m t he condensa tion should be brought back for the boiler feed make-up water. All
chemical industries should be studied for this dual use of steam. Those
pertaining to manufacture of sugar (Chap. 30), caustic soda (Chap.
15), salt (Chap. 14) , and fe rmentation (Chap. 31) have applied this
dual energy balance very profit ably.
To balance the power required as made by expansion of stea m, wit h
t he process demands for steam exhausted from the steam engine or
t urbine so that there is no excess of either, should be t he aim of the
engineers in charge of any plant. This ideal can frequently be realized
in t he chemical process indust ries. Many studies ' of different arrangements have been made but all point to the lowered cost of electrical energy
and of steam by this dual use of the primary steam.
FUELS
Fuels can be divided into th ree classes: solid, liquid, and gaseous.
T o these as an energy source should be added water power. Figure 2
depicts the trends in the use of t hese four sources of energy . T he actual
and comparative costs of the different energy supplies vary with the
different parts of the country. With coal at $5 per ton, 1,000,000 B.t.u.
will cost in fuel 17 cent s; with fuel oil at 5 cents per gal., these B .t .u.
will cost 35 cents. With city gas at 50 cents per 1,000 cu. ft. , these same
B.t.u. will amount to 84 cents, or with electricity at 5 cents per kw.-h r.,
$1.47.2 Coal is the most important fu eP used for power purposes but
there is a trend to use a cleaner fuel such as fu el oil or gas and t o develop
bet t er methods of coal combustion which result in less cont amination of
the atmosphere. This is especially t rue in large towns and cities.
/. Liquid fuels are derived mainly from petroleum and follow coal in
importa nce as a source of heat for power generation. Petroleum products
also furnish almost all of the energy for the numerous internal-combusti on
engines of this country.
The fuel gases are either natural or artificial and are presented in
I Various Authors, Modern Aspects of the Use of Steam in Chemical Engineering
Industry, Chem. &: Met. Eng., 34, 530 (1927 ) ; GORDON, Generate or Purchase E nergy
in Process Industries, Chem . Eng., 67 (5), 119 (1950).
2 PERRY, op. cit., 1812, tabulates further fu el costs per 1,000,000 B.t.u .
S ANON., Outlook for Energy Sources ; Shifting Pattern, Chem. Eng. News, 30,289 1
(1952) .
67
SOLID FUELS
Chap. 7. These gases, although made primarily as a source for heat, are
being consumed in increasing amount.s as basic raw materials for chemical
manufacture.
Solid Fuels. 1 Coal is the most important of the solid fuels, with an
annual consumption around 600,000,000 tons. No entirely satisfactory
scheme has been worked out for classifying coals but a generally accepted
method divides coal into the following classes: anthracite, bituminous,
SOIJICI,
us. BUl8l1u of MIMI
FIG. 2. Per cent of total United States energy supply, in equivalent B.t.u ., from various
sources.
subbituminous, and lignite, with further subclassification into groups.

The bituminous coals are used most extensively for power purposes.
Anthracite is a valuable domestic fuel because of its clean-burning
characteristics.
Since coal compositions vary so widely, a fuel analysis is useful from
both the purchasing and the combustion viewpoint. The protimate
analysis determines the percentages of moisture, volatile matter, ash,
and fixed carbon (by difference) in the coal. The sulfur content is determined also and reported, with the proximate analysis but it is n ot considered
a part of it. The procedures for determining the proximate analysis have
been standardized by the A.S.T.M.
1
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1561-1566, should be studied in this connection.
68
The ultimate analysis gives the percentages of carbon, hydrogf'n.

sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, and ash (by ditTerence) in the coal. This analysis
ean he used for boiler test calculations and for determining the approximat.e heating value of the fuel. If this analysis is available, the formula of
Dulong may be used with an accuracy of within 2 or 3 per cent.
B.t.u. per lb.
14,544C
+ 62,028 (H
- ~) + 4,050S
where C, H, 0, and S are expressed as fractional weights obtained from

the analysis. The B.t.u. per lb. on ash- and moisture-free basis varies
from 13,540 for Pennsylvania anthracite to 14,550 for West Virginia
semi bituminous. A more accurate method of determining the heat of
combustion of the fuel consists of actually burning the coal in an oxygen
atmosphere under pressure in a bomb calorimeter and measuring the heat
evolved. See Table 2, Chap. 7, for various gross and net heats of combustion.
The storage of coal is an important problem in industrial practice.
Storage by packing is frequently employed to avoid too rapid weathering
and spontaneous combustion, by reducing air space. The presence of
some moisture and pyrite, or any easily oxidizable material, in bituminous
coal, may cause coal to ignite; the rise to 50C. is slow, but from there to
the ignition point the rise may be rapid if conditions for the dissipation
of heat are poor.
Powdered coal has been used to an increasingly large extent in recent
years in power-plant installations because of the high thermal efficiency
with which it can be burned, the low cost of operation and maintenance,
and its excellent flexibility. All these factors more than balance the
increased cost of preparing the fueL' One serious disadvantage in burning
powdered coal is the "fly ash" which leaves the boiler carried along
with the waste gases. This is a very fine ash which settles over surrounding
territory as a nuisance. It can be removed frbm the flue gases by a
Cottrell precipitator, 2 but the problem of disposal still remains. It
has been made into bricks, building blocks, and even roofing tile, after
,Fompression, by reaction ,with slaked lime -under steam pressure. 3 As
only slaked lime and water are needed in addition t~ the fly ash, the
development of this process may encourage the further employment of
powdered coal as a fuel.
Coke is a fine fuel hut it is too expensive at present. for industrial
use except in special eases as in blast-furnace operation, where it is u
chemical raw material as well as a fuel. Coke is a valuahle fuel for domesti(
heating plan~s. As the hy-products of coal distillation increase in value
1 PERky, op. cit., pp. 1567-1568.
PERRY, op. cit .. pp. 1013-10.50, but. particularly Tahle lIon p. 1044.
3 Rostone Corp. of Lafayette, Ind.
69
COMBUSTION
with a decrease in other hydrocarbons such as from petroleum, the

increased use of coke as a fuel is indicated. Other solid fuels such as coke
"breeze," wood, sawdust, bagasse and tanbark are used ,,,here they are
available cheaply or where they are produced as by-products.
Liquid Fuels. Fuel oil is the only important commercial liquid fuel used
for power purposes. It is the portion of the crude oil that cannot be
economically converted by the refiner to the higher-priced products such
as gasoline. It consists of a mixture of the liquid residues from the cracking
processes with fractions of a suitable boiling point obtained from the
distillation of crude oiL The fuel oil 2 is classified according to its properties
such as the flash point, pour point, percentage of water and sediment,
carbon residue, ash, distillation temperature, and viscosity. All of these
are determined by tests that have been standardized by the A.S.T.M.
The flash point is relatively unimportant for determining the behavior of
the fuel in the burner, but it has some importance in the storage of the oil
since storage tanks should be kept well below this temperature. Oilburning equipment usually shows a higher thermal efficiency (75 per cent)
than coal-burning boilers and labor costs are usually less. However, the
latent heat loss of steam produced by the combustion of the hydrogen
of the fuel oil is about two times greater than such losses from bituminous coal.
Other liquid fuels include coal tar, tar oil, kerosene, benzol, and
alcohol, which are consumed to a relatively smaller extent than is fuel
oil. Gasoline is consumed mainly in internal-combustion engines.
Gaseous Fuels. Gas is burned as a source of heat- in domestic installations and occasionally in industry, especially where it is obtained as a
by-product. Blast-furnace gas resulting from the smelting of iron is an
outstanding example of where a by-product gas is employed for heating
the blast stoves, with the remainder burned under boilers or for heating
coke ovens. The other gases that may be used for power generation are
natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas when available and the manufactured gases such as coke-oven gas, producer gas, and water gas. These
are discussed more fully in Chap. 7, where a tabulation is given of B.t.u.
values and other proPltrties.
Combustion. Most I modern industrial plants __llurn coal either on
mechanically operated grates and stokers or in the powdered form.
Table 3 gives a summary of the information on stokers. These presentday procedures enable the ratio of air to the fuel to be properly controlled, thus ensuring efficient combustion and reducing heat losses
through.stack and ash.
When fuel oil is bu~ned, it is frequently necessary to provide heaters
op. cit., p. 1.568.
op. cit., pp. 15(;8-1.57.5, gives specifications, costs
bustion, chemical constituents, and oil-burning equipment.
1 PBRRY,
PERRY,
VB.
.
coal, heats or com-
If
72
FUEl,S, POWER, ANn AlIt CONDITIONING
At an early dat.e, 4Yz to Ii lb. of the best coals waR required per kilowatt-hour while currently some power plants produce a net kilowatt-hour from
about 0.8 lb. of 1,300 B.t.u. coal. Table 4 presents a tabulation of steam
electric plant fuel consumption and costs.
TABLE 4. STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT FUEL CONSUMPTION AND COSTS"
(Comparison of boiler plant costs for steam-electric utilities using coal, oil, and
gas, respectively, 1950. Figures in parentheses cover range)
Weighted Average Cost per Million B.t.u., Cents
Maintenance
Boiler
labor
Coal storage, han-
dling. and
weighing
Coal (44 plants) ....
1. 52
0.57
Furnace
and
boiler
Boiler
apparatus
0.63
0.37
Tot"l
boiler.
labor and
maintenance
Fuel b
3.14
26.91
(I 01-3.08) (0.06-1. 37) (0. 11-1.27) (0.04-1. 39) (2.04-7.11) (19.75-35.0:1)

3.31
Oil (21 plants) ......
1.!i7
0.01
0.96
0.77
30.65
Gas (36 plants) .....
(0.98-4 as) (0.03-0.13) (0.34-3.69) (0.27-1.S4) (1. 99-S. 35) (27.99-36.92)

0.30
.........
1.40
0.73
0.37
7.59
(0. MI-2. 25)
(0. HH).86) (0.14-0.48) (1. 09-2.53) (5.71-18.99)
Simple Average Operating Costs, Mills per Net Kilowatt-hour
Fuel
Wages and
supervising
l\laintenance
boiler plant
Coal (413 gros.

0.0673
o 479
3.404
kw.-hr. million) (I .88-5.26) (0.24-1 12)
(0.00026-0.,1299)
0.1111
Oil (593 sro..
O.HO
3.796
kw.-hr. milliun) (3. 171-4.6) (0.224-0.76) (0 0603-0.19)
Gas (265 gruRo
0.069
1.106
0.372
kw.-hr. million) (0.717-1.62) (0.188-0.567) (0.0!l7-O.14)
l\laintenance
fuel hand:ing
0.0534
(0.004-0.14)
0.006
.(.0 ..008.-.0 0.2S.2!
Total operating
and IIlsinte
nance includin~ fuel
4.208
(2.44-7. Cl)
4.603
I (3. 6~~~~732)
(1.047-2.44)
/ a Courtesy of National Coal Alolsociatj_)n, Department, of Coal Economi<:!'I, 'Vaahjngton. D.C., 1350
and 1953. For data of individual companies see original puhlication 'under the title of he~ding of this
table. Many data herein compiled from Ele.ct.rical Worll of Aug. 27, 19.')1.
~ The 1953 figures for fuel are: coal '27.3 (17.3-36.6), oil 32.3 (24.1-52.3), gas 16.7 (1.01-33.5).
There are two main types of boilers: the fire tube (Fig. 3) and the
water tube (Fig. 4). The fire-tube boiler is usually of small and medium
capacity and is designed for the generation of steam of moderate pres.:
slire. In t.his. type the fire pas~es through the tubes. Fire-tube boilers
have a I low first. cost and a relatively large reservoir of hot water. This
is of part.ieular advant.age in Rlllall chemical plant.s where there may he a
sudden demand on the steam plant. Locomotive boilers are also of this
type.
POWER GENERATION
73
Water-tube boiler8 are used almost exclusively in stationary installations where service demands a large amount of evaporation at pressures
above 150 lb. per sq. in. The water is in the tubes and can be converted
to steam more quickly than with the fire-tube type (" quicker steaming ").
High efficiencies are obtained by this type. The positions of the drums
FIG. 4. Elevation diagram through vertical water-tube boiler of the bent-tube type.
Capacity range of 10;000 to 50,000 lb. of steam per hour. Fired with spreader stoker,
forced draft, and provided with water-cooled walls. (Courte~y of Combustion Engineering-Superheater, Inc.)
I
and tubes, the slope, land the shapes of the tubes are the distinguishing
characteristics among different makes of these boilers.
Boiler feed water should be conditioned before introduction into the
boilers (Chap. 4). P09r boiler water results in foaming, caustic embrittlement, corrosion, and scale formation with consequent loss in steam made
and in efficiency. The higher the pressure, the more important is the use
of properly conditioned water.
;6
EUELS, POWER, AND AIR CONDITlONING
40 pel' cent Nn.N0 2 , 7 pel' cent NaNO a, and 53 pel' cent KN0 3 Strange
to say, tests in the l"Cference cited indicate no danger even if a stream
of hot petroleum were injected into the molten nitrate-nitrite bath.
Electricity in contact, immersion, or radiant heaters is a most convenient,
aecurat.e, safe, and efficient though generally costly heating medium.
REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration! is the process of producing cold, particularly referring

to cooling below atmospheric temperature. It is a vital factor in many
chemical processes where cold or the removal of heat is necessary for
optimum reaction control. Examples are the manufacture of azo dyes,
separation of an easily freezing product from liquid isomers or impurities,
and the food and beverage industries. Further examples are the catalytic
manufacture of ethyl chloride from liquid ethylene and anhydrous
hydrogen chloride under pressure and at - 5C., the polymerization at
-n of. or lower, to furnish "cold" rubber, the freezing of mercury at
-lOOF. into complex molds which are coated by repeated dipping with
a ceramic slurry, with the mercury then allowed to melt am} run out.
Refrigeration operations involve a change of phase in a body so that
it will be capable of abstracting heat, exemplified by the vaporization of
liquid ammonia and the melting of ice.
Mechanical refrigeration can be divided into two general groups: the
compression system and the absorption system. 2 Both systems cause the
refrigerant to absorb heat at the low temperature by vaporization and to
give up this heat at the higher temperature by condensation. The absorption system is used mainly in household units, but it finds economical
industrial application where exhaust steam is available.
'.
An ammonia refrigerating plant will give a typical illustration of the
vapor-compression system and is depicted by Fig. 5. Here the vapor
from the cold room is compressed and leaves with such enhanced pressure
that the liquefaction temperature at this pressure is above that of the
!ttmosphere or other coolant. From the compressor, the_ refrigerant goes
to a liquefying condenser w;here the heat of condensation is removed by
the atmosphere or cooling water. The now liquid refrigerant passes
through an expansion valve which separates the high-. from the lowpressure regions. The refrigerant in this low-pressure condition enters
through the cold room where the heat of vaporization of the ammonia is
abstracted from
, the surroundings. The cold room may not be a room
_..
i'
PERRY, op~ cit., pp. 1676--1701. This section has extensive diagrams and tables
of thprmodynamic properties. FISKE, Lower Temperatures, New Cycles Bpnpfit JWfrigeration Uses, Chent. Eng., 67 (5), 136 (1950).
2 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1676, 1677. 1683.
1
77
REFRIGERATION
at all but may consist of coils immcnled ill brine with the cold brine
being then circulated to the points where refrigeration is necessary. The
vapor then repeats this cycle with no loss of refrigerant except by leakage.
Besides the requirements dictated by the thermodynamics of refrigeration, a good refrigerant must also satisfy various economic and practical
requirements. For example, a good refrigerant should be cheap, inert,
and stable. It should have no corrosive tendencies, should be nontoxic
and nonexplosive, and should have no properties injurious to goods and
foods depending upon its application. Another important property should
be ease of detection in case of leaks.
2.
Expansion
valve
Ener9Y
supplied
Compressor
Heat absorbed
FIG. 5. Compression system for refrigeration.
Ammonia is by far the most commonly employed refrigerant, especially

in large industrial installations. Carbon dioxide was used to a great
extent on shipboard, irhere a nontoxic refrigerant~is desired, but it has
been replaced by Freo~-12. Sulfur dioxide has been employed extensively
in household refrigerators. All three of these refrigerants have certain
disadvantages which have stimulated search for better agents without
their bad qualities. Freori-12 (CChF 2) is an outstanding development in
this respect. It posses~es the distinct advantage of being nonflammable,
nontoxic, and nonco'rrosive to most m~tals. Two new refrigerants,
Freon-14 (CF 4) and Freon-13 (CCIF a), are valuable additions 'to lowtemperature requirements. Air has also returned because of the development of tonnage oxygen and expanded activity in air-separation cycles.
Table 5 summarizes the properties of the usual refrigerants.
'8
FUELS, POWER, AND AIR CONDl'rIONING
TABLE 5. PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERATING AGENTSG
Refrigerant
m~onia,
NH...............
lrbon dioxide, COt ...........
.lfur dioxide, SO ............
e,thyl chloride, CH,Cl. .......
hyl chloride, C.HiCl. ........
oon-12, CCI.F..............
opane, C,H, ................
Boiling
point at
760mm.,
of.
Critical
temperature, of.
Critical
pressure,
atm08pheres
Latent heat
at 760mm.,
B.t.u.
per lb.
-28
-108.86
+14
-11
+55
-21
-44.4
270.5
88.3
315.3
298.9
369.3
. ....
206.6
111.5
73.0
77.7
65.8
52.0
.....
42.0
589
126'
167
184
168
71.9
159
PERRY, op. cil., pp. 204-205, 210-214.

'Sublimes .
Latent heat at -20F. and 220.6 lb. per sq. in. abs.
AIR CONDITIONING
The use of air conditioning in industrial plants has become more and
lre common in the past few years. Control of the temperature, humidity
:l cleanliness of the air is very important in many chemical processes,
:"ticularly in artificial fiber and paper manufacture. Textile fibers are
.te sensitive l to changing conditions of the air. The comfort of the
rker is also important to efficient industrial organrzations. This fact
\ led to the use of air conditioning in plants and offices where it is not
~ntial for product quality.
dr-conditioning equipment consists of apparatus for the addition or
lOval of heat and moisture from the room being conditioned and autQ~ic control for this apparatus so that the temperature and humidity
be conditioned within the desired' limits. Humidification is usually
e in an indirect humidifier in which water or steam is sprayed directly
'mst the incoming air and the humidified air is then warmed by passage
r tempering coils. For summer use the air is washed in a spray chamber
then cooled and dehumidified by passage over refrigerator coils. 2
SELECTED REFERENCES
Authors, A Symposium on Smokeless Fuels, Ind. Eng. Chern., 33, 836-864
(1941).
;, D. P., and H. J. Anderson, "Steam Power and.Internal Combustion Engines,"
?d ed., McGiaw-Hill Book Compa~y, Inc., New Y~rk, 1937.
lUS
ERRY; 0p" cit., pp. 777-779, presents tables showing the effect of changing
lity upon various products of chemical factories.
Jr eqUlpment, see PERRY, op. cit., pp. 778-797.
SELECTED REFeRENCES
79
Perry, J. H., editor-in-chief, "Chemical Engir1cers' Handbook," bibliographies, 3d

ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., :N"" ~w York, 1950.
deLorenzi, Otto, editor, "Combustion Engineering," 3d ed., Combustion Engineering
Johnson, A. J., and G. H. Auth, "Fuels and Combustion Handbook," McGraw-Hill
Griswold, .J., "Fuels, Combustion, and Furnaces," McGraw7HiIl Rook Company, Inc.,
New York, 1946
CHAPTER
COAL CHEMICALS
Chemicals from coal were initially and mostly obtained by destructive

distillation of coal, furnishing chiefly aromatics. Indeed this chapter was
originally titled "The Destructive Distillation of Coal." With the
advancing application of chemical change to coal, many more chemicals
are being made from coal. A chemical process of great promise is that of
hydrogenation or hydrogenolysis of Carbide & Carbon Chemicals Company which is outlined later in this chapter by a provisional flow sheet
TABLE
1.
CHEMICALS FIlOM COAL
Chemical process
Producl8 and procedures (numbers refer to chaplers)
Pyrolysis (destructive distillation, carhonization)
Coal gas, ammonia, benzene and homologs, phenol

and homologs, heterocyclics, coal tar, coke (6),
industrial carbon (9), precarbonization of powerplant fuel
Coal, water gas, producer gas (7), H. (8) for NH.
and hydrogenations; H. and CO for CH.OH,
etc., motor fuels
Carhide process for aromatics, etc. (6, flow sheet,
Fig. 9), liquid fuels; creation of I'oking propf'rtil'R
Graphite (9), artificial abrasivl's and cakium carbide (17), cyanamide (20)
Organic acids, carbon monoxide
Heat for. manufacture of lime and ceml'nt (11),
ceramics (10), CO. for Dry Ice (8), llRhl'R for
building blocks, fly ash as filler
Metals, phosphoru_s (18)
Gases (7), coal pyrites
PigmentJor inks and surface coatings (Il, 24), electri)d-es"i9), structural material (9), activatl'd
carbon (9)
Ion exchange, water softeners (4)
Ashless coal, montan wax, humic acids, resinR
Gasification (pyrolysis, partial

oxidation)
Hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis
Electrothermal
Oxidation (cont.rolll'rl)
Comhust.ion
Reduction
l'julfur recovery
Carbon recovery
Sulfortation
Solven:t extraction
(Fig. 9 and accompanying text). Table 1 summarizes chemicals from

coal as presented in this chapter lmd elsewhere in this hook. It should also
be noted that benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, and other aromatic
chemicals are being supplied also by the pet.roleum industry (see also
Figs. 2 and 7 for many coal chemicals). Coal is not only the count.ry's
80
'rAF. DF.STRUCTIVF. DlSTII,I,ATION OF COAL
8]
fundamental fuel but furnishes the basic raw materials for many essential
industries from dyes, medicines, pesticides, and elastomers to modern
plastics.! "Coal also .Jorms the world's largest reserve of concentrated
organic raw materials, and it serves not only as a chemical supplier but
as a cheap source of heat and power needed for processing."2
THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL,
When coal is distilled by heating without contact with air, it is converted into a variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous products. The natur~
and amounts of each product depend upon the temperature used in the
pyrolysis and the variety of coal. In ordinary practice, coke-oven temperatures are maintained above 1650F. but may range anywhere from 950
to 1800F. The principal product by weight is coke. If a plant uses
temperatures from 950 to 1450F., the process is termed low-temperature
carbonization; with temperatures above this it is designated as hightemperature carbonization. In the low-temperature carbonization the
quantity of gaseous products is small and that of the liquid products is
relatively large, while in high-temperature carbonization the yield of
gaseous products is larger than the yield of liquid products, with the
production of tar being relatively low. In addition to coke, the solid
products recovered after purification are naphthalene, anthracene, and
"cyanogen" compounds; the liquid products are water, tar, and the
various oils;, the gaseous products are hydrogen, methane, ethylene,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and
nitrogen. The products other than coke are collectively known as coal
chemicals (by-products or co-products).
The destructive distillation of coal, or its carbonization, is really a
striking example of the unit process of pyrolysis. This chapter will outline
the. equipment needed to carry out, on a commercial scale, the basic
chemical changes that take place. The chemical theory of the pyrolysis
of coa}3 indicates the following in a step-by-step decomposition:
1. As the temperatl~re is raised the aliphatic" carbon to carbon bonds
are the first to break.';
2. "Carbon to hydrogen linkages are severed next as the temperature
of 600C. (1 100F.) is approached and exceeded."
I
WAKEMAN and WEll" ,Coal as a Source Material for the Plastics Industry, Ind.
Eng: Chern., 34, 1:i87 (1!)-12); GUY, Agricultural Uses of Coal and Its Pro(iucts, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 36, 1:10 (1!)-1:,I); SHEARON, et ai"~ PinG Chemicals from Coal, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 41, 1812 (10-10); WII,';ON and WEI,I,S, Coal Chemical Industry, CliPlII. Eng.,
63 (12), I) () (I ll4ti); FRANKE aud KIEBLER, Organir? Aei(ls by Direct Oxidation of Coal,
Chern. Ind., 68, 580 (1!1-15).
2 HOSE, H ..1., prj,'ate c~lIIl/1l1niration.
F[1('HS au(l SA:,wHon', Tlu'ory of Coni 1'~'I'oIYf<is, I",!. gllY. Chell/., 34, !ili7 (11)42).
1
82
COAL CHEMICALS
3. "The decompositions during carbonization are essentially reactions

effecting the elimination of heterocycle complexes and progressive
aromatization. "
4. "The average molecular weights of the volatile intermediate products constantly decrease as the temperature of carbonization rises. This
decrease is marked by the evolution of water, carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
methane, and other hydrocarbons."
5. "Final decompositions are at a maximum between 600 and 800C.,"
1110 and 1470F. Fuchs and Sandhoff give several examples of coal
pyrolysis of which Fig. 1 is typical.
- -0 -'y
-0
=0
HO
-~
O:CH
CH z
CH 2
oI
HZO+CO+
o
~
H2 +
C= 84.76"lo
H= 4.14"10
QI
0= 9.6S"l0
N= 1.42"10
FIG. 1. Example of coal pyrolYRis. (After Fuchs and Sandh.off.)
Historical. It is known t.hat. coke was an article of commerce among

the Chinese over 2,000 years ago, and in the M;iddle Ages it was used in
t.he arts and for domestic purpo_!!es. Nevertheless it was not until 1620
that there is any record of producing coke in an oven. In this year Sir
William St ..John was granted a paten.t in England for th~ beehive oven.
/ Up until the middle of ~he nineteenth centu~y, coal tar and coal-tar
products were regarded as wastes, to be either' thrown away or burned
under coking retorts. About 1845 tar began to be used in Germany for
making roofing felt; distillation products of tar were applied through
impregnation as a wood preservative. A year or two earlier, in England,
coal-tar naphtha had been successfully employed as a solvent for india
rubber, a use still common today.
The synth,esis of the first coal-tar color, by Sir William Perkin in 1856,
caused a great demand for the crude coal tar and it became a commercial product of increasing value. Perkin, by his discovery of the
brilliant violet dye mauve (see Chap. 38), while he was attempting a
83
STATISTICS
TABLE
2.
UNITED S'l'ATEl:! PRODUCTION AND SALES OF TAR CRUDES,
1953
Sales
Product
,
Crude light oil, 1,000 gal. .................

Intermediate light oil, 1,000 gal. ...........
I..ight-oil distillates:
Benzene, specification and industrial
grades, total, 1,000 gal. .............
Tar distillers, 1,000 gal. ..... : .........
Cok,e-Qven operators, 1,000 gal. ........
Petroleum operators, 1,000 gal. ........
Benzene, motor grade, coke-oven operators, 1,000 gal ... ',' ..................
Toluene, all grades, total, 1,000 gal. ......
Tar distillers, 1,000 gal. ...............
Coke-oven operators, 1,000 gal. ........
Petroleum operators, 1,000 gal. ........
Xylene, total, i,ooo gal. ................
Petroleum operators; 1,000 gal. ........
Solvent naphtha, total, 1,000 gal. ........
Other light-oil distillates:
Total, 1,000 gal. .....................
Tar distillers, 1,000 gal. ....... '........
Coke-oven operators, 1,000 gal. .... , , . ,
Pyridine crude bases (dry basis), 1,000 gal. ..
Naphthalene, crude, 1,000 lb .. , .,., .. , ... , ..
Crude tar-acid oils, 1,000 gal. ..............
Cresylic acid, crude, 1,000 lb, ..............
Creosote oil (dead oil), 1,000 gal. ...........
Coal tar, 1,000 gal. ........ ,. , .. ,...........
All other distillate products, 1,000 gal. ......
Tar, road, 1,000 gal. ... ,. , 'j' . . . . . . . . . . .
Tar (miscellaneous uses), 1,000 gal. .........
Pitch of tar:
Soft and medium, 1,000 t~:ms .............
Hard, 1,000 tons ........ ,...............
Pitch of tar coke and pitcll emulsion, 1,000
tons .. , .. , .......... ,."." ...........
4
Production
Quantity
Value,
$1,000
Unit
value
304,091
1,062
23,898
1,065
5,610
204
$0.24
0.19
272,744
32,108
177,593
63,043
232,701
19,224
172,406
41,071
95,765
8,496
66,479
20,790
0.41
0.44
0.39
0.51
1,160
156,248
4,677
36,036
115,535
113,474
660
9,928
102,886
15,661
9,376
6,285
1,150
130,222
3,866
35,445
90,911
65,588
580
9,759
55,249
15,389
9,321
6,068
184
39,244
1,307
11,075
26,862
16,968
213
3,118
13,637
5,804
4,281
1,523
0.16
0.30
0.34
0.31
0.30
0.26
0.37
0.32
0.25
0.38
0.46
0.25
14,657
8,560
6,097
551
275,799
27,757
4,537
145,300
8,370
18,469
109,832
36,415
11,410
8,153
3,257
456
200,086
24,379
3,512
3,064
448
963
11,100
6,445
0.31
0.38
0.14
2.11
0.05
0.27
125,285
8,523
16,537
95,677
3~095
25,020
1,186
3,217
14,278
7,585
0.20
0.14
0.19
0.15
0.21
1,174
710
602
410
21,061
12,812
34.99
31.25
38
36
1,242
34.50
"Synthetic Organie Chemicals," 1953 Prelimina!y, U.S. Tariff Commission, 1!l54.
84
USES' AND ECONOMICS
85
synthesis of quinine through oxidation of crude aniline in England, laid

the foundation of the world's coal-dye industry.
In 1792 the first successful experiment in the production of gas from
coal was carried out by William Murdock, the father of the coal-gas
industry. The results of this labor made it possible to light the streets
of London with gas in 1812. The first rectangular or retort ovens were
built in Germany in 1830. In 1835 the first retort coke, with its accompanying gas, was made by William Firnstone at the Mary Ann furnace in
Pennsylvania. The first battery of Semet-Solvay ovens was erected in
Syracuse, N.Y., in 1893 and was soon followed by ovens of the OttoHoffman, Koppers, and Collins types.
Uses and Economics. Coke is the product of largest tonnage from the
distillation of coal. Over a hundred million tons of coal are coked each
year, mostly in co-producV ovens. In 1953, United States production of
coal tar was 924,000,000 gal., vs. 972,000,000 gal. as an average for the
years of 1947-1951. See Table 2 for crudes from coal tar and petroleum;
in this tabulation are the important quantities of benzene, toluene, and
xylene from petroleum. In 1918 and before, beehive ovens produced a
greater proportion of coke than came from the co-product ovens.
The liquid products, comprising coal tar and ammonia liquor, although
not so large in volume, are at least as important industrially as the solid
products of coal distillation. Hence the importance of the chemicalrecovery ovens. The coal-tar products are made into dyes, intermediates,
medicinals, flavors, perfumes, resins, rubber chemicals, and thousands of
other useful products that are almost indispensable'in our present-day
civilization. The production and sales of intermediate and finished coaltar products are summarized in Tables 2 and 4, Chap. 38.
Coking of Coal
The two main types of coking procedures are the beehive and the
co-product. Beehive coking is the old and primitive method of securing
coke for metallurgical purposes. In it the coal chemicals are wasted. The
process is also slow. In the co-product ovens the blended-coal charge is
heated~n both sides so that the heat travels toward the center and thus
produces shorter and' more solid pieces of coke t_han are made in the
beehive oven. No burhing takes place within the oven, the heat being
supplied completely from the flues on the sides. The oven gas, after being
stripped of its co-prodhcts, is returned and burned to supply the heat for
1 Formerly named by-product ovens, a term still deeply entrenched in commercial
usage. Chemical-recovery ~yens and alot-type ovens are terms favored by some to replace by-product ovens. Some authorities feel that the term "slot-type" oven is too
limited as it does not acbount for horizontal ovens, such as the Curran; or for the
second most widely used commercial oven in this country, namely, the Wilputte oven
(also called the Otto-Wilputte oven).
86
COAL CHEMICALS
coking. Substantial amounts of gas are piped to steel plants for fuel
purposes, or the gas may be sold for domestic usage if the plant is located
near a city.
Formerly much coal was distilled in small retorts primarily for the
production of domestic coal gas. The coke formed was used to furnish
heat for the retorts. However, this practice has been largely discontinued in favor of coke-oven gas.
Beehive Coking. This oven consists of a beeblve-shaped brick chamber provided with a charging hole at the top of the dome and a discharging
hole in the circumference of the lower part of the wall. The coal is introduced through the hole in the dome and spread over the floor. The heat
retained in the oven is sufficient to start the distillation. The gases given
off from the coal mix with the air entering at the top of the discharge
door and burn; the heat of combl,lstion is sufficient for the pyrolysis and
distillation. The products of combustion pass out the top of the oven.
These ovens, although they cost much less than the co-product ovens, are
utilized today only to meet unusual demands for coke. They are uneconomic because they require comparatively excessive manual labor and
do not recover coal chemicals. In normal times they account for about 1
per cent of the coke production in the United States.
Co-product Coking. The co-product coke oven is a narrow chamber
usually about 38 to 40 ft. long, 13 ft. high, and tapering in width from
17 or 18 in. at one end to 15 or 16 in. at the other. The average oven holds
about 16 tons of coal, although some of the larger ovens hold as much as
24 tons. These ovens are used for carbonizing coal only in large amounts
and are built in batteries of 10 to 100 ovens. One of the longest batteries
of co-product. coking ovens in the world contains 106 Koppers-Becker
underjet combination ovens. The cost of construction was more than
12 million dollars and 9 weeks was required to bring the ovens up to
carbonizing temperature. The general arrang~ments for the operation
of a co-product coke oven with its various accessories, followed by the
initial treatment of its co-products, I!,re depicted l in Fig. 3.
The co-product coke oven is one of the most elaborate and costly of
/ masonry structures and is erected with the "clo~est attention to engineering details so that it can withstand the severe strains incurred in its use.
The oven block is built of refractory brick with heating flues between the
coking ovens as shown in Fig. 4. There are various accessories for support,
foundation, and heat insulation with regenerative chambers underneath
for waste-heat utilization.
The individual co-product coke oven is intermittent in its operation
but each oven is started and finished at different times so that the operation' of the entire block produces continuously a gas of good average
1 See also pictured flow sheet, Byproduct Coke Plants, Chem. & Met. Eng., 48 (12),
104 (1941); GOLLMAR, Coke and Gas Industry. Ind. Eng. Chem., 39. 596 (1947).
CO-PRODUCT COKING
87
composition. A charge of finely crushed coal is dropped from a larry car

through charging holes (usually four, though the generalized flow sheet
of Fig. 3 shows only two) in the top and into the oven where the walls
are approximately at 2000F. The surface of the coal is leveled in the
oven and the charging holes are then covered. Heating is carried on and
the charge left in the oven until it is completely coked and the evolution
of the volatile matter has ceased. The average temperature at the center
of the charge at the end of the heating period is usually about 1800F.,
while the average flue temperature is about 2350F. The temperatures
vary with the conditions of operation, the coking time, the width of the
oven, the kind of coal, its moisture content, and fineness of division.
Bituminous co~1
I ton
Sulfuric acid tOO' Be) 25 lb.

110-12.5 H cu.ft 550 B.tu."",
Lime
1"-2 lb.
1,400 lb. coke
Werler
1,01Mf-2jlO0gai. To produce 109,,1. te>r
St.om
400-600 lb.
251b. "mmonium su1fa1e
I.ctricity
Direct labor
6-9 k... hr:

O.1-l.6man-hr:
2.0-.4.0 gal. light oil
FIG. 3. Co-product coke-oven procedures.
At the end of the coking time (approximately 17 hr.) the doors on the
ends of the oven are opened and the entire red-hot m~ is pushed out in
less than a minute by a ram electrically driven through the oven from end
to 'end. The coke falls into a quenching car which holds the charge from
one oven. This car travels to a quenching station where an overhead
nozzle sprays about 6,000 gal. of water into it. The car after draining for a
minute is then moved ,to a coke wharf where the coke is dumped from the
bottom of the car ontJ con:veyers which take it to a crushing and screening
plant..
j .
.
Rarely, mstead of water, an mert gas (as CO 2 or N 2),lS used to cool the
coke, called dry quenc~ing, with the object of utilizing this heat.
The gas from the destructive distillation of the coal, together with
entrained liquid particles, passes upward through a cast-iron gooseneck
into a horizontal steel trough which is connected to all the ovens in a
series. This trough is known as the coUecting main, sometimes called
hydraulic main. As the gas leaves the ovens, it is sprayed with weak
ammonia water. This condenses some of the tar and ammonia from the
88
COAL CHEMICALS
gas into a liquid. These move through the main along with the gases until
a settling tank is reached, where separation is effected according to
density. Some of the ammonia liquor is pumped back into the pipes to
help condensation; the rest goes to the ammonia still which releases the
ammonia for subsequent chemical combination in the saturator. All the
tar flows to storage tanks for tar distillers or for fuel.
TABLE
3.
ApPROXIMATE YIELDSB PER TON OF COAL CARBONIZED
(Depending on coal and conditions used)

High temperature
Furnace coke ................................ .
Coke breeze ....................... .' ......... .
Semicoke (12 per cent volatiles) ................ .
Tar ......................................... .
Ammonium sulfate ........................... .
Light oil (removed from gas by oil scrubbing) .... .
Gas (550 B.t.u.) .............................. .
Gas (950 B.t.u.) .............................. .
Low
temperature
1,400 lb.
70-100 lb.
10 gal.
20 lb.
2-4 gal.
11 ,000 cu. ft.
1,500 lb.
30 gal.
18 lb.
2 gal.
3,000 cu. ft.
B PERRY, op. cit., p. 1565. See Fig. 3, also. Note that 4 lb. of technical ammonium
sulfate are equivalent to 1 lb. of ammonia.
The types of oven differ mainly in the arrangement of their heating

flues, whether vertical or horizontal, the method of applying the regenerative principle to preheating the air for combustion, and also in the
arrangement for introducing the heating gas and air to the flues. In
yields, qualities of products, and methods of operation there is no material
variation in the several co-product coke ovens. The important differences
among the types of ovens will be taken up br~efly.
The Semet-Solvay oven is the only horiz'ontal-flued oven that has
survived to the present time (see Fig. 4). It was a pioneer in the co-product coking industry and did much toward developing the art and overcoming
the strong prejudices among the coke users in the early days of the _
industry. These ovens have two distinctive'fedtures:_(l) They are heated
by flames burning horizontally and serially instead of vertically .and in
parallel as in most ovens. (2) Though built in batteries, each oven is
structurally independent of the others. Each oven has its heating flues
separated from those of the adjoining oven by a solid wall of firebrick.
Each oven has its individual regenerator if regenerative heating is used.
In regeneration, reversal is made from end to end only t-etween the air and
waste gases while the fuel gas burns continuously at all burners.
The Koppers-Becker ovens are the most widely used vertical-flued
ovens in America. The elevation is shown in Fig. 5. These ovens are all
CO-PRonuCT COKING
89
of the regenerative type and have individual regenerators from end to

end, parallel with the longitudinal axis but underneath the oven. The
reversal of the air and waste gas flow is made from end to end every
half hour. Two characteristics of the ovens are individual control of the
heating conditions in each flue through separate means of adjustment of
the fuel gas, air supply, and draft, with the individual regenerators
introducing heated air directly at the base of each individual heating flue.
FIG.; 4. Sernet-Solvay by-ptoduct coke oven.
In 1922 there was introduced a newer Becker type of the Koppers regener..:
ative oven in which the reversal of flow is not end-to end but side to side;
i.e., from the flues on one side of an oven to those on the other through
cross ducts in the brickwork above and below the oven. This eliminates
the irregularities of t'emperature caused by the usual end-to-end system
of reversal. The gas burns
upward, crosses over the top of the oven, comes
I
downward on the o~~er side, and exits ,through the regenerative oven
underneath. This travel is completely reversed periodically. Underjet
firing and waste-ga~ recirculation are later improvements which contribute to uniform coking temperatures.
90
RECOVERY OF COAL CHEM1CALS
91
Other ovens that are used in the United States are the Otto-Hoffmann,
Otto-Schniewind, the Foundation, the Piette, the Roberts, the Pi ron,
and the Kloenne. These ovens have not had the general acceptance that
the Koppers and Semet-Solvay ovens have had. They are all of the
vertical-tlued regenerative type, with the exception of the Roberts which
is a "fiueless" type in which the gas and air are introduced vertically
downward.
Recovery of Coal Chemicals. The gaseous mixture leaving the oven is
made up of permanent gases which form the final purified coke-oven coal
gas for the market, accompanied by condensable water vapor, tar, and
light oils, with solid particles of coal dust, heavy hydrocarbons, and
complex carbon compounds. The gas is passed from the foul main (Fig. 3)
into the primary condenser and cooler at a temperature of about 165F.
Here the gases are cooled by means of water to 85F. The gas is conducted
to an exhauster which serves not only to compress the gas but also to
remove about 75 per cent of the tar in it because of the high-speed
swirling motion imparted to the gas. During the compression the temperature of the gas rises to as high as 120F. The gas is passed to a final tar
extractor where the tar is thrown out by impingement of gas jets against
metal surfaces. In recent plants the tar extractor is replaced with ,electrostatic precipitators. On leaving the tar extractor the gas carries threefourths of the ammonia and 95 per cent of the light oil originally:present
when leaving the oven.
The gas is led to a saturator (see Fig. 3) which contains a solution of
5 to 10 per cent! sulfuric acid, where the ammonia)s absorbed with the
formation of solid and crystalline ammonium sulfate. The saturator is
a lead-lined closed vessel where the gas is fed in by a serrated distributor
underneath the surface of the acid liquid. Newer plants use ammonia
absorbers or scrubbers instead of saturators. These give a much lower
pressure drop and decrease gas pumping costs. The acid concentration is
mhlntained by the addition of 60 Be. sulfuric acid and the temperature
is kept at 140F. by the reheater and the heat of neutralization. The
crystallized ammonium sulfate is removed from the bottom, of the
saturator by a compressed air injector, or centrifugal pump, and is
drained on a table from which the mother liquor is run 'back into the
saturator. The salt is: dried in a centrifuge and bagged, usually in 100-lb.
sacks (see Chap. 20)'1
If it is not desired, to get ammonium sulfate, aqua ammonia may be
made by scrubbing t~e gas coming from the tar extractor with cold water
in a bubble-cap tower or in a spray chamber through which the gas is
passed countercurrent to the liquid, or by means of a rotary scrubber in
which the gas is forced through a space in which large fresh surfaces of
1 At the start of a charge, the acidity is often as high as 25 per ccnt, but ammonium
bisulfate is liable to be formed when free sulfuric acid exceeds 10 to 11 per cent.
COAL CHEMICALS
92
washing liquor are being constantly turned up by a vane or bl1lshes on a
rotating shaft. The solution obtained in this way contains about 1 per
cent of ammonia and must be distilled and strengthened before it can be
shipped or marketed. The ammonia still used is somewhat like that
employed for the recovery of the ammonia in the Solvay process for
making soda ash (see Chap. 15). Details of such an ammonia lime still
are given in Fig. 6. Here the "lime leg" must be used to liberate that
Liquid direction arrows: Solid

Gaseous direction arrows: Dashes 1J.l~~~~~1
ofhme
FIG. 6. Diagram of an ammonia still. This operates with drain from fixed leg open sufficiently to prevent accumulation of liquor in this section. Drain from lime leg is closed
,xcept for cleanout.
large part of ammonia which is fixed in the form of chloride and other
salts. In the usual case, 'as depicted in Fig. 3, some weak ammonia
liquor is separated from the tar. This is distilled with 'lime and steam
as shown in Figs. 3 and 6, the ammonia gas in this ca~e going into the
saturator.
The gas leaving the saturator, at about 140F. is taken to final coolers
or condensers where it is scrubbed with water until its temperature is
75F. During this cooling some naphthalene separates and is carried
along with the waste water and recovered. The gas is passed into a light
93
RECOVERY OF COAL CHEMICALS
oil or benzol scrubber (Fig. 3) over which is circulated, at about 75F. aR

the absorbent medium, a heavy fraction of petroleum called straw oil,
or sometimes a coal-tar oil. The straw oil is sprayed in the top of the
absorption tower while the gas flows up through the tower. Most scrubbers
use spiral metal packing, although wooden grids were formerly used.
The straw oil is allowed to absorb about 2 to 3 per cent of its weight of
light oil with a removal efficiency of about 95 per cent of the light oil
vapor in the gas.
The rich straw oil, after being warmed in heat exchangers by vapors
from the light oil still and then by hot debenzolized oil flowing out
of the still, is passed to the stripping column, where the straw oil, flowing
downward, is brought into direct contact with live steam. The vapors
of light oil and steam pass off and upward from the still through the
heat exchanger previously mentioned and to a condenser and water
separator. The lean or stripped straw oil ~s returned through the heat
exchanger to the scrubbers.
The crude light oil is distilled in the crude fractionating tank stills
of 6,000 to 15,000 gal. capacity provided with short towers (see Fig. 8).
These are batch stills and are heated first with indirect steam coils and
later by direct steam to drive over the heavier fractions. If pure benzene,
toluene, and solvent naphtha are desired, several fractions from the crude
fractionating still are made and each of these fractions is redistilled in the
fractionating still of Fig. 8. For motor fuel only one cut is made from
the crude still. The crude products are washed with strong sulfuric acid
to remove unsaturated impurities, next with caustic soda and water.
The washed products are finally redistilled to remove any complex
polymers formed by the action of any acid that might remain dissolved
in the benzene. Note from Fig. 3, that coal furnishes both light oil and
coal tar and, from Figs. 7 and 8, that the distillation of coal tar furnishes
further amounts of light oil. These two fractions are usually united and
rectified.
TABU; 4. TYPICAL
COMPOSITION OF LIGHT OIL FROM GAsa
I
Gallons per
~~~
Benzene ......... '.............................7 ......... 1.85
Toluene ........ .1. .............. , ..................... 0.45
Xylene and light ~olvent naphtha ......................... 0" 30
Acid washing losJ (mostly unsaturateds) ................... 0.16
Heavy hydrocarbons and naphthalene ................ " .... 0.24
Wash oil ........; ................. " ............ " ... " .... 0.20
Total crude light oil. ................ " " " . " . " " .... " " " .. 3. 20
Pure motor fraction, .................."" .... " .. " 'Iff' ' ..... , 2,50
PORTER, "Coal Carbonization," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,

1924.
~
_J
:).os~ 00
0I..l> '10 3N3)'1I1H1NV
:>.00 OS~
%L 110 AI\'11H
).00. 01 dn
OkS 110 .1H911
94
95
LOW-TEMPERATURE CARBONIZATION
The gas after being stripped of its ammonia and light oil has the
sulfur removed in purifying boxes which contain iron oxide on wood
shavings or in wet scrubbing towers as is the best present-day practice.
These procedures are fully described in Chap. 7 on Fuel Gases.
Low-temperature Carbonization. I During the present century there
has been a large amount of experimental work carried out on the carbonization of coal at temperatures ranging from 750 to 1100F., with the main
object to obtain maximum yields of liquid products and to produce semicokes containing from 8 to 20 per cent volatile matter. Here again the
characteristics and yields of the various products depend upon the coal,
the temperature, and the treatment. Tables 3 and 5 show the difference
TABLE 5. VARIATION OF GAS FROM Low- AND H,GH-TEMPERATURE
COAL CARBONIZATION"
Coking temperature,
500C., per cent
Coking temperature,
1000C., per cent
CO, ................. .
9.0
c"Hm
2.5
3.5
CHi and homologs .... .
8.0
5.5
10.0
65.0
N, ................... .
2.5
CO .... ' .............. .
H, ................... .
8.0
50.0
34.0
2.0
ROBERTS and JENKNER, "International Coal Carbonization," p. 198, Sir Isaac

Pitman & Sons,.Ltd., London, 1934.
/
in gas content and in yield products for high- and low-temperature

systems. At present the Disco Company at McDonald, Pa., the first in
this country to utilize a low-temperature carbonization process,2 has a
daily capacity to convert 1,000 tons of high-volatile coal into 800 tons
of lightly carbonized balls plus tar and gas. The tar is refined to produce
tar acid oil, tar acids, creosote, fuel pitch, and pitch oil. The gas, after
liquid-product removal, is used for fiJiing. The maximum temperature
used in this process is: 1050F. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the
Disco process is its c0I.ltinuous flow of solids through the system as against
the batch operation' of a conventional coke oyen. Low-temperature
carbonization has been important in several European countries, especially England, for many decades.
The low-templh-atu~e production of fuel and coal chemicals may in the
long run produce important quantities' of both COllI chemicals and fuel
because of its superior thermal yield and cost.
I,
I KIRK and OTHMER, ,op. cit., Vol. 3, pp. 171-174; BROWNLIE, Low-temperature
Carbonization, Ind. Eng. C:hem., 19, 39 (1927), and eight preceding articles.
2 McBRIDE, Low-temperature Coking Plant, Chem. Eng., 66 (6), 112 (1949).
96
COAL CHEMICALS
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. As Chap. 2 points out, chemical

engineering can be "resolved into a coordinated series of unit physical
operations and unit chemical processes." The various flow sheets as
presented in this book will frequently be broken down into such a sequence
of unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.). These cause continuous attention to be directed to the unitary aspects of the various
operations or processes, with the consequent transfer of the experience
gained with given unit operation in one field to the same operation in
another. Several of the flow sheets presented in this chapter are rather
complicated, more so than in similar presentations in other sections of
the book. However, Fig. 3 can be divided into different steps representing the flow of material through the various pieces of equipment
wherein the proper unit operation or unit process takes place. The
listing of these unitary aspects is in a sense the synopsis of the particular
process. Figure 3 may be thus broken down into the following unit
operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
Coal is transferred, crushed, and screened (Op.).
Coal is charged to a hot empty oven (Op.).
Coal is chemically transformed to coke and volatiles by pyrolysis (Pr.).
Hot coke is pushed out of oven, quenched, and transported (Op.).
Condensable products 'of distillation are liquefied and collected in hydraulic
main (Op.).
Foul gas is cooled and tar extracted (Op.).
Ammonia is removed from gas as ammonium sulfate (Pr.).
Gas is cooled and subjected to benzol and toluol removal by absorption in
straw oil (Op.) .
.Hydrogen sulfide is removed (Pr.).
Purified gas is metered and transferred to consumers (Op.).
The tar separated from the collecting main and the tar extractor or
electrostatic precipitators' is settled from ammonia liquor and subjected
to the sequences represented by _floW sheet (Fig. 8).
DISTILLATION OF COAL TAR
Coal tar is a mixture of many chemical compound~ mostly

aromatic,
f
which vary widely in composition (see Figs. 2 and 7). It is a co-product
of the destructive distillation or pyrolysis of coal. Depending upon
whether the primary objective is coal gas or coke and also on the nature
of the coal, the amount of crude tar (with a specific gravity from 1.0 to
1.2) obtained varies from 8 to 12 gal. of tar per ton of coal. A typical tar
composition is listed on the bottom of Fig. 8, where the steps to separate
coal tar int~ these constituents are depicted. The objects of distillation
are to produce the maximum yields of the valuahle products with a
minimum of free carbon in the pitch. These products must usually be
97
METHODS OF DISTILLATION
sharply fractionated with a minimum of overlapping. The process also

should be thermally economical.
Methods of Distillation. There have been many improvements in
coal-tar distillation in the past few years; in general it may be stated that
the trend is away from the simple batch still and toward modifications
that will give the highest yields of the various "oils." There are at
present in use a number of major types of stills such as batch stills,
vacuum stills, steam-operated stills, gas recirculated stills, coke stills,
and pipe stills.
TABLE 6. A COMPARISON OF COAL-TAR S'rILLSa
System
Atmospheric still .................
Vacuum still .....................
Steam distillation .................
Recirculating inert gas (CO.)
through still ...................
Recirculating inert gas (N.) through
still .... ',' .....................
a
Free carbon,
Temperature, Pitch,
Oil,
per cent per cent
per cent
degrees C.
413
330
340
57.8
42.5
47.5
40.1
5~
50.6
40.7
28.8
28.8
358
46.9
52.6
29.0
331
46.4
52.0
27.2
WEISS, The Distillation of Coal Tar, J. Soc. Chern. Ind., 61, 219 (1932).
1. Batch Stills. As might be imagined from their simplicity of operation, fire-heated batch stills were the first type .of equipment used in tar
distillation. Varying in size from 3,000 to 7,000 gal., they consist essentially of a large iron container with connection to a condenser, into which
the tar is dumped and heat applied until the distillation is complete, as
shown in Fig. 8. In the United States, a horizontal type of still is preferred, although on the continent vertical stills are in general use. The
essential disadvantage of the batch still is discontinuout operation,..,
with the pitch residue remaining in the still and being subject to heat
during the. entire period of distillation. This disadvantage may be somewhat overcome by some form of air or steam agitation to increase tar
velocity and improvei heat transfer. Steam is preferred. In the ordinary
batch still, the procedure is of relatively long duration and the fractionation i~ not very sh~rp. When the tempe~ature-rises to between 500
and 700F., during the anthracene condensation, the residue in the still
remains for a long tix'ne in contact with highly heated surfaces, causing
local overheating and decreased oil production, and furnishing a pitch
containing consideraqle portions of free carbon.
2. Vacuum Stills. [The object of vacuum distillation is to lower thc
final tar temperatures and thereby increase the yield of oils. Of necessity,
special precautions,' which include heavier retort shells and interJlal
reinforcement. should be observed. Vacuum distillation has been adopted
98
COAL CHEMICALS
with the idea of protecting the tar by reduction of the distillation temperature. Under vacuum distillation some difficulty is met in condensing
the low-boiling oil fractions.
3. Steam-operated Stills. The use of sufficient stearn to agitate the
tar does not involve an amount of steam sufficient to affect the thermal
distillation in any way; the use of larger volumes of stearn, however, will
materially lower the still temperature and give higher oil yields. In
practice the operation means higher cost for stearn and cooling water.
In stearn distillation, the great danger is that the pitch temperature might
METHODS OF DISTILLATION
99
drop to such an extent that the use of direct steam would prove very
costly.
4. Gas Recirculated Stills. Since air exerts a deleterious oxidizing
effect if used for stirring tar mixtures, Weiss in 1922 proposed the use of
inert gas recirculated in a closed system.
5. Coke Stills. The general principle here employed involves contacting the tar with raw, hot coke-oven gas, thereby utilizing the sensible
heat of these gases to volatilize the tar oils. High yields are obtained
at little or no fuel expense.
6. Pipe Stills. The most recent developments in coal-tar distillation
have been made in pipe still operation. The pipe still has been used for
some time in America for the distillation of petroleum, and it is now being
successfully adapted for the distillation of tar.l It consists essentially
of a battery to tubes, arranged within a furnace, through which the tar
to be distilled is passed at a relatively high rate in a continuous stream.
Thus its construction is similar to that of a water-tube boiler, minus the
steam drums. Since the tar remains in the heating coils only sufficiently
long (a few minutes) for it to be raised to the requisite temperature for
distillation, there is no overheating and the minimum proportion of free
carbon is produced. Further, the presence of the lower-boiling tar constituents in the continuous heating process causes a lowerz"ng of the
boiling points of the high-boiling fractions, so that the time element is
not only reduced, but the heating temperature also, making the use of
the vacuum unnecessary.
Modern practice, as exemplified by the pipe still, is producing such
clean-cut fractions that often little further puriflcation is necessary.
However, below are given the fractions obtained in an ordinary batch
still, and a brief outline of purification as illustrated in Fig. 8 (see also
Fig. 7). The yields vary from different coal tars and under different
conditions. This explains the differences between the quantities listed in
Figs. 7 and 8.
a. Light oils usually embrace the cut up to 390F. They are first crudely fractionated and agitated ~t a low temperature with concentrated sulfuric acid,
neutralized with causti<i soda, and redistilled, furnishing benzene, toluene, and
homologs.
b. Middle oils, or creosote oils, generally are the fraction from 390 to 480 or
520F., which contains Il.aphthalene, phenol, and cresols. The naphthalene settles
out upon cooling, is separated by centrifuging, and is purified by sublimation.
After the naphthalene is removed, phenol and other tar acids2 are obtained by
Tar Distitiation, Gas World, 109 (2813), 77 (1938).
"Tar acids," in the l~nguage of the tar distiller, represent phenol and its homologs
which are soluble in caustic soda. A pictured flow sheet for separation of phenol,
cresols, and xylenols is in Chem. Eng., 59 (11), 212 (1952).
1
GROUNDS,
100
COAL CHEMICALS
extraction with a 10 per cent caustic soda solution and neutralization or "springing" by carbon dioxide. These are fractionally distilled, as shown in Fig. 8.
c. Heavy oil may represent the fraction from 480 to 570F., or it may be split
between the middle oil and the anthracene oil
d. Anthracene oil usually is the fraction from 520 or 570F. up to 660 or 750F.
It is washed with various solvents to remove phenanthrene and carbazole; the
remaining solid is anthracene.
Miscellaneous Uses of Coal Tar

Much coal tar is burned for fuel after heating! to reduce its viscosity
and facilitate its spraying into the furnace. In countries other than the
United States where motor fuels are not so abundant, coal tars are
hydrogenated,2 producing lighter-boiling hydrocarbons.
Coal tars have been studied regarding their pyrolysis 3 products and
offer a future source for motor fuel. In the United States much coal tar is
consumed on roads and roofs.4 For this purpose the tar is distilled up to
the point where thermal decomposition starts. This "base tar" is oiled
back with creosote oil of the proper specification to ensure sa_tisfactory
rapid drying but to avoid brittleness in service. Somewhat similar tars
are employed to impregnate felt and paper for waterproofing.
Liquid Fuels
A great deal of time and money is being spent in the United States
for evaluating various processes,5 principally from coal, for synthetic
motor fuels in view of the large demands of our internal-combustion
motors. When petroleum products become more costly, these processes
will become economically feasible. Furthermore some of the fractions
from hydrogenolysis of coal would be suitable for internal-combustion
motors but at present are also more expensive than gasoline. The situation in Germany during the Second World War, when liquid fuels
(aviation) were made from coal, was not comparable to the United
States either then or now.
1 PERRY, op. cit., p. 1575. Fuel value = 15,000 to 16,500 B.t.u. per lb.
HALL and CAWLEY, The Composition of the Products Obtained by the Hydro/ genation-cracking of Low-temperature Tar, J. Soc.~Chem. Ind., 66, 303 (1937).
3 MORIlELL, et al., Cracking Tars and Distillates from Coal, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32,
39 (1940).
HADFIELD, Modern Road Tars, Gas World, 108, 71 (1938); KIRBY, Preparation
)
of Road Tars, Chemistry & Indu.~try, 1938, 486.
5 STORCH, Review of Development of Processes for Synthesis of Liquid Fuels by
Hydrogenation of CO, Chem. Eng. Progr., 44, 469 (1948); SCHROEDER, Comparison of
Major Processes for Synthetic Liquid Fuels, Chem. IndB., 62, 575 (1948); KASTENS,
Liquid Fuel from Coal, Ind. Eng.' Chem., 41, 870 (1949); ANON., Synthetic Fuels,
Chem. ;Eng., 66 (6), 131 (1948); Symposium, Developments in Synthetic Liquid Fuels,
Chem. 'Eng. News, 30, 3248 (1952); STORCH, Gor,UMBIC, and ANDERSON, "The FischerTropsch and Related Syntheses," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1951.
-4
HYJ)ROGENOLYSIS (HYDROGENATION-PYROLYSIS)
101
Hydrogenolysis (Hydrogenation-Pyrolysis)
The present interest in coal hydrogenation or rather hydrogenolysis, is
to obtain coal chemicals. Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Company! has
built a pilot plant at Institute, W. Va., which treats 300 tons of Pittsburgh
No.8 coal daily. This unit cost 11 million dollars and culminated some
17 years of research. The Carbide process involves three distinct divisions
as shown in the flow sheet of Fig. 9: (1) coal preparation and solution
in oil, (2) reaction with hydrogen, and (3) chemicals separation. It may
be further subdivided into the following unit operations (Op.) and unit
processes (Pr.).
Coal is crushed to only 20 mesh, ground, dried, and mostly dissolved in a
highly aromatic oil to make a paste. Catalyst (0.5 per cent) added here, if used
(Op.).
The coal solution paste (25 to 40 per cent coal) is pumped under high pressure
to the hydrogenators (Op.).
After preheating, the paste is mixed with 300 to 400 per cent excess hydrogen
and fed to the converter. Operating data of the forged steel converters: temperature, 840 to lOOOF.j pressure, 4,000 to 6,000 lb. per sq. in.; and residence time,
3 to 4.5 min. Exothermic reaction (Pr.).
The hydrogenated-pyrolyzed or hydrogenolyzed mixture undergoes a hot
separation to distill (Op.) gases, liquids, and vapors off the recycle oil (Op.).
The recycle oil in turn is filtered to remove (Op.) unreacted solids (ash and the
mineral charcoal or fusain portion of coal). The hot separation distillate is partially condensed (Op.) and followed by a cold separation to remove gases from
the liquid stream (Op.). The unused hydrogen is recycled (Op.).
This liquid stream is the "golden fleece" of the process and is separated. by
chemical extraction (Pr.), solvent extraction (Op.), and distillation (Op.) into
various chemical fractions or products which may be purified into a large number
of end products, some of which are tabulated under the flow sheet of Fig. 9.
This coal hydrogenation process is very important to the chemical industry
as it means the aromatics field will now have its own source of supply and will no
longer be a secondary operation. Furthermore this hydrogenolysis upgrades the
various products to a gr~ater, extent than is true of direct pyrolysis or destructive
distillation which degrades more of the organic compounds to carbon or coke.
The upgrading as well as the chemical reaction is facilitated by the excess of
hydrogen employed and the short residence time. These factors also eliminate
the troublesome coking in the reactor.
This novel coal proc~ss aims at higher-valued aromatics and minimizes the
production of cheaper aliphatics that have been sought as gasoline substitutes.
This is accomplished by adding a relatively small percentage of hydrogen to the
aromatic coal. In comparison with yields from ordinary destructive distillation
I,
"
CALLAHAM, Coal Hydrogenation Process Unlocks Vast Aromatics Field, Chern.

Eng., 119 (6), 152 (1952); Staff Report, Carbide Takes the Hex Out of Coal, Chern.
Eng. New8, 30, 1954 (1952).
1
COAL CHEMICALS
102
of coal, this process yields 100 to 200 times the amount of cresols, 60 to 80 times
as much phenol, 300 to 500 times the yield of quinolines, and naphthalene 3 to
8 times.
".01'ld~!"
:~
t
t
t
t
FIG. 9. Simplified flow sheet of chemicals produced by coal hydrogenation. (Courtesy of

Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co.)
Products
Materials per 24 hours
Coal dried 100 tons

Ash 8-15 tons
Hydrogen 3 + tons
Fusain 8-15 tons
Labor 50 men up to 500 tons High boiling oils for electrode coke 30 tons
coal
Aromatic coal-tar dissolving oil recycled
Gases:
NR., H.S, CR.-C.H lo
H. excess to recycle
Additional products from "cold tt separation (widely variable with

hydrogen consumption)
Hydrocarbons
Phenols
Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Naphthalene
Methyl-naphthalene
Phenol
Cresols
Xylenols
Higher phenols
Arylamines & N-hetereocyclics -
Aniline
Toluidines
Xylidines
Alkyl-pyridines
Quinolines
Methyl-quinoline
Indole etc.
Many engineering problems have been solved or are now being investigated in
close connection with the chemical changes. The converters are 35 ft. long by
30 in. inside diameter with 7.5-in. walls constructed of a special alloy (6130
Cr, Mo, steel with enhanced Cr) to resist hydrogen embrittlement. There is a
refractory lihlng. The solids separation may be filtration, centrifugation, or flash
distillation or a combination.
SELECTED REFERENCES
103
SELECTED REFERENCES
Porter, H. C., "Coal Carbonization," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1924.
Roberts, J., "Coal Carbonization," Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1927.
Gluud, W., American edition by D. L. Jacobson, "International Handbook of the
By-product Coke Industry," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1932.
Parrish, P., "Design and Working of Ammonia Stills," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Morgan, J. J., "American Gas Practice," 2d ed., privately printed by J. J. Morgan,
Maplewood, N.J., 1931.
Bangham, H. D., "Progress in Coal Science," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York,
1950.
Wilson, P. J., and J. H. 'Wells, "Coal, Coke, and Coal Chemicals," McGraw-Hill
Lowry, H. H., editor, "The Chemistry of Coal Utilization," 2 vols., John Wiley &
U.S. Bureau of Mines, various publications on coal and coal hydrogenation. Current
lists upon request.
Kreulen, D. J. W., "Elements of Coal Chemistry," Nygh & Ditmar N. V., Rotterdam,
1948.
Storch, H. H., Norma Golumbic, and R. B. Anderson, "The Fischer-Tropsch and
Related Syntheses," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1951.
Abbott, W. W., et al., "The Future for Aromatic Chemicals," Harvard Business
School, Boston, 1954.
Coal Tar Research Association, "Review of Coal Tar Technology," Gomersal, near
Leeds, England, Semi-annual Review.
CHAPTER
FUEL GASES
The black smoke appearing from countless chimneys in many comrepresents a loss of energy in our natural resources and a contamination of the air to the detriment of both animals and plants. The
ideal situation would be one in which no coal was burned as such, but
where ea,ch of its ingredients would be separated and utilized for the
purpose Best suited from a technical viewpoint. In such a case, coke, oil, or
gas woule! be the universal fuels, because of their convenience, cleanliness,
and efficiency. However, in most cases at the present time, this would
make the fuel cost more than for coal. This chapter will consider the
various types of fuel gases.
Historical. The first recorded use of combustible gas, was by the
Chinese about A.D. 900 when natural gas was piped through bamboo
tubes and used for lighting. The first production of coal.gas was about
1665 in England and its first utilization was for lighting purposes in
1792. Similar endeavors in this country began in Philadelphia around
1796. It was not long after this that gas companies began to be organized and the manufacture of gas put on a businesslike basis. The discovery of water gas or blue gas, as it is also called, in 1780 and that of
producer gas were essential steps in the development of this industry.
The exploitation of our natural gas fields gave the final impetus to the
gas industry as we know it today.
\
The fuel gas industry is undergoing a radical and basic transformation.
Coal gas, natural gas, water gas, and even producer gas are not only sources
of heat and power, they are already very important raw materials for chemical
/ synthesis. Examples of this will be considered under the. specific gas in
this chapter, as well as elsewhere in this book, but this statement may
here be illustrated by citing the use of water gas as the first step in the
manufacture of hydrogen for both inorganic and organic hydrogenations
and also the use of methane or natural gas as a source of cheap hydrogen
as well as the initial material for syntheses or for cracking to various
types of carbon.
,
Table 1 sJmmarizes the composition and heating values of the principal fuel gases. The choice in any case is between the composition,
heating value, and the cost of producing and distrihuting the gas. If the
104
muniti~s
105
HISTOlUCAL
TABLE 1. PER CENT COMPOSITION AND HEATING VALUES

FUEL GASESa
Natural
Natural
gas,
Coal gas
gas,
(Mid(coke
(Penncontioven)
sylvania)
nent)
Water
gas
O~'
VARlOUS
Carbureted Produce r
water
gas
gas
""
Carbon monoxide .........

Ca~bon dioxide ...........
Hydrogen ...............
Nitrogen ................
Oxygen .................
Methane ................
Ethane ..................
Illuminants ..............
Gross B.t.u. per cu. ft. ....
.....
0.8
... ..
3.2
. ....
96.0
.....
.....
967
.......
.......
.......
1.1
.......
67.6
31.3
6.3
1.8
53.0
3.4
0.2
31.6
.......
3.7
586
1,232
43.5
3.5
47.3
4.4
0.6
0.7
34.0
3.0
40.5
2.9
0.5
10.2
. ....
8.9
550
302
30.0
3.5
10.0
54.5
0.5
1.5
135
MORGAN, "American Gas Practice," p. 30, J. J. Morgan, Maplewood, N.J., 1931Extensive tables are given on pp. 1577if. of Perry, op. cit., where more properties are
tabulated, such as air required and products of combustion.
G
TABLE 2. HEATS OF COMllUSTION
Substance
Hydrogen ......................
Carbon monoxide ................
Methane .......................
Ethane .........................
Carbon .................... , ....
B.t.u. per cu. ft.

at 60F. and 1 atm.
Gross
Net
325
32l.8
1,013.2
1,792
... ....
275
32l.8
913.1
1,641
. ......
B.t.u. per lb.
Gross
Net
61,100
4,347
23,879
22,320
14,093
51;623
4,347
21,520
20,432
14,093
NOTE: The net heating value is the practical value since it designates theoPeat of
combustion with the water vapor uncondensed. If the products are cooled to the
initial temperature and the water is condensed, its la.tent heat of condensation is
liberated and the larger or gross heating value is obtained. The difference amounts to
18,919 B.t.u. per lb.-mol~ of water in the products Of comlmstion. C/. PERRY, op. cit,
pp. 1579, 1583.
gas has to be distributed over more than a short distance, thE;) cheaply
made producer gas has too Iowa B.t.u. content to be competitIve with
other manufactured gas. The B.t.u. of a gas is a summation of the. heats
of combustion of its constituents and can be very closely calculated from
these. Table 2 summarizes the individ'ual heats of combu~tion and
explains the variation in the heats of combustion of the gases given in
Table 1. Flame temperatures obtainable are very important in the
106
FUEL GASES
utilization of fuel gases. In Perry,l the procedure for calculating these is

exemplified.
NATURAL GAS
The seepage from the earth of gases that could be used for lighting
was reported in the Ohio Valley as far back as 1775; but the earliest
commercial utilization was in Fredonia, N.Y., in 1821. Although naturalgas wells may be found widely scattered over the country, the chief
fields may be defined as follows: the Appalachian field covering eastern
Kentucky, West Virginia, southern Ohio, eastern Pennsylvania, and part
of New York; the Lima field in western Ohio and Indiana; the large
field that covers southern Oklahoma and northern Texas; the field in
the Texas Panhandle; the various Louisiana fields including the newly
:ieveloped Gulf Coast fields; and finally, those in California. The explalation of the geological occurrence of natural gas and the description of
:vell drilling and development are all beyond the scope of this text. The
]nited States reserves alone are nearly 200 trillion cu. ft. In 1953 the
otal consumption of 5.2 trillion cu. ft. was employed as follows: 15 per
ent for fuel for refinery and field consumption, 23 per cent for domestic
leI, 3 per cent for carbon black manufacture, and 59 per cent for all
ther industrial uses, including chemical raw material for various syntheses
lee Ohaps. 8, 20, and 37).
There are various by-products from raw natural gas that are of indusial significance, such as propane, butane, and natural gasoline. These
e separated from the crude gas as liquids by fractionation or absorption
tder pressure and are marketed in steel cylinders and tank cars as a gas
pply for rural homes and villages and as chemical raw materials for
3h derivatives as nitro-paraffins, chIaro-paraffins, and acetone. The
)aration and utilization of natural gasoline, or casing-head gasoline
it is often called, will be taken up under petroleum products in
ap.37.
~atural gas provides one-seventh of_ all the energy produced in this
ntry. After necessary purification, as will be described, the natural
is compressed and sent through the distributiop. mains which network
country, being recompressed at periodic distances by gas engines. 2
s natural gas is employed as fuel in many cities 2,000 miles or more
1 the producing wells. For peak demands natural gas may be stored
arious ways. The best and a widely practiced procedure is to store in
~pleted gas field near the consumer. Another important storage is
re the gas is forced under pressure into a series of buried "coils'!~avy pipe. Liquefaction of gas (-250F.) and storage in insulated
11.
cit., p. 347.
Natural Gas-Its Heart and Arteries, Chem. Eng., fi7 (5), 113 (1950).
~E,
FUEL GAS PURIFICATION
107
holders above ground has been purely experimental since the disastrous
Cleveland fire in 1944. A new development is a low-temperature adsorption process where 200 volumes of natural gas are adsorbed at -2.50F.
on one volume of fuller's earth at a cost claimed to be competitive with
other methods.
Besides being used alone as a fuel, natural gas is much employed as an
enriching agent for gases of lower heating value. For example, coke-oven
gas is diluted to a 380 B.t.u. mixture with producer gas and then this
mixture is enriched to 540 B.t.u. by the addition of natural gas.
Fuel Gas Purification. In addition to the industrially valuable propane
and butane, the raw natural gas contains undesirable water and hydrogen
sulfide which must be removed before it can be placed in the transmission
lines. Such purification is also practiced on other fuel gases. There are
four important methods employed for the dehydration of gas: compression, treatment with drying substances, adsorption, and refrigeration.
The plant for water removal by compression consists of a gas compressor
followed by a cooling system to remove the water vapor by condensa~ion.
The treatment of gas with drying substance has found widespread usage
in this country. The agents employed for this purpose are activated
alumina and bauxite, silica gel, sulfuric acid, glycerine, diethylene glycol,
and concentrated solutions of calcium chloride or sodium thiocyanate.
Plants of this type usually require a packed tower for the countercurrent
treatment of the gas with th!}. reagent, together with a regenerator for
the dehydrating agent. Gas may also be dehydrated by passing it over
refrigerated coils. In general, this method is more costly than the others
but, where exhaust steam is available to operate the refrigeration cycle,
costs of refrigeration can be reduced. If the water occurring in most fuel
gas is not removed, an unduly high corrosion will occur in the transmission
lines, and trouble may also be had from the freezing of valves in cold
weather.
The necessity of removing hydrogen sulfide 1 and other sulfides from
gas is rather obvious, not only because of the corrosion problem but
because the oxides of sulfur formed during combustion would be a nuisance to gas consumers. Also the sulfur compounds, partiCUlarly H~ and
8, have commercial value and are employed as a source of 80, for sulfuric
acid plants (see Chap. 19 for sulfur and its uses).
In raw fuel gases, except for some natural gases, the amount of hydrogen sulfide present may, range from about 100 grains per 100 cu. ft.
in blue gas to several hundred grains per tOO cu. ft. in coke-oven and coal
gas, up to several thousand grains per 100 cu. ft. for refinery gas from
sulfur crudes and natural gas from the suJfur-bearing regions. Other
1 MARSHALL, Gas Purification, Wet and Dry, Ga8 W()Tld, 1la9 (3338), Coking Section, 105 (1948); REED and UPDEGRAFF, Removal of Hydrogen Sulfide from Inqustrial
Gases, Ind. E1I{/. Chern., U, 2269 (1950).
FUEL GASES
108
sulfur compounds may be present also. The various methods for sulfur
removal may be best divided into the dry and wet methods.
The principal dry methods' are the iron oxide process and the activated
carbon catalytic process. The latter is not used commercially in this
country. The iron oxide method is employed in most small plants that
manufacture gas for public utilities and as a final cleanup in large
plants following such wet methods as the Seabolj.rd, Thylox, or vacuum
carbonate processes. The sulfides are removed by passing the gas through,
a series of boxes filled with highly reactive iron oxide and wood shavings.
Here reactions, such as this, take place:
Fe203'xH20
+ 3H S
2
-7
Fe 2S3
+ (x + 3)H 0
2
Air is generally introduced to the gas before the dry boxes to provide a
concentration of 0.6 to 1.0 per cent oxygen. The oxygen serves 'simultaneously to revivify the ferric sulfide, yielding iron oxide and elemental
sulfur. Despite this it is generally necessary to finish revivification in
open air:
When the total sulfur content reaches 50 to 60 per cent, this reactant
may be discarded or the sulfur solvent extracted (Germany). This
process displays the greatest selectivity of adsorption of hydrogen sulfide
in the presence of carbon dioxide; however, its disadvantages are the
amount of space and labor required and, ordinarily, the cost of sulfur
recovery.
In the wet methods a solution is utilized which contains a reagent that
chemically combines with H 2S to remove it from the gas stream. The
processes all employ some type of continuous contact or, such as a packed
tower or bubble-cap tOw\lr (Fig. 3), where the gas passes upward countercurrent to the flow of the solution. Reed and I Updegraff (op. cit.) have
grouped these wet processes according to the similarity of the disposition
of the HJ3-laden solution into the following classifications:
/
(1) nonregenerative processes in which the hydrogen sulfide reacts with some
chemical reagent and the product is discarded; , I
(2) regenerative processes in which the absorbing solution is recycled, but the
hydrogen sulfide is necessarily discarded;
(3) regenerative processes in which the hydrogen sulfide is recovered as a gas;
(4) regenerative processes in which the hydrogen sulfide is recovered as elemental sulfur.
N onregenerative Processes. 'rhese processes are mostly used when the

quantity of H 2S is small or for cleaning up residual H 2S after the bulk
1 SANDS and SCHMIDT, Recovery of Sulfur from Synthesis Gas, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42,
2277 (1950).
109
has been removed by some other process. It may not be economical for
large quantities of H 2S as the cost of reagent replacement is high. A
commonly used reagent is caustic soda for the following reaction:
The spent solution is discarded. In some installations the removal is

performed in two stages with the first-stage product, sodium hydrosulfide, concentrated and sold. Some plants use a lime slurry process, but
plugging of the equipment takes place. Both lime and caustic soda absorb
carbon dioxide also. A widely used nonregenerative process for purifying
C02 for production of Dry Ice utilizes potassium permanganate to remove
a small amount of H 2S present. A buffered solution of sodium bichromate
and zinc sulfate is also employed, but it is not so effective as permanganate
for removing some of the other impurities found in commercial CO 2,
Regenerative Processes. The two major disadvantages of the nonregenerative processes are the cost of the reagent and, the disposal of
the product. In 1920 the Koppers Company developed the Seaboard
process (Table 3) which was the first liquid regenerative process. It is
TABLE
3.
OPERATING COST OF THE SEABOARD PROCESS
Type of gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Refinery

Plant capacity, standard cu. ft. gas per day ............. . 5,000,000
Sulfur content, grains H.S per 100 cu. ft ................ .
1,000
Sulfur removal, per cent .............................. .
98
Gas pressure, lb. per sq. in. gage ....................... .
60
/
Per day
Labor: 6 hr. at $2 per hr .............................. .

Power: 1,000 kw.-hr. at $0.01 per kw.-hr ................ .
Steam: 7,800 lb. at $0.50 per 1,000 lb ................... .
Soda ash: 400 lb. at $0.02 per lb ....................... .
Maintenance ........................................ .
Total operating cost per day ............................ .
Opera.ting cost per 1,000 cu. ft. gas ..................... .
$12.00
10.00
3.. 90
8.00
2.00
$35.90
$0.72
Courtesy of Koppers Company, Inc.
still in use. This is a: nOn,recovery, regenero.tive process. The purification

is effected by scrubbing the gas with a dilute (3 to 3.5 per cent) solution
of sodium carbonate., This treatment removes all the H 2S present, as
well as any ~ydrogen Icyanide and some of the CO 2.
Purifying:
CO 2
B: 2S + Na 2CO a --+ NaHS + NaHCO a

+ Na 2CO a + H 20 --+ 2NaHCO a
HeN + Na 2CO a --+ NaCN + NaHCO a
(1)
(2)
(3)
Actifying:
(4)
110
FUEL GASES
The reaction proceeds as in equation (4) when the solution is contacted

with a large flow of air or other gas or vapor to aid in removal of the
H 2S. The standard equipment for this process is a packed or bubble-cap
tower (Fig. 4) built in two separate sections or two separate towers, the
fresh solution being sprayed down to meet the incoming gas in the upper
section and air being blown upward countercurrently to the fouled
solution in the lower section. Here the H 2S is not recovered, being largely
diluted with the air used in the activator, though sometimes the discharged air is piped to a boiler to furnish air for combustion. H 2S removal
is not complete, and the accompanying atmospheric pollution has caused
several plants to change to other processes.
All the other processes discussed before have the common disadvantage
that the H 2S is lost, which caused the development of the following
regenerative proresses which recover the hydrogen sulfide. These methods all
depend upon absorption of the H 2S in a weakly alkaline solution, followed
by regeneration of the absorbing solution, usually by heating.
A recent modification of the Seaboard process is the .vacuum carbonate
process,l which is in use to remove H 2S from coal gas and oil refinery
gases. The recovered hydrogen sulfide gas is in concentrated form and can
be utilized for the production -Of sulfuric acid or elemental sulfur. The
vacuum carbonate process employs either a soda ash or a potassium
carbonate solution to absorb the H 2S from the gas and is somewhat
similar in principle to the original Seaboard process. It differs from that
process in that water vapor under vacuum is passed through the actifier
instead of air to regenerate the solution. Sufficient heat is added to the
bottom of the actifier to produce the required volume of water vapor and
the water vapor is condensed from the vapors leaving the top of the
actifier to separate it from the hydrogen sulfide. A two-stage steam-jet
ejector maintains the necessary vacuum on the system and propels the
recovered H 2S gas to the point of utilization. Additional condensers after
each of the steam jets are provided to condense the amount of steam that
enters through the jets. These steps. are illustrated by Fig. 1. It will be
noted that the equipment includes a heat exchanger 2 to ()btain the heat
/ required by the actifier from the waste heat present in the flushing liquor
that is normally recirculated through the gas~collecting mains of coke
ovens. By this means, a major reduction of steam costs is obtained, and,
incidentally, the primary gas coolers of the coke plant are relieved of part
of their load and their water consumption is reduced. For costs, see
Table 4. Soda ash solution is cheaper, but potassium carbonate solutions
can also be used. When the H~ content of the gas is higher, stronger
solutions are needed and the use of the more soluble potash is advantageous.
1 LEECH, W. A., JR., and F. D. SCHREIBER, Sulfuric Acid from Coke Oven Gas
Iron Steel Engr., 23 (12), 93-101 (1946).
I GOLLMAR, U.S. Pat~ 2464805 (1949).
111
112
FUEL GASES
TABLE
4.
OPERATING COST OF THE VACUUM CARBONATE PROCESS WITH
TWO-STAGE STEAM-JET EJECTORS AND HEAT-RECOVERY SYSTEM B
Plant capacity, standard cu. ft. per day ............................

Type of gas ....................................................
Sulfur content of inlet gas, grains H.S per 100 cu. ft .................
Sulfur removal, per cent .........................................
Gas pressure, in. of water column .................................
. 55,000.000
. Coke oven
500
.
90
.
20
.
Per day
Operating labor: 24 hr. at $2 per hr ............................... .
$ 48.00
6.00
Laboratory supervision ........................................... .
36.45
Electric power: 3,645 kw.-hr. at $0.01 per kw.-hr ....................
High-pressure steam: 186,000 lb. at $0.70 per M lb .................. .
130.00
4.80
Low-pressure steam: 9,600 lb. at $0.50 per M lb ..................... .
19.50
Average cooling water:b 1,300,000 gal. at $0.015 per M gal. .......... .
8.00
Sodium carbonate: 400 lb. at $0.02 per lb .......................... .
75.00
Maintenance ................................................... .
$327.75
Total operating cost before credits ................................. .
Credits:
Purifying coke-oven gas at 1.0 cent per 1,000 cu. ft ................ .
550.00
Recovered H.S when used to make sulfur or sulfuric acid 35,400 lb. at
354.00
1.0 cent ............................................... " ..'.
$904.00
Total credits ........................................ '......... .
$576.25
Net operating credit per day ...................................... .
1.0.~
Net operating credit per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas, cents ............... .' ... .
B

Adjusted for water saved at coke-plant primary gas cooler.
The process most used for the removal of H 2S from natural and refinery
gases is the Girbotol process developed by the Girdler Corporation in
1930. 1 There are many more of these installations for the treatment of
FIG. 2. Gas purification by the Girbotol aliphatic amine absorption process. For quantities, see Table 5.
natural lI'nd refinery gases I than all the other processes combined: The
a~ines employed commercially in this absorption process are mono-,
di-, and triethanolamine. Figure 2 illustrates the type of equipment used.
1 REl!:D, Improved Design, Operating Techniques, for Girbotol Absorption Processes, Pelroleum Processing, 2 (12), 907 (1947).
113
T AlH.E 5.
GlRBOTOL ABSORPTION PROCESS"
Pla.nt B,
Plant A,
lowhighsulfur
sulfur re fin ery
refinery gas near
its dew
gas
point
Gas rate, million standard cu. ft. per day .... .
4.59
Gas temperature, F ...................... .
90
Absorber pressure, lb. per sq. in ............ . 100
Apparent inlet HfS content, grains per 100
standard cu. ftb ........................ . 2188
Apparent outlet H.S content, grains per 100
standard cu. ft6 .............. " .... " ...
80
Actual outlet HtS content, grains per 100
standard cu. ft ....................... ..
11
Solution rate, gal. per min ................
75
Amine content of solution, per cent ......... .
9.5'
HtS content of lean solution, grains per gal. ..
35
H.S content of rich solution, grains per gal. .. 910
Steam for reactivation, lb. per hr ........... . 2860
Pounds of steam per lb. of H.S removed ..... .
4.8
Reboiler steam pressure, lb. per sq. in ....... .
7
Reactivator pressure, lb. per sq. in .......... .
2
Temperature of solution entering absorber, OF.
88
Temperature of solution leaving absorber, of ..
89
Temperature of solution entering rcactivator,
F .................................... . 195
Temperature of solution leaving reactivator,
F .................................... .
Amine m,ake-up, lb. per day ............... .
Dew point lowering, of ................... .
Plant D,
natura~
' gas punnatural. fics t'lO~
gas pund
Ii t'
an deell. Ion hydration
Plant C
5.28
155
290
400
400
304
163
135
8.00
74
1955
61
21.4
13.5'
16
586
22.5
13.4
5.6 d
34
492
606
6.6
10
6
140
149
7
1
93
11.1 d
8
847
785
9.2
37
1
82
78
60
206
176
194
232
215
265
1
35
15
STORRS, Cost of Hydrogen, Sulfide Removal from Refinmy ami Rouf Natural
Gases, Ind. Eng. Chern., New8 Ed., 17, 627 (1939).
Including mercaptans.
, Per cent diethanolamine by'weight.
d Per cent monoethanolamine, by weight .
Total losses including vapofization, chemical and mechanical, over a measurable
period.
While the early available triethanolamine was the first to be used, it has
been largely replaced by ~he others. MOlloethanolamine has a greater
capacity per unit volume of solution than diethfmolamine for absorption
of acid gas and the initial plant investment and operating cost is lower.
However, it is rather difficult to make general statements on the selection
of amines for gas purification. Diethanolamine as a 10 to 20 per cent
114
FUEL GASES
aqueous solution is commonly employed for H 2S removal from refinery

gases. For desulfurization of natural gas a 10 to 30 per cent aqueous
solution of monoethanolamine is normally used. The ethanolamines differ
in their selectivity for absorption of H 2S and CO 2 and this property, as
well as oxygen and sulfur compounds present in a gas stream frequently
determine the choice between monoethanolamine and diethanolamine.
For example, in treating refinery gas diethanolamine is selected when
carbon oxysulfide is known to be present as this amine does not react so
readily as monoethanolamine with this impurity to form nonregenerable
compounds. If simultaneous dehydration and desulfurization is desired,
natural gas may be scrubbed with a combination solution consisting of
amine, water, and diethylene glycol. Solution comp0f,litions for this
purpose are from 10 to 36 per cent monoethanolamine, 45 to 85 per cent
diethylene glycol, with the remainder water. The general reaction of
amines with H 2S which is reversible on heating may be expressed as
2RNH2
+ H 2S P
(RNHa)2S
The apparatus consists of a bubble-cap absorption tower, a bubble-cap

stripping tower, and various pumps, condensers, and heat exchangers.
The principles of a bubble-cap tower are shown by Fig. 4 and explained
by Perry.! The fouled liquid from the absorber passes through the heat
exchangers to the stripper where it meets rising steam and is heated to
about 250F., and has its content of H 2S and other gases removed. The
engineering aspects are presented in Table 5. Storrs2 points out that the
total cost of such purification" ranges from less than 0.5 cent per 1,000
standard cubic feet for natural gas with low hydrogen sulfide content to
2 cents per 1,000 standard cubic feet for refinery gas with unusually high
hydrogen sulfide concentrations."
The Shell tripotassium phosphate process uses the same general flow
scheme, and employs a 30 per cent solution of the salt. It depends for
regeneration upon a pH shift in the solution at elevated temperatures.
The system is more or less selective to H 2S in the presence of CO 2. Formaximum efficiency a split flow cycle is employed. This requires a greater
capital outlay and inc'reased cost of utilities. Offsetting this somewhat is
the lower volatility of the absorbent, which results in a lower solution
make-up and permits the use of live steam for stripping in place of the
reb oiler, if so desired.
The regenerative processes described above recover hydrogen sulfide.
In cases where the H 28 cannot be used, it is burned and the 80 2 dissipated ,to the atmosphere. In certain locations the H 2S content of Ii
natural gas or refinery gas is sufficiently high that it is economically
cit., pp. 597, 602, 550ff., 752.
Cost of Hydrogen Sulfide Removal from Refinery and Sour Natural
Gases, Ind. Eng. Chem., New8 Ed., Table 2,17,627 (1939).
1
PERRY, op.
STORRS,
115
feasible to recover and market the sulfur in connection with the gaspurification plant operation. The modified Claus process is sometimes
used for converting H 2S into elemental sulfur. This involves removing
water from the gas which then enters the combustion furnace. The
reactions which take place in the furnace are very complex, but an overall reaction may be postulated as
H 2S
~02~
+ H 20
The volume of air is manually controlled to provide the correct amount

for complete combustion of the hydrocarbons present and oxidation of.
the H 2S to sulfur. A sulfur of 99.97 purity may be obtained.
Another sulfur-recovery process 1 from high percentage H 2S involves
the separate oxidation of one-third of the H 2S to 80 2 and the following
reaction:
With modern control instrumentation, such a process is made to proceed
with only one inspection every few hours.
The Thylox process,2 unlike the other regenerative processes described,

recovers sulfur directly instead of H 28. It is also unique since the scrubbing solution is regenerated by air oxidation rather than heating. This
results in the formation in the solution of an elemental sulfur suspension.
The sulfur is removed by flotation and is filtered and dried (Fig. 3).
The reagent starts with an aqueous solution of arsenious oxide (about
7 grams per liter) in sQ<ia ash. The main reactions are
Absorption:
Na.As38602
Regeneration:
Na.As2S&0
+ H 28 ~ Na.As28&0 + H 20
+ ~02 ~ Na.As2S60 2 + 8
Sulfur from HzS, Chem. Eng., 59 (10), 210 (1952), pictured flow sheet;
c/. SAWYER, et al., Sulfur from Sour Gases, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42,1938 (1950), modified
Claus-Chance.
'FARQUHAR, Sulfur Removal from Coke Oven Gas, Chern. & Met. Eng., 51 (7),
94, 130 (1944), pictured flow sheet.
1 ANON.,
116
FUJ<]L GASES
The original processes used ill this country to produce precipitated sulfur
are known as the Ferrox and the nickel processes. It is believed that all
these installations have been converted to the newer Thylox, process
which is more economical and produces a larger yield (see Table 6).
TABLE
6.
OPERATING COST
OF
THE THYLOX PROCESS~
Type of gas ..... , , . ' . , , .. , ..... , .. , ,' ................ . Refinery

Capacity, standard cu. ft. gas per day .................. . 5,000,000
1,000
Sulfur content, grains H.S per 100 cu. ft ................ .
98
Sulfur removal, per cent .............................. .
60
Gas pressure, lb. per sq. in. gage .................... : ... .
Per day
$24.00
Labor: 12 hr. at $2 per hr ....... ' ..................... .
12.00
Power: 1,200 kw.-hr. at $0.01 per kw.-hr ................ .
7.50
Steam: 15,000 lb. at $0.50 per M lb .................... .
32.00
Soda ash: 1,600 lb. at $0.02 per lb ..... , ................ .
11.25
Arsenic trioxide: 150 lb. at $0.075 per lb ... '...... .
Maintenance, . , ..................................... .
3.00
$89.75
TotaL ............................................ .
1.8
Operating cost per 1,000 cu. ft. gas, cents ............... .
$62.50.
Credit for sulfur. 2.5 tons at $25 ....................... .
$27.25
Net operating cost ................................... .
0.55
Net cost per 1,000 cu. ft. gas, cents .................... '.'
o
COAL GAS
The processes for the distillation of coal are discussed in Chap. 6'.
Here will be given merely an outline of the treatment of the gas obtained
Liquid
Uquid level,
I
I
I
Gas or vapor
/.
LiqLlid
FIG. 4. Bubblc-cap column, cross section. A IS the downcomer bringing liquid from
plate above. B i~ the downcomer for plate below. C repre~ents the huhhle caps for
intimately mixing the vapor entering at D with the liquid flowing across plate. Frequently a baffle is placed between a downcomcr and an adjacent bubble cap.
WATER GAS (BLUE GAS)
117
from the dist.ilIation. Such gases come either from retorts or more usuaUy
from chemical-recovery coke ovens. The co-products in the hydraulic
main first go via the foul main through a primary condenser and a
baffled tar extractor as shown in Fig. 3 of Chap. 6, where the coal gas'
is separated from the ammonia liquor and the coal tar. The gas has its
ammonia removed as ammonium sulfate by bubbling through sulfuric
acid in a lead-lined saturator. The coal-tar products such as benzene,
toluene, and some naphthalene are scrubbed by straw oil in a packed lightoil tower or scrubber. The final steps of sulfur purification are similar to
those described above under Natural Gas. The uses of coal gas are also
parallel to those of natural gas. Present experimentation on a pilotplant scale is undertaking controlled underground gasification of coal in
Alabama. Many people believe this may open a way to the profitable use
of impure coal and seams too thin to mine, besides allowing a more
complete recovery of coal than mining now affords.
Water gas,2 often called blue gas because of the color of the flame when
it is burned, finds important usage as a heating gas for coke ovens and as
a low B.t.u. gas for diluting natural, oil, or coal gas. After mixing with oil
gas, carbureted water gas results, which is widely sold for domestic
consumption. Blue gas also serves as a step in making hydrogen (see
Chap. 8). The production of water gas is carried out by the reaction 3 of
steam on incandescent coke or coal at a temperature afound 1000C.
(1830F~) and higher where the rate and equilibrium are favorable,
according to the principal equation:
C(amorph.)
+ H 20(g)
-?
CO(g)
+ H2(g);
llH18S2"F. = +53,850 B.t.u.
This reaction also occurs apparently at several hundred degrees lower

temperature:
C(amorph.) + 2H 20(g) - ?
C~Mg)
+ 2H2(g);
llH1832"F. = +39,350 B.t.u.
These reactions are endothermic and, therefore, tend to cool off the
coke bed rather rapidly, thus necessitating alternate "run" and "blow"
periods. During the run period, the foregoing blue-gas reactions take
1 Operating results on coal gas. are given in Table 17, p. 1582, of Perry, op. cit.
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1576, 1579-1582. See p. 1580 particularly for discussion of
efficiencies, heat losses, heat and material balances.
PARKER, A Thermal Study of the Process of Manufacture of Water Gas, J. Soc.
Chem. Ind., 46, 72T (1927); SC6TTi Mechanism of the Steam-carbon Reaction, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 33, 1279 (1941). F()r rate and equilibrium results,. see FULWEILER, pp.
617-619, in "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1942; LOWRY, "Chemistry of Coal Utilization," Vol. II, pp. 16731749, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1945.
118
FUEL GASES
pLAN VIEW
ELEVAT!9N - SECTION A-A
FIG. 5. Reverse-flow water-gas machine for light- or heavy-oil operation. (Courtesy. oJ

.Semet-Solvay Engineering Corp.)

TABLE
7.
119
BREAKDOWN" OF FOUR-MINUTE CYCLE ON REVERSE-FLOW CARBURETED

WATER-GAS MACHINE OF FIG. 54
(Fuel is bituminous coal)
Operation
Per
cent
Seconds
Blow ........... .
30
72
Blowrun ........ .
12
Uprun ......
30
72
Backrun ........
33
79
Final uprun ..... .
Detail
Primary air is admitted. at base of generator and passes up through

fuel bed for the purpose of bringing the carhon up to gas-making
temperature. Secondary air is admitted into the large connection
between the generator and carburetor to compleie ,combustion of
blast gases. This heats. to the highest temperature. thc arches in
lower part of carburetor. The blast gases pass up the carburetor,
down the superheater. and up and out the stack, losing ,much of
their heat to the brickwork as they pass.
The function of the blowrun, which is used generally when bituminous coal is the generator fuel, is to recover as much DC the volatiles
from the coal as possible and to prevent overhea.ting of the carburetor and superheater. This blowrun Us usually carried on
immediately after the blow when the fire is at iu. highest temperature and the blast gases contain the highest per cent of CO, and
volatiles from the coal are passing off at a high rate. The blowrult
is a.ccomplished by. closing the secondary rur valve a.nd. the stack
valve and allowing this mixture of coal gas and producer g88 to pass
through the machine and into the washbox and out to the holder as
,make gas. Usually the blowrun is longer after a fresh fuel charge
has been put in the generator. the length of the blowrun being
decreased each run until a new charge is made.
Steam is admitted at the base of the generator and pasaes up throl1&h
the red-hot coke or coal, forming blue gas. Oil spraying into the
carburetor begins 5 sec. after start of uprun, thus cauaig all oil
cracking to take place in an atmosphere of blue gas. Oil gas is
formed by the pyrolysis of the oil entering countercurrent into the
uprising hot blue gas and from heat of radiation. The blue and oil
gases mix and p.... on to the superheater where the pyrolyais of the
gasified oil is continued and the gases fixed (or m ..de permanent).
This replaces the old downrun as steam is now admitted in the
bottom of superheater. passing up the superheater where it is
heated. down the carburetor. reacting with the red-hot carbon on
the carburetor arches deposited from oil cracking, further reacting
with coal or carbon in generator, finally pasaing out of the bottom
of generator directly through the cast-iron backrun pipe through
the three-way valve into the washbox. Sometimes additional oil
is sprayed into top of generator during this hackrun. to supply
:carbon for main blue gas reaction if oil is cheaper'than coal, and
;aiso to furnish more low-gravity oU gas (rich in hydrogen) particu
larly when employing a high percentage of blowrun in the make gas.
This short uprun makes a purge unnecessary. It puts a blanket of
steam between tne blue gas in baae of-generator and the air that
:follows. This leaves carburetor and superheater filled with backrun steam to be exhausted to atmosphere.
DO .... Ek. Experience with Ni~e-foot Reverse Flow Water Gas Machine. Mid-West Gas Associ ...
tion School, Iowa State College, Ames. Iowa. September, 1941; pri.at. communication from Semet
Solvay Engineering Corp.
'
120
FU];lL GASES
place and salable or make gas results; during the blow period, ail' is
introduced and ordinary combustion ensues, thus reheating the coke to
incandescence and supplying the B.t.u.'s required by the endothermic
useful gall-making reactions plus the various heat losses of the system.
The reactions are
C(amorph.)
02(g) ~ C02(g);
C02(g)
C(amorph.) ~ 2CO(g);
t:..H m2o F = -173,930 B.t.u.

t:..H 1mOF. = +68,400 B.t.u.
The generator itself consists of a steel shell lined with a refractory as

depicted in Fig. 5. It has doors at the top and bottom for the addition
of fuel and the removal of ash. Air for blow or blasting enters at the
grate level, and there is provision for the entrance of steam and the
removal of gas at both the top and the bottom. The usual cycle is of 4
to 6 min. in length, of which 25 per cent should be blow for usual operation. The run period is generally split into "uprun" and "downrun"
periods. In such, the first part is usually an uprun w~th the steam being
admitted at the bottom and the gas being removed at the top; this is then
reversed to a downrun and finally reversed again to give sufficient ).lprun
to clear the ashpit of gas just before the blow. The ratio of uprun to
downrun varies considerably with type of fuel. Materials' used in making
1,000 cu. ft. of water gas from coke are: coke. dry. 34.7 lb.; air for blast,
2,230 cu. ft.; steam, 51.9 lb.
New developments for the continuous manufacture of water gas from
solid carbonaceous fuels treated simultaneously with water and oxygen
are now in progress because of recent reductions in cost of tonnage
oxygen. 2 Blue water gas or synthesis gas, as it is called, is usually identified
with synthetic fuels, or the synthesis of other .chemicals such as alcohols
and oxygenated compounds. This mixture of CO and H2 is also a step in
low-cost hydrogen for ammonia (see Chaps. 8 and 20) and other hydrogenations. Because of its low B.t.u. value, synthesis gas is usually an
expensive fuel gas. Another approach to synthesis gas a involves oxidizing
pulverized coal in mixture of steam and oxygen.
For city gas, where it is desired to enhance 4 the hea~ing value of water
gas, oil& is atomized into the hot blue gas. A plant producing this carbureted blue gas has, in addition to the ordi~ary generator, a carburetor and
I
MORRIS, Carbonization of Coal with Blue Gas and Producer Gas, Am. Gas Assoc.
4th Ann. Convention, 'Pech. Sec., 4, 21 (1922).
POWELL, Symposium on Production of Synthesis Gas, Ind. Eng. Chern., 40, 558.
(1948); MARTIN, Synthesis Gas from Coal, Chem. Ind., 66, 365 (1950).
3 ANON., Du Pont Tri{'s New Route to Synthesis Gas, Chem. Eng., 61 (3), 114 (1954).
4 VI~INGHOFF, The Manufacture of High B.t.u. Carbureted Water Gas, Gas Age,
(12),23 (1938); HULL and KOHLHOFF, Oil Gas Manufacture, Ind. Eng. Chern., 44,
936 (1952), flow sheet.
This is not to be confused with the manufaeture of fuel gases from oils. CI. HULL
and KOHLHOFF, Oil Gas Manufacture, Ind. En". Chem., 44, U36 (1U52).
1
,,1
121
PRODUCER GAS
a superheater as shown in Fig. 5. These are also large refractory-lined

steel shells with brick checkerwork, at least in the superheater to provide
intensive heat-transfer surfaces. The combustion gases formed during the
blow period serve to heat the arches, side walls, and the checkerwork.
Then, during the run, oil is sprayed into the carburetor, is cracked or
pyrolyzed, and is passed on mixed with the water gas. In most cases it is
necessary to have tar traps to remove the heavy water-gas tar formed
during the vaporization of the oil.
One of the newer installations producing 520 to 540 B.t.u. per cu. ft.
of gas, using 23 to 25 lb. of coal and 2.7 to 3.1 gal. of heavy oil per M .cu.
ft. (1,000 cu. ft.), is detailed in Fig. 5 and Table 7. This is one answer to
the demand for economically manufactured gas for city consumption
wherein the use of low-priced bituminous coal and heavy oils is efficient.
The carburetor is not filled with checkerwork but is provided with arches
only; thus, a source of trouble is avoided when heavy petroleum oils are
used which fill up and block checkerwork with the coke formed and reduce
the heat transfer. The plant of Fig. 5 is called a reverse-flow water-gas
machine because the usual flow of gas through the carburetor and super- :
heater is reversed by elevating the carburetor somewhat and chang~ng the
flues. This causes better pyrolysis of the carburetor oil as it is sprayed in
countercurrent to the hot blue gas and permits the use of cheaper,
heavier oils; this also results in better heat balance and lessened repairs
from carbon blocks or stoppages.
/
PRODUCER GAS'
Producer gas is made by passing air and steam through a thick bed of
hot fuel. The primary purpose of the steam (25 to 30 per cent of the .
weight of the coke) is to use up as much as possible of the exothermic
energy from the reaction between carbon and oxygen to supply the
endothermic reaction between the carbon and steam. The reactions 2 ,
may be writ.ten as follows:
C(amorph.) + 02(g) -4 CO 2(g);
tJ.H 60"F. = -174,600 B.t.u. (1).
CO 2 (g) + C(amorpli.) ---+ 2CO(g);
tJ.HS00 F = +70,200 B.t.u. (2)
C(amorph.) + H 20(l) +--+ CO (g) + H2(g);
tJ.Hso-:; = +70,900 B.t.u.
I
(3)
tJ.H 60 o F . = +71,600 B.t.u.
C(amorph.)
2H 20(l)
CO 2 (g)
2H2(g);
.4
tJ.HS00 F .
= +700 B.t.u.
(4)
(5)
op. cit., pp. 1576, 1579; LOWRY, op. cit .. pp. 1586-1672.
Equilibrium and rate conditions for these reactions are given by Fulweiler, op. :cit.,
p.737.
, PERRY,
122
FUEL GASES
The initial reaction in the producer is the formation of the CO 2 and N 2(1).
As the gases progress up the bed, the initial CO2 is reduced to CO(2) and
the water vapor (made from liquid water in jacket) is partly decomposed
to give H 2, CO, and CO 2 The allowable temperature of the fuel bed,
which depends on the fusion point of the fuel ash, usually ranges from
/
FIG. 6. Typical arrangement of the Sernet-Solvay Koller-type gas producer when
gasifying coke or anthracite coal.
1800 t o 2800F., while the minimum bed height ranges from 2 to 6 ft. for
most of the commonly used fuels.
T he three main points observed in designing and operating a producer
are: (1) the exposed fuel surface should be large and kept uniform, (2)
the time of contact between gas and fuel should be as long as possible,
(3) the temperature should be as high as economical. Producers are
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GASES
123
usually large, refractory-lined or water-jacketed steel shells with a gas

outlet and fuel distributor at the top and a steam-air tuyere inlet and ashremoval system at the bottom. A modern gas producer is shown in Fig. 6.
Here the firebrick lining has been superseded by a heavy steel inner wall
with a water jacket. This prevents side-wall clinker and also furnishes
hot water or steam at 5 lb. pressure for mixing with the air. Figure 6
depicts a rotating grate for continuous ash removal and for helping to
maintain the even distribution of the coke. In operating a producer, either
a regenerator or a recuperator should be used to transfer the heat from
the outgoing gases to the incoming air. A regenerator recovers heat by
alternate passing of the hot and cold gases through a checkerwork, while
a recuperator operates by the continuous passage of the two gases through
adjacent flues. For both producer-gas and water-gas plants, a waste-heat
boiler is a valuable adjunct.
Producer gas is a cheap, low B.t.u. fuel gas used for all types of industrial heating purposes near where the gas is generated, a prime example
being its application to heat coke ovens and other furnaces. The producergas reaction also serves as one of the basic reactions in making ammonia
(see Chap. 20). Producer-gas manufacture with low-cost tonnage oxygen
is also showing important new possibilities along with water gas.
LIQUEFmD PETROLEUM GASES
Liquid propane and butane gas are extensively employed as stand-by

gases and peak-load supplements to municipal and industrial! systems
using natural and manufactured gas. The petrochemical industry is the
second largest consumer (Chap. 37). When added as a supplementary
gas, the propane or butane is mixed with air in order t o give satisfactory
performance in customer appliances adjusted to the base gas. Detroit
has 96 holders containing 30,000 gal. each to ease its peak loads and t o
enrich the heat content of its own product as do Chicago and New York.
Over 400 small-town utilities have found it more profitable to convert
from manufactured gas to liquefied petroleum gas exclusively. Since
butane (3,270 B.t.u. per cu. ft.) will not vaporize below 31F., it is
preferred in the South, while propane (2,520 B.t.u. per cu. ft. ) will
vaporize down to -44F. and is used in the North. Sometimes a mixture
of these two is employed.
Liquid petroleum gas comes from the ground as a constituent of wet
natural gas or crude oil or as a by-product from refining. For example,
a gasoline plant treats raw "wet" natural gas by absorption, separating
the usable fractions as depicted by Fig. 2 of Chap. 37.
I JAMISON,
(1950).
Liquefied Petroleum GaH- Indu8try's Standby, Chem. Eng., fl7 (5), 117
124
FUEL GASES
SELECTED REFERENCES
Meade, A., "Modern Gas Works Practice," Ernest Benn, Ltd., London, 1921.
Morgan, J. J., "A Textbook of American Gas Practice," Vol. 1, Production of Manufactured Gas, J. J. Morgan, Maplewood, N.J., 1931.
Perry, editor-in-chief, "Chemical Engineers' Handbook," 3d ed., pp. 1575-1596,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Haslam, Robert T., and Robert P. Russell, "Fuels and Their Combustion," McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1926.
American Gas Association, 420 Lexington Ave., New York. See various yearly
Proceedings.
"Gas Chemists' Handbook," 3d ed., American Gas Association, 420 Lexington Ave.,
New York, 1929.
"Combustion," American Gas Association, 420 Lexington Ave., New York, 1932.
"Gasenus Fuels," American Gas Association, 420 Lexington Ave., New York, 1948.
Furnas, C. C., editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., Chaps.
15 and 18, pp. 578 and 736, by W. 1I. Fulweiler, D. Van Nostrand Company,
Gumz, Wilhelm, "Gas Producers and Blast Furnaces," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1950.
Lowry, H. H., editor, "The Chemistry of Coal Utilization," 2 vols., John Wiley &
Huntington, R. L., "Natural Gas and Natural Gasoline," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947.
Battelle Memorial Institute, J. F. Foster and R. J. Lund, editors, !'Economics of
Fuel Gas from Coal," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
CHAPTER 8
INDUSTRIAL GASES
The industrial gases are important for many specific uses. As a class
they have already become among the most vital raw materials for 'the
chemical industry. Every day, new uses are being developed by aggressive
researchers and trained sales personnel of the manufacturing compani,es.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide in liquid and solid forms has been known for oye'r a
century. Although Thilorier produced solid carbon dioxide in 1835 from
the liquid material, it was not until 1924 that the solid product gained
industrial importance by its first and still most important use for refrigeration. This industry has grown rapidly, and in 1953 there were 179,~30
tons of liquid and gaseous carbon dioxide and 554,109 tons of solid
manufactured.
;
Uses. By far the largest use l of the solid form is for refrigerating i.ce
cream, meat, and other foods. It has an added advantage in that a carbon
dioxide atmosphere reduces meat and food bacteria spoilage. The solid
form is also important as a source of carbon dioxide for inert atmospheres
and occasionally for carbonated beverages. There are many other
specialty uses such as chilling aluminum rivets and shrink-fitting of
machine parts. The largest outlet of liquid carbon dioxide is for c!j,rbonated beverages. It is also important as a fire-extinguishing material.
Gaseous carbon dioxicie has many applications in the chemical industry
such as in the making'of salicylic acid (Chap. 39) and as a raw material
for soda ash (Chap. 1~).
Carbon dioxide has: advantages over ordinary.acids for neutralizing
alkalies because it is easily shipped in solid form, is noncorrosive in
nature, and is light i~ weight. Chemically it is equivalent to more f.hall
twice its shipping weight in sulfuric acid or about five times its weight.
in hydrochloric acid. In respect to food refrigeration, solid carbon
dioxide is primarily a transport refrigerant. Its advantages cannot be
attributed to anyone single factor but result from its dryness, it.s r~la
tively high specific .gravity, its excellent refrigerating effeQt, its iow
1 KIRK
and
OTHMER,
op. cit., Vol. 3, p. 139.
125
126
INDUSTRIAL GASES
temperature, and the insulating and desiccating action of the gas evolved.
Generally around 1,000 lb. of solid carbon dioxide will refrigerate an
average car for a transcontinental rail trip without recharging. A similar
load of water ice would require 3,700 lb. initially plus several supplemental chargings along the way.
Manufacture of Pure CO 2, Although there are many sources of carbon
dioxide, the following three are the most important for commercial
production:
1. Flue gases which result from burning carbonaceous material and contain
about 10 to 18 per cent carbon dioxide.
2. By-product from the fermentation industries through dextrose breakdown
into alcohol and carbon dioxide, the gas containing about 99 per cent carbon
dioxide.
3. By-product of limekiln l operation where carbonates are calcined to the
oxidesj the gases analyze from 10 to 40 per cent CO 2
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID CO, AND WATER ICE
Solid CO.
Specific gravity ......................
1.56
Sublimation point or melting point ..... -109. 6F.
Critical temperature ..................
88.43F.
Critical pressure ...................... 1,071 lb. abs.
Latent heat of fusion, lb ..............
82.0B.t.u.
158.6 B.t.u.
Latent heat of vaporization, lb .........
0.117 lb.
Weight of gas, cu. ft ..................
90 lb.
Weight solid, cu. ft ...................
Latent heat of sublimation, lb .. , ......
248 B.t.u.
Refrigerating effect, lb ................
275 B.t.u.
Water ice
0.90
32F.689F.
2,860.6 lb. abs. at 32F.
144 B.t.u.
1,074.29 B.t.u. at 2F.
o.000304 lb.
57 lb.
144 B.t.u.
An absorption system is used for concentrating the CO 2 gas obtained

in (1) and (3) to over 99 per cent. In all cases the almost pure carbon
dioxide"'must be given various chemical treatments for the removal of
the minor impurities which contaminate the gas. One of the reactions 2
/ for the concentration of the carbon dioxide is ,
1 ORR, Byproduct CO. Builds a New Refrigerant Business, ((hem. &; Met. Eng., .40,
250 (1933); ANON., Carbon Dioxide from Limekiln Gases, Chem. &; Met. Eng., 46, 97
(1939), flow sheets.
t PERRY, op. cit., pp. 677-679. Here are given equations for the partial pressure
of CO. toge~her with references to original work. Ci. Gas Absorption in PERRY, ap.
cit., particularly pp. 703-705. SHERWOOD and PIGFORD, "Absorption and Extraction,"
pp. 354-368, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952; QUINN and
.JONES, "Carb~n Dioxide," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1936.
i27
MANUFACTUUE OF PUUE C02
This reaction is forced to the right by increasing the partial pressur.~ of

the CO 2 and by reducing the temperature. It is forced to the left by
heating up the sodium bicarbonate solution. The absorption efficiency of
18 per cent CO 2 is not very good as the quantities of Fig. 1 indicate.
This absorption could be increased by use of another absorbing to'Y~r.
However the CO 2 available in this case comes from the combustion of
carbon in a boiler plant generating the required steam; it happens that
the steam is the critical, expensive, and controlling item. To carry out
CARBON DIOXIDE (SOLID OR LIQUID)
Coke0.85 Ion
Coolin9 H,o (10101)
18.000901.
Lye make.p (No,CO,) 25 Ib.
Sleom
12,000 Ib.} Required 10 produce
Electridly (Iotol) 286 kw.- hr. 1 ton of solid CO, from
Lobor
8mon-hr. 18 per cent fl.e 90S
"In pia"" 0' as!; ton ,ok. sam. plants .", ton SO" cool,. 730901. fueloitor 2,200<", It. naturai 90S
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for CO. (solid or liquid) from coke_
this manufacture, the principal unit operations (Op.) and unit processes
(Pr.) that are necessary are detailed in the following tabulation:
/
Coke or other carbonaceous fuel burned, giving heat for steam and economizer,
and furnishing 18 per cent CO 2 (Pr. and Op.).
. ,
Gas purified, cooled, and washed (Op.).
Gas reacted countercurrent forming NaHC0 3 solution from CO 2 and Na 2 CO.
sqlution (Pr.).
Concentrated (99.9 per cent) CO 2 boiled out of NaHC0 3 solution (Pr. and
Op.).
CO. purified and dried (Pr.).
CO 2 compressed, cooled, and liquefied (Op.).
For "Dry Ice":

Liquid CO 2 subjected to reduction in pressure with Q<?nsequent partial solidification (Op.).
I
Recirculation, with recompression and recooling of evaporated CO 2 (OpS).
I
'
CO 2 "snow" compressed to solid cake (Op.).
Dry Ice cakes sawed to shape (Op.).
A typical flow sheet, continuously producing either liquid or:" solid

and embracing the sequences of these unit operations and unit prOCesses,
is shown in Fig. 1. IIi the merchandising of liquid carbon dioxide: the
energy (and hence expense) involved in handling the cylinders, full,.and
128
INDUSTRIAL GASES
empty, is so great that this one fact has required the installation of many
relatively small plants economically located in consuming centers. However, bulk shipment of relatively low-pressure liquid cold l carbon dioxide
is now being practiced to save container cost and weight. Where pure
carbon dioxide from fermentation, for example, is not available, the
practice, largely conditioned by the energy balance, is to burn coke to
furnish the necessary energy and the carbon dioxide at the same time ..
If heat exchangers are properly designed, it is necessary to buy but little
outside energy for solid CO 2 and none for liquid CO 2 (see Fig. 1), the
live steam generated by the coke boilers being sufficient to furnish power
for pumping and compression, while the exhaust steam from steamdriven compressors will boil off the carbon dioxide from the sodium
bicarbonate solution in the lye boiler. These coke plants are splendid
examples of well-balanced energy and chemical requirements. It takes
an efficiently designed coke boiler to generate 12,000 lb. of steam from
0.85 ton of coke. The temperature of combustion is so high in these special coke boilers when operated to furnish an 18 per cent CO 2 gas, that it
has been economical to employ the more expensive but more serviceable
carborundum bricks for the boiler setting.
In following Fig. 1, it should be observed that after the coke is burned
in the boiler, producing 18 per cent CO 2 , these hot gases pass tllrough an
economizer and then to the limestone water scrubbers where the gases
are further cooled and the 80 2 and dust removed. In the meanwhile the
"strong lye" (solution of N aHC0 3) after being warmed in the heat
exchanger, is further warmed in the economizer (not shown in Fig. 1)
before passing to the lye boiler where the N aHC0 3 is decomposed back
to Na 2 C0 3 by being boiled (about 245F.) with the exhaust steam from
the CO 2 compressors.
The concentrated (99.9 per cent) gas escapes through a rectifying section connected to the lye boiler body where it comes in contact with the
entering hot strong lye from the ~conomizer 'and the heat exchanger.
The temperature of the entering lye is raised while the temperature of
the gas is reduced. The gas is passed to a water cooler where the temperature is lowered further and' the water-vapor content is greatly
I reduced. The condensate from the cooler returns to the weak lye circuit. The gas is collected,in a gas holder.
From the first stage of compression the CO 2 passes to a purifying system, consisting of an oil separator and a scrubber containing KMn04 or
K 2 Cr 2 07 solution which oxidizes organic impurities that would affect the
taste. In the second purifying scrubber sulfuric acid, calcium chloride,
silica gel, a~tivated alumina, pr activated bauxite dries the gas to prevent corrosi'on and freezing up of subsequent equipment.
I Ch:'l'z and GEER'I'Z, Transportation and Storage of Bulk Low-pressure Liquid Carbon DioxidEl, Ind. Ena. Chern., 83, 1124 (l!)oU).
MANUFACTUUE OF PURE C02
The completely deodorized gas is further compressed 1 in a compres!lor

driven by live steam from the coke boiler and delivering exhaust stean'l
to the lye boiler. The first stage raises the pressure to 80 lb.; the secOlid
to 390 lb. A third compressor raises pressure to 900 lb., if liquid is de~
sired. During compression, care should be taken to have very good
cooling because the gas leaving the compressor may be above its critial
temperature of 88.43F. Therefore, it is passed first through a chiller
and next to the third compression which is connected with the liquid fiiling stand. The gas charged into the cylinders as a liquid has a purity
of at least 99.9 per cent, will not contain 0.1 per cent moisture, and is
free of organic impurities.
The equipment used is almost all of steel, though the water limestone
scrubb'ers are sometimes lined with concrete to lessen attack by aqueous
sulfite. The absorbers are tall steel towers, 100 ft. high, with frequently
placed steel platforms on which porous coke is supported to ensure good
contact with the rising gases.
A very large source of carbon dioxide is the fermentation industry ras
described in Chap. 31. If yeast is used, alcohol and CO 2 are produced,
while certain other microorganisms generate solvents and a gaseous mix'ture of H2 and CO 2. The yield of CO 2 varies with the mode of fermen.tation. From starchy material, such as corn, there is obtained from
1 bushel, for example, 2Y2 gal. of 190-proof ethyl alcohol and 17 ib. CO 2.
The recovery and purification of CO 2 from fermentation differ from the
absorption system, in that the temperature seldom exceeds 105F., so
that no special cooling is necessary and the CO 2 content of the gas starts
usually above 99.5 per cent. When the fermentors are sealed for the
recovery of the gases, a purer and higher yield of carbon dioxide per gallon of mash is obtained and the yield of alcohol is increased by at least
1 per cent by alcohol recovery from the CO 2 scrubbers.
A typical CO 2 recovery from fermentation follows the procedure of
Reich 2 as illustrated in the flow sheet of Fig. 2. Here the purification
consis~s of an oxidation of the organic impurities and a dehydration, by
means of chemicals in ~iquid form. The gas from the fermentors is passed
through three scrubbers containing stoneware spiral paqking and on to
the gasometer. The first scrubber contains a weak alcoholic solution
which acts as a preliIhinary purifier and removes-most of the alcohol
carried in the gas. The next two scrubbers, in which the scrubbin~
medium is deaerated rater, remove almost all the water-soluble 'impur~1 For flow diagrams with accompanying data, see KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol.
3, pp. 134--135.
;
"
REICH, Liquid CO.-How Technology Has Harnessed Available Sources, Cheril.
& Met. Eng., 38, 136 (1931); REICH, Solid CO 2 , Technology Defers to Distribution
Problellls, Chem. & Met. Eng., 38, 270 (1931). These articles include fundamental datiJ.,
flow sheets, and temperatures of several processes.
'
130
INDUSTRIAL GASES
ties. The scrubbing liquid is pumped either to the stills or to the fermentors for alcohol recovery.
From the gasometer the gas is conducted to a scrubber containing
K 2Cr 20r solution which oxidizes the aldehydes and alcohols in the gas,
which is then' cooled. In the second scrubber which contains sulfuric
acid the oxidation is completed and the gas is dehydrated. The carbon
dioxide leaving the acid scrubber contains some entrained acid which is
removed in a tower filled with coke and over which a Na 2 CO S solution
is circulated. When the acid is neutralized, carbon dioxide is released.
Before going to the compressor, the gas passes through a !,crubber containing a small amount of glycerine which absorbs the oxidized products
FERMENTATION C02 PURIFICATION--:
(REICH PROCESS)
Bichromate
.Sadium cartonate
.' Oil
H,SO. (66 0 Be I
0.4"
O.Of
0.01
5
lb.
lb.
gal .
gal!'
Water
Electricity
Direct iQbor
2.000 gal. } Per ton

4.5 kw.-hr.'
0.1 mon-hr.
solid
CO.
"Wtqk H1SO. 01/ rec..~r~d for uSl in moloss~s f~rm~ntotion

'Not including solid CO, compreSSing sys"m
FIG. 2. Flow sheet on fermentation CO. purification-Reich process.
and delivers an odorless gas to the compressor. The sulfuric acid, after
being used for deodorization and drying, is pumped to the distillery _where'
it serves for the pH control in mo~asses fermentation.
There are a number of other methods for purifying carbon dioxide_
Among them mention should be made of the silica gel process 1 wherein
water and odors are removed from the partly compre!,sed gas (80 lb.)
by adsorption and the 'silica gel is revivified ,by heated air. The Backus'
process employs activa.ted carbon for similar purposes but works on the
uncompressed gas. The carbon is regenerated by heating with direct and
indirect steam and finally is dried by hot air. Generally two sets Of
active carbon purifiers are employed so that while one is being II revivified" the other is in use to effect continuous operation.
Other absorbing liquids in ,addition to a soda ash solution are employed.
Potassium carbonate offers slight advantages but it costs more than soda
1 REICR, Liquid CO.-How Technology Has Harnessed the Available Sources,
Chem. & Milt. Eng., 38, 140 (1931).
MANUFACTURE OF PURE C02
1,31
ash. However, still more expensive absorbents, namely, amino alcohols,

are being used competitively because of their greater power to absorb CO 2
and the easier reversibility of this absorption. In particular is mo'nQellulnolamine 1 of industrial importance, because of its high rate of absorption for CO 2 It is being employed as a 10 to 20 per cent aqueous so1l1tion. Aqueous solutions of monoethanolamine are also used for the
absorption of CO 2 from combustion gases as a step in making liqUId
C02. In some instances, solutions of monoethanolamine and diethylrie
glycol function to remove CO 2 and dehydrate the gases siml,lltaneously,
Several factors determine the concentration of solutions of monoethanolamine. The more dilute the solution, the lower the evaporati'on
and the mechanical losses. In most cases, the gases at atmospheric pressure are scrubbed in absorber towers packed with steel turnings, coke,
or Raschig rings. Under these conditions a 10 to 15 per cent monoethanolamine solution will be concentrated enough to strip the CO 2
completely out of a combustion gas containing 12 to 15 per cent C02
when the minimum circulation rate necessary for good scrubbing is maIntained. With this solution the quantity of CO 2 liberated per gallon of
solution circulated, when scrubbing a gas at atmospheric pressure and
temperature with about 15 per cent of CO 2, will be about 0.20 to 0.25 lb.
The CO 2 is not completely removed from monoethanolamine solutions in
commercial installations on boiling at atmospheric pressure, and the
residual CO 2 content after reactivation amounts to about 0.012 lh.' of
CO 2 per gallon for each per cent of monoethanolamine present in the
solution. By raising the operating pressure to about 40 lb. per sq. in.
gage in order to increase the reactivator temperatU're to 140 or 145C.,
this residual CO 2 can be almost completely removed from the monoethanolamine solutions by the effect of the higher temperature in dissociating the monoethanolamine carbonate. Under such conditions, net
CO 2 removal rates as high as 0.88 lb. per gal. of solution have been
obtained. 2
With sOda ash solutions under ordinary conditions the recovery will
be from one-half to two-thirds of the 0.20 to 0.25 lb. mentioned above
with the added nece~sity of using four or five times as much scrubb'ing
contact between the ,flue gas and the soda ash solution and with more
steam required for stripping the CO 2 from the solution. Less absorbing
capacity is required tor the amine than for sodium carbonate, but the
recovery is the samE! in either case in a properly designed plant. It is
1 MASON and DODGE, Equilibrium Absorption of Carbon Dioxide by Solutions', of
the Ethanolamines, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 32, 27 (1936); cf. PERIIY, op. Cit.,
pp, 677-ti78. This is th~ Girbotol process of the Girdler Corporation. See Chap; 7
under Fuel Gas Purification.
"
Private communication from the Girdler Corporat.ion. For plant, see pictured, flow
sheet in Chem, & Met. Eng., 47, 37 (1940).
132
INDUSTRIAL GASES
possible t.o reduce the carbon dioxide in the exit gases to 1 per cent, but
it is not always economical to do this.
The monoethanolamine solutions used for removing CO 2 from hydrogen are usually more concentrated than those used for recovering CO 2
from flue gases. The hydrogen is generally scrubbed at elevated pressures (up to about 250 lb. per sq in. gage), which proportionately reduces
amine vaporization losses. Since bubble-plate absorbers are mostly employed, a wide range of solution circulation rates may be used. The
CO 2 content of the hydrogen is usually fairly high (18 to 33 per cent),
giving conditions that are favorable for high absorption capacities. In
these plants the solution strength usually is kept between 20 and 30 per
cent amine and the CO 2 liberated amounts to 0.35 to. 0.40 lb. per gal. of
solution circulated. This rate of CO 2 removal is obt.ained when the
absorption is carried out so that the purified hydrogen will contain less
than 0.1 per cent of CO 2
One objection to the use of ethanolamine solutions is their corrosiveness due to their oxidation to glycine and oxalic acid, both compounds
being corrosive to iron. The monoethanolamine is much less susceptible
to oxidation than the di- and tri-compounds. Although usually all that
is necessary is the continuous redistillation of a portion of the solution
(discarding the residue), at times the entire solution has to be replaced
by a new one. If a redistillation unit is used, it may be connected i:a
series with the main regeneration unit; then the steam used for redistillation of the solution may be utilized in stripping CO 2 from the solution in
the regeneration equipment.
Solid carbon dioxide l is manufactured from the chilled liquid, as outlined in Figs. 1 and 2. The return, or back blow gases, .from the presses
and the expansion bottles are recompressed. As required for the presses,
chilled liquid is drawn through an expansion tank where the pressure is
partly released in order to accomplish further cooling of the liquid (to
- 4OF.). The yield is increased 'from 25 to 50 per cent by precooling
the liquid. The released gas passes to the second stage of the compressor. Liquid CO 2 from the expansion tank is then expanded through a
nozzle into the press, provided with top I:I.nd bottom rams.
The cycle of operat~on of the press is very simple. With the upper
ram at the top and the lower ram closing the bottom of the expansion
chamber, liquid CO 2 is admitted for a predetermined time until sufficient
snow has formed. During this period, gas formed from expansion is conducted from the expansion chamber to the second stage of the compressor. The, liquid feed is th~n cut off, and the residual pressure in the
1 See KIRK and OTHMEI\, op. cit., Vol. 3, pp. 136-139; REICH, Solid CO. Industry
Thrives on Improved Production Methods, Chern. Eng., 118 (1), 120 (1946), for flow
charts and description.
133:
HYDROGEN
expansion chamber is released to the gasometer. When this is done, the,

upper ram is lowered to compact the snow to a dense cake which has a
specific gravity of about 1.5. The upper ram is raised and then the
lower ram, on which rests the finished block, is lowered. The block is
discharged, packed, and stored. Occasionally for solid CO 2, special purification is practiced on the partly compressed CO 2 by washing with
KMn04 solution followed by a drying tower with either calcium chloride
or sulfuric acid.
HYDROGEN
Uses and Economics. Hydrogen is an important and diverse raw material for the chemical industry. In the 4-year period ending with 1950,
TABLE 2. HYDROGEN REQUIRED FOR TYPICAL PRODUCTsa
Raw
material
except
hydrogen
Product
Phenol.., ... Cyclohexanol

Nitrogen .... Ammonia
Naphthalene. Tetralin
Hydrogen
required,
cu. ft.,
60F.
25,000
84,000
12,000
Raw material
except hydrogen
Product
Olein ............ Stearin

Diisobutylene .... Isooctane
Carbon monoxide. Methanol
Hydrogen
required,
cu, ft.,
60F.
2,600
6,.700
230
a STENGEL and SHREVE, Economic Aspects of Hydrogenation, Ind. Eng. Chem., 82,
1212 (1940).
All hydrogen requirements are per ton of product except synthetiC methanol (per
gallon) and isooctane (per barrel).
/
hydrogen production rose from 20,000,000 to 45,163,000,000 cu. ft.; however, much of the hydrogen made is consumed in the producing plant
itself and is not included in these census figures. The largest quantity
is employed in the synthesis of ammonia, but the hydrogenation processes
especially in the chemical, petroleum, and food industries consume important quantities. Table 2 co.mpares amounts of hydrogen required for
various hydrogenation l reactions. In addition to these chemical applications, hydrogen is'very widely employed for welding and other heating
processes. For such purposes the hydrogen is suppl~d in the form of a
compressed gas in cylinders,
1 An excellent presentatiorl of the unit process of hydrogenation together with cost
for producing hydrogen by different procedures is given by Fenske in his chapter on
Hydrogenation, in GROGGINS; "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., McGraw~;
Hill Book Company, Inc., ,~ew York, 1952; cf. STENGEL and SHRI!.'YE, Economic
Aspects of Hydrogenation, :Ind. HTtfl. Chern., 82, 1212 (1940); TAYWR, "Industrial,
Hydrogen," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, Ncw York, 1921.
134
INDUSTRIAL GASES
HYDROGEN MANUFACTURE
Prior to 1900, the uses of hydrogen were few, and the supply was
filled almost entirely by electrolytic processes. Since then, the demand
for large-scale hydrogen production for chemical reactions has increased
so greatly that there are now available the following important methods
for manufacture: 1
TABLE
3.
PROCESS REQUIREMEl'iI'TS PER THOUSAl'iI'D STANDARD CUBIC FEET
OF HYDROGEN
Quantity
Material or utility
Coke, lb ................................ .
Steam, lb ............... '................ .
Cooling water, gal. ...................... .
Power, kw.-hr ........................... .
Ore, catalyst, and chemicals, cents ......... .
Fuel,. B.t.u. (gas or oil) ................... .
Propane, gal. ........................... .
Steam-iron
process"
65-85
50<Hi00
1,000
2.0
8.0
30,000
Water-gas
catalytic
process"
42
445
1,980
3.0
2.0
Steamhydrocarbon
process~
360
1,800
2.0
1.0
350,000
2.75
"REED, Present-day Hydrogen Manufacturing Processes, Tran8. Am. In8t. Chem.

Engr8., 42, 379 (1946).
~ The Commercial Production of Pure Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons and Steam,
Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 41, 453 (1945).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Steam-hydrocarbon process.
Water-gas catalytic process.
Steam-iron process.
Electrolysis of water.
Thermal dissociation of hydrocarbons such as natural gas.
6.. Partial oxidation of hydrocarbons followed by "shift reaction."
In addition hydrogen is obtained as a by-product in the operation of

a number of processes, e.g., from the electrolysis of aqueous sodium.
chloride (Chap. 15) a~d from butanol fer~entation (Chap. 31). Hydrogen is also prepared from the cracking of ammonia. During the Second
World War portable units for the manufacture of hydrogen and carbon
dioxide reacting methanol and steam were built for the armed forces. 2
~ince 1952 more hydrogen has been produced by reacting hydrocarbons, pa~ticularly natural gas, with steam than by all the other methods
combined.
This is a fairly' recent economical development mainly bel
1 REED, Present-day Hydrogen Manufacturing Processes, Trans.
Engr8., 42, 379 (1946), quantitative data and flow sheets.
2 For description and flow sheet, see REED, op. cit., p. 388.
Am.
Inst. Chef[l.
STEAM-HYDROCARBON PROCESS
135
,'
cause of improvements in heat-transfer knowledge and equipment, and

gas-purification procedures. Although plants were installed in the 193Q~s
for this process, it was not until 1940 that it was used as a source, of
hydrogen for ammonia synthesis. In 1952 over 80 per cent of the United
States capacity for synthetic ammonia employed this process for their
hydrogen. This hydrogen is also important in methanol synthesis, hydrogenation of vegetable oils and petroleum, and other hydrogenations
and syntheses. Table 3 compares the process requirements for the stea~
iron, water-gas catalytic, and steam-hydrocarbon methods. For a small
unit, hydrogen can be produced most easily electrolytically, particularly
where electricity is cheap. The steam-iron method for producing hydrogen is still used in a number of small plants especially those hydrogenating vegetable oils where pure hydrogen is required to prevent any objectionable taste. The water-gas catalytic method is the second largest
process for producing hydrogen and is widely employed in ammonia and
methanol syntheses. Excluding the much larger amounts of hydrogen
for production of NHa and CHaOH, there were produced in 1952, 27,732,000,000 cu. ft. of this gas.
. Steam-hydrocarbon Process. The reaction between hydrocarbons, especially methane and propane,' and steam to produce carbon oxides arid
hydrogen is highly endothermic. With propane as the raw material the
reactions are
C aR8(g)
+ 3H 0(g) <= 3CO(g) + 7R~(g);
CaHR(Y)
+ (jH 0(g) <= 3C0 (y) + lOT-hey);
+230,800 B,t.u.
/
AH,bOOo". = +187,100 B.t.u.
AH 16OOF
(1)
(2)
Desulfurized propane iR mixed with steam and passes through the hyci"rogen furnace where reaction takes place at about 1500F. over a nickel
c!J:talyst. At the furnace loutlet, more steam is added to cool the gas to
about 750F. and to increase the partial pressure of the H 20. The mixture is passed into an iron oxide shift converter where most of the CO is
oxidized to CO 2 The gas is conducted through a heat exchanger 'and
into the first CO 2 !J:Dsorber where a stream of monoethanolamine solution removes the CO 2 At the absorber outlet, steam is mixed with the
gas, and the mixtur(;l is passed through the heat-exchanger, where it is
heated and the oxidation and absorption cycle,is repeated two more
times. The final pr~duct (hydrogen) is more t.han 99.9 per qent pure,
with less than 0.01 per cent of CO or CO 2 , and less than 0.1 per cent
residual hydrocarbop-s. Pure CO 2 is obtained as a by-product through
continuous regeneration
of the monoethanolamine
solution by boiling and
,
,
1
ANON.,
quantities.
Hydrogen, Chern. Eng., 63 (5), 122, 162 (1946), pictured flow sheet ~lth
136
INDUSTRIAL OASES
steam stripping. This amounts to 35 lb. of CO 2 per M cu. ft. of H2 and

may be recovered for sale or use.
The synthesis gas ammonia production is made by reforming natural
gas as follows: Natural gas is passed over zinc oxide at 675 to 750F. to
remove all traces of sulfur compounds. The desulfurized gas is mixed
with approximately 3.5 volumes of steam and passed to the reforming
furnace which contains a supported nickel catalyst. The catalyst is kept
at 1300 to 1500F. by external heat. The natural gas is reformed by the
steam endothermically to form CO and H 2 , with lesser amounts of CO 2 ,
unconverted methane (about 7 per cent), oxygen, and nitrogen.
I1H 1600"l'. = -194,000 B.t.u.
This product gas is mixed with enough air to complete the conversion
and to add the nitrogen required for ammonia synthesis before entering
a second reforming unit. The product gas is passed into a shift converter (see Water-gas Catalytic Process) and these gases are compressed
in three stages usually, to approximately 250 lb. per sq. in. for scrubbing
with water or an ethanolamine solution to remove CO 2 , It is further
compressed in two stages to 1,800 lb. per sq. in. and scrubbed with a
solution of copper ammonium formate to take out essentially all of the
remaining CO and CO 2 The gas is then washed with a 5 per cent caustic
solution, leaving a product with the theoretical 3HdN 2 ratio required for
ammonia synthesis.
The synthesis gas for methanol production contains essent.ially hydrogen and carbon monoxide in a 2 to 1 ratio. When natural gas is reformed,
the primary reformer is adjusted to lower the usual 3 to 1 = H 2 /CO ratio
in the effluent by adding heavier hydrocarbons or CO 2 to the reformer
feed. Since nitrogen, obviously, is not required, a secondary reformer is
not used. The CO 2 in the primary effluent is removed conventionally and
recycled to the reformer feed. The .2HdCO gas'mixture is compressed to
around 300 atm. for met.hanol synthesits.
Water-gas Catalytic Process. Water gas and st.eam will react catalyt! ically at high temperatures to produce hydroge,n:
I1H 700 F. =- -16,.500 B.t.u.
The equilibrium constant for the reaction may be expressed as

or
K2 is the so-called "shift reaction," or water-gas conversion reaction.

Since the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium conversion decreases
with increasing temperature. At t.he low pressures involved, K2 is sub-
137
STEAM-IRON METHOD
stantially equal to the thermodynamic equilibrium constant, and the

change in K2 with temperature may be found from the equation
din Kp
AH
dT
= RT2
In addition, it has been found 1 that, over the temperature range of SQ to
lS00F., K2 values are correlated by the empirical equation
K 2=
49.5
(7,350)
F.+400
Substituting in this equation, the following values are obtained: ,for

752F., K2 = 0.OS4; for SOOF., K2 = 0.11; for S42F., K2 = 0.134; and
for 932F., K2 = 0.201. This adverse effect of enhanced temperature
on the equilibrium constant reduces the advantages of increased rates
obtained at higher temperatures. As a result, the reaction is generally
carried out in two stages: operating temperatures in the first are SOQ to
900F. in order to secure high initial rates; in the second', temperature!? of
700 to 750F. are utilized to secure the maximum yield. Heat exchangers
are employed to transfer the sensible heat of the gases leaving the catalyst
chambers to the incoming gases. Improvements in catalysts for the reaction have decreased the necessary ratio of water gas to steILm, until,
at present, ratios as low as 2 to 1 are used. The catalyst 2 generally
employed is iron oxide activated by chromium compounds. If the hydrogen is to be used at high pressures, such as in the synthesis of ammoilla
or methanol, it is subjected to the established purification methods (see
Chap. 20, Fig. 3.)
,
Steam-iron Method. Pure hydrogen is produced by the steam-ir~n
method by passing excess steam over spongy iron (a large exposed sUrface heing a vital factor) at temperatures of 1400 to 19OOF. On pa~s
ing a reducing gas such as water gas or producer gas through the retoJ;i,
the following reversible reactions occur:
Fe 304(C)
+ H2(g) p.3FeO(c) + H 20(g);
Fe 304(c)
+ CO(g) p
+ CO 2(g);
AH1650"F.
FeO(c) + H2(g) P Ve(c) + H 20(g);

FeO(c)
CO(g) p Fe(c) + CO 2 (g);
= +27,300 B.t.u. (1)
AH 16 50"F.
3FeO(c)
+13,200 B.t.u.
AH l 650F. = +6,500 B.t.u.

AH 1650"F. = -7,700 B.t.u.
(2)
(3)
(4)
The CommerCial Production of Pure Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons and

Steam, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 41, 453 (1945).
.
I
BRIDGER, et al., Development, Production, and Performance of Water-gas Cop.version Catalyst, Chem. Eng. Progr., 44, 363 (1948).
1
REED,
138
INDUSTRIAL GASES
After the reducing period of 5 to 7 min., steam is passed through the

reduced oxides for an equal amount of time, reversing reactions (1) and
(3) producing hydrogen and the original oxides. The cycle is then repeated. When CO is present in the reducing gas the net heat change is
aH 1860"F.
-14,000 B.t.u.
(5)
Usually the heat resulting from the oxidation of CO is not enough to

overcome heat losses and the spent reducing gas is burned in a refractory superheater section above the ore bed to provide the additional heat
needed. Since most of these plants have capacities in the range of 50,000
to 250,000 cu. ft. of hydrogen per day, the production is small compared
with the water-gas catalytic process and the steam-hydrocarbon process
although the number of plants using this process is large.
Electrolytic Method. The electrolytic process consists in passing
direct current through a dilute aqueous solution of alkali, decomposing
the water according to the following equation:
aH
+136,700 cal.
The theoretical decomposition voltage for this electrolysis is 1.23 volts

at room temperature; however, owing to overvoltage of hydrogen on the
electrodes and also to cell resistance itself, voltages of 2:0 to 2.25 volts
are usually required. A typical commercial 1 cell electrolyzes a 15 per
cent NaOH solution, uses an iron cathode and a nickel-plated iron anode,
has an asbestos diaphragm separating the electrode "compartments, and
operates at temperatures from 60 to 70C. The nickel plating of the
anode reduces the oxygen overvoltage. Most types of cells produce
about 7.0 cu. ft. (9.408 cu. ft. theoretically) of hydrogen and half as
much oxygen per kilowatt-hour. The gas is around 99.7 per cent pure
and is suitable even for hydrogenation for edible oils. The cells are of
two types: the bipolar or filter-press type, wb'ere each plate is an individual cell; and the unipolar or tank cell, usually containing two anodecompartments with a cathode compartment between them. The unipolar cells may be open or closed tanks. In most installations the oxygen,
produced is wasted unless it can be used 10ca11y. _
Thermal Dissociation of Hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is produced from
natural gas by thermal decomposition (see Carbon Black). The gas is
passed over a heated brick checkerwork at a temperature of 2200F. until
the temperature of the brickwork drops to about 1700 to 2000F., thus
decomposing the gas endothermally into carbon black and hydrogen.
Since 1931 only one plant has utilized hydrogen after purification from
this process in making ammonia. Another company has also operated a
similar process for a number of years but uses the impure hydrogen
obtained for fuel.
1 PERRY,
op. cit., p. 1796.
OXYGEN AND NITROGEN
Cracked Ammonia.! A mixture of nitrogen, I volume, and hydrogen\

3 volumes, may be prepared from the cracking of ammonia. The proces~
consists in vaporizing the liquid NHa from cylinders, heating it to
1600F., passing it over an active catalyst, and then cooling it in heat
exchangers where the incoming gas is vaporized.
Partial Oxidation Process. 2 This Texaco or Eastman process has
been recently applied to natural gas, other hydrocarbons, and coal.
The basic reactions as applied to methane are:
+ O 2 = CO2 + 2H2
1
CH. + 2 O 2= CO + 2H2
CH, + CO 2 = 2CO + 2H2
CH. + H 20 = CO + 3H 2
CH.
Exothermic and rapid
(I)
Exothermic and rapid
(2)
Endothermic a.nd slow (3)

Endothermic and slow (4)
As commercialized, the methane, often under its own moderately high

pressure, is partly oxidized by tonnage (95 per cent) oxygen followed
by the shift reaction (page 136) to convert CO to H2
CO 2 ,
, I
OXYGEN AND NITROGEN
Uses and Economics. The production in 1953 of 25.3 billion cu. ft. ~f
"high-purity" oxygen (99.5 per cent and upward) is approximately five
times the quantity turned' out in 1939. Of this total about 24.5 billion
was obtained by the liquefaction of air, the rest by electrolysis of water.
During 1952, shipments of oxygen, valued at 63 million dollars, were
about 80 per cent of the total for all elemental' gaJles. The biggest use
is in steel operations such as welding, cutting, and scarfing, "LoW':.
purity" or tonnage 3 oxygen (90 to 95 per cent) is employed in chemical
manufacture 9.nd in some open-hearth and blast furnaces as it raises
temperatures and accelerates steel production. There is a large pmdu~tion of tonnage oxygen (in 1952, 622,432 tons) and a great deal of
work is being done to lower the cost. Recent refinements in the Linde:.
Frankl and other designs have reduced minimum economical productic;m
from)OO tons per day to amounts smaller.
In addition to the nearly 3,000,000 tons of nitrogen which enter ammo,.
nia synthesis, its 1,952 prOduction as a gas was 2,699,000,000 cu. ft. This
gas is employed as a :protective atmosphere in tne bright annealing of
metals, as a shield to prevent oxidation in food products, similarly In
welding areas, as a r~agent, and as a unique grinding aid for very hard
or heat-sensitive materials. 4
, I
I BI\ANDT, Cracked Aminonia, Chem. Eng., 57" (2) 119 (1950).

2 EASTMAN, Synthetic Gas by Partial Oxidation, Ind. Eng. Chem., 48. 1118 (1956).
3 DOWNS and RUSHTON, Tonnage Oxygen, Chem. Eng. Progr., 43. (I). 12 (1947).
tables.
4 ANON., Grinding with Liquid N2, Chern. Eng., 58, (6). 107 (1951).
140
INDUSTRIAL GASES
Manufacture. Oxygen is produced by two markedly different methods. 1

The electrolysis of water process is comparatively expensive and of little
interest except under special conditions. The liquefaction and subsequent
rectification of liquid air is the one of most importance. The first modification which will be considered here is the manufacture of "high-purity"
oxygen. To make it easier to understand these processes, Table 4 lists
the properties of air and its constituents.
TABLE 4. PROPERTIES OF AIR AND CONSTANT CONSTITUENTS"
Gas
Volume,
per cent
Air ................ 100

Nitrogen ........... 78.03
Oxygen ............ '20.99
Argon ............. 0.94
Hydrogen .......... O.Olb
Neon .............. 0.0015
Helium ............ 0.0005
Krypton ........... 0.00011
Xengn ........... 0.000009
Carbon dioxide" ... 0.03-0.07
Water" ........ 0.01-0.02
Boiling
C.
Boiling Critical
point, temperaOK.
ture, OK.
-194
-195.81
-182.96
-185.84
-252.44
-246.3
-268.98
-152:9
-107.1
- 79.0
+100.0
79
77.19
90.04
87.16
20.56
26.7
4.02
120.1
165.9
194.0d
373.0
po~nt,
132.3
126.0
154.2
156
33.1
53
5.2
210
258
304.1
647
By weight
1 lb.
lIb.
1 lb.
lIb.
in
in
in
in
44 tons
173 tons
725 tons
1,208 tons
Data tabulated from Chern. Eng., M (3), 127 (1947).

1> Variable; sometimes reported much less.
e Variable constituents.
d Solid carbon dioxide sublimes.
High-purity ,oxygen (99.54 per cent) and nitrogen are produced commercially from air 2 by ,a typical flow sheet as presented in Fig. 3. The
composition of the atmosphere is given in Table 4. The air is first compressed, and the CO 2 and any dust present are removed by scrubbing.
with KOH solution. The air is further compressed to 200 atm. in four
stages, with water cooling between each stage. Any moisture that condenses out during this 'operation is drawn off or is reJ;noved by passage'
through a tower packe,d with solid KOH or activated alumina. The gas
coming from the fourth compression stage is at 170C.; it is water-cooled
to 10 to 30C. and usually then further cooled to -30C. by ammonia
1 See ANON., Oxygen, Past, Present and Prospects, Chern. Eng., 64 (1), 123 (1947);
ANON., Air Separation Principles and Technology, Chern. Eng., 64 (3), 125 (1947);
BLISS and: DODGE, Oxygen Manufacture-Thermodynamic Analyses of Processes
Depending on Low Temperature Distillation of Air, Chern. Eng. Progr., 46 (51), 129
(1949), many diagrams, detailed application of first law.
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1701-1717, outline is included of minimum work required to
separate two gases by liquefaction (Dodge).
MANUFACTURE
refrigeration. The air, at 200 atm. and -30C., goes to a combined lique~~
fier and separator, as shown roughly in Fig. 3 and in detail in Fig. 4:."
~O~20dIZ9 c.)
8.000 cu.ft
R~fr'gc.r"'(lI+ion(ice
tquiv.)
1.0 tons
} Toproduce
O
Cooling~.
2,O~g ~~I.
5\~;+J'~:Il'O'
6g ~~~;;.. l,O?n ~~.t." 0FIG. 3. Flow sheet for high-purity oxygen and nitrogen through liquefaction of air.
Here the purified, compressed, and cooled air is liquefied and separated ~
into its constituents according to the following fundamental principles:
1. The interchange of heat in heat exchangers such as double pipe coils.

I
2. The adiabatic expansion of the compressed air to cool by the Joule-ThomJ}!.1
son 1 effect, owing to energy being consumed in overcoming the attraction between I
the molecules.
3. The cooling of the compressed gases by allowing them to perform work"
(Claude modification). One kilo of air at 200 atm. and 100C. when simply expan<i-1
ing to 5 atm. produces a cooling effect of 10 kg.-cal. (Joule-Thompson effec~}'i
while if the same quantity of air expands to 5 atm. in a cylinder doing work, the,
cooling effect is 23 kg.-cal., assuming that the working engine has an efficiency I
of 70 per cent. 2 This latter effects a cooling of 135C.
I
4. The cooling of the liquids by evaporation.
5. The separation of liquid oxygen from the more volatile nitrogen in a bubble-I
cap column. Nitrogen boils at -195.8C. and oxygen at -183C. The difference I
of 12.8 in boiling point permits a fractional separation of the two liquids, owing I
to the fundamental fact of any fractionation in a column that the more volatile I
will have a higher percentage in the vapor in equilibrium with a lower percentage I
of this constituent in the liquid. 3 Thus the repetition of these equilibriums, mor~j
or less perfe,ct, constitutes the "plates" of the fractionating column and causes I
the more volatile or substantially pure nitrogen to come off at the top, while I
substantially pure oxygen is obtained at the bottom.
These principles are ,applied in practice according to two systems: thel

Linde and the Claude.: Both cool the compressed gas and depend upon al
gradual or "self" lowering of the temperature by countercurrent coolingl
:
I
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 203, 333, 1709.

I
ANON., The Briey Liquid Oxygen Plant, Engineering, 140, 135 (1935).
~
PERRY, op. cit., p. 575, where vapor and liquid equilibriums are plotted.
I I
'The principles involv!Jd here are presented by RUHEMAN, "The Separation qfl
Gases," Oxford University Press, New York, 1945. Typical plants are described iri
the following articles: ANON., The Briey Liquid Oxygen Plant, Engineering, 140'1
1:15 (W35); ANON., Liquid Oxygen, Chem. Eng., 54 (3), 136 (1947), a pictured flow,
sheet; also PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1701-1716.
II
1
I" I
142
INDUSTRIAL GASES
of the incoming gas against outgoing gas, to the air liquefaction temperature. The Linde system employs the Joule-Thompson effect for its
critical cooling while the Claude system uses the Joule-Thompson cooling for only 30 per cent of the incoming air, the other 70 per cent being
cooled by performing external work. In this latter case it is better not
to cool the compressed air below -30C., or the work to be performed,
and hence the cooling, is lessened by the energy heatwise removed. Mter
a liquefier is working, the operating pressure can usually be reduced to
about 50 atm.
Much of the oxygen manufactured is obtained by the system developed by Carl von Linde in Germany around 1900. The heart of this
system is the double-column liquefier and rectifier as shown in Fig. 4.
The Claude system is slightly more complicated as it diverts 70 per cent
of the high-pressure air to perform useful low compression of the incoming air and to cool itself simultaneously. [This system is apparently more
efficient and is meeting some modern acceptance, as is the Heylandt
cycle, which incorporates features from both of the others.]
The double-column equipment shown in Fig. 4.is actually constructed
with its special heat exchangers, columns, and expansion valves all a
part of one setup and encased in the same insulating covering. The cooled
and compressed air enters countercurrent to the outgoing nitrogen
through a heat exchanger. Although only one such exchanger is shown
in the figure, it is common practice to install two. These are used alternately, so that, Jheq one is plugged by ice from water that escaped
previous remov~r; j;he air may be passed through the second. This permits removal of -the ice without interrupting the procedure. The cold
compressed air issuing from the heat exchanger (p) is still warmer than
the liquid in the column; hence it is passed through the coil in the bottom
of the column (d) and thus supplies the heat necessary for the vaporization in this lower section. This colder compressed air is finally expanded
through valve (c) into the lower column (d) from initially 200 atm. and
later on from 50 atm. down to 4 to 6-atm., being sufficiently cooled here
! through the Joule-Thompson effect to be liquefied. As a liquid, the air
enters the lower section of the column and -flows downward against the
rising vapors of its more volatile constituent, nitrogen-. As is true of any
such fractionation, the less volatile constituent, oxygen, collects in the
bottom at (b). Part is vaporized to carryon the rectification, but any
accumulation of this liquid containing about 40 per cent oxygen is forced
by the pressure drop between (d) at 4 to 6 atm. and (g) at 1.3 at~.
(absolute), to pass through the valve (e) to the upper rectifying section,
enteri,ng at '(f). The 40 per cent liquid oxygen passes down the upper
column losing its more volatile nitrogen until it accumulates at (h) as
liquid oxygen of 99 and more per cent purity. Although some of this
, liquid oxygen. boils off and thus renders latent the heat given off by the
MANUFACTURE
143
condensation of the nitrogen vapor at the higher pressure on the lower

side of the dome at (j), much of it is drawn off through valve (i) intQ
double-wall vacuum containers for storage or sale.
The nitrogen in the liquid air entering at (c), as the more volatile
constituent gradually volatilizes, passes upward and is cooled and condensed by the tubes and dome of (j). The curved dome here deflects the
fl.
Entrance for
200 atm.
compressed air at
b. Accumulated liquid rich in oxygen
c. Cooled and liquefied air entering

lower column
d. Lower rectifying column
e. Exit valve for liquid, 40 per cent
oxygen
I. Liquid entering upper column
g. Upper rectifying column
h. Accumulated oxygen liquid
i. Exit valve for oxygen, 99 + per cent
pure
_
i. Condensing tubes and dome for
lower column
k. Condensed overhead from lower
column, rich in nitrogen
l. Release valve for flow to upper
column
m. Heat exchanger, nitrogen-rich liquid
to nitrogen gas
n. Nitrogen-rich liquid entering upper
column
o. Cold gaseous nitrogen
p. Heat exchanger, entering air to
leaving gaseous nitrogen
FIG. 4. Diagram of Linde liquefier and double-column rectifier. This rectifier separates
liquid air into the more v;olatile nitrogen (b.p. -195.8C. or 77.3K.) and the less:
vola.tile oxygen (b.p. -l~oC. or 90.1K.).
drippings to the collector trough at (k) where a liquid quite rich in nitr6. gen collects. This nitrogen-rich liquid is moved to the top of the uppE)r
column by the prevailing pressure differential through the control valve
(L), though some of this nitrogen-rich liquid spills off the trough to supl
ply reflux liquid to the upper plates of column (d). The reason why the
lower-boiling nitrogezi-( -195.8C. at 1 atm.) is liquefied by the highe~
boiling (-183C. at 1 atm.) oxygen is because of the higher pressure c!:Q
the liquid rich in nitrogen in the lower column. As the liquid rich in
nitrogen goes to the upper column, it is cooled further by the gaseo~s
144
INDUSTRIAl, OASES
nitrogen leaving the column at (0), in order that it will not evaporate
too quickly when it enters this region of lower pressure. As the liquid
rich in nitrogen passes down the plates of column (g), the more volatile
nitrogen vapors are fractionated off, are washed fairly free of oxygen,
and pass out of the top of the column as cold nitrogen vapor of around
-195C. This eold nitrogen as it leaves the apparatus is warmed in the
heat exchangers (m) and (p).
Most commercial tonnage-oxygen plants are based on the German developed Linde-Frankl process or its modifications. In the Linde-Frankl
process, the air is first compressed to 472 atm. by centrifugal compressors
and purified in "cold accumulators" which transfer heat and simultaneously remove water vapor and carbon dioxide. These accumulators (four
in number) are pressure vessels packed with corrugated sheet-aluminum spirals and are cooled by either the separated waste nitrogen or by
the oxygen product. The entering air has its temperature lowered by
passing through a pair of previously cooled accumulators where the water
and carbon dioxide are frozen out. At the same time the oxygen and
nitrogen are conducted through the other pair, cooling them, and evaporating and purging the previously collected ice and solid carbon dioxide.
At about 3-min. intervals the accumulators 'are reversed. After purification the eold air enters into the bottom of the double, cO)lventional rectifying column (Fig. 4) and the partially liquefied air expands into the
upper column where it is rectified. Refrigeration is supplied by expanding gaseous nitrogen in a centrifugal expander after' slight warming
against a small incoming supplementary air stream. To make up for the
slight deficiency in available refrigeration, about 4 to 5 per cent of the
total air supply is introduced at 200 atm., purified, precooled by ammonia refrigeration, and further cooled against waste nitrogen and unexpanded nitrogen.
Modifications of the basic Linde-Frankl process include systems to utilize low-pressure, high-capacity, high-speed, ~conomical compression and
refrigeration equipment; efficient system for removal of impurities; and
prevention of dangerous acetylene accumulation. The Elliott process is
characterized by three modifications l of the Linde-Frankl method for improved continuity of operation and for reducing the acetylene hazard.
This is done by an improved air-purification system and a nitrogen circuit which supplies high-pressure nitrogen in two streams, one for refrigeration, the other for reflux. The M. W. Kellogg Company process 2 is
also typical of the reversing exchanger cycles. These exchangers do not
contaminate the oxygen product as do the accumulators used in the
I
Elliott Oxygen Process and Impurity Removal System, Chem. Eng.

Progr., 46, 74 (1950).
I
2 LOBO, Production of Oxygen for Industrial Purposes, Chem. Eng. Progr., 1, 21
(1947).
l,cRAWFORD,
!~
:If
:~
RARE GASES OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Linde~Frankl proc~ss; so a hig~ler-purity product results. Bl.iss and Dod
'. ~..;..
(op. czt.) have outlIned the varIOus other processes and modIfications.
~-
RARE GASES OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The rare gases argon, neon, xenon, and krypton are obtained from the
atmosphere 1 (see Table 4). These gases are separated by side rectificatiOli
columns from take-offs at various points in a double rectifying column:
such as is employed for obtaining oxygen and nitrogen from air, as
depicted in Fig. 4. The most abundant such gas, argon, has a boiling,
point near to that of oxygen. It is rectified in a side column with its,
feed at maximum concentration taking off from toward the top of th
upper column, the separated liquid oxygen being returned to this uppe~
column. The krypton and xenon, having higher boiling points, are re~
moved near the bottom of the upper column below the oxygen take-off,
The neon and helium, because of their very low boiling points which
make them non condensable even in liquid air, accumulate on the 10weIj
or nitrogen side of the condenser, separating the upper from the lower
column.
One of the surprising developments of the past few years is the indus.:
trial consumption of these rare and chemically inert materials. They are
utilized in the light industry because they are chemically inert and
possess very desirable electrical properties. Such usage is divided between
the gas-conductor-tube lamps, the so-called" neon" lights, and fluores-'
cent lights. Argon, however, is now used in small amounts in every ligh~
TABLE 5. COMMERCIAL COLOR CHART FOR "NEON" LIGHTS"
(Clear or colored glass, uncoated)
J
Color
Gas
Pressure,
mm.
Deep red ...............

Red ...................
Gold (yellow) ...........
Light green .............
Dark green .............
Light blue ..............
Dark blue ..............
White ..................
Neon
Neon
Helium
Argon-neon mixtureb
Argon-neon mixture b
Argon-neon mixtureb
Argon-neon mixtureb
1:Ielium
10-18
10-18
3-4
10-20
10-20
10-20
10-20
3-4
Glass
Soft red
Clear
Noviol (amber)
Uranium (green)
Noviol (amber)
Clear
Purple
Clear
Mercury
___,
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
i
"GROSS, Rare Gases in Everyday Use, .T. Chern. Educ., 18,533 (194I).
b To meet extreme winter conditions, an argon-neon-helium mixture is suhstituted.j
I,
"
METZGER, Traces from Tons, Ind. Eng. Chern., 27, 112 (1935): GROSS, Rare Gases:
in Everyday Use, J. Chern, Educ., 18,533 (1941); KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 7"
p. 415, diagrams.
1
146
INDUSTRIAL GASES
bulb made. Neon lights are of glass tUbing with the electrodes sealed in
each end and filled with the rare gases including helium or mixtures
thereof, with or without mercury. The light is caused by the flow of the
current which may be 25 milliamperes at 15,000 volts, with the light
emission determined by the gas in the tube. Table 5 summarizes the
commercial colors. The power consumption is low in comparison with
that of incandescent lamps.
TABLE
Phosphor
6.
LUMINESCENT OR FLUORESCENT CHEMICALS'
General
color
Calcium tungstate, . ' ... ' .. Blue

:'vlagnesium tungstate, .. , .. Blue-white
Zinc silicate ... ' , , ... , ' .. ' . Green
a
Phosphor
General
color
Zinc beryllium silicate, , . , ' Yellow-white

Cadmium silicate ..... ' , .... Yellow-pink
Cadmium borate, > , ' ' Pink
GROSS, Rare Gases in Everyday Use, J. Chem. Educ., 18, 537 (1941);
op. cit., Vol. 8, p. 540.
KIRK
and
OTHMER,
Fluorescent tubes produce a soft, nonglaring light under very economical conditions. They are filled with one of these rare gases and are provided with a fluorescent coating of a "phosphor" on the inside of the
glass. The function of the latter is to supplement the visible light given
out by the rare gas, by the transformation of the invisible or ultraviolet
rays of the gas into those wavelengths visible to the human eye. This
supplementary or "extra" light imparts a very pleasing effect. Table (i
presents some of these phosphor chemicals or fluorescent materials, which
to give the proper clarity of transformed light must be of a purity that
has never before been obtained in any chemicals of commerce. Phosphors
are also extremely important iq. coating of television tubes. New phosphors have been developed for infrared ("snooperscopes" and night driv"
ing) and for electroluminescence:1
Argon is produced in by far the largest quantitie!:l of the rare gases
(450,000,000 cu. ft. in 1955). One of the_most interesting applications of
argon and one which,is constantly growing is its use as an inert gas shield
in arc welding. Helium is also utilized. As employed for aluminum, aluminum bronze, silicon bronze, copper nickels, an~ stainless steels, the
shielding gas forms a protective envelope around the welding area. 2 This
protects the weld metal, electrode wire, and the work. Slag formation and
the usel ot flux are avoideq, thus contributing to the speed and efficiency.
1 WARD, Lighting New Horizons, Chem. Eng. News, 31, 4418, 4772 (1953).
Examples are Heliarc marketed by Linde Air Products, and the Aircomatic process for welding by Air Reduction Company.
HELIUM
147
HELIUM
This industry began with the discovery of helium in certain Kansas'

natural gases about 1900. The first plants were constructed to sllppl~'
helium for the lighter-than-air airships of the Allies in the First W oi'hl
War. During the Second World War helium extraction was greatly expanded to four plants which were all owned and operated by the gOVCl:Il:ment; but under normal conditions several suffice.
I
The composition of the untreated gas varies as follows: helium, 1 ott)
8 per cent; nitrogen, 12 to 80 per cent; and the balance chiefly methane
and small amounts of higher hydrocarbons. 2 The gas from the wells is
compressed to 600 lb. per sq. in. and after NaOH treatment to remov~
the carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and water vapor, enters the firs~
heat exchanger where it is almost completely liquefied. The product is
throttled at 200 to 300 lb. per sq. in., where a crude separation tak~~
place yielding 60 per cent helium. A second partial liquefaction is thelj
effected yielding 98.5 per cent helium. Further purification by adsorp,
tion on activated carbon at -275F. yields a purity of 99.7 per cent o~
higher. The helium is shipped in long, seamless steel cylinders at pre$~
sures of 2,000 to 2,400 lb. per sq. in. in special railroad cars. RefrigeraI
tion is the key to helium extraction and is supplied from two sources:.
(1) Joule-Thompson expansion of the gas from 600 lb. per sq. in. gage
and (2) an auxiliary nitrogen refrigeration cycle involving engine e~-'
pansion from 600 to 15 lb. per sq. in. abs.
The most important use for helium is in lighter-than-air aircraft and!
weather-observation balloons where it has replaced the very flammablp~
hydrogen. It has 92.5 per cent of the lifting power of hydrogen. Anoth~:r
less widely known use has been in a mixture with oxygen to give a syn-'
thetic atmosphere for the lise of deep-sea divers and tunnel workers. The:
advantage is that helium is much less soluble in the body fluids than i~:
nitrogen which is present in air; this substitution prevents "bends," t9'
a large extent. Other uses include mixing with argon and neon in dis;play signs, cooling of electrical equipment, inert gas shield for welding;
and as a tracer gas to determine underground migration of petroleum. .
I
ACETYLENE
Uses and Economicd. Acetylene is employed in the manufacture of an

ever increasing number of industrial chemicals, such as vinyl chloride;
acrylonitrile, and acetic acid. While some of these are also derived froni
other sources, chemic4ls made exclusively,from acetylene include vinyi
CAllY, Beginnings of the Helium Industry, Ind. Eng. Chern., 30, 845 (luas).
2 MULLINS, Helium Prqduction Process, Chem. Eng. Progr., 44, 567 (194S), witlj
flow sheet and tables; PERRY, op. cit., p. 1716.
1
148
INDUSTRIAL GASES
acetate, trichloroethylene, and chloroprene and its polymer neoprene.

Studies of acetylene reactions at high pressures (Reppe high-pressure
technique) are very significant in that vinylation, ethynylation, and polymerization reactions have opened up a new field of chemistry by introducing many new compounds. ' In 1954, 7,030,000,000 cu. ft. were produced with an approximate value of 90 million dollars.
Manufacture. Until very recently all acetylene was made by the reaction of calcium carbide with water:
I1H
-30,000 cal.
There are two methods for generating acetylene from calcium carbide.
The batch carbide-to-water or wet method takes place in a cylindrical
water shell surmounted by a housing with hopper and feed facilities. The
carbide is fed to the water at a measured rate until exhausted. The calcium hydroxide is discharged in the form of a lime slurry containing
about 90 per cent water. For large-scale industrial applications "dry
generation," a continuous process featuring automatic feed, is popular.
Here 1 lb. of water is used per pound of carbide and the heat of the reaction (166 B.t.u. per cu. ft. acetylene) is largely dissipated by water vaporization leaving the by-prod~ct lime in a dry, fairly easily handled
state. Part Df this can be recycled to the carbide furnaces. Continuous
agitation is necessary to prevent overheating.
The newest method of manufacturing acetylene is through the conversion of natural gas or liquid hydrocarbon feeds. The processes of the most
interest include partial oxidation, thermal cracking, and electrical techniques. An electric-arc procedure was used commercially at Hiils, Germany. A silent electric discharge is featured in a laboratory process developed by Dr. E. P. Schoch at the University of Texas. The Sachse
process and its modifications involve the partial combustion otnatural
gas with 95 per cent oxygen followed by a rapid water quench. Monsanto
Chemical Company at Texas City uses a modified version of this process
as does Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Company. The cracking takes
place at 2700F. at atmospheric pressure, and the reaction time is less
than 0.05 sec. The product gas contains 8 to 9 per cent acetylene and
valuable high quant,ities of Fischer-Tropsch syntll,esis gas. Significant
amounts of high acetylenes which are explosive contaminants help make
this difficult process more complex. Water scrubbing, solvent extraction,
and absorption are all mentioned as being used for commercial-seale separations. In the W1tlff process a specially designed double regenerative
furnaee is used to earry ~ut the thermal-cracking reaetion. The latural
g,as is fed alternately in about I-min. eyeles to eaeh of two rcfraetory1 Fo,' an example, see ANON., Acetylene Chemicals, Chcln. l'Jng., 68 (6), 180 01l51),
a pictured flow sheet of polyvinyl-pyrrolidone, or PVP, II. blood-plasma substitute,
is presented.
149
SULFUR DIOXIDE
lined furnaces. The reaction takes place at approximately 2600F., and

the product gas contains a high pmportion of ethylene. Here, too, the
purification is difficult and complex.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
The output of liquid sulfur dioxide in 1952 was 43,856 tons. It may he
produced by the burning of sulfur or by the roasting of metal sulfides ' in
special equipment as described in Chap. 19. It may be obtained also by
the recovery from the waste gases of other reactions. Its production and
the subsequent compression and cooling to form liquid 80 2 , which boils
at -lOoC., are shown in Fig. 5. With very careful control of the amount
Sulfur
~1-52Ib.
H,SO.<9a ,,",nt) 30 lb.
woter
900 gol.
EIct,..icity
Sham
Direct labor-
02KW.~hr.}
340 lb.
0.50 man-nr:
~.'.IOO lb.
hquld S02
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for liquid sulfur dioxide.
of air entering the combustion chamber, sulfur dioxide can be produced

up to 18 per cent at a temperature of 1200C. As the gases from the
combustion chamber pass through the heat exchanger, they heat the
water for the boilers. The cooled gases, containing from 16 to 18 per cent
80 2, are pumped into the absorbers through acidproof pumps. The
strength of the solution from the absorbers is dependent upon the temperature and the strength of the gases entered, but the concentration
usually runs about 1.3 per cent with the temperature close to 30C. A
very small amount of the 80 2 is lost in the exhaust from the second absorber-about 0.02 per cent. The temperature of the vapors coming from
the steaming tower depends upon its design but usually runs about 70C.
The vapors are cooled and passed through a drying tower in which
98 per cent sulfuric aCid is used. Other drying agents may be employed
and some plants by special procedure eliminate the use of this sulfuric
acid drier altogether.: The 80 2 is liquefied by compressing to about
7 atm. and cooling. I~ is stored or put into cylinders.
8ulfur dioxide is shipped as a liquid under 2 or 3 atm. pressure. It is
obtainable in steel cylinders 2 of from 50 to 100 lb. capacity, in I-ton
I,
SO, by Fluidization, Chern. Eng., 60 (1), 238 (1953), pictured flow sheet
from sulfide ores. Dimethyl-aniline is absorption medium in Chem. Eng., 60 (4), 274
(1953), with flow sheet.
2 WILLSON, et al., Liquid Sulfur Dioxide, Chern. Ind., 52, 178 (1943).
I
ANON.,
150
INDUSTRIAL GASES
tanks, or in 15-ton tank cars. Its uses are numerous. A quite pure commercial grade containing not more than 0.05 per cent of moisture is suitable for most of its applications. However, a very pure grade, containing
less than 50 p.p.m. of moisture, is supplied for refrigeration. Sulfur dioxide also serves as the raw material for the production of sulfuric acid. It
finds application as a bleaching agent in the textile and food industries.
Following the use of chlorine in waterworks or in textile mills, sulfur dioxide is an effective antichlor for removing excess chlorine. It is an effective disinfectant and is employed as such for wooden kegs and barrels
and brewery a:;Jparatus, and for the prevention of mold in the drying of
fruits. Sulfur dioxide effectively controls fermentation in the making of
wine. It is used in the sulfite process .for paper pulp, as a liquid solvent in
petroleum refining', and as a raw material in many plants, e.g., in place
of purchased sulfites, bisulfites, or hydrosulfites. The convenience of the
application of liquid S02 has persuaded many small or intermittent users
to purchase this rather than to make their own.
CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is one of the chief constituents of water gas as described in Chap. 7. It is obtained in fairly pure form when hydrogen is
prepared from water gas by liquefaction of other components, but it is
generally used for a fuel in connection with the process. It is an important raw material for methanol and other alcohols and for hydrocarbons.
It is a powerful poison.
NITROUS OXIDE
Nitrous oxide is generally prepared by heating very pure ammonium

nitrate to 200C. in retorts.
AH = - 8,800 cal.
The purification consists in treatment with caustic to remove nitric acid and with dichromate to remove nitric oxid-e. it is shipped in steel cylinders as a liquid at a pressure of 100 atm. It is used as an anesthetic. In
,1952, 289,145,000 gal. were produced.
SELECTED REFERENCES
,
Martin, Geoffrey, "Industrial Gases," Crosby Lockwood & Son Ltd., London, 1918.
Greenwood, H. C., "Industrial Gases," Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, London, 1920.
Ruheman, M., "The Separation of Gases," 2d ed., Oxford University Press, New
York, 1949.
SELECTED REFERENCES
.151
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, editors, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technolog)I,"

The Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947-1956.
.
Quinn, E. L., and C. L. Jones, "Carbon Dioxide," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1936.
Taylor, H. S., "Industrial Hydrogen," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1921.
CHAPTER
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
The element carbon exists in three allotropic modifications; these three

varieties, namely, amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond, are also
employed industrially.! In general, carbon is chemically inert and is infusible at atmospheric pressure. Graphite and diamond resist oxidation
even at fairly high temperatures. SQme of the industrial applications
depend upon the chemical inertness of carbon. On the other hand, the
amorphous carbon can be activated, in which case it has a great capacity
for selective adsorption from either the gaseous or the liquid state. For
nonmetallic substances, carbon and graphite possess a very satisfactory
electrical and heat conductivity. The heat conductivity of graphitized,
coke-base carbon is superior to that of most metals. Both fabricated
amorphous and graphitic carbon products have very lo,w coefficients of
thermal expansion and good thermal conductivity, thus giving them high
resistance to thermal shock.
Carbon is an extremely versatile element in the way it is of service to
man. Its applications are growing each year. In 1928, Mantell2 wrote,
"The possibility of the expansion of carbon industries is very great, for
they are intimately bound up with our highly complex life of the present
day." The expansion is now being realized, to such an extent that there
is a growing shortage of raw materials, particularly petroleum coke and
wood charcoa1.3 The helpfulness' of carbon is apparent only when we single out the many phases of our everyday living where this adaptable ele:.
ment is essential-in the black pigment of the ink of, our books, magazines, and newspapers, in carbon paper;.._in ,pencils, as the black color ill
many paints, autom~bile finishes, and shoe blacking, as a strengthening
and toughening constituent of rubber tires, tubes, and other rubber
goods, and as an essential element in the construction of a very large
amount of electrical equipment from the household vacuum cleaner to.
the largest dynamos. The carbon arc is used in the production of visible
and ultraviolet
radiations I for use in an increasingly large number of in-'
,
lIThe fuel value of carbon as coal is considered in Chap. 5.
2 MANTELL, "Industrial Carbon," 2d cd., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New
York, 1946.
3 LADOO and STOKES, Industrial Carbon, Chern. Inds., 63, 609 (l945).
152
153
INDUSTRIAL CARRON
dustrial processes dependent on photochemical reactions. The irradiation

of milk to produce a higher vitamin D potency is one example of this
use. Carbon and graphite products as structural materials have found
new and increasingly extensive applications to chemical and metallurgical
industries. Electrodes made of carbon and graphite are very important
industrial equipment.
TABU;
1.
So~u; PRon;RTIES OF DIFFERgN'r }\fODIFICATIONS OF CARBONa
Amorphous forms
Coke
base
Lampblack
base
Graphite
(artificial)
Anthracite
base
Diamond
------ --Vaporization
temperature.
All forms 3925-3970 KI
1.80-1.8,';" I
1.790
Specific gravity. 1. ~3-2.W
I 2.20-2.24
Electrical resistivity
at
20C., ohms
per cm. cube. O. 0035-{). 0046 0.0058--0.0081 0.0033-0.
OOOS-O. 0013
I1
I
I'
Specific heat,
............. ............ .
26--76C .....
0.168
0.165
0.200
26--282C ....
..... , ....... . ... .........
0.195
0.199
26--538C ....
............. ............ .
0.234
0.315
...... ...... .!.............
36--902C. " .
0.324
47-1193C ...
0.352
0.350
56-1450C ...
0.387
0.390
/
Thermal conductivity
gm.-cal./
\
(sec.) (cm.)
(OC./cm.) .. 0.0125-0.0165 . 1 0.021-0.025
0.29-0.39
B.t.u./{hr.)
II
' (sq.ft.W}1.
.............
3-4
5-6
/ft.)(or k) ..
70-94
Coefficient of
thermal ex;
pansion per
j
C. X 10 (0100C.) ...... 2.41-3.85 ............. 2.23-2.41.
0.97-2.23
0
3.51
ooJo.
0.160
0.315
0.415
.:::::::::::: :1: ::::::::::::.
Courtesy of W. C. Kalb, ~ational Carhon Company.

b Dependent on source; "hara('ter of hond, and degree of cal"ination. The above
figures are the real densities of the solids; however, when formed into electrodes wherl'
some voids occur, the apparent specific gravity lies in the range of 1.50 to l.(iO for
amorphous carbon from 90ke and in the range of 1.50 to 1.65 for graphite.
,
Nonfabricated industrial carbon is represented by lampblack, carbon
black, activated carl;)Qn, graphite, and industrial diamonds. The first
three are examples of amOrph01l8 carbon. [.lampblack is soot formed by
154
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
the incomplete burning of carbO! ~ceous solids or liquids. It is gradually

being replaced in some uses by carbon black, the most important of these
amorphous forms and also the product of an incomplete combustion.
Activated carbon is amorphous carbon that has been treated with steam
and heat until it has a very great affinity for adsorbing many materials.
Graphite is a soft crystalline modification of carbon that differs greatly
in properties from amorphous carbon and from the diamond. Industria!
diamonds are often spoken of as off-grade gems, borts, or carbonadoes
and are us~d for drill points, special tools, glass cutters, wire-drawing dies,
diamond saws, and many other applications where this hluoest of all substances is essential.
LAMPBLACK
Lampblack! or soot is an old product, made for many years by the

restricted combustion of resins, oils, or other hydrocarbons. It has been
replaced gradually in the pigment trade, particularly in America, by carbon black, which has superior tinting strength and coloring qualities, but
in the manufacture of carbon brushes for electrical equipment and lighting carbons, lampblack is still a very important constituent. Its color is
a bluish-gray black, rather than the deep black of carbon black; this steely
black is desired for some metal polishes and pencils. Over 15,000,000 lb.
are still being produced yearly.
In AmerIca either tar oils or petroleum oils are burned with restricted
air to form soot or lampblack, a suitable furnace being represented in
Fig. 1. The soot is collected in large chambers from which the raw lampblack is removed, mixed with tar, molded into bricks or pugs and calcined
up to about 1000C. to destroy bulkiness. The calcined pugs are ground
to a fine powder. Some furnaces remove the empyreumatic impurities by
calcination in the gas stream of the furnaces where formed.
Carbon brushes for use in elE!ctrical machiriery are made by mixing
lampblack with pitch to form a plastic mass. Petroleum coke or graphite
may be added to this mix to impart- special properties. Plates or blocks
I from which the brushes are later'machined are formed by extrusion or
high-pressure molding and these green plates ~re then baked at a high
temperature for several days to drive off volatile matter. Some grades
are heated in electrical furnaces at temperatures as high as 3000C.
(5432F.) to convert the amorphous carbon into the soft, crystalline
graphite which reduces the friction, increases the life, and generally improves the quality of the product (cf. Graphite).
When carbons for the production of special arc lights are desired, a
mixture of petroleum coke and thermally deeomposed carbon is extruded
in the form of a tube. This tube is baked at 14150C. and a core of selected
1 See KIRK
and
OTHMER,
op.
cit., Vol. 3, pp. 1-34,80-84.
155
CARBON BLACK
material is forced into its center and calcined again. The typ~ of rlj.diation emitted by the arc is largely dependent on the core material elllployed, which is frequently a mixture of some lampblack flour, ral'cearth oxides, and fluorides with coal tal' as a binder. )fany millions of
Burners;
~-----------------
150'
------------------~
Blower
f----...'"
I
/
I
I
1--Lampblack
~/2"--1
.
011- - - -....
Combusfion pan
....
:==:.J
,
I
t1 C!)_.i. . . . . .
-,:
----Perforafed
----~
air _---...
feed disc
CoNrell /
precipifafor
Burner Detail
FIG. 1. Diagram of lampblack house.
such lighting carbons are sold per month in peacetime for movie projectors. In war years, a great quantity of such lighting,earbons was eOIlsumed by searchlights.
.
CARBON BLACK
The first factory for the making of carbon black l ill this country was
built at New Cumberland, W. Va., in 1872. The black was produced by
cooling a burning gas flame against soapstone slabs and scraping offi the
carbon produced. A short time later, 1883, the roller process was patehted
and, in 1892, McNutt p~rfected the present-day channel process. Early
production was moderate, 25,000,000 lb. per year, West Virginia and
Pennsylvania being the bnly two producing states. -In the summer of 1912, however, the B. F. Goodrich Company, having
been convinced of the :Value of carbon black ill the rubber industry,
ordered a carload of the material and later in the same year place9. an
order for 1,000,000 lb. per year. The advent of this new market stimuI
In a sense, carbon black'is a variety of lampblack, both being produced by the

incomplete burning of hydrocarbons. Both larnpback and carbon black are the sallle
chemically, being over 99 per cent 0, but they differ greatly in their physical form suell
as shape of the particles and also in adsorbed gases.
1
156
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
lated the industry. Expansion has been rapid but, since natural gas was
the raw material, the industry was forced to follow the excess gas supply
as it changed from Pennsylvania to Indiana, West Virginia, Louisiana,
and more recently to Texas, where about 75 per cent of the carbon black
is presently produced. The selling price has been constantly reduced in
keeping with the expansion of the industry, dropping from $2.50 per
pound in 1872 to an average of about 6 cents at present.
Uses and Economics. About 95 per cent of the domestic carbon black
consumption is in rubber products, especially tires, heels, and mechanical
goods, where it is used to improve wearing qualities by imparting toughness. Carbon black is significantly responsible for the adoption of synthetic rubber for tires during peacetime. High-abrasion furnace blacks
when combined with" cold rubber" produce tire treads that consistently
give 30 to 50 per cent greater wear than controls compounded with natural rubber and channel blacks. The rubber compound in the modern tire
contains around 40 per cent carbon black, which accounts for the rubber
industry's role as the leading consumer of carbon black. Carbon black is
also the basis for most printing inks. The blacks here must be uncompressed, grind easily, and absorb oil readily. The pigments in black
plastics, paints, lacquers, and enamels usually consist of carbon black.
Color-grade blacks used for inks and paints are produc~d almost exclusively by the channel process. Even typewriter ribbons and carbon papers
employ this pigment.
TABLE
2.
PRODUCTION OF CARBON BLACKS IN THE U:NITED STATES
(Millions of pounds)
Year
Total
carbon
black
Total
furnace
black
194!l
1950
1'351
1952
1953
1,223
1,382
1,\)77
1,604
1,610
596
765
1,031
1,040
1,157'
Contad proecss.
chiefly channel
628
617
M5
564
453
"Minerals Yearbook,',' 1953.
Channel black up until 1940 accounted for over 80 per cent of the
United States black production. The channel process is producing proportionally less each year (Table 2) because of low (around 4 per cent) yields,
high steel requirements and capital investment,l and increasing difficulty
I The Jorld's largcst plant fo~ thc manufacture of channel-type carbon black is at
Odessa, Tex. Here approximately 1.6 million flames in 536 burner houscs play on the
moving ehannels. Each flame consllmes 40 to 80 CII. ft. of natural gas per day. See
Cux, High Quality-High Yield Carbon Black, Chem. Eng., 67 (6), 116 (1950).
157
MANUFACTURE
in securing long-term sources of cheap natural gas. Much of the gas available for carbon-black manufacture is being diverted to furnace plant$
which give higher (up to 35 per cent) yields of black and require sma1I.er
capital investments. Probably of still more importance is the competition
that channel blacks are facing from the newer furnace blacks made from
oil instead of natural gas. Oil blacks, I superior for many uses, are preferred to the channel blacks even at slightly higher prices. In general,
oil-black processes recover from 30 to 60 per cent of the available carb91l
in th oil
Manufacture. The two major processes for making carbon black are
the channel and the furnace processes. By far the greatest percentage of
the world's supply of carbon black is produced from natural gas, !tlthough liquefied petroleum gases, natural gasoline, gas oils, fuel oils, or
residuum are used alone or to enrich the natural gas for some of the, finer
grades of furnace blacks.
Channel Process. The older channel process will be considered first. Channel
black is nearer true black in color, and, in some of its forms is more finely divided
than furnace black. The unit changes' involved are:
Natural gas is "dried" of its gasoline, usually by adsorption (Op.).
Natural gas is cracked or pyrolyzed by contact with moving and cooled,chanhel
iron (Pr.); here the temperature of the products of combustion of lOOOC., is
reduced to 500C.
Carbon black is scraped off the channel, conveyed to packing house, sifted,
and packaged (Op.).
Reactions:
CH.(g)
20 2(g) --+ CO 2(g)
CH 4 (g) --+ C(amorph.)
+ 2H 20(g);
+ 2H2(g);
IlH = -191,800 cal.

tlH = +20,300 caL
In manufacturing carbon black the very low chemical efficiency of

changing CR. to C, whereby the unconverted CH. and the R2 burn compietely to CO 2(CO) and H 20, supplies the endothermic heat and energy
necessary to crack or pyrolyze CH 4 to C. Thus, no outside energy input
is needed here. However, as 1,000 cu. ft. of CR. contains about 35.lb.
of C, while the yield is on:ly 1.50 to 2.25 lb. of carbon black, great wastage
is evident.
!
The natural gas, as it comes from the ground, is-first treated to remove
the natural gasoline and then sent to the burner houses. These are long,
low sheet-iron buildings containing from 3,000 to 4,000 burner tips where
the gas is burned Jith an insufficieut supply of air, controlled by the
sides of the sheds, to produce a luminous flame that impinges or contacts the underside of the channels. The channels, made of mild steel and
'.
1 SHEARON, et ai., Oil Black, Ind. Eng. Chern., 44, 685 (1952). This is one of ,the
excellent staff-industry ,reports with operating data, diagrams, and flow sheets,
2 For flow diagram, see Chem. Inds., 64, 40 (1949).
158
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
8 to 10 in. wide, move continuously backward and forward suspended

from overhead rails. The carbon black thus produced is removed from
the channels as they pass over stationary scrapers and falls into hoppers
which feed screw conveyers carrying the carbon to the central packing
house. The spent gases in the newer plants are conducted through modern
dust-recovery systems, using OrIon filter bags. These not only completely
recover all the black but avoid the dark pall that used to overhang such
plants. In the packing house the black is bolted to remove coarse particles
and grit. The material is extremely light and fluffy and must be agitated
to reduce the bulk. The resulting black is a commercial grade known as
uncompressed; its density is 12 to 13 lb. per cu. ft.; and it is used in the
paper, ink, and paint industries.
All but a small fraction of shipments of all carbon blacks are pelletized
for convenient bulk handling and to reduce the tendency to dust. There
are several examples of the two principal pelletizing! processes, wet and
dry. In the commonly used wet process, the fluffy black is agitated and
mixed with water in a trough by a shaft with radially projecting pins
which forms the pellets. They are dried in a horizontal, gas-fired rotating drier drum. A commonly used dry pelleting process utilizes one or
more horizontal drums, 5 to 10 ft. in diameter and 20 to 40 ft. long, supporte~ by steel rollers.-The pellets are formed by the gentle agitation and
rolling (5 to 10 r.p.m.) of the black. Operation is continuous and residence time in the drum is from 12 to 36 hr.
Channel blacks are classified principally on the basis of their ease of
processing into rubber or their electrical conductivity., The principal types
are EPC, easy-processing channel; MPC, lllediuriCprocessing channel;
and HPC, hard-processing channel blacks. It can be said that channel
blacks find their greatest utility when compounded with natural rubber.
Furnace Process. 2 In the furnace process (Fig. 2) all of the combustion
takes place in a confined, insulated refractory chamber containing turbulent blast gases already burning at a tempel'11ture around 2500F. The
volume of air forced in is about '50 per cent of that required for complete
combustion. The feed for high-quality furnace black is preheated either
by the complete combustion of a portion of the gas through direct mix/ ing, or by heat transfer' from surface-type~heat exchangers. Since preheated gas complicates ,burning conditions in a 2500F. furnace somewhat, preheated oil or combinations of oil and gas can be controlled more
easily for the high-quality blacks. The furnace process permits yields as
high as 12 lb. per M cu. ft. of natural gas and still ieaves enough fuel
value to furnish the necessary heat to keep the process going.
ANON., Agglomeration, Chern. Eng., 68 (10), 161 (1951).
I\Il>OO, Carbon Black, Chern. Eng., 68 (3), 104 (1!J51). For a pictured flow sheet,
see ANON., Carbon Black, Chern. Eng., 68 (7), 17(\ (1951). STOKES and DOBRIN,
Carbon Black, Shifts to Furnace Process, Chern. Inds., 64, 40 (1949).
1
159
MANUFACTURE
The rapid intermingling of the hot and relatively cold streams in the
furnace results in almost instant heat transfer and the pyrolysis to carbQn
particles. The carbon-laden gases are led through flues to a spray cooling
tower. Actual collection of the carbon particles is effected by clustering
with an electrostatic precipitator followed by final separation through
centrifugal "cyclones." The carbon is pelleted as described under the
channel process. Furnace blacks are classified according to reinforcement
of rubber electrical conductance, or particle fineness. In the order of decreasing particle size and increasing rubher-reinforcing properties, the
principal furnace blacks are (F designates furnace hlack): SRF (semireinforcing), HMF (high modulus), MAF (medium abrasion), FF (fine
Spray
cooler
AI::~
GoJ~
-/----'--_._-~~-
FIG. 2. Flow diagram, carhon black, furnace process. See text for quantities. (Courtesy
of Chemical Industries.)
furnace), and HAF (high abrasion). HAF is the principal" oil black."
It imparts to both natural and synthetic, especially" cold rubber," a
high degree of reinforcement and abrasion resistance, making it exceptionally useful in tire-tread manufacture.
Other Processes. In the thermal-decomposition furnace process the CH 4
is pyrolyzed into hydrogen and carbon over heated brick checkerwork.
The operation is cyclIC, ,~ith a heating and" make" periods. In the first
the combustion of n:itural gas or other combustihles with air heats the
furnace to 3000F., ,thereupon natural gas alone is fed into the furnace.
The reaction is
CH 4 --> C(amOl:ph.)
+ 2H2(g);
tlH
+20,300 cal.
The cracked producfs pass from the furnace and are cooled by a water
spray before separation and packaging. '
Carbon black is also manufactured by the disk-eolltaet process, whcre
the flame impinges Ion a moving disk instead of a channcl. Thc roller
160
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
process produces a special type of black which is used in the ink industry. Often classified as thermal blacks are acetylene blacks made by the
exothermic decomposition of acetylene. These blacks are employed in dry
cells and for imparting high electrical and thermal conductivities to
rubber.
CARBON AND GRAPHITE STRUCTURAL MATERIALS'
Since they combine chemical resistance with a variety of physical

properties desirable in chemical plant structural materials, carbon and
700
".:
'+-
(opper pipe I. OJZ'l 0. x I.J/SO.D.
i:S 600
Ii
/"
~
u: 500
dOl
I/
~ 400
V
k: V
Ol
0\:
~ 300
Ol
0..
V
k-': k--l V
~
........
'.(.....+-1'
-+
/-Karbafe pipe
/ l 0/1" D. x
aD.-
I.!!;.."
....... ~
'Sfeel pipe 1.03"/'D.x!.JOB'o'o.
+
"": 200
0-
V)
1QJ
0..100
:i
&Xi
G/asspipe 1.06/"I.D:7o 1.48"0.0.-/
1000
2000
;'000
4000
5000 6000
7000
8000 9000 Iqooo
Pounds of Hot Water per Hour

FIG. 3. Comparative over-all heat transfer. The curves show comparative rates of heat
transfer through I-in. standard copper, steel, glass, and Karbate pipes. The test was
hot water to cold water with the cold water held at 12,000 lb. per hr. throughout thc
test. (Courtesy of National Carbon Co!npany.)
graphite are among the most widely used nonmetallic:s in thi:s field. Carbon and graphite are both highly resistant to thermal shock and graphite
/ has an unusually high thermal conductivity (Table 1). This, combined
with excellent machinability, makes graphite and impervious graphite
the preferred choice for very many items of chemical equipment. Impervious graphite (or impervious carbon) is made by impregnating the somewhat porous base graphite. (or carbon, if impervious carbon is to be
produced) with a synthetic resin. The impregnation employs a vacuum,
For a most excellent review, see the Carbon and Graphite section of the Materials
of Construction reviews, Octobe~ issue of Ind. Eng. Chern., annual since 1947.
CARBON AND GRAPHITE STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
161
pressure cycle for complete resin penetration. The resin generally used is
a phenolic type, which is polymerized by curing at elevated temperatures
in steam-heated autoclaves.
The chemical resistance of Karbate impervious graphite and impervious carbon materials produced in this manner is practically identical
with that of the original stocks. The impervious materials are recommended for use at material body temperatures up to 338F. Specifically,
Karbate impervious graphite is recommended for practically all mineral
acids, salt solutions, alkalies, and organic compounds at temperatures to
boiling. The only exceptions are when strong oxidizing conditions exist,
such as with sulfuric acid above 96 per cent concentration, nitric acid
above 20 per cent concentration, strong chromic acid and bromine; fluorine, and iodine. Cements for assembling impervious graphite use resins
backing ring
Karbate
K(]rbate tube sheet

Pocked gland bock-up
for expansion plate
Steel bockup plate
FIG. 4. Sectional view-graphite tube exchanger-single-tube paS8: used for heating

dilute sulfuric acid in rayon processing. (Courtesy of Struthers/Wells.)
similar to those which produce the impervious material. Permanent weldlike joints are formed with corrosion resistance and strength equivalent
to that of the basic material.
Carbon and graphite ar~ most commonly used in the form of brick and
large blocks or plates for chemical-process applications. Single-piece
shapes are made in diameters up to 3 ft. 4 in. and in lengths up to 19 ft.
2 in. Figure 5 shows typical large-block construction with carbon and
graphite. The" quonset-hut" type structure is a graphite chamber for
the combustion of ph6sphorus with oxygen to form P 20 6 , which is then
hydrated in the silolike carbon structure alongside to form phosphoric
acid. Similar construction is used for linings of sulfuric acid concentrators
and for electrostatic precipitators, where dimensional stability is important. Tank linings of~ carbon brick are encountered in metal pickling,
cleaning, and finishing work, particularly where exposure to hydlofluoric
acid is involved.
i
Impervious graphiti~ is the most. importl:tnt of the carbon and graphite
structural materials tG the (hcmical industry. Graphite's easy machining
162
INDUSTHIAL C AHBON
Qualities, together with its availa bility in many si;.:es and shapes, permits construction of a complete range of proce::;::; equipment, including
heat exchangers, pumps, valves, pipe and fittin gs, tower:;, and absorbers
Karbate impervious graphite's high thermal condu ctivity (see Fig. 3) is
particularly important in h eat-exchange applications. Most common of
the standard constructions are the (:QIl\'entional :;hell-and-tube heat exchangers, showll in Fig. -, which range ill "ize to ullit:; containing as much
FIG. 5, The right-hand structu re is built completely of electric furnace graphite, while
the tower at the Ipft is asspmb led of amorphous rarbon blocks. Unit for production of
phosphoric acid . (COllrtesy oj N ational Carbon ( 'oil/pony. )
as 2,300 sq. ft . of transfer su rface. Operating pressures range up to 75 lb.

per sq. in., "'ith steam pressures of 50 lb. per sq . in. gage. Other uses of
Karbate carbon include plate-type heat exchangers, double-pipe concentric-unit cascade coolers, and centrifugal pumps (see Fig. 1, Chap. 21).
Structural shapes of extremely high purity have recently become of great
importance in work connected with the atomic bomb and nucleonic reactions and power development in piles. Graphite blocks are used to hold
the slugs of urallium or enriched nuclear fuel in position in the space lattice which forms the nuclear reactor. These have the required structural
strength at high temperatures and a high thermal conductivity to facilitate the removal uf the enormous amounts uf beat generated in the nu-
ACTIVATED CARRON
163
clear reaction. In addition to these advantages carbon is apparently the

unique choice for use in the fixed lattice pile because it, is inert with respect to reaction with neutrons. The atoms of carbon "moderate," or
tIlow down, the fast-moving neutrons to speeds .at which they can be
captured by uranium and so enable the chain reaction to continue. The
reason for the extremely high level of purity required for t he carbon
moderator is that almost any likely impurity would I:om pete with the
uranium in capturing neutrons to such an extent that the chain reaction
would stop because of an insufficient. supply of neutrons.
ACTIVATED CARBON
Activated carbon first came into prominence through its use as an adsorbent in gas masks in the First World War. However, the knowledge
that carbon produced by the decomposition of wocd can remove coloring
matter from solutions dates back to the fifteenth century. The fi rst commercial application of this property was not made, however, until 1794,
when charcoal filters were used in a British sugar refinl"ry . About 1812,
bone char was discovered by Figuer. Activated ('arbons ('an he divided
into two main classes-those used for adsorption of gases and vapors for
which a granular material is generally employed, and those in purification of liquids for which a powdered material is desired.
Uses. There is no particular act.ivated c8.rbon that is effective for all
purposes (see Table 3). As a decolorant, activated carbon , with its very
great surface area, is hundreds of times more efficient tha n charcoal and
at. least forty times more than bone black. It is est,itnat ed that 5 lb. of
activated carbon has an aeti\'e area of 1 sq. mile or more. The a mount
of materials adsorbed by aeti\'ated carbon is surprisingly large, amounting frequently to from a quarter to an equal weight of such \'apors as
gasoline, benzene, or carhon t.etrachloride. These substances can be
recovered and reused. Adsorption is a physical phpllonwll on depending
largely upon the surface area. 1
The major use 2 of activated carbon is in solut.ion puriii('ation, such as
the cleanup of cane, bect, and corn sugar solutiolls and for the removal
of tastes and odors from watN supplies, \"egetabl(' and an imal fat.s and
oils, alcoholic beverag("s, chemicals, and pharllln(cuticaIH. Thl" recovery
of streptomycin probably repr('s('nts th(" furth("st ad\"!tlJ((' in t he ('ontinuous treatment of liquids.
The vapor-adsorbent type of activat.ed carbon was first 1I ~('d in milit.ary
gas masks because of its ahility to adsorb certain poisonoll s gnl';!'l';, and it
For an excellent discussion of th!' throri{'s of adsorption !I('(' L p. w J;', S <H"J RES and
"Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal lind Amorphou~ :\lnt!'l"inls," Chap.
5, The Macmillan Company, New York, 19..2.
I STAFF, SE-paration hy Adsorptioll , ('ltelll . llidR., 61, 625 (UHi ).
1
BROl'GIlTOX,
I NDUSTRIAL CARBON
164
is now widely employed in both military and industrial gas masks. An

important field of application is in the industrial recovery of vapors (see
Fig. 6). Recovery of such vapors amounts to billions of pounds per year,
with a recovered value of several hundred million dollars. Activated carbon is able to adsorb practically any organic solvent at about lOOF. and
release it when heated! to 250F. Activated carbon can now be made in
extruded form which in vapor adsorbing p resents only ahout half the air
j!
Exhousf o "r;;'
,Vapo r - laden
/ qirinler
solvt'nf free '
Condenser
'~) Absorbers
,
Continuous
decanter
low-prPssurt: sfeam
Adsorbing
blower
FIG. 6. Flow diagram of one t ype of solvent-recovery plant employing Columbia

activated carbon. A typical plant of this type in recovering a hydrocarbon vapor at a
rate of 1,100 lb. per hr. from 13,000 cu. ft. per min. of vapor-laden air will have the
following approximate average utility requirements per pound of recovered solvent:
steam-3.5 lb.; water-7.5 gal. ; electric power-O.05 kw.-hr. (Courluy 0/ Carbitk and
Carbon Chemicals Co.)
resistance of the older granulated heterogeneous powder. A very important continuous process 2 for close fractionation for light-hydrocarbon reI covery from gas streams has been developed. This HYpe1'aorption process
employs a moving bed of activated coconut shells which have high adsorptive capacity a nd are more resistant to abrasion than the other
carbons.
Manufacture. Many carbonaceous materials, such as sawdust, lignite,
coal, peat, wood, charcoal, nutshells, and fruit pits, may be used for the
I ANON., Solvent Recovery with Activated Carbon, Chern. E"II., 1M (1), 136 (1947),
with a pictured flow sheet.
'BERG, Hypersorption Process for Sp.paration of Light Gases, Trana. Am. 1ml.
Chern. Engrs., 42, 665 (1 946).
MANUFACTURE
165
manufacture of activated carbon, but the properties of the finished material are governed by the source. 1
Decolorizing activated carbons are usually employed as powders. Thus
the raw materials for this type are either structureless or have a weak
FIG. 7. View of solvent-recovery plant using Columbia activated carbon. Adsorbers are
in the open while other equipment is housed. Equipment a.rranged for addition of other
adsorbers when increased capacity is required. (Courtesy 0/ Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co.)
structure. Sawdust and lignite yield carbons of this kind . Vapor-adsorbent carbons are used in the form of hard granules and are generally produced from COCOIlUt shells, fruit pits, and briquetted coal and charcoal.
Activation is a physical change wherein the surface of the carbon is
tremendously increased by the removal of hydrocarbons from the carbon
surface. Several methods are available for this activation. T he most widely
employed are the treatment of the carbonaceous material with oxidizing
1 Mantell's section on Adsorption in PERRY, op. cit., should be consulted for formulas
pertaining to adsorption, flow sheeta of plants using adsorbents, engineering data and
generalized thcory of adsorption, particularly pp. 886, 888, 897-909; on p. 905 is
given a tabular comparison of activated carbon, activated alumina, and silica gel.
C/. MORGAN and FINK, Binders and Base Materials for Active Carbon, Ind. Eng.
ehe",., 38, 219 (1946).
166
INDU~TRIAL
CARBON
gases such as air, steam, or carbon dioxide and the carbonization of the
raw material in the presence of chemical agents such as zinc chloride or
phosphoric acid.
The gaseous oxidation activation employs material that has been carbonized at a temperature high enough to remove most of the volatile constituents but not high enough to crack the evolved gases. The carbonized
material is subjected to the action of the oxidizing gas, usually steam or
carbon dioxide, in a furnace or retort at 1475 to 1800F. Conditions are
controlled to permit removal of substantially all the adsorbed hydrocarbons and some of the carbon so as to increase the surface area.
The use of chemical impregnating agents causes the carbonization to
proceed under conditions that prevent the deposition of hydrocarbons on
the carbon surface. The raw material, sawdust or peat, is mixed with the
chemical agent, dried, and calcined at temperatures up to 1560F. When
TABLE
3.
ApPLICATIONS OF ACTIVATED CARBON"
A. Adsorbing Gases or Vapors (Gas-adsorbent Carbon):

1. Adsorbent in military and industrial gas masks and other devices.
2. Recovery of gasoline from natural gas.
3. Recovery of benzol from manufactured gas.
4. Recovery of solvents vaporized in industrial processes such as manufacture of
rayon, rubber products, artificial leather, transparent wrappings, film, smokeless powder, and plastics, and in rotogravure printing, dry cleaning of fabrics,
degreasing of metals, solvent extraction, fermentation, etc.
S. Removing impurities from gases such as hydrogen, nitrogen, helium, acetylene,
ammonia, carbon dioxide, or carbon monoxide.
'
6. Removing organic sulfur compounds and other impurities from manufactured
gas.
7. Removing odors from air in air conditioning, stench abatement, etc.
B. Decolorizing and Purifying Liquids (Decolorizing Carbon):
1. Refining of cane sugar, beet sugar, glueose, and other sirups.
2. Refining oils, fats, and waxes such as cottonseed oil, coconut oil, lard, and
mineral oil.
3. Removing impurities from food 'products such as gelatine, vinegar, cocoa
butter, pectin, fruit juices, and alcoholic beverages.
4. Removing impurities from pharmaceutical and other chemical products,
including acids.
S. Water purification-r~moval of taste, odor; and color.
6. Removing impurities from used oils, dry-cleaning solvents; electroplating solu
'
tions, sirups, etc.
7. Removal of metals from solution-silver, gold, etc.
C. Catalyst and Catalyst Carrier (Gas-adsorbent Carbon):
1. Manufacture of phosgene.
2. Carrier for hydrogenation catalysts, ~tc.
D. Medicine:
1. Intertial medicine for adsorption of gases, toxins, and poisons.
2~ Administering adsorbed medicinals.
3. External adsorbent for odors from ulcers and wounds.
~
RAY, Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co.
GHAI'HITE
167
t,he carbonization has been completed, the residual impregnat.ing agent 'is
removed by leaching with water.
Revivification. After an activated carbon has become saturated with! a
vapor or an adsorbed color, either the vapor can be steamed out, condensed, and recovered as shown in Fig. 6, or the coloration can be destroyed and the carbon made ready for reuse. The oldest example of tqis
process is exemplified by that decolorizing carbon long known as bone
char or bone black. 1 This consists of carbon deposited on a skeleton ,of
tricalcium phosphate and is made by the carbonization in closed retOl;ts
at 1380 to 1740F. of fat-freed bones. Over 50,000,000 lb. of bone char
with a value of around $2,500,000 to $3,000,000 are produced annuaily
in the United States, and much of this is employed in the manufacture
of sugar.2 After saturation with impurities, the bone char is washed free
of sugar and recalcined at. around 750F. under restricted oxidizing
conditions that destroy the impurities and restore the adsorbing pro'prrties of the carbon.
GRAPHITE
Graphite, as it occurs naturally, has been knowll to mall for many centuries. Probably its first use was for deeorat.ive purposes in prehistoric
times. By the Middle Ages it was being employed for writing and dra\,'ing purposes. The name graphite was given to this substance by the minrralogist Werner, in 1879. Natural graphite was the only kind available
except in laboratory quantities until 1896, when Edward G. Acheson
invented the first successful process for the comm-ercial production of
artificial graphite, as an outgrowth of his work on silicon carbide. He
discovered that, when most forms of amorphous carbon are placed ~o
gether with certain catalysts such as silica or alumina in an electric furnace and subjected to a t~mperature of approximately 3000C., they are
eOllYerted into the allotrope, graphite. It is now known that tile industrial process converts amorphous carbon directly to graphite in an elctric furnace.
Uses and Economic;:;. Foundry facings eOllstitute the largest single use
of natural graphite followed by lubrieants, batteries, and crucibles. Ab6ut
11 per cent of the United States consumption of-natural graphite goes
into the manufacture of crucibles. For this purpose it, is mixed with cl~y,
sand, and water and ;then set away to age, The crucible is formed on
"jiggers" and then air-dried and baked in a kiln. The graphite of the
crucible wall begins,tci oxidize at about 450C., and the life of the crucible
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 897-898, including flow ~harts; DIETZ, V. R., "Preliminary
Survey of Bone Char Revivification and Filtration," National Bureau of Standards,
Special Report (1947).
2 See Chap. 30.
168
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
depends on keeping the rate of oxidation down. This rate depends on temperature but also on composition of furnace gases and of binder or glaze.
Another large consumer of natural graphite is the pencil industry, which
requires a fairly pure raw material containing around 90 per cent graphite. The lower grades of the natural material, containing 35 to 50 per cent
carbon, are used 1 in paints, stove polishes, lubricants, etc.
The United States production of natural graphite or plumbago has been
practically nonexistent or small in recent years. Imports, however, have
continued at around 52,000 tons, four-fifths of which came from Mexico.
Total world production of all graphite in 1948 was 147,000 metric tons,
excluding Russia.
Binder (pitch)
Coke
Electricity
:300 lb.}
115 tons Per ton of
6. -10.000' kW.-hr. finished graphite
FIG. 8. Flow sheet for manufacture of artificial graphite electrodes and powders.
Artificial graphite can be substituted for any of the uses of the natural
product except in the making of clay-graphite crucibles, although many
crucibles and trays of artificial graphite are manufactured. On the other hand, the very pure artificial graphite has many fields of exclusive use,
such as a high-temperature lubricant or for electrodes in various chemical
manufactures and for nucleonic reactors. For lubricating purposes it is
suspended in water or oil and placed in contact with the moving parts.
The liquid media evaporate, leaving the graphite well distributed over
the entire surface. The electrical industry' uses graphite for electrodes,
brushes, contacts, and ~lectronic-tube rectifier elements. A considerable
amount is employed for a parting compound to prevent molds of such
articles as glass bottles and rubber tires from sticking together. Various
friction elements, such as brake linings, are treated with graphite to prevent grabbing, and ~t is incorporated as an ingredient in lubricating oils
I
,
and. greases.
1 SZYANOWITZ, Preparation, Properties and Uses of Colloidal Graphite, J. Che1ll.
Educ., 16,413 (1939).
MANUFACTURE
169
Manufacture. Artificial graphite is made electrically from retort or

petroleum coke, in line with the flow sheet depicted in Fig. 8. The reaction for this allotropic change is essentially
C(amorph.)
C(graphite);
t:..H = -2,500 cal.
The unit changes involved in commercializing these reactions, as

charted in Fig. 8, may be summarized for electrodes or other graphite
articles:
Coke (petroleum or retort) is selected and shipped to graphite plant (Op.).
Carbon material is calcined (14ooC.) to volatilize impurities (Op. and Pr.) ..
Raw materials are carefully analyzed.
Raw materials are ground, mixed with binder giving green electrodes, and
arranged in furnace (Op.).
Green electrodes are baked at 1100C. to carbonize binder and furnish amorphous electrodes (Pr.).
Amorphous electrodes are graphitized in electric furnace at high temperature
(30ooC.) (Pr.).
Graphite is shaped to industrial demands and the scrap powdered (Op.).
In manufacturing graphite the furnace used consists essentially of: a

core of the coke being graphitized, surrounded by a heavy layer of sand,
coke, and sawdust as insulation. The floor and ends of the furnace are
built mainly of concrete, with cooling coils in the ends to reduce the temperature of the electrodes in contact with air to prevent them from burning. The side walls, built of loose blocks and plates, are torn down after
each run. The average charge is approximately 30;000 lb. of material.
The resistance of the charge produces a temperature of around 3000C.
As the coke graphitizes,l the voltage, owing to lowered resistance, drops
from 200 to 40 volts. The high temperature employed decomposes, for
instance, any silicon carbide that may be present and volatilizes products other than graphite. A complete cycle of the furnace consists in:
loading, 1 day; power on, 5 to 6 days; cooling, about 25 days; unloading,
2 days. Thus about 1 month is required from charge to charge. After cooling, the furnace is torn down and the graphitized carbon taken out,
crushed, and ground; The insulating sand is used over again. There is
also used a graphitizing countercurrent electric furnace for uniform blocks.
In the manufactur~ of amorphous carbon electrodes 2 the petroleum coke
or anthracite used is ;crushed and hot mixed with a pitch binder thinned
with oil (see Fig. 9). irhe reSUlting soft mass is either extruded or molded
to the finished electrpde shape. These green electrodes are then baked at
1 SPRAGUE, The Graphitizing Furnace, Trana.,Electrochem. Soc., 70, 57 (1936).
Detailed flow sheets for .both graphite and carbon electrodes are given by MANTELL
on. p. 726 of "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., D. Van Nostrand
170
INDUSTRIAL CARBON
around 1l00oe. in either a gas-fired furnace or an electric furnace. After

cooling and removal from the furnace these electrodes are turned down
and threaded on a lathe. A similar process is involved in making brushes
for motors, the carbon being made into small plates which are then cut
to the necessary shape for making the brushes. Graphite electrodes have
less electrical resistance and consequently can conduct more current per
Sand or coke
packing material
'Baked scrap
Machine shop scroc
FIG. 9. Flow chart for manufacture of amorphous carbon electrodes. I
cross section, but they cost more than

electrode.
th~
usual amorphous l carbon
INDUSTRIAL DIAMONDS
Because the diamond is the hardest and most permanent of all known
substances, it has great industrial importance in cutting, shaping, and
polishing hard substances. For a thousand years diamonds have been employed for this purpose in the East. Their use is increasing, particularly
in countries like the United States where much high-speed machining of
hard materials is required.' All electric-light filaments and millions of
I
For a tabular comparison of the properties of graphite and amorphous carbon

electrodes, see PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1822, 1820-1824.
1
171
INDUSTRIAL DIAMONDS
miles of other wires are drawn through diamond dies. Consequently this
country is the largest consumer of industrial diamonds in the world. The
world production of industrial diamonds in 1952 was 15,80'0',0'0'0' carats l
(6,960' lb.), of which the United States imported 13,677,248 carats In
1952, valued at 51.8 million dollars.
Three types are employed: (1) crystalline and cleavable diamonds more
or less off grade and off color; (2) bort, translucent to opaque, gray or
dark brown, with a radiated or confused crystalline structure (inferior
grades of crystalline diamonds are also called bort); (3) carbonado, frequently known as a black diamond or carbon. It occurs in an opaque,
tough, crystalline aggregate without cleavage. Bort is the most widely
used of the industrial diamonds.
Over 90' per cent of industrial diamonds comes from Africa, the remainder from Brazil, British Guiana, and Venezuela. Diamond powder
manufactured from bort costs about $3 a carat, although bort commands
a price of $2.25 per carat (July, 1954, as set by the world selling: organization). In addition to the usual industrial varieties, there are available
chips and small fragments of gem diamonds which, however, are utilized
in the making of diamond powder for polishing gem diamonds and other
hard materials and for other purposes, without crushing. These chips also
serve as the "point" in glass cutters.
TABLE
4.
CHIEF CONSUMPTION OF INDUSTRIAL DIAMONDS, BY WEIGHT
Per cent
Crushing bort for bonded wheels and powder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66

Diamond drilling ................................ ! . . . . . . .. 20
Diamond tools ................... ' ....................... 10
Diamond dies and miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
An extensive use of industrial diamonds is in manufacturing shaped

tools for turning and boring. The extreme hardness of the diamond during
the operation of a lathe enables the operator greatly to increase machining
speed. Tools set with natural industrial diamonds are a practical necessity in truing and dressing worn artificial abrasive wheels in all industry
where precision grind~ng is performed. Bonded diamond wheels for grinding hard materials such as cemented carbide tools are made from, crushed
bort. Since the continbal drawing of wire through dies causes much wear,
dies for accurate wire: drawings are made out of diamonds. Such: dies are
preferably made from; fine quality of clear stones with an appropriate hole
drilled therein. Such holes are started by using sharp diamond points and
finished by lapping with diamond dust. Such dies should be carefully
mounted so that the~, will not be fractured while in use. When worn, dIes
must be reopened to 'the next larger size of wire. In drilling through rock
for oil or water or for the
. placing of dynamite in quarries the steel drill
,
The international carat is 0.200 gm.
172
INDUSTRIA L CARBON
bit.s are set. with whole small indust.rial diamonds in metallic heads; here
t.he diamonds do the actual' work, the steel heads simply serving to hold
them in the cutting position. These diamond drills enable actual cores of
the rock to be t.aken out and examined with consequent greatly increased
knowledge of what minerals or deposits lie underground. The use of industrial diamonds is so important that automobile manufacturers have
stated that, while only a few cents worth are consumed per car, the
automobiles would cost more than double were it not for diamond tools.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Grodzinski, P., "Diamond and Gem Stone Industrial Production," N.A.G. Press,
London, 1942.
Hassler, J. W., "Active Carbon," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York,
1951.
Mantell, C. L., "Industrial Carbon," 2d ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New
York,1946.
- - - , "Industrial Electrochemistry," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1950.
- - - , "Adsorption," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1\}51.
Creighton, H. J., "Principles and Applications of Electrochemistry," 4th ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., .NewYork, 1943.
Koehler, W. A., "Appli:Jations of Electrochemistry," 2d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1944.
Kortiim, G., and J. O'M. Bockris, "Textbook of Electrochemistry," 2 vols., Elsevier
Press, Inc., New York, 1951.
CHAPTER
10
THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES
The ceramic industries, also sometimes called the clay products or sili-.
cate industries, have as their finished materials a variety of articles tha~
are essentially silicates. These products may be classified as follows:
1. Whitewares-chinaware, earthenware, pottery, porcelain, stoneware, ane(
vitreous ware.
2. Heavy clay products-common brick, face brick, terra cotta, sewer pipe,
and drain tile.
3. Refractories-fire-clay brick, chromite, silica brick, basic bricks (magnesite
aed forsterite), alumina products, silicon carbide refractories, pure oxide refnic"
tories (alumina, magnesia, beryllia, stabilized zirconia, and thoria), and metl,\lbonded ceramics (oxides, nitrides, borides, and carbides).
4. Enamels and enameled metal.
5. Glass.
The first four of these will be presented later in this chapter; the glasf?
industry will be dealt with separately in Chap. 12. /
The making of pottery is one of the most interesting and ancient of
man's industries; the Chinese and the Egyptians engaged in the art over
6,000 years ago. Ceramics are an important hobby for American men an4
women. Museums contain, as a record of man's culture, the clay products produced throughout the ages, many of which have an artistic as
well as a utilitarian aspect. Although the essential manufacturing processes used in most of ~he ceramic industries have remained largely un:~
changed for a long time, since 1920 many significant new developments l
have taken place, such as pure oxide refractories, metal-bonded oxides,
carbides, nitrides, and:borides.
.
Uses and Economid. The value of the pottery produced in the Unite,j
States from 1930 to ,1940 fluctuated between $40,000,000 and $112,;000,000 annually. The present position is around $150,000,000. Table]
shows certain statistics for the ceramic industry. Brick production varies
greatly with the general building program for the country. In 1925 the
production of commo~ brick reached 7.6 billions and in 1924 face brick
I See Ceramics, in Materials of Construction reviews, published annually in Ind.
Eng. Chem., for October, since 1944.
.
173
174

TABLE
1. PRODUCTION AND SHIPMENTS OF CERAMICS, FOR THE

UNITED STATES: 1952"
(Money figures in thousands of dollars)
Product
Production
quantity
Clay brick and hollow tile:

Unglazed clay brick (common and face),
M brick .............................. . 5,881,748
Unglazed clay structural tile, ton .......... .
962,837
Hollow facing clay tile, M brick equivalents ..
413,479
Glazed and unglazed clay floor and wall tile
and accessories, M sq. ft ................. .
125,966
Drain tile, tons .......................... .
819,919
Clay sewer pipe, tons ........... , ........... . 1,646,110
Clay refractories ........................... .
Fire-clay brick, standard and special shapes,
628,262
except super-duty, M 9-in. equivalents ....
Super-duty fire-clay brick, standard and
special shapes, M 9-in. equivalents ....... .
96,495
High-alumina brick, standard and special
shapes, M 9-in. equivalents ............. .
22,251
Insulating firebrick, M_9-in. equivalents .... .
60,343
Ladle brick, M 9-1n. equivalents ............ .
209,511
Hot-top refractories, M 9-in. equivalents ... .
49,148
Sleeves, nozzles, rupner brick, and tuyeres,
M 9-in. equivalents .................... .
55,085
Glass-house pots, tank blocks, upper structure, and floaters, tons .................. .
20,513
Vitreous and semivitreous plumbing fixtures:
Vitreous china ....., ...................... .
n.a.
Glazed earthenware, concrete, and compon.a.
sition ................................. .
Nonclay refractories ........................ .
Silica brick, standard and special shapes,
M 9-in. equivalents .................... .
336,579
Magnesite and magnesite-chrome (magnesite
predominating) brick, standard and special shapes, M 9-in. equivalents ...... -.... .
38,420
Chrome and chrome-magnesite (chrome predominating), M 9-in. equivalents ........ .
48,708
I
Graphite and other carbon crucibles and retorts, tons ............ ,................ .
9,810
Other graphite and carbon refractories, tons ..
1,358
Other nonclay refractories, standard and special
shapes ........ , ....................... .
Silicon carbide ........................... .
Mullite and kyanite ...................... .
Fused alumina and bauxite ................ .
Zirconia, forsterite, fused magnesia, pyrophyllitei sillimanite, and other nonclay
shapes ................................ .
.. Annual Survey of Manufactures, 1952.
Shipments and
interplant transfers
Quantity
Value
5,635,249
919,761
389,376
154,566
11 ,243
22,104
117,544 , 60,962
815,490
14,073
1,544,80!)
58,943
161,934
610,254
70,849
93,428
-'16,951
21 Ji55
60,127
199:913
48:892
6,655
11 ,510
13,490
5,042
54,231
7,789
19,404
3,373
n.a.
82,295
n.a.
2,935
138,643
327,997
46,797
38,150
21,949
48,187
23,658
9,844
1,329
5,578
593
18,973
7,761
3,766
2,560
4,886
175
BASIC HAW l\lA'l'EHI.\ Ll't
attained 2.5 billions. Rot.h have declined since those maxima. Ohio and
Pennsylvania are the chief IlHtllufacturing states for the eeramie industries with New .Jersey, West Virginia, California, and Missouri foi"lowin!!;
in sequence.
BASIC RAW MATERIALS
The three main raw materials used in making the common ceramic
products are (1) day, (2) feldspar, called spar in the industry, (3) sand,
called flint in the industry. Clays are more or less impure hydrated aluminum silicates that have resulted from the weathering of igneous roeks
in which feldspar was a noteworthy original mineral. The reaction may
be expressed,
K 2 0Ab036Si0 2
Potash feldspar
+ CO + 2H 0
2
K 2 C0 3 + AI 2 0 32SiO,2H 20
Kaolinite
+ 4SiO~
Silica
There are a number of mineral species called clay minerals but the most
important are kaolinite, Ah(h2Si0 2 '2H 2 0; beidellite, AhQ3'3Si0 2 'H 20;
montmoriilonite, AI 2 ()a-4Si0 2 H 2 0; and hailoysite, AI 2 0:I 2SiO,3H 2 0.
From a ceramic viewpoint days are plastic and moldable when sufl1(:iently finely pulverized and wet, rigid whell dry, and vitreous when
fired at a suitably high temperature. Upon these propert.ies depend the
manufacturing procedures.
TABLE
2.
BASIl' RA\\" :\lATERIALR FOR CERAMICS

/
Formula ................
Plasticity ...............
Fusibility ...............
Meltlng point ...........
Shrinkage on ):mrning ....
Kaolinite
Feldspar
Quartz or flint
AI.0 32SiO.2H.O
Plastic
Hefractorya
3245F.; 1785C.
Much shrinkage
K.OAI.0 3 6SiO,
Nonplastic
Easily fusible binder
21(}')F.; 1150C.
Fuses
SiO.
Nonplastic
Hefractorya
3110F.; 1710C.
XO shrinkage
Infusible at highest tcnlpcrature of coal fire (1400C.)
Accompanying the clay ~inerals in the days of commerce' are varying

amounts of feldspar, qJartz, and other impurities such as oxides of iron.
In nearly all the clays u~ed in the ceramic industry, the basic clay mineral
is kaolinite, although bentonite l clays based on montmorillonite are used
to some extent where 'very high plasticity is desired. This property of
the plasticity2 or workability of clays is influenced most by the physical
See PERRY, ap. cit., pp},1085-1091 for flotation,
LEWIS, SQUIRES, andl BROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and
Amorphous Materials," b~ntonite, pp. 241-248; plasticity, pp. 453-456, Tl1e Macmillan Company, New York, 1942.
1
176
THE CERAMIC INDlTSTRIES
condition of the clay and varies greatly among the different types of clay_
Clays are chosen for the particular properties desired and are frequently
blended to give the most favorable result. Clays vary so much in their
physical properties and in the impurities present, that it is frequently
necessary to upgrade them by the beneficiation procedure. Figure 1 shows
the steps! necessary for such a procedure wherein sand and mica are removed. The steps in this flow sheet apply almost altogether to the physical changes or unit operations such as size separation by screening or
selective settling, filtration, and drying. However, the colloidal properties
are controlled by appropriate addition agents, such as sodium silicate and
alum_
I/O
/b. air t. Pressure tonk
Note: Quantities cannot be given sinc.e day recovery vories from 8 to 18 percent,d6pending On Gr-ude
cloy used. Plant snown h.... desi'3ned for JO tons per day output re'3arc:lless of
c:r""'. ciD.y variations
FIG. 1. China clay beneficiation. (Courtesy of Harris Clay Company.)
There are three common types of feldspar: potash feldspar, K 20-AhOa 6Si02; soda feldspar, Na20AbOa6Si02; and lime feldspar CaOAh03' 6Si0 2, all of which are used in ceramic products to some extent.
The first is the most common. Feldspar is of great importance as a flux:ing constituent in ceramic formuias. It may exist in the clay as mined, or
it may be added as n~eded.
The third main ceramic constituent is'sand or flint. Its essential properties for the ceramic industries are summarized along with the similar
characteristics of clay and feldspar in Table 2. For the light-colored
ceramic products, sand with a low iron content should be chosen.
In addition to the three principal raw materials there is a wide variety
of other minerals, salts, and oxides that are used as fluxing agents and
special 'refractory ingredients. Some of the more common fluxing agents
are
1 SMITH, Deflocculation and Controlled Separation Improve Domestic China Clay,
.
Chem. & Met. Eng., 44, 594 (1937).
UNIT PROCESSES INCT.UDJNG FUNDAMENTAL CERAMIC CHEMISTRY
Borax, N a2B 40 7'lOH 20

Boric acid, HaBOa
Soda ash, N a2CO a
Sodium nitrate, NaNO a
Pearl ash, K 2CO a
177
Fluorspar, CaF 2
Cryolite, NaaAIFs
Iron oxides
Antimony oxides
Lead oxides
Some of the more common special refractory ingredients are

Alumina, AhOa
Olivine, (FeO, MgOhSi0 2
Chromite, FeO'Cr20a
Aluminum silicates, AhOaSi0 2
(cyanite, sillimanite, andalusite)
Dumortieri te,
8Al 20 aB 20 a6Si02H 20
Magnesite, MgCO a
Lime, CaO, and limestone, CaCO a

Zirconia, Zr02
Titania, Ti0 2
Hydrous magnesium silicates,
e.g., talc, 3MgO4Si0 2H 20
Carborundum, SiC
Mullite, 3AhOa2Si02
UNIT PROCESSES INCLUDING FUNDAMENTAL CERAMIC CHEMISTRY
All ceramic products are made by combining various amounts qf the

foregoing raw materials, shaping, and heating to firing temperatures.
These temperatures may be as low as 700C. for some overglazes ,or as
high as 1300 to 1400C. for many vitrifications. Such temperatures pause
a number of reactions which are the chemical bases for the unit processes of
/
1.
2.
3.
4.
Dehydration or "chemical water smoking" at 150 to 650C.

Calcination, e.g., of CaCOa at 600 to 900C.
Oxidation of ferrous iron and organic matter at 350 to 900C.
Silicate formation at 900C and higher.
Some of the initial chemical changes are relatively simple, like the calcination of CaCO a and the dehydrations and decompositions of kaolinite.
Other reactions, such as silicate formations, are quite complex and cllange
with the temperature and constituent. ratios as depicted by Figs. 2 and 4.
The phase-rule! studies as exemplified by Fig. 2 and also by Fig. 4
have been of revolutiona~y importance in interpreting-the empirical observations in the ceramic i~dustries and in making prediction~ for improvements. For instance, the data of Fig. 2 on the A1 20 a-Si0 2 system have
led to the important dkvelopment of processes for mullite refractories
(see page 192). This diagram shows that any percentage of liquefaction
I
Phase-equilibrium Data in the Manufacture of Refractories, J,. Am.

Ceram. Soc., 24, 271 (1941) ;jHALL and INSLEY, A Compilation of Phase Rule Diagrams
of Interest to the Ceramis~ and Silicate Technologist, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 16, 455
(1933).
I
BIRCH,
178
TIm CERAMIC INOURTRIF.S
can he obtained, depenrJent Oil 11 ilplillite temperature, except at the monovariant points. Thus, if the progressive melting be kept from going too
far by controlling the rise in temperature, sufficient solid skeletal material
will remain to hold the hot. mass together. This AhOa-Si0 2 diagram
shows that mullite is the only stable compound of alumina and silica at
high temperature.
Being primarily silicates, ceramic products are all more or less refractory, i.e., resistant to heat, and t4e degree of refractoriness of a given
product is determined by the relative quantities of refractory oxides and
fluxing oxides. The principal refractory oxides are Si0 2 , AhOa, CaO, and
2000
Liquid
Corundum
+ liquid
1810
1800
3AI Z0,' 2 Si 0z + Liquid
1545
Corundum
+3Al z03 '2SiO z
Cristobolite+ 3Al z O,'2SiO z

14000
SiO z
20
40
60
Weight Per Cent
80
100
aAIZOJ
FIG. 2. Phase diagram of the system alpha Al,O,-SiO,. Mullite has the formula
aA!,():.2SiO,.
MgO, with Zr02, TiO z, Cr 20a, and BeO used less commonly. The principal fluxing oxides ate NazO, K 2 0, B 2 0 a, and Sn02, with fluorides also
llsed as fluxes in certain compositions.
The essential ingredient of all ceramic products is clay (kaolinite, usually) and therefore the chemieal_ reactions which occur on heating clay
are quite important. The first effect of the heat is to drive off the water
of hydration which occurs at around 600 to 650C. and which absorbs
much heat, leaving an amorphous mixture of !l-lumina and silica, as
shown by X-ray studies.
AI 20 a2Si0 2 2H 20
-->
Al 20 a + 28i0 2
+ 2H 0
2
In fact a large proportion of the alumina can b,e extracted with hydr<h
chloric acid at this stage. As heating is continued, the amorphous alumina cp.anges quite sharply at 940C. to a crystalline form of alumina,
gamma alumina, with the evolution of considerable heat. At a slightly
higher temperature, beginning at about lOOOC., the alumina and silica
combine to form mullite, 3AI 2 0 a28i0 2 At a still higher temperature, the
179
WHITEWARES
rcmainiJJg silica is converted into crystalline cristobalite. Therefore the

fundamental over-all reaction in the heating of clay is as follows:
3(AhOa2Si0 2 2H 2 0)
Kaolinite
---->
3A1 2 0 a2Si0 2
Mullite
+ 4Si0 + 6H zO
2
Cristobalite
The equilibrium state of Al zO a-Si0 2 mixtures as a function of temperature

is summarized in the phase equilibrium diagram of this system shown in
Fig. 2. The presence of fluxes tends to lower the tempera~ure of formation of mullite and of attainment of the equilibrium conditions reported
in the equilibrium diagram.
An actual ceramic body contains many more ingredients than clay itself. Hence the chemical reactions are more involved, and there Will be
other chemical species besides mullite and cristobalite present in the final
product. For example, various silicates and aluminates of calcium, magnesium, and possibly the alkali metals might be present. However, the
alkali portion of feldspar and most of the fluxing agents become a part
of the glassy or vitreous phase of the ceramic body. All ceramic bodies
undergo a certain amount of vitrification or glass formation during heating and the degree of vitrification depends upon (1) the relative amounts
of refractory and fluxing oxides in the composition, (2) the temperature,
and (3) the time of heating. The vitreous phase imparts desirable properties to some ceramic bodies, e.g., acting as a bond and imparting translucency in chinaware. Even in refractories some vitrification is desirable
to act as a bond but extensive vitrification would destroy the refractory
property. Thus it is seen that any ceramic body is composed of a vitreous
matrix plus crystals, of which mullite and cristobalite are two of the
most important.
The degree of vitrification provides the basis for a useful classification
of ceramic products as follows:
1. 'Whitewares. Varying amounts of fluxes, heat at moderately high temperatures, varying vitrification.
2. Heavy clay products. A:bundant fluxes, heat at low temperatures, little
vitrification.
3. Refractories. Little fluxes, heat at high temperatures, little vitrification.
4. Enamels. Very abun~ant fluxes, heat at moderate ~mperatures, complete
vitrification.
5. Glass. Moderate fluxes, heat at high temperatures, complete vitrification
I
(see Chap. 12).
WHITEWARES
The whitewares incl~lde chinaware, earthenware, pottery, porcelain,

stoneware, and vitreou~ ware. These arc based on selected grades of clay
bonded together with :Varying amounts of fluxes and heated to a moderately high temperature in a kiln (1200 to 1500C.). Because 'of the dif-
180
THE CERAMIC INDUSTlUES
ferellt amounts and kinds of fluxes there is a corresponding variation ill

the degree of vitrification among the whitewares from earthenware to
vitrified china. These may be broadly defined as follows:
Earthenware' is "a porous nontranslucent ware with a soft glaze."
Earthenware is sometimes called semivitreoU8 dinnerware.
Chinaware' is "a commercially vitrified translucent ware with a medium glaze
which resists scratching to a greater or less degree."
Porcelain' is "a thoroughly vitrified, translucent ware with a hard glaze which
resists scratching to the maximum degree." This includes dinnerware but also
the exceedingly important insulation porcelain so essential in the electrical field.
Stoneware especially chemical stoneware 2 is closely related to porcelain. The
stoneware may be regarded as a crude porcelain, the raw materials being of poorer
grade and the manufacturing not so carefully carried out.
Pottery is usually a broad classification including earthenware, c~ina, and
porcelain.
Detailed presentations of the different kinds of whiteware should be

sought in the specialized books to which,ref~rence is given at end of this
chapter. To represent the typical manufacturing procedures in this group,
porcelain is chosen.
Manufacture of Porcelain. There are three lines of production: (1) the
wet process porcelain used for production of fine-grained highly glazed insulators for high-voltage service, (2) the dry process porcelain employed
for rapid production of more open-textured low-voltage pieces, and (3) the
cast porcelain necessary for the making of pieces too large or too intricate
for the other two methods. These three processes are based on the same
raw materials, the differences in mar.ufacturing being largely in the drying and forming (shaping) steps. The wet process is illustrated 3 by Fig. 3.
This flow sheet may be broken down into the following sequences of unit
operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.): '
I
Tge raw materials of proper proportions and-properties to furnish porcelain of
desired quality are weighed from ()verhead hoppers into the weighing car (Op.).
The feldspar, clays, and flint are mixed with water in the blunger (clay-water
mixer) and then passed over a magnetic separator, screened, and stored (Op.).
Most of the water is removed (and wasted) in the filter press (Op.). All the
air is taken out in the pug mill assisted by vacuum and slicing knives. This
results in a denser and stronger porcelain (Op.).
The prepared elay is formed into blanks in a hydraulic press or by hot pressing
in suitable molds/(Op.).
'WATTS, The Selection of Dinnerware for the Home, Uhio Slale Univ. Eng. Expl.
Sta. Cire. 21, 3d cd., 1940; Classification of Ceramic Dinnerware, Bull. Ant. Ceram.
Soc., 16, 246-247 (1937).
Pictured flow sheet, Chern. & Mel. Eng., 47, 637 (1940).
a Pictured flow sheet, Chern. (; Mel. Eng., 46,421 (1939).
MANUFACTURE OF PORCELAIN
181
The blanks are prp,1iminal'ily dried, trimmed, ami finally completely driedall under carefully controlled conditions (Op.).
A high surface luster is secured by glazing with selected materials COp.).
The vitrification of the body and the glaze is carried out in tunnel kilns with
exact controls of temperature and movement (Pr.).
The porcelain articles are protected by being placed in saggersl fitted one on
top of the other in the cars. This represents a one-fire process wherein body and
glaze are fired simultaneously. The porcelain pieces are rigidly tested electrically and inspected before storage for sale (Op.).
Much tableware is manufactured by more complicated procedures than

illustrated by the somewhat related porcelain product. Some objects are
shaped by "throwing" on the potter's wheel by skilled hands working
FIG. 3. Porcelain manufacture by the wet process of Westinghouse.
the revolving plastic clay into the desired.form; some objects are "~ast"
from the clay slip in molds of absorbent plaster of Paris. After drying,
the latter are removed and further processed. Mass production of simple
round objects like cups, saucers, or plates, is carried out economically by
" jigging" where the plastic clay is pressed into or on a single revolving
imold, the potter often being aided in shaping the other surface and in
removing excess clay by a lever which he lowers over the mold, shaped in
the profile of the object desired. The mold is placed in the drying room.
The vitrification as shown in Fig. 3 tis by the one-fire process. Frequently the two-fire method is used wherein the body is fired, cooled,
I
glazed, and fired again.
Glazing is always important in whitewares; it is particularly so for
tableware. A glaze is a thin coating!of glass that is melted onto the surface of the more or less porous ceramic ware. It contains ingredients of
1 S~ggers are made by mixing coarse g~anules obtained from grinding old saggers
with new clay and water in a pug mill and discharging the doughlike mass from an
extrusion machine in loaf form. These loaves are placed in a molding machine, where
box shape is imparted, and then fired. They may be used several times.
182
two distinct types in different proportions: (l) refractory materials such

as feldspar, silica, and china clay and (2) fluxes such as soda, potash,
fluorspar, and borax. Different combinations of these materials and different temperatures at which they are fired give a wide rlJ,nge of texture
and quality. The glaze must bond with the ware, and its coefficient of
expansion must be sufficiently close to that of the ware to avoid defects
such as" crazing" and" shivering." The glaze may be put on by dipping,
spraying, pouring, or brushing. All of these methods need a great deal
of care. Decorations may be applied by carving, painting with a thick
paint, marbling (dabbing on paint), tracing with a glass tube, or combing.
For high-grade tableware, the decorations are by decalcomania paper
which is simply a mechanical means for manifold duplication of the same
design. However, such designs are "touched up" by an artist. For the
highest type of tableware much hand decorating is practiced. Decoration of such ware may be "underglaze" or "overglaze."
Glost firing is the technical term for the firing of the glaze. Care should
be taken in packing the kiln or the saggers so that the ware does not
touch except for the three necessary underneath supports. As much space
as practical is allowed between the different pieces of the ",ares since the
glazes often bubble and rise before flattening. The temperature of the
glost kiln may be increased more rapidly than during the first firing, but
heating should not be hurried as strains would be set up. Large shapes
should be packed in the center of the kiln to avoid uneven heating and
should be fired more slowly than small ones. Earthenware should be
glazed between 1050 and 1l00C.; stoneware between 1250 and 1300C.
HEAVY CLAY PRODUCTS
Low-cost but very durable products, such as common brick, fac~

brick, terra cotta, sewer pipe, and drain tile, are frequently manufactured
from the cheapest of common clays with or without any glazing. The
clays used generally carry sufficient .impurities to provide the needed
fluxes for binding. When glazed, as in sewer pipe or drain tile, this may
tbe done by throwing salt' ("salt glaze") upon the Juln fire. The volatilized salt reacts to form the fusible coating or glaze..
Manufacture of Buildu;.g Brick. One of the most important of clay
products is building brick, which comprises common and face brick. The
raw materials are clays from three groups: (1) red burning clay, (2) white
burning clay, (3) buff burning clay, usually a refractory. The requirements for a face-brick clay are freedom from warping, absence of soluble
salts, suffici~nt hardness when' burned at a moderate temperature, and
general uniformity in color upon burning. Requirements for common
brick are much less stringent. Red burning clay is most used for both
MANUFACTURE OF BUILDING BRICK
183
common and face brick; however, the semirefractory buff-colored clay is

ill great demand because coloring matter may be added to vary the color
effects. Manganese, with white or buff burning clay, gives a very' attractive color.
Bricks are manufactured by one of three processes:! the soft-mud, the
stiff-mud, or the dry-press. The soft-mud procedure consists in molding
the clay mixture containing 20 to 30 per cent water in molds coated with
a thin layer of either sand or water to prevent sticking. The molded
brick is burned. Such bricks are of a uniform and excellent quality with
good edges. This soft-mud process is much employed for firebrick and is
the ancient method for making building bricks. In the now predominant
stiff-mttd procedure, the clay is just wet enough (12 to 15 per cent) to
stick together when worked. This clay is forced out through a die in a
screw or auger machine. An important new development, called deairing,
is the operation o~ the auger in a vacuum chamber (14 to 29 in. Hg).
Dcairing increases the workability, plasticity, and' strength of the undried brick by reducing voids, for all but a few clays. The extruded clay
bar passes along a short belt conveyer onto a cutting table on which a
frame with a number of wires automatically cuts the bar into appropriate
lengths. These bricks (as well as those from the soft-mud process) may
be repressed to make face brick. This repressing not only ensures a more
uniform shape but overcomes the internal stresses set up by the extrusion in the screw. These molded bricks may be stacked 6 to 10 ft. high
without damage before being dried. In the dry-prcss procedure the water
content is from 4 to 7 per cent (usually the "as-is" condition) which
makes the clay relatively nonplastic. The brick unit here is molded at
pressures around 5 tons per sq. in. A typical dry press for brick manufacture costs about $30,000, uses 30 to 40 hp., and delivers a maximum
of 750 tons pressure.
The stiff-mud process is employed for the ~anufacture of pra;ctically
every clay product, including all types of brick, sewer pipe, drain tile,
hollow tile, fireproofing, and terra cotta. The clay in some cases can be
worked directly from It bank into the stiff-mud machine, but a more desirable product will result if the clay is ground and tempered before being
used. The greater percentage of clay ware is m~de by the stiff-mud
process.
Bricks are dried in. various ways: outdoors, in sheds, or in tunnel
driers. After drying, the bricks are fired in kilns of such type: as described later in the chapter, to a temperature from 875 to somewhat
above 1000C.
I,
1 KIRK and O'1'HMER, op. cit., Vol. 3, pp. 521-545. Competitive with these ceramic
bricks in certain areas are sand-lime hricks (see Chap. 11).
184
REFRACTORIES
Refractories' embrace those materials which are us~d to withstand the

effect of thermal, chemical, and physical effects that are met with in furnace procedures. Refractories are sold in the form of firebrick, silica
brick, magnesite brick, chromite brick, magnesite-chromite brick, silicon
carbide refractories, zirconia refractories, aluminum silicate products, olivine products, and others. The variety of refractories available is increasing, thus making possible a better selection of a refractory for a particular
use. In making refractories the main .material is chosen to adapt itself
best to the thermal, chemical, and mechanical conditions to be met with.
The fluxes required to bind together the particles of the refractories are
kept at a minimum. Largely because of this there is but little vitrification. The possibility of shaping articles made from bodies without clay
and even with no natural plasticity led to the manufacture of single-component ceramics with superior qualities, e.g., pure oxide refractories.
These are monocrystalline and self-bonded as compared with the conventional vitreous-bonded refractories.
Properties of Refractories. In determining the refractory best suited
for a definite operation it is necessary to consider the working temperature of the furnace where the refractory is needed, the rate of temperature
change, the load applied during heats, and the chemical re;;tctions that
are encountered. Generally, several types of refractories are required for
the construction of anyone furnace because usually no single refractory
can withstand all the different conditions that prevail in the various
parts of the furnaces. In order ~o guard against reaction between the
different kinds of bricks a separating cement or brick that has little tendency to react with either of the adjacent refractories should be used.
Chemical Properties. The usual classification of commercial refractories
divides them into acid, basic, and neutral groups, although in many cases
a sharp distinction cannot be made. Silica bricks are decidedly acid, and
magnesite bricks are strongly basic; however, fire-clay bricks are generally placed in the neutral group though they may belong to either of
; these classes depending up,on the relative silica-~lumina content. Also, in
the alumina-silica series of refractories many types can, be made with
wide differences in their chemical reactions. It is usuaJly inadvisable to
employ an acid brick in contact with an alkaline product, or vice versa.
Neither chemical reactions nor physical properties are sole criteria of acceptable behavior; both should be considered. Chemical action may be
due to contact with slags, fuel ashes, and furnace gases as well as with
products sU9h as glass or steel, Among the gases that have a deleterious
1 NORTON, "Refractories," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1949. This volume is most essential for everyone working in this field particularly,
because of the hundreds of ulassified references to further details in the literature.
18.5
PROPERTIES OF REFRACTORIER
effect are carhon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, natural gas, hydrogen, and
steam.
TABLE 3. FUSION TEMPERATURES OF REFRACTORIES
Material
Fire-clay brick ...................... .
Kaolinite, Al,032SiO.2H.O .......... .
Silica brick ......................... .
Silica, SiO ..........................
Bauxite brick ....................... .
High-alumina clay brick .............. .
Mullite, 3AI 2 0 32SiO .................
Sillimanite, AI.SiO ...................
Forsterite, 2MgOSi0 2 ' . .
Chromite, FeOCr 203 ................ .
Chrome brick ....................... .
Alumina, AI.0 3..................... .
Spinel, MgOAl.0 3................... .
Silicon carbide, SiC .................. .
Magnesite brick ..................... .
Zirconia brick ....................... .
Temperature, Temperature,
C.
OF.
1600-1750
1785
1700
1710
1732-1850
1802-1880
1810
1816
18\)0
1770
1\)5(}-2200
2050
21:\5
27()0
2200
2200-27()()
2912-3182
3245
3090
3110
3150--3362
3276-3416
.3290
3300
:3434
3218
3542-3992
3720
3875
4890
3992
3992-4892
4 NORTON, "Refractories," pp. 356-36l, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

New York, 1949. For other data on refractory materials, see PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1538,
1549.
Porosity. The porosity is directly related to many ~ther physical properties of brick including resistance to chemical attaCK. The higher the
porosity of the brick the more easily it is penetrated by molten fiu?,es and
gases. For a given class of brick the one with lowest porosity has the
greatest strength, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity.
Fusion Point. Before use, the softening point of a refractory should
be determined. It is found by use of pyrometric cones of predet~rmined
softening points. Most commercial refractories soften gradually over a
wide range and do not haye sharp melting points because they are composed of several different. minerals both amorphous and crystalline in
type. The pyrometric ~ones (once known as Seger coues) are small pyramids made of mixtures of oxides and are useful for the approximate
measurement of temperatures by steps averaging about 36 from 1100 to
3700F. These are cohsidered indispensable, not because of high-temperature accuracy but because their temperature-timtl performance is
similar to that of thei materials being fired. The fusing points of these
pyrometric cones are I~vailable in the literature.' Typi~al fusion points
1 A.S.T.M. Designation: C24-42. Many other specifications for refractories and
refractory materials are given in the A.S.T.M. standards. See PERRY, op.cit., p. 1272.
186
of refractories, ooth for pure substances and for technical products, arc
given in Table 3.
Spalling. A fracturing or a flaking off of a refractory brick or block
due to uneven heat stresses or compression caused by heat is known as
spalling.' Refractories usually expand when heated. Bricks with the
highest expansion and least uniform rate are most susceptible to spalling
when subjected to rapid heating and cooling. When refractories are
heated for a great length of time at high temperatures, they may have a
permanent volume change, either expansion or contraction, which may
be caused by mineral inversion, softening, or overfiring.
.
Strength. Cold strength usually has only slight bearing on strengths at
high temperatures. Although most of the applications place refractories
under compressive loads, in rare cases they may be subjected to tension
or shear alone. Resistance to abrasion or erosion is also very important
for many furnace constructions such as co-product coke-oven walls, and
linings of the discharge end of rotary cement kilns.
Resistance to Rapid Temperature Changes. Generally speaking, bricks
with the lowest thermal expansions and coarsest textures are most resistant to rapid thermal change; less strain develops also. Bricks that
have been used for a long time are usually altered in their properties,
often being melt.ed to glassy slags on the outside surface' or even heing
more or less corroded away.
'l'hermal Conductivity. The densest and least porous bricks have the
highest thermal conductivity, owing to absence of air in voids. Though
heat conductivity is wanted in some furnace constructions, as in muffle
walls, it is not so desirable as some other properties of the refractories
such as resistance to firing conditions and is given minor consideration.
Insulation is desired in special refractories.
Heat Capacity. Furnace heat capacity depends upon the thermal conductivity, the specific heat, and the specifici gravity of the refractory.
The low quantity of heat absorbed by lightweight brick works as an
advantage when furnaces are operated intermittently because the work- .
ing temperature of the furnace can be obtained in less time with less
fuel. Conversely, the dense alld heavy fire-day brick would be best f9r .
regenerator checkerwork, as in coke ovens, glass furnaces, and stoves for
blast furnaces.
I
Manufacture of Refractories. The usual methods for manufacturing
refractories include these unit physical operations and unit chemical processes: (1) grinding and screening, (2) mixing, (3) pressing or molding and
repressing, (4) drying, and (5) burning or vitrification. Usually the most
important single property t~ produce in manufacture is high bulk density, which affects many of the other important properties such as
1 NORTON,
references.
op.
cit, Chapter 15 is devoted entirely to spalling with many literature
MANUFACTURE OF REFRACTORIES
strength, volume stability, slag, and spalling resistance, as well as hea,t

capacity. On the other hand, for insulating refractories a porous stru<;ture is required, which means a low density.
Grinding. Obviously, one of the most important factors is the size of
the particles in the batch. It is known that a mixture in which the prQportion of coarse and fine particles is about 55 to 45, with only few intermediate particles, gives the densest mixtures. Careful screening, separation, and recycling are necessary for close control. This works very well
on highly crystalline materials but is difficult to obtain in mixes of high
plasticity.
Mixing. The real function of mixing is the distribution of the plastic
material so as to ClJat thoroughly the nonplastic constituents. This serves
the purpose of providing a lubricant during the molding operation and
permits the bonding of the mass with minimum voids.
M oiding. The great demand for refr!lctory bricks of greater density,
strength, volume, and uniformity has eventually resulted in the adoption
of the dry-press method of molding with mechanically operated presses
and the discarding of hand molding and extruding processes. T~e dry~
press method is particularly suited for batches that consist primarily of
nonplastic materials, In order to use high-pressure forming it is. necessary to deair the bricks during pressing to aVQid laminations and cracking when the pressure is released. There are four ways of deairing drypress bricks: (1) Decreasing the rate of pressure application and 'release
so that the air in the voids has opportunity to seep through the sides of
the brick and mold box. (2) Double pressing of the materials. In this
method the bricks are pressed and allowed to crack. Repressing then
closes the cracks. (3) Deairing by use of a gas, such as butane, which is
piped to the mold box to displace the air. When pressure is applied, the:
gas is absorbed by the clay or condensed. If a flammable gas is used, it
should be more carefully handled to reduce the fire hazard. (4) The use
of a vacuum applied through vents in the mold box (cf. vacuum pug mill
in Fig. 3). Large special shapes are not 'adapted to machine molding;
however, their manufacture has been improved by the use of tamping
with pneumatic tools to attain very high densities.
Drying. Drying is used to remove the moisture that was added before
molding to develop plasticity. It should be noted that the elimination
of water leaves voids and causes high shrinkages and internal strains.
For this reason the dry-press process (requiring only 4 to 7 per cent of
moisture, instead of 10 to 15 per cent in the stiff-mud method) has been
favored in the manufacture of practically all types of refractory materials.
In some cases drying is~omitted entirely and the small amount necessary
is accomplished during the heating stage of the firing cycle.
Burning. Burning may be carried out in the typical round down-draft
kilns or continuous tunnel kilns. Two important things take place dur-
188
ing burning: (1) the development of a permanent bond by a partial vitrification of the mix and (2) the development of the stable mineral forms
for future service as shown in the phase diagrams of Figs. 2 and 4. The
changes that take place are the removal of the water of hydration and,
then, the calcination of carbonates and the oxidation of ferrous iron.
During these changes, the volume may shrink as much as 30 per cent,
and severe strains are set up in the refractory. This shrinkage may be
eliminated by the prestabilization of the materials used. There are commercial refractories (see Fig. 4) in which the burning operation is entirely
eliminated because the raw materials are prestabilized, appropriately
sized, and pressed.
Varieties of Refractories. About 95 per cent of the refractories manufactured are nonbasic-with silica (acid) and fire-clay (neutral) brick
predominant. Although a refractory is usually thought of in terms of its
ability to withstand temperature, it is really only in exceptional cases
that heat is the sole agent that effects the final destruction which is usually caused by chemical action at that temperature; hence the need for
refractories of different chemical composition.
Fire-clay Brick. Fire clays are the most widely used of all the various
refractory materials since they are well suited for a variety of applications and may be obtained in quantity. Fire clays range in chemical composition from those with a large excess of free silica to those with a highalumina content. With material of such variation in quality, there is a
price spread from $50 to $75 per M for bricks made therefrom. The steel
industries are the largest consumers of refractories for the linings of blast
furnaces, stoves, open hearths, and other furnaces. Other industries having use for these are foundries, limekilns, pottery kilns, cupolas, brass
and copper furnaces, continuous ceramic and metallurgical kilns, boilers,
gas-generating sets, and glass furnaces.
Silica Brick. Silica bricks contain about 95 to 96 per cent Si0 2 ;'nd
about 2 per cent of lime added during grinding to furnish the bond.
Silica bricks have a permanent expansion which occurs during firing and
/ which is caused by an allotropic transformation that takes place in the
crystalline silica. When reheated, silica brick:;; again expand about 1.5 per
cent, but the effect is rev~rsible, the bricks returning to size when cooled.
This fact should be considered in their installation. Silica bricks are manufactured in many standard sizes by power pressing. They have a very
homogeneous texture free from air pockets and molding defects and
possess a low porosity. These are highly desirable properties for the resistance to slag penetration. 1he price is around $78 per M.
.
Tile phy~ical strength of silica bricks when heated is much higher than
for those made from clay. Consequently they are suitable for arches in
large furnaces. I"urnaces using these must, however, be heated and cooled
gradually to lessen spaIling and cracking. Open-hearth furnaces have
I
I
VARIETIES OF REFRACTORIES
18~
silica bricks in their main arch, side walls, port arches, and bulkheads)
but the newest installations here are the super-duty silica bricks and basiq
bricks. Because of their high thermal conductivity silica bricks have beell
utilized in co-product coke ovens and gas retorts. Other uses are in glass
furnaces, electric. furnaces, and copper-smelting reverbatory furnaces!
Superduty silica brick results from the greater chemical purity of th:)
silica. The sum of the alumina, titania, and alkali impurities in the
super-duty brick does not exceed 0.5 per cent. Super-duty silica bricks
have higher refractoriness and lower permeability to gases than eonven;
tional silica bricks.
High-alumina Refractories. The present demand for these high-alumin~
refractories is largely caused by the improvements in the quality and by,
the growing demand for refractories that can witl\stand severe conditions
for which the older fire-clay and silica bricks were not suitable. High",
alumina bricks are really high-alumina clay bricks made from clays ricQ,
in bauxite and diaspore. The refractoriness and the temperature of in~'
cipient vitrification increase with the alumina content (see phase diagram, Fig. 2). Another valuable property of high-alumina bricks is that
they are practically inert to carbon monoxide and are not disintegrated
by natural gas atm?spheres up to 1000C. Alumina content ranges from
48 per cent upward. High percentages are classed among the superrefrae,
tories, and almost pure alumina (97 per cent) is considered among the'
recently developed special refractories termed "pure oxides." High-alumina brick prices vary directly with the alumina content, with an averag~
value of $176 per M.
High-alumina bricks are employed in the cement ~ndustry and paper~
mill refractories. They have proved successful in boiler settings because
of the resistance to the chemical action of fuel ash which contains basic
oxides. They have proved economical for the linings of glass furnaces, oil"
fired furnaces, high-pressure oil stills, in the roofs of lead-softening fur'naces, crowns of silicate of soda furnaces, and in regenerator checkers of
blast furnaces.
Basi,; Refradories.! The important basic bricks are made from magne~
sia, chromite, and forsteri.te. To achieve the required strength and other
physical properties, t'\le basic bricks are usually power pressed and are
either chemically bonded or hard burned. The disadvantages of lack of
bond and volume stability in unburned basic or other bricks have been
overcome by three i~provements in manufacturing: (1) Interfitting of
grains has been devel~ped to a maximum by using only selected particl~
1 RocHOW and BRAsHAREs, Recent Developments in Refractories and Their Applications, Chem. Eng. Proqr., 44, 869 (1948); Dem,merle, et al., Manufacture of Basib
Refractory Brick, Ind. Eng. Chem., 40, 1762 (1948); Byrns, Integrated Basic Refrac,tories Operation in California, Chem. Eng., 57, (5), 153 (1950); 57 (5), 200, pictured
flow sheet.
190
THE CERAMIC INDUf;TRIES
sizes combined in the proper proportions to fill all the voids. (2) The
forming pressure has been increased to 10,000 lb. per sq. in. and deairing
equipment used to reduce the air voids between the grains. (3) The use
of a refractory chemical bond. The flow sheet for the manufacture of unburned refractories, as compared with the burned-brick process, is shown
in Fig. 4. The unburned bricks have a higher density and, therefore,
better slag-resisting properties than burned brick and an outstanding
resistance to spalling.
The magnesia refractories are made from domestic magnesites, or magnesia extracted from brines (Chap. 11). Magnesia hricks do not stand
much load at elevated temperatures, but this difficulty has been overcome by blending with chrome ores. Many blends are possible, ranging
*Selecteol grain sizes are screened out and recombined in definite proportions for
ma~imum ciensity. It has been found that a suitable proportion for many purposes
is 55 parts of coarse to 45 parts of fine particles, with elimination of intermediate sizes.
Unburned mfructories made by several manufacturers; process shown is that of
Generul Refrdctories CO.
FIG. 4. Flow chart for unburned refractories by Ritex process, compared with burncdhrick process. (Courtesy of General Refractories Company.)
from predominantly magnesia to predominantly chrome. In the nomenclature the predominant blend constituent is given first. There is a large
price variation because of the composition variation, but the average
value is about $350 per M which makes these bricks among the most
expensive.
Chemically bonded magnesite-chrome bricks l/-re frequently supported
with mild steel to hold the brickwork and minimize spalling loss. These
refractories are used in open-hearth _and electric-furnace walls, in the
burning zones of cement kilns, and in the roofs of various nonferrous
Ireverberatory furnaces. Hard-burned chrome~magnesite bricks have many
important physical properties because of their special composition, particle sizes, high forming pressure, and high firing temperature. They are
of particular interest in the basic open-hearth furnaces.
Forsterite (2MgOSi0 2) is employed both as a bond and as a base for
high-temperature refractories. Where forsterite forms the base, the refractories are generally made from olivine. This naturally occurring silicate contain's 2(Mg,Fe)O'Si0 2 'and is characterized by its refractoriness.
In the manufacture of forsterite refractories, dead-burned magnesite is
usually added to convert some accessory minerals also to forsterite, whirh
is the most stable magnesium silicate at high temperatures, as shown by
19,
VARIETIES OF REFHACTORIES
Fig. 5. For example, enstatite (or clinoenstatite of Fig. 5)

the rock olivine as mined, is converted to forsterite,
MgOSi0 2
Enstatite
MgO
---->
Magnesia
occu~ring
in
2MgOSi0 2
Forsterite
1:iuch refractories have the advantages of a high melting point, no transformations during heating, and unsurpassed volume stahility at high temperatures. No calcining is necessary in their preparation. The most illl~
portant use of forsterite is in glass tank superstructures and checkers as
1900
Periclose + liquid B
1850
1800
Liquid A \
,,
,,
U
Q)
Q)
I-
Liquids A+ B
'(
Periclase + Forsterite
Vl
\
1695
F
Cristobali+e +liquid AI
1700
0'
I))
Cristobal ite +liquid B

1600
I
1557"
1500
, MgO
'l0
40
2I-1g0-SiO Z
60
Clin~enstatite + liquid
1543
80
100,
SiO z
Weight Per Cent

FiG. 5. Phase diagram of the system MgO-Si0 2 [From Hall and Insley, J. Am. Ceram.
Soc., 16, 493 (1933).]
I
its high chemical resistance to the fluxes employed. and good strength a~
high temperatures allow enhanced tank output. These refractories alsq
find many other industrial applications such as in open-hearth end walt~
and copper-refining fJ.rnaces.
Silicon Carbide Refractories. These super-refractories are noted for the'ir
chemical resistance aJtd ability to withstand sudden temperature changes.
In their manufacture: the crude material from the silicon carbide furna~c
is ground and the ceramic bond is added. The latter may be finely divided silicon carbide,' itself, or clay. The mixture is molded to shape aqd
192
the less than 10 per cent of bond vitrified. These bricks are extremely
refractory and possess a high thermal conductivity, low expansion, and
high resistance to abrasion and spalling. They are strong mechanically
and withstand loads in furnaces to temperatures as high as 1650C. At
higher temperatures this strength is less. Such refractories are used chiefly
in muffles because of their thermal conductivity. Their ability to absorb
and release heat rapidly and their resistance to spalling under repeated
temperature changes make them desirable for recuperators. Refractories
of this type can be made thinner than those from fire clay.
Refractories from Crystalline Alumina or Aluminum Silicates.! Research
has revealed that mullite and corundum have high slag resistance and
remain in the crystalline state at temperatures of 1600C. and higher
(see Fig. 2 for phase diagram). High-temperature kilns now furnish alumina bricks that closely approach pure corundum in properties and mullite
bricks that are made from calcined Indian cyanite with the old clay bond
replaced by a mullite bond consisting of interlocking crystals. Such refractories are finding many new applications, particularly where severe
slagging has been a problem.
Electrocast Refractories. Many kinds of bonded refractories are made
from electrically fused _mullite. These are manufactured by introducing
a mixture of diaspore'clays of high-alumina (to furnish 3AI 20 a,2Si0 2 ratio)
content into the top of an electric furnace. If necessary, these are adjusted to furnish the stable mullite ratio of 3AI 2 0 a2Si0 2 Molten aluminum silicate at 3400F. is tapped from the furnace at intervals and
run into molds built from sand slabs. The molds containing these blo_gk_s:::::
are annealed from 6 to 10 days before the blocks are usable. The refractory obtained from this process has a vitreous, nonporous body which
shows a linear coefficient of expansion of about one-half that of good firebrick. The blocks cannot be cut or shaped but may be ground on Alundum
wheels; however, skill in casting has progressed rapidly and now many
sizes and intricate shapes are available. This electrocast mullite has only
0.5 per cent voids in contrast with the usual 17 to 29 per cent in fire-clay
/ blocks. Cast refractories are employed in gl~ss furnaces, as linings of hot
zones of rotary kilns, in modern boiler furnaces exposed to severe duty,
and in metallurgical equiJ?ment such as forgi~g furnaces., The refractories
have the advantages of long life and minimum wear, against which must
be balanced their greater initial cost. A newer and superior variety of
fused cast refractories with from 83 to 95 per cent alumina is available.
Here the interstitial glass content is greatly reduced, along with voids induced during the usual castin~ process. 2
1 REMMEY, 'New Alumina-~ilica Refractories, Chem. Eng. Progr., 44, 943 (1948).
GEIGER, el al., Applications of Super Refractories Made from Electric Furnace
Products, Chern. Bnyr. Progr., 44, 933 (1948).
VARIETIES OF REFRACTOlUES
193
Pure Oxide Refractories. The refractories industry is constantly faced

with increased demands for products which will withstand higher temperatures and more severe operating conditions. To meet these requirements, a group of special or pure oxide refractories has been developed.
The superior qualities are based mostly on freedom from fluxes. Refractory oxides of interest in order of increasing cost per unit volume include
alumina, magnesia, zirconia, beryllia, and thoria. All these have been developed commercially for light refractory wear, but only alumina, magnesia, and zirconia have been used in heavy refractory products. These
last three have certain properties in common: (1) they have high purity
(a minimum of 97 per cent alumina, magnesia, or stabilized zirconia) and
(2) they are principally composed of electrically fused grain. Beryllia is,
not used commercially in heavy wear because of its high cost and volatil...
ization above 3000F. in the presence of water vapor. Thoria has a number of disadvantages, particularly since its radioactivity places it under
the control of the Atomic Energy Commission.
The material that has the widest application of these pure oxide re"
fractories is sinter alumina. It is used successfully at temperatures up to
about 3400F. Magnesia is a basic refractory and is easily reduced at
high temperatures. Its applications are limited to oxidizing atmospheres
at temperatures not much over 4000F. Since pure zirconia undergoes a
crystalline change from monoclinic to tetragonal form at about 1800F. accompanied by a drastic volume change on inversion, stabilization of the
crystal structure to the cubic which undergoes no inversion was necessary. This is accomplished by adding certain metalliq"oxides (particularly
CaO and MgO). Processing temperatures in the range of 4600 to 4700F.
are now commercial with available fused stabilized zirconia. Only present large-scale use is as kiln furniture for the firing of barium titanate
resistors, but future large usage seems probable.
~nsulating Brick. Insulating bricks are of two types: (1) for backing of
refractory bricks and (2) in place of regular refractory bricks. Most
bricks used for backing are made from naturally porous diatomaceous
earth, while the second type, usually called lightweight refractories, are
similar in compositionl to heavy bricks and owe their insulating value to
the method of manufacturing. For instance, waste cork is ground and
sized; this is mixed with the fire clay, molded, and burned. In the kilh
the cork burns out leaving a highly porous and light brick. These lightweight refractories ll{ay be used safely for temperatures of 2500 to
2900F., while diatOlnac~ous-earth brick are not suitable above 2000F.
under ordinary conditions.
I
Pure Oxide Heavy Refractories'; Chem. gnu. Progr., 44,872 (1948) j

BALDWIN, Zircon and Zirconia RefraetorieH, Chem. Eng. Proflr., 44, 875 (1948); ANON.,
Fused Stabilized Zireonit(, Chern. Eny., 58 (2), 199 (1951).
I WHITTEMORE,
196
a nickel flash on the base metal is still necessary to promote optimum

adherence, the complete deoxidation of the metal prior to enameling has
eliminated surface defects such as reboiling which can often be traced to
the evolution of gas by the metal at temperatures necessary for maturing
the enamel coating.
Application of the Enamel. Enamel may be applied to the metal in a
number of different ways. Sheet-iron coats are generally applied by dipping or slushing, since the ware is usually coated on all sides. Slushing
differs from draining in that the enamel slip is thicker and must be
shaken from the ware. It is convenient for small odd-shaped pieces. A
third method of application is spraying. Any of these three processes may
be employed wet or dry. Cast-iron treatment is very similar to that for
sheet iron, but slushing here consists of pouring the enamel slip over the
casting and allowing the excess to run off. The enamel is now air-dried,
and colors are brushed and stenciled on if wanted. The enamel is usually
applied in two coats for premium products.
Firing. All enamels should be fired on the ware to melt them into a
smooth, continuous, glassy layer. The requirements for successful firing
of a good enamel are (1) proper firing temperature 1400 to 1500F., (2)
time 1 to 15 min., (3) proper support of the ware, (4) uniform heating
and cooling of the ware, and (5) an atmosphere free from dust. Heat is
provided in either intermittent-fired muffle furnaces or continuous-tunnel
furnaces. The product is taken from the furnace and given many tests
for its thermal, optical, physical, and chemical properties. Enamel coats
average about 0.0065 in. as compared with 0.026 in. a few years ago. T~e
ware is now ready for use. The special enamel- or glass-lined equipment
so extensively used in chemical plants is tested even by high-frequency
waves to exclude any defects which only this method will detect but
which in course of use would offer an avenue for acid penetration.
1
KILNS
The vitrification of ceramic products and the prior unit processes of

/dehydration, oxidation, and calcination are carried out in kilns that may
be operated in a periodic or continuous manner. Ml!ffie kilns are also
employed. Usually all the'newer installations are continuous-tunnel kilns
which have many advantages over the batch kilns, such as lower labor
costs, greater thermal efficiency, shorter processing time cycle, and better
operating control. Coal and oil are the most important fuels for firing,
but gas and electricity are used in some cases. The choice of the kiln
and fuel 2 is ~argely a question of economics and product quality.
I
HARMAN and KING, Applications of Nickel Compounds in Ceramics, Ind. Eng.

Chern., 44, 1015 (1952).
NORTON, op. cit., pp. 242, 244, and 252, tabulates fuel consumption for periodic,
tunnel, and chamber kilns.
1
PERIODIC KILNS
Continuous Kilns. The most important kilns are the continuous-car

tunnel kilns used for the firing of brick, tile, porcelain, tablewll:re, an<;l
refractories. There are two general types of such kilns: the direct-fired
type where the combustion gases burn directly into the wares and the
indirect (muffle) type where the products of combustion are not allowed
to contact the wares. The wares are loaded directly onto open cars or
enclosed in saggers which keep the wares clean. The cars pass through the
tunnel counterflow to the combustion gases from the high-fire zorie.
The continuous chamber kiln consists of a series of connected chambers.
The heat from one chamber is passed to another countercurrent to the
ware. Because the chambers are burned in succession, the operation :is
continuous. There is always one chamber cooling, another being fired,
and another being heated by the waste heat of the two other chambers.
This type of kiln is used to burn brick and tile.
Periodic Kilns. Downdraft kilns, which are round or rectangular shaped,
are used in burning face brick, sewer pipe, stoneware, tile, and common
brick. In them the heat is raised from room temperature to the finishing
temperature for each burning operation. The kiln is "set" (filled with
wares to be burned) ; the heating is started and the temperature raised at
a definite rate until the firing temperature is reached. The downdraft kiin
is so named because the products of combustion go down in passing over
the ware set in the kiln. The gases leaving the furnace go up inside the
walls to the crown of the kiln and are pulled through the ware by means
of a system of flues connected to an outside stack.
The updraft kiln has been most commonly used in 1)urning pottery ware
but is rapidly being replaced by tunnel kilns. It is similar to the downdraft type except for the movement of the gases. It gives better heat con~
trol than does the downdraft type. Common bricks are burned in scove
kilns, which are really vatiations on the updraft type. The kiln itself is
built from the green brick with the outside walls daubed or "scoved"
with clay. The clamp kiln is a variation on the preceding in which the
side walls are permanent. After burning, the kiln is completely dismantled.
I SELECTED REFERENCES
Norton, F. H., "Refractories," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1949. Standard book.
Norton, F. H., "Elemerits of Ceramics," Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
Cambridge, Mass., Hl52. Introductory book.
.
Ries, H., "Clays, Their Occurrence, Properties and Uses," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.;
New York, 1908. . I
Searle, A. B., "An Encyclopedia of the Ceramic Industries," 3 vols., Ernest Benn,
Ltd., London, 1930.
'
- - , "Chemistry and, Physics of Clays and Other Ceramic Materials," 2d ed.;
Ernest Benn, Ltd., IJondon, 1933.
McNamara, E. P., "CeramicS'," 3 vols., Pennsylvania State College, State College,
1945.
198
Newcomb, R., Jr., "Ceramic Whitewares," Pitman Publishing Corporation, New

York,1947.
Anon., "Refractories," General Refractories Company, Philadelphia, 1949.
Andrews, A. I., "Enamels," The Twin City Ptg. Co., Champaign, Ill., 1935.
Ladoo, R. B., and W. M. Myers, "Nonmetallic Minerals," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," Interscience
Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947-1956.
Bulletins and Journals of the American Ceramic Society, Columbus, Ohio.
CHAPTER
11
CEMENTS, CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
The industrial uses of limestone and cements have provided important

undertakings for chemists and engineers since the early years when lime
mortars and natural cements were introduced. In modern times one need
only mention reinforced-concrete walls and girders, tunnels, dams, an~
roads to realize the dependence of present-day civilization upon these
products. The convenience, cheapness, adaptability, strength, an~ durability of both lime mortar and cement products have been the fouhdatiop
of these tremendous applications. The once crude and intermittent type
of production has been perfected to a point where over 8,000,000 tons
of lime and over 275,000,000 bbl. of cement are produced in the United.
States (Table 1).
CEMENT
In spite of the modern concrete roads and buildings everywhere aroun-d

us, it is difficult to realize the tremendous growth of the cement indus~
try during the past century. Man had early disco~ered certain natural
rocks which through simple calcination gave a product that hardened on
the addition of water. Yet the real advance did not take place until
physicochemical studies and chemical engineering laid the basis for the
mpdern efficient plants working under closely controlled conditions on a
variety of raw materials.
Historical. Cement dates back to antiquity and one can only speculate
as to the discovery. 1 A cement was used by the Egyptians in constructing
the pyramids. The Greeks and Romans used volcanic tuff for cement and
a number of these structures are still standing. In 1824 an Englishman,
Joseph Aspdin, pateQted an artificial cement made by the calcination of
an argillaceous limestone. -He called this portland because concrete made
from it resembled a famous building stone obtained from the Isle of Port:.
land near England. This was the start of the portland cement industry as
we know it today. The hard clinkers resulting from the burning of argillaceous limestone is known by the term portland cement to disti~guish it
from natural or pozzuolana and other cements.
1 BOGUE, "The Chemistry of Portland Cement," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1947. Chapter '1 is an excellent presentation of the history of this industry.
199
200
CEMENTS, CAI,ClUM AND MAGNESTUM COMPOUNDS
Uses and Economics. A generation ago eonerete was little used in this
country because the manufacture of portland eement was a complicated
expensive process. Thanks to the invention of laborsaving machinery, cement is now low in cost and is applied everywhere in the construction of
homes, public buildings, roads, industrial plants, dams, bridges, and in
many other places. Table 1 indicates the large volume of this industry.
TABLE 1. CEMENT SHIPMENTS IN 1953"
Type
Active
plants
Portland (Types I and II) ........

H.E.S. portland (Type III) ........
Low-heat portland (Type IV) ......
Sulfate-resisting portland (Type V) .
Oil-well portland .................
White portland ...................
Portland-puzzolan ................
Air-entrained portland ............
Miscellaneous portland ............
Total ................ ,.........
156
99
2
Barrels
4
17
4
6
95
21
156
Value
per
barrel
Total
value
$2.65 $569,21~,300
3.05
23,743,313
2.95
507,290
3.55
317,792
3.00
5,463,901
5.58
6,087,641
2.63,
6,440,686
2.62
82,593,~23
3.28
2,891,162
_-------\260,878,535 $2.67 $697,262,808
215,103,044
7,,794,006
171,717
89,631
1,822,887
1,091,016
2,448,861
31,474,609
882,764
" "Mineral Industry Suryeys." For 1949, 150 active plants shipped 174,000,000
bbl., valued at $2.27 per barrel and with a total value of 396 million dollars. A barrel
of cement weighs 376 lb .. and is equivalent to four sacks. For 1954, there was a 3 per
cent increase over 1953.
CEMENT MANUFACTURE
There are various types of cements:

1. Portland cement has been defined as: 1 "the product obtained Ly pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, to
which no additions have been made supsequent to calcination other than
water and/or untreated calcium sulfate, except that additions not to exceed 1.0 per cent of other materials may' be interground with the clinker
af the option of the manufacturer. . . "Five types of portland cement
are recognized in the United States:
. I
Type 1. Regular portland cements are the usual products for general
concrete construction. Masonry cements are mixtures of cement with hydrated lime, crushed limestone, diatomaceous earth, with or without
small additions of calcium stearate, petroleum, or highly colloidal clays.
These are easily workable because of the. high plasticity. There are other.
types of this cement such as white, which contains less ferric oxide, oilwell cel,lent, quick-setting cement, and ot,hers for special uses.
Type II. M oderate-heat-of-hardening portland cements are for use where
1
A.S.T.:\f. Specifications; C150-49 (1949).
201
CEMENT MANUFACTURE
moderate heat of hydration is required, or for general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulfate action. The heat evolved from these
cements should not exceed 70 and 80 cal. per gm. after 7 and 28 days,
respectively.
Type III. High-early-strength (H.E.S.) cements are made from a raw
material with a high lime-to-silica ratio, frequently burned twi5)e and
very finely ground. They contain a higher proportion of tricalci\!m siliTABLE
2.
CHEMICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR PORTLAND CEMENTS"
ModLow I Higherate
HighReguheat of sulfate
heat of earlyhydra- resistlar
hard- strength
Type
tion
ance
Type
ening
Type Type
I
Type
III
IV
V
II
I
-Silicon dioxide (SiO.), min. per cent ......

Aluminum oxide (AI.O.), max. per cent ..
Ferric oxide (F~.O.), max. per cent ......
Magnesium oxide (MgO), max. per cent ..
Sulfur trioxide (SO.), max. per cent:
When 3CaOAI.0. is 8 per cent or less
When 3CaOAI.0. is more than 8 per
cent ..............................
Loss on ignition, max. per cent ..........
Insoluble residue, max. per cent .........
Tricalcium silicate (3CaOSiO.), max. per
cent ................................
Dicalcium silicate (2CaOSiO.), min. per
cent ................................
Tricalcium aluminate (3CaOAhO.), max.
per
, cent ............................
-----......
......
5.0
21.0
6.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
6.5
5.0
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.75
2.0
3.0
0.75
3.0
3,0
/0.75
2.0
2.3
0.75
2.0
3.0
o 75
....
... .
'"
.
. ....
b
b
4.0
I
... .
50
. .....
35
... .
.... .
. .....
40
... .
15
50
"A.S.T.M. Designation: C150-49.

b The tricalcium aluminate shall not exceed 5 per cent, and the tetracalcium aluminoferrite (4CaO.AhO . Fe~0.) :plus twice the amount of tricalcium aluminate shall
not exceed 20 per cent. I
.
I
cate, CaS, than regular portland cements and hence harden much more
quickly and with gr~ater evolution of heat. Roads constructecl. from
H.E.S. cement can be put into service more quickly than if regular ceI
I
ment had been employed.
'
Type IV. Low-heat: portland cements contain a higher percentage of
tetracalcium aluminoferrlte, C~F, and dicalcium silicate, C 2S, and hence
set with the evolution of much less heat,' as can be seen from the data
given in Table 6. A~so the tricalcium silicate, CaS, and the tricalcium
aluminate, CaA, are lower. Actually the heat evolved should not exceed
202
60 and 70 cal. per gm. after 7 and 28 days, respectively, and is 15 to

35 per cent less than the heat of hyd:o-ation of regular or H.E.S. cements.
Type V. Sulfate-resisting portland cements are those which by their
composition or processing resist chemicals better than the other four
types. These cements are higher in tetracalcium aluminoferrite, C 4AF,
and lower in tricalcium aluminate, CaA, than the regular cements. Additions during grinding of small percentages of calcium stearate or sodium
silicate increase this resistance somewhat. There is, however, no such
thing as an acidproof portland cement.
Since about 1940 the use of air-entraining' "agents (minute quantities
of resinous materials, tallows, and greases) has assumed great importance. These agents increase the resistance of the hardened concrete to
scaling and also protect against damage incurred by alternate freezing
and thawing. The Federal specifications' of 1946 permit the addition of
an air-entraining material in amounts less than 1 per cent to each of the
five types which are then designated as lA, IlA, IlIA, etc.
2. Pozzuolana Cement. Since the beginning of the Christian era the
Italians have successfully employed pozzuolana cement, made by grinding two to 4 parts of a pozzuolana with 1 part of hydrated lime: A "POZzuolana is a material which is not cementitious in itself but which becomes so upon admixture with lime. The natural pozzuolanas are volcanic
tuffs; the artificial ones are burnt clays and shales.
3. Calcium aluminate cement, sometimes called high-alumina cement, l~
manufactured by fusing a mixture of limestone and bauxite, the latter
usu_ally containing iron oxide, silica, magnesia, and other impurities. It
is characterized by a very rapid rate of development of strength and
superior resistance to sea water and sulfate-bearing water.
4. Special or corrosion-resisting cements 2 are used in large quantities for
the fabrication of corrosionproof linings for chemical equipment such
as brick-lined reactors, storage tanks, absorption towers, fume ducts and
stacks, pickling tanks, floors, sumps, trenches, and. acid digesters to name
but a few. Many kinds of special cements are described in the literature, but the furane, phenolic, sulfur, "and silicate cements are the most
jmportant.
.
"
Raw Materials. Portland cement is made by niixing and calcining calp~reous and argillaceous materials in the proper ratios. Table 3 summa,rizes the raw materials consumed. Formerly a large proportion of cement
was burned from an argillaceous limestone known as cement rock which
is found in the Lehigh district of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. This
1 Specifications are given for these various types of portland cement in Federal
Standard Stock Catalog, Sec. IV (Pa'rt 5); Federal Specification S8-0-192, Cements;
Portland. Also see Bogue, op. cit., Chap. 2; A.S.T.M. CI75-48T.
See the Cements section of the Materials of Construction annual review in the
October issue of Ind. Eng. Chem. since 1947.
203
RAW MATERIALS
material was first used as a natural cement but, when found deficient, in
lime, was corrected by adding a small proportion of limestone. In, addi-,
tion to the natural materials some plants use artificial products such as:
blast-furnace slag and precipitated calcium carbonate obtained as a byproduct in the alkali and synthetic ammonium sulfate industry. Sand,
waste bauxite, and iron ore are sometimes consumed in small amounts to:
adjust the composition of the mix. Gypsum (2 to 3 per cent) is added to
prevent too rapid setting of the tricalcium aluminate. l
Cement Rock Beneficiation. Froth flotation, or beneficiation,2 is now the
principal step in a process for obtaining cement kiln charges of correct
chemical and physical c<?mposition, for all types of cement manufacture,
from available raw materials which may be either inferior or actually un-.
usable as quarried. The trend in cement composition has been toward
higher silica, lower alumina, less alkali, and more iron.
TABLE 3. RAW MATERIALS FOR CEMENT IN 1949 AND 19520
(Short tons)
1949
Limestone (including oystershells) ....
Cement rock .......................
Clay and shale .....................
Gypsum ...........................
Blast-furnace slag ..................
Sand and sandstone ................
Marl. .............................
Iron materials ....... , .............
Miscellaneous ......................
Total. ..........................
44,968,739
12,628,494
6,698,408
1,543,198
847,375
724,624
722,606 /
346,542
140,999
68,620,985
1952 ~
53,828,942
13,404,234
7,939,32\i
1,855,274
1,017,976
893,682
1,,065,164
375,852
170,104
80,550,554
o "Minerals Yearbook," 1949 and 1952. Average total raw material weight required
per, barrel (376 lh.) of finiBhed cement was 654 lb. in 1949 and 646 lb. in 1952.
Chemically these specification changes result in a cement with slower

setting time, less heat of hydration, and more resistance to alkaline
earths and waters. In: a physical way these new specifications have demanded a more thorough' control of the actual mechanical operation of
the cement plant itself. Clinker has to be burned-at constant temperatures using pyrometers to indicate the condition in the kilns; finer' grinding is necessary to give better strengths at earlier dates to offset the
retarding of the settin'g time due to the change in specifications. All these
1 LERCH, The Influence of Gypsum on the Hydration and Properties of Portland
Cement Pastes, ASTM, Bull. 12, Chicago, March, 1946, preprints.
! ENGELHART, Flotatid~ as Applied to Modern Cement Manufacture, Ind. Engl
Chem., 32, 645 (1940); ~OGUE, op. cit., pp. 35-38; for an excellent:short summary of
flotation, including agents, equipment, and many references, see PERRY, op. cit., pp.
1085-1091.
204
changes have been in the direction of improving the endurance of the

concrete. l
The complete beneficiation process involves a combination of grinding,
classification, flotation, and thickening operations, each adapted to satisfy the specific requirements of the cement desired and the peculiar characteristics of the individual raw materials. The purpose is to "beneficiate" available materials; i.e., to correct the proportions of the mineral
sources of the four oxides of calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron, essential for cement manufacturing, and discard useless constituents. This may
involve the raising of the lime content of the raw material or it may call
Water
Reagents
~ ton5
0.285 lb.
Electricii;y
2.57 kw.-hr.
Direct laljor 0.05 man-hr.
} per ton of
raw rock treated
FIG. 1. Cement-rock beneficiation.
for the elimination of the greater part of the silica as compared to the
alumina. To do this requires flexibility in the processing and the choice
of varying reagents!. which in one plant will float off one mineral and
which at a different plant will remove another constituent.
The raw materials are usually ground very finely to free the mineral
constituents and then put through a hydroseparator, as shown in Fig. 1.
Here the hydrooverflow is not processed, going directly to the final thickener. With some other minerals the hydrooverflow would need to have
some constituent removed by flotation. But in Fig. 1 the hydrounderflow, after further size classification, has the sands or coarser particles
subjected to flotation to remove calcite and reject mica and talc.
The success of the process in making these differential separations is
~ttributed principally to the use of very small ,quantities of collecting
reagents added in small i~crements to the pulp in each cell in a stageoiling circuit. The collecting agent must selectively wet or "film" the
mineral to be removed and act with the air to cause the particles to be
lifted to the surface, there to be caught in the froth and removed. In
Fig. 1, oleic acid may be employed as the collector in the concentration
of 0.5 lb. per ton of feed. The typical frothers are satisfactory (monohydric1long-dhain alcohols, dilute resinates, and cresylic acid). A concentration of 0.04 lb. per ton of rock suspended in 4 tons of water has given
1 DOUGLASS,
Sepaxation Process Company, Catasauqua, Pa., private communication.
UNIT OPERATIONS, UNIT PROCESSES, ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
205
good results. Frothing aids in the separation. As is shown in Fig. 1, the

concentrate thickener returns to the circuit, as well as the recovered reagent
and water.
Unit Operations, Unit Processes, Energy Requirements. Essentially
the unit operations prepare the raw materials in the necessary proportions and in the proper physical state of fineness and intimate contact
so that the chemical reactions (unit processes) can take place at the
calcining temperature in the kiln to form, by double decomposition or
neutralization, the following compounds:
Formula
Name
Abbreviation
2CaOSiO.
3CaOSiO.
3CaOAI.O.
4CaOAI.O.Fe.O.
MgO
Dicalcium silicate
Tricalcium silicate
Tricalcium aluminate
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
In free state
C,S
C.A
C.AF
C.s
K 20 and Na 20 form small amounts of various compounds with CaO,

AbOa, 8i0 2 , and 80 a.
Other reactions take pla(,e, such as dehydration of clay and decarbonization or calcination of limestone, these both being endothermic, with
values of about 380 and 665 B.t.u. per lb., respectively. The clinker formation is exothermic with a probable value of 200 B.t.u. per lb. of
clinker.l Probably the net heat requirements are in ~h.e neighborhood of
900 B.t.u. per lb. of clinker. However, the coal consumption indicates an
expenditure of 3,000 or 4,000 B.t.u. per lb. of clinker.2 This heat is
evolved in the kiln in carrying out the following reactions, as tabulated
by Lea and Desch:
Reaction
Temperature
100C ............. Evaporation of free water

500C. and above.,. Evolution of combined water from clay
900C. and above .. Evoltition of carbon dioxide from calciurri carbonate
9OQ-12ooC. . . . . . .. Mainl reaction between lime and clay
125Q-1280C ....... Commencement of liquid formation
1280C. and up .... Furtlier formation of liquid and compounds
'.
Heat change
Endothermic
Endothermic
Endothermic
Exothermic
Endothermic
Probably cndpthermic
I LEA and DESCH, "Chqmilltry of Con~,rete," p.'HlS, Longmans, Green & Co., Inc.,
New York, 1935.
2 Cj. LACEY and WOODS, Heat and Material Balances for a Hotary Cement Kiln,
Ind. Eny. Chem., 27,379 (1935).
206
It should be noted that most of the reactions in the kiln proceed in the
solid phase and that only toward the end does incipient fusion occur. All
these reactions are embraced in the "burning of cement."i
Manufacturing Procedures. Two methods of manufacture are used: the
wet and the dry processes. In both processes closed-circuit grinding is pre-
clVshedl
Shule
LiTMS/ott#
Wet Process
With dosed circuit
grinding
~'::~:tone 2.~gg :~:
fii!~
l~g ~I~r } ~~rQ~~~;cal
1.1 ;;'Qn.hr. cement

FIG. 2. The manufacture of portland cement.
Gypsum
A~"r
stpt1ITl/Qr__
(bl
70 lb.
Direct lobo,..
Dry Grinding: 101 simple two' compartment mill In

open "reuit; I bl. twocompartm.nt miil closedcirculted
with oir separator; Ccl l"o'stoge selup "lth primory
comparlm.nt clos.dcircuit.d; I d r efflcl.nt 1_ or
three-compartment tircult dosed with a screen and 1I1r
separator.I.1 highlV efticient thr .. .tog. svsl.m closed
circuite'd in each stage.
We.I Grinding: If} singl.slog. mill ".seddrcuiled
with roke classifier; Cg' modern double stage circuit
employing lour'diflerent Iypes of separallng
equipment. (Cf.Maxson. Grinding
~MI"
fundamentals, Chern. 8 Mit.
p.226,May,I~3B)
i'~m;"!firy
NT
Secondory
11'11/
,If I, ~
I 9\
d::t~/.r
,
Reium
scoop
FIG. 3. Dry- and wet-grinding hookups.
ferred in preparing the raw materials_over open-circuit grinding because

in the former the fines are passed on and the coarse material returned,
;while in the latter the raw material is ground continuously until its mean
fineness has reached the desired value (see Fig~ 3 for some grinding hookups). However, P erry 2 presents more details of actual grinding circuits.
with power requirements. The wet process, though the original one, waf!
1 MARTIN, "Chemical Engineering and Thermodynamics Applied to the Cement
Rotary Kiln," The Technical Press, Ltd., London, 1932. This book is filled with data
and calculations pertaining to cement. Chapter 9 considers the heat absorbed in
making clinker: Chapter 15 presents the concept of entropy in burning cement as
"high-grade heat" or heat at the right thermal pressure or temperature.
PERRY, op. cit., tube and ball mills, pp. 1152-1154; roller mills, pp. 1137-1140.
The entire Sec. 16 of Perry should be carefully studied in this connection.
MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES
207
displaced for a time by the dry process but is now being Il.dopted largely
for new plants because of the more accurate control and mixing of the
raw mixture which it affords. This is illustrated in the generalized flow
sheet! of Fig. 2. The solid material after dry crushing is reduced to .a fine
state of division 2 in wet tube or ball mills and passes as a slurry through
bowl classifiers or screens. The slurry is pumped to correcting tanks where
rotating arms make the mixture homogeneous and allow the final adjustment in composition to be made. This slurry is filtered in a continuous
rotary filter and fed into the kiln. The dry process is especjally applicable
to natural cement rock and to the mixtures of limestone and shale or
slate. In this process the materials are roughly crushed in jaw crushers
followed by gyratory mills, then dried, sized, and more finely ground in
tube mills (see Fig. 3). This dry powdered material is fed directly to the
rotary kilns where the previously mentioned chemical reactions take
place. Heat is pro~icled by burning oil, gas, or pulverized coal, using preheated air from cooling thEnlinker.
The tendency in recent years has been to lengthen the rotary kiln in
order to increase its thermal efficiency. Dry-process kilns may be as
short as 150 ft., but in the wet process, 300- to 500-ft. kilns are not uncommon. The internal diameter is usually from 8 to 15 ft. The kilns are
rotated at from Y2 to 2 r.p.m., depending on size. The kilns are slightly
inclined so that materials fed in at the upper end travel slowly to the
lower and firing end, taking from 2 to 3 hr.
In order to obtain greater heat economy, unit operations are used for
removing part of the water from the slurry. Some of the methods used
are slurry filters (as Fig. 2 shows) and Dorr thicken~rs. Some other common adjuncts to rotary kilns are cyclone dust separators and Cottrell
precipitators. Waste-heat boilers are sometimes used to conserve heat
and are particularly saving on dry-process cement where the waste gases
from the kiln are hotter than from the wet process and may reach 800C.
Because the lining of the kiln has to w!thstand severe abrasions and
chemical attack at the high temperatures in the clinkering zone, 'the
choice of a refractor)" lining is difficult. For this reason high-alumina
bricks and high-magnesia, bricks are widely used, although portland cement clinker itself is satisfactory.
The final product formed consists of hard granular masses from ~ to
% in. in size called clinker.
The clinker falls through openings in the staI
tionary firing ring of the kiln into rotating coolers which simultaneously
preheat the combustion air. Pulverizing followed by fine grinding in tube
ball mills and automatic packaging complete the steps to the finished
1 A pictured flow shee~ .with details of grinding and other equipment is', given in
Chem. & Met. Eng., 46, f)2~ (1939). This is a description of the wet process of the
Lone Star Cement Co., ~udson, N.Y.
I PERRY, op. cit., pp. 930-936, 1152-1154, presents some details on this matter.
208
CEMENTS, CAJ.CrUM AND MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
cement. During the fine grinding the retarders, such as gypsum, plaster,
or calcium lignosulfate; air-entraining agents; dispersing agents and waterproofing agents are added. The clinker is ground dry by various
hookups, as illustrated by Fig. 3 and by Perry.1
Compounds in Cements. In portland cements we have a mixture of
compounds (previously listed) present in amounts partly dependent on
TABLE 4. ANALYSES OF PORTLAND CEMENTS
(In percentage)
CaO
MgO
Alkali
so,
0.66
2.9
1.4
0.82
2.26
1. 73
... ,
....
2.2
Regular cement (average of 102)

I
61.17
66.92
63.85
Minimum .....
Maximum ....
Average ......
18.58
23.26
21.08
3.86
7.44
5.79
1.53
6.18
2.86
0.60
5.24
2.47
High-early-strength (average of 8): high C,S
62.7
67.5
64.6
Minimum .....
Maximum .. ,.
Average ......
18.0
22.9
19.9
4.1
7.5
6.0
1.7
4.2
2.6
....
....
....
....
2.7
2.3
Low-heat-of-setting (average of 5): high C.AF and C.S, low C,S and C.A
59.3
61.5
60.2
Minimum .....
Maximum ....
Average ......
21. 9
26.4
23.8
3.3
5.4
4.9
1.9
5.7
4.9
. '"
'"
. '0'
. ...
. ...
1.6
1.9
1.7
TABLE 5. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF 102 REGULAR PORTLAND CEMENTS IN

TERMS OF COMPOUNDS. CALCULATED FROM TABLE 4
C,S
CoS
C,A
C.AF
CaSO.
~gO
--I
Minimum ................
Maximum ................
Average ..................
35.3
70.6
51.7
0
33.2
21.4
0
15.5
10.5
4.7
18.4
8.7
1.4
3.8
2.9
0.60
5.24
2.47
NOTE: These compound compositions are computed from the oxide analysis asfollows: (1) Put all SO. in YaSO., (2) put all Fe.O. in C.AFj (3~ put remaining AbO.
in C.A, (4) divide remaining CaO and SiD. stoichiometrically between C.S and C.S,
(5) assume MgO is in free state and neglect Na.O and R.O.
the degree of attainment of equilibrium conditions during burning.

Tables 4...and 5 give analyses of various types of portland cement and
an average composition of "ome 102 regular cements. From these -analyses it is seen that portland cement composition lies in a rough approximation in the system CaO-Si0 2 , in a closer approximation in the systeql
1
Perry, op. cit., pp. 1130-1139, 1153, 1154.
SETTING OR HARD]<;NING OF CEMENT
209
CaO-Si0 2-AI 20 3 , and to a still closer approximation in the five-component system CaO-Si0 2-AI 20 a-Fe 20a-MgO. A complete understanding of
portland cement would require a knowledge of the phase equilibrium relations of the high-lime portions of all the two-, three-, four-, and fivecomponent systems involved. Of these, all 12 of the principal two- and
three-component systems are known and those parts of the four-component systems, CaO-Si0 2-AI 20 a-Fe 20a and CaO-Si0 2-AI 20 3-MgO, in
which portland cement compositions are located.' In 1946 part of the
five-component system CaO-MgO-AI203-Fe203-Si02 was studied by
Swayze;2 such studies are being continued. Modern cement technology is
largely based on the system CaO-AI 20 3-Si0 2 which was worked out by
Rankin and Wrights at the Geophysical Laboratory.
It can be observed for the regular cement compositions presented in
Tables 4 and 5 that a change of CaO percentage from 61.17 to 66.92
alters the C 3S percentage from 35.3 to 70.6 and the C 2S from 0 to 33.2.
Setting or Hardening of Cement. Although many theories have been
proposed to explain the setting or hardening of cement, it is generally
agreed that this takes place by hydration and hydrolysis. The follpwing
equations represent these reactions:
+ xH 0
~ C 2S'xH 2 0 (amorph.)
2
C 2S(x - 1) H 2 0 (amorph.) + Ca(OH)2(c)
CaA + 6H 20 ~ CaA'6H 2 0(c)
CaA
3(CaSO.2H 20) + 25H 20 ~ C aA3CaSO.31H 20
C(AF + xH 2 0 ~ C aA-6H 20(c) + CaOFe 20a:.(X - 6)H 20
MgO + H 20 ~ Mg(OH)2
C 2S
caS
+ xH 0
2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
The hydration products have very low solubility in water. If this were
not true, concrete would b~ rapidly attacked in contact with water.
In recent years much attention has been given to the heat evolved
duri'ng the hydration of cement. The various compounds contribute to
the heat of setting as follows:
e3A> C 3S > C.AF > C 28*
III
1 BOGUE, op. cit., Part

Chaps. 11 through 20, deals with the phase equilibria of
;
clinker components.
SWAYZE, Am. J. Sci., 244 (1), 63 (1946).
3 RANKIN and WRIGHT, The Ternary System: CaO-AI 2 0 3-Si0 2, Am. J. Sci., 39;
1-79 (1915).
!
SLIEPCEVICH, GILDART, and KATZ, Crystals from Portland Cement Hydration,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 36, 1178 (1943); BOGUE, op. cit., Part III, Chaps. 21 to 30, studies in
detail the chemistry of ce~(lnt utilization.
* WOODS, STEINOUR, and STRAKE, Effect of Co;Uposition of Portland Cement on
Heat Evolved during Hardening, Ind. Eng. Chern., 24, 1207 (1932); cf. BOGUE and
LERCH, Hydration of Portland Cement Compounds, Paper 27, Portland Cl"ment
Association Fellowship at National Bureau of Standards. Washington, 1934.
210
Table 6 shows why low-heat-of-setting cements are made low in CaA and
CaS but high in C 2S. This is accomplished (1) by adding more Fe20a
which takes the AhOa out of circulation as C 4AF, thereby diminishing
the amount of CaA and (2) by decreasing the CaOjSi0 2 ratio. Notice
these facts in the analyses in Table 4. This low-heat-of-setting cement
TABLE 6. HEAT OF HYDRATION"
(Calories per' gram)
Days
Compound
C.AF .......................
C.A ........................
C.S ........................
C,S ........................
28
90
180
29
170
19.5
98.3
43
188
18.1
110
48
202
43.6
114.2
47
188
55.2
122.4
73
218
52.6
120.6
" ROBERTSON, Boulder Dam, Ind. Eng. Chem., 27, 242 (1935).
was used in the construction of Hoover Dam to avoid cracking the

structure from heat stresses during setting and cooling. As an additional safeguard the structure was cooled during setting by circulating
cold water through 300 miles of lightweight I-in. pipe placed in the concrete mass. 1
TABI,E 7. STRENGTH CONTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS COMPOUNIlS
(Strength of briquettes of pure compounds)
(
1 day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.3 days ...............................
7 days ...............................
28 days. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
3 months. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
1 year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
2 years .............................. ,
C.A
C.A
C.A
C.A
C.S
C.S
C.S
> C,S > C,AF > C.S

> C,S > C,AF > C.S
> C.S > C,AF > C.S
> C.S > C,AF = C.S

> C.S = C.A = C,AF
> C,S > C,A = C,AF
> C.S > C.AF > C.A
NOTE: C,SxH.O (amorph.), whose structure and nature are unknown, is the prin.
cipal source of strength of the set cement.
Cf. GONNERMAN, Study of Cement Compositions~ Am. Soc. Testing Materials,
Proc., 34, 244 (1934).
.
Tables 7 and 8 present further facts regarding the functions of the

different compounds in the setting of cement. To hold up the "flash
set" caused by C 3A, some investigators assert that the gypsum added
as Ii retarder 2 causes ~he temporary formation of C aA3CaS0431H 20,
while others believe, 'that th;l gypsum gives free Ca(OH)2 by reaction
with. alkali, and this in turn forms the more stable tetracalcium aluminate,4CaOAb03.
1. ROBERTSON, Boulder Dam, Ind. Eng. Chern., 27, 242 (1935).
LEA and DESCH, op. cit., pp. 191"7194.
21i
SPECIAL CEMENTS
TABLE
8.
FUNCTION OF COMPOUNDS
Compound
Function
C 3A ............................. ,
C,S ...............................
C,S and C,S ........... : .... , ..... ,
Fe,O., AbO., Mg, and alkalies ...... ,
Responsible for initial set (flash set)

Responsible for first strerigth (at 7 or 8 days)
Responsible for final stre~gth (at 1 year)
Lower clinkering temperature
SPECIAL CEMENTS
For many corrosive conditions portland cement is unsuitable or not.

economical. Hence many special cements have been developed, of which
four types are industrially important. Furan resin cements, commonly
called furane cements, are used to the extent of several million pounds per
year. They are usually prepared on the job by mixing approximately
2 parts by weight of a powder with 1 part of a liquid resin. Resins used
for such cements may be based on condensation products of furfural and,
phenol, phenol and furfuryl alcohol, furfuryl alcohol and' furfural, furfural
and acetone, and polymers of furfuryl alcohol. Blends of phenolic resins
and polymers of furfuryl alcohol are also sold as furane resins. The
powders are composed of pure carbon, mixtures of carbon and silica, 3ndl
mixtures of carbon and emery dust and asbestos. With such a wide range.
of compositions corrosion resistance varies but the rapid acceptance 0{
these cements by industry is based on their resistance to many chemicals'
and solvents at temperatures up to 370F., as well as on their excellent,
physical properties.
/
Phenol-formaldehyde resin cements, called phenolic cements, ate also
prepared on the job by mixing appropriate ratios of a powder with liquid
resins. Powders used commercially are based on barium sulfate, silica,
asbestos, and carbon. The latter is more economical, more resistant to'
chelllical attack, and usually stronger. Several phenolic resins are avail-'
able, but the product obtained from an alkaline condensation of phenol
with a molecular excess of formaldehyde has superior chemical and physical properties. When mixed with carbon filler, this cement is most resistant to chemical attack. Typical uses are the joining of bricks in a
pickling mill and in suJfuric acid saturators.
Since 1900 sulfur ce'(fl'ents have been available commercially as simple
mixtures of fillers and since 1930 as homogeneous plasticized-filled sulfur
ingots possessing low :coefficients of expansion. Sulfur cements are resistant to nonoxidizing adds and salts but should not be used in the
presence of alkalies, oils, greases, or solvents. The crystalline change. in
sulfur structure at 200~F. limits their use. Thiokol-plasticized silica-filled
sulfur cements have been accepted as a standard material for joining
bricks, tile, and cast-iron pipe.
Silica-filled chemically setting silicate cements will withstand higher
212
temperature (lOOOF.) than the above cements. Usually 2 parts by weight

of finely divided silica powder are used to 1 part of sodium silicate (35 to
40oBe.). Silicate cements are resistant to all inorganic acids in all concentrations except hydrofluoric. Silicate cements are not suitable at pH's
above 7 or in the presence of crystal-forming systems. Two typical applications are joining of bricks in chromic acid reaction tanks and in alum
tanks.
LIME
Historical. The manufacture of lime and its application can be traced

back throughout Roman, Greek, and Egyptian civilizations, but the first
definite written information concerning lime was handed down from the
Romans. In his book, "De Architectura," Marcus Pollio, a celebrated
engineer and architect who lived during the reign of Augustus (27 B.C.
to A.D. 14), deals qu~te thoroughly with the use of lime for mortar involved in the construction of harbor works, pavements, and buildings.
In the early days of the young American colony, the crude burning of
limestone was one of the initial manufacturing processes engaged in by
the settlers, using" dug-out" kilns built of ordinary brick or masonry in "'.
I
the side of a hill, with a coal or wood fire at the bottom and a firing '"l..o-....
time of 72 hr. These can still be seen in many of the older sections of
the country. It was not until recent years that, under the influence of
scientific cooperative research, the manufacture of lime has developed
into a large industry under exact ,technical control, with the resulting
uniformity of products.
Uses and Economics. Lime itself may be used for medicinal purposes,
insecticides, plant and animal food, gas absorption, precipitation, dehydration, and causticizing. It is employed as a reagent in the sulfite process for papermaking, dehairing hides, recovering by-product ammonia,
manufacturing of high-grade steel and cement; water softening, manufacturing of soap, rubber, varnisn, refractories, and sand-lime brick. LIme
is indispensable for mortar and plaster use and serves as a basic raw
I material for calcium salts and for improving the quality of certain soils.
Figure 4 summarizes the main statistics. l As in most industries, there
has been a trend in this industry toward elimination-of: the smaller inefficient plants. During 1948, 20 of the 89 plants produced more than
half of the total output.
!
Lime is sold as a high-calcium quicklime containing not less tllan
90 per cent of calcium oxide and from 0 to 5 per cent of magnesia with
small perceTltagcs of calcium carbonate, silica, alumina, and ferric oxide
present as impurities. The suitability of lime for any particular use depends Oil its composition and physical properties, all of which can be COll1
CI.
BOYNTON,
Lime-An Industrial Chemical. Chem. Eng., 57 (7), 104 (1950).
213
USES AND ECONOllfICS
trolled by the selection of the limestone and the detail of the manufac~
turing process. Much lime must be finely ground before use.'
Depending on composition, there are several distinct types of limes'.
Hydraulic limes are obtained from the burning of limestone containing:
clay, and the nature of the product obtained after contact with water:
6
~4
'0
-=-
~mbL
ofplonts....,._
"'-...
c:
2
o
12
----
Average valulJ per fan ......
o
8r------r-----,------~----~----~
1930
193~
1940
1945
1950
I
FIG. 4. Trends in number :of active lime plants, average value per ton and principal
uses, 1925-1950. (From U.S. Bureau of Mines" Minerals Yearbooks.")
I
\
varies from a putty to a set cement. The high-calcium-content limes

harden only by absorption of carbon dioxide from the air, which is a
slow process; hydrauli,c limes also harden slowly but they can be used
under water. For cheITlical purposes high-calcium lime is required except for the sulfite paper process where a magnesian lime works better.
Although in many :sections of the country the high-calcium lime is
1 PERRY,
op. cit., pp. 1150-1151, 1154.
214
preferred by the building industry for the manufacture of its mortar or

its lime plaster, there are places where limestone containing some magnesium is burned or where even a dolomitic stone is calcined. Typical
compositions of such stones are given in Table 9. These products, called
magnesian limes or dolomitic limes, I find favor in the hands of some
plasterers who claim they work better under the trowel. In the metallurgical field, "refractory lime" as dead-burned dolomite or as raw dolomite is employed as a refractory patching material in open-hearth furTABLE 9. ApPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF DOLOMITIC LIMESTONES'
Constituent
Per cent
Constituent
Per cent
CO ........................
SiO l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30-45
1-5
0-2.
0-5
CaO ..... ; ................ .

MgO ...................... .
Na. + K.O ................ .
35-45
10-25
0-3
Fe.O .......................
AhO .......................
NOTE: All components are expressed as the oxides.

PIERCE and liAENISCH, "Quantitative Analysis," p. 300, John Wiley & Sons,
a
naces, being applied between heats to repair scored and washed spots in
the bottom of the furnace.
'
Hydrated lime is finding increased favor in the chemical and building
trades over the less stable quicklime, despite its increased weight. The
quicklime is almost invariably slaked or hydrated before use. Because of
the better slaking and the opportunity to remove impurities, factory hydrate 2 is purer and more uniform than the slaked lime prepared on the job.
LIME MANUFACTURE
Lime has always been a cheap commodity because limestone deposits

are readily available in so many sections of the United States and hence
permit its burning near centers of consumption.
/
Raw Materials. The carbonates of calcium or magnesium are obtained
from naturally occurring deposits of limestone, marble, chalk, or dolomite. For chemical usage, a rather pure limestone is preferred as a starting material because of the high-calcium lime that results. The quarries
furnish a rock that contains as impurities low percent.ages of silica, clay,
or iron. Such impurities are important because the lime may react with
the silica and alumina to give calcium silicates or calcium alumino-siliI To prevent "popping out," the MgO must be completely hydrated such as by
steam hydration at 160C. and under such pressure as 60 lb. per sq. iil.
I PERRY, op. cit., p. 1120, tabulates the results from grinding and air-separating
hydrated lime from'much of the impurities originally present in the quicklime wherein
the purity is raised from 89 to 98 per cent, the tailing going to agricultural applications.
ENERGY CHANGES, UNIT OPERATIONS, UNIT PROCESSES
2H;
cates which possess not undesirable hydraulic properties. The lumps some...:
times found in " overburned" or " dead-burned" lime result from change!!
in the calcium oxide itself as well as from certain impurities acted upon
by excess heat, recognized as masses of relatively inert, semivitrified
material. On the other hand, it often happens that rather pure limestonl;l
is calcined insufficiently, and lumps of calcium carbonate are left in the
lime. This lime is spoken of as "underburned" lime.
Energy Changes, Unit Operations, Unit Processes. Energy is required
for blasting out the limestone, for transporting and sizing it, and' for the.
burning or calcining process. l The reactions involved are for
Calcining:
CaC0 3 (c)
eaO(e)
+ e0 (g);
2
f:..H 1200-1300"C.
+4,250,000 B.t.u. per ton of lime produced
Hydrating:
CaO(e) + H:O(l)
Ca(OHMe);
f:..H
= -15,900 cal.
During the calcining the volume contracts and during the hydrating it
swells. For calcination the average fuel ratios are, using bituminous coal:
3.23 lb. of lime from 1 lb. of coal in shaft kilns and 3.37 lb. in rotary
kilns.2 As is shown above, the calcination reaction is reversible. Below
650C. the equilibrium decomposition pressure of CO 2 is quite small. Between 650 and goooe. the decomposition pressure increases rapidly and
reaches 1 atm. at about 900C. In most operating kilns the partial pressure of CO 2 in the gases in direct contact with the outside of the lumps is
less than 1 atm.; therefore initial decomposition may take place at temperatures somewhat less than 900C. The decomposition temperature at
the center of the lump probably is well above 900C., since there the
partial pressure of the CO 2 not only is equal or near to the total pressure but also must be high enough to cause the gas to move out of the
lump wherE; it can pass into the gas stream.
The total heat required for calcining may be divided into two parts:
sensible heat to raise the rock to decomposition temperature and latent
heat of dissociation. ~heoretical heat requirements per ton of lime produced, if the rock is neated only to a calcining temperature of 900C."
are approximately 1,300,000 B.t.u. for sensible heat"and 2,600,000 B.t.u.
for latent heat. Actual calcining operations because of practical considerations, e.g., lump size, time, require that the rock be heated to between
1200 and 1300oe., thereby increasing sensible heat requirements by some
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 347-348, presents the cal_culations for heat balance and gas
analysis of a vertical limekiln. For a most excellent article, see CUNNINGHAM,
Fundamentals of Lime Burning, Ind. Eng. Chem., 48, 635 (1951).
MYERS, Lime: Fuel Rittios of Commercial Lime Plants in 1939, U.S. Bur. Mines,
Inform. Cire. 7174, 1941.
216
350,000 B.t.u. per ton of lime produced. Then theoretical heat requirements will be approximately 4,250,000 B.t.u. per ton of lime produced.
About 40 per cent is sensible heat; the rest is latent heat of decomposition.
The sequence of unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.) connected with manufacturing in such a kiln as shown in Fig. 5 is
Blasting down of limestone from quarry face, or occasionally from underground veins (Op.).
Transportation from quarry to mills, generally by industrial railroad (Op.).
Crushing and sizing of stone in jaw and gyratory crushers! (Op.).
Screening to remove various sizes (for example, a 4- to 8-in. stone implies that,
all pieces passing a 4-in. screen or retained on an 8-in. screen have been separated
out) (Op.).
Carting of this large stone to top of vertical kilns (Op.).
Conveying of small rock to rotary kiln (Op.).
Conveying of fines to pulverizer 1;0 make powdered limestone for agricultural
and other demands (Op.).
Burning of limestone according to size, in vertical kilns to give lump lime
(Pr.), or horizontal rotary kilns to furnish fine lime (Pr.).
Packaging of finished lime in barrels (180 or 280 lb.) or sheet-iron drums (Op.),
or conveying of lime to hydrator (Op.).
_, .
Hydration of lime (Pr.).
_,,::r
Packaging of slaked lime in 50-lb. paper bags.
Manufacturing Procedures. For the burning of lump limestones, vertical kilns are almost universally employed (see Fig. 5). Their outside
construction is sheet steel for strength and prevention of gas leakage,
with a firebrick inner lining. In many cases the gases escape from the
top, but in the ammonia soda industry the upright kilns are closed and
under slight suction with pipes conducting the gases to compressors and
thence to the carbonating towers. If the limestone is properly chosen and
sized 2 (-6 to +4 in. or -4 to +2 in.), it passes through the kiln with
the formation of a minimum aI?ount of fines ~or overburned or underburned lime. Different-sized stones burn at different rates. These kilns
are heated, either by mixing the fuel In with the stone (in which case the
/ ash contaminates the pro.:tuct) or by the use of coal grates or gas burners
arranged _along the outside of the kiln, as shown in Fig. 5. Such upright
kilns operate continuously and produce up to 80 tons in 24 hr.
In quarried limestone there is always a certain amo~nt of stone that
is so fine it would clog the upright kilns and prevent the passing of hot
gase;, causing uneven burning of the stone. This smaller limestone can
be sold for metallurgical purposes or pulverized for agricultural use, or,
after fines are screened out, it, can be burned in rotary kilns. This latter
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1120-1126.
AZBE, "Theory and Practice of Lime Manufacture," p. 388, Azbe Corporation,
St. Louis, Mo., 1\)46; Economical Manufacture of Quality Lime, Trans. Am. Inst.
Mining Met. Engrs., 49, 267 (1946).
!
217
MA NUFACTURINO PROCEDURES
procedure is becoming more common as the business of furnishing lime

has been centralized in larger operations. These rotaries will calcine up
to 200 tons of product in 24 hr., producing a fast slaking lime caused
partly by the relatively short time of 3 hr. in the kiln. Marble, being
crystalline and cleavable, breaks into smaller pieces and can be burned
Char9ing door --
I06ff.
Buckel elevofor- __ _
Coal storage /00 fons"
Secondary combustion air ....
"
FIG. 5. Gas-fired vertical limekiln, producing 8() tons of high-calcium lime per kiln pl'f
day. (Victor J. Azbe, St. L:ouis, Missouri patent granted.)
only in horizontal rotary kilns after being suitably sized. Precipitated calcium carbonate, as froin causticizing plants, can be burned only in rotary
kilTnshe IIme III
. th
i . I kl
tl
I d by t h
. aIr.
. Jt
e vertlCa
1 n IS par y coo e
e mcommg
may be taken from the kiln and further cooled. It is packed for shipment as lumps in bar~els and drums or shipped in bulk. It. may be pulverized before sale. In many plants, instead of disposing of the product
as quicklime, it is coilVerted to the hydroxide and sold in the form of
slaked or hydrated lime.
218
GYPSUM
Gypsum is a mineral that occurs in large deposits throughout the

world. It is hydrated calcium sulfate, with the formula CaSO.2H 20.
When heated slightly, the following reaction occurs:
If the heating is at a higher temperature, gypsum loses all of its water

and becomes anhydrous calcium sulfate or "anhydrite." Calcined gypsum can be made into wall plaster by the addition of filler materials such
z.o
CaS04ZH ZO
~ 1.5
'II>
I
I
II
If11-".H2O
.J:
n.
rJ
'"o
~- 1.0
:J
en
VI
Q)
ct
11
0.5
71
III
II
17 /
H~O
k/
.j/
L- lL..- L...'20
40
60
~- CaS04. ZH ;O
17
80
I
I
100
120
140
Temperature, Deg.C.
FIG. 6. Dehydration pressure of gypsum and vapor pressure of water. (Calculated
from Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 625, 1941.)
.
as asbestos, wood pulp, or sand. Without additions, it is plaster of Paris

and is used for making casts and for plaster.
Calcination of Gypsum. The usual method of calcination of gypsum
consists of grinding the mineral and placing it in large calciners which
hold from' 10 to 25 tons. The'temperature is raised to about 120 to 150C.
with constant agitation to maintain a uniform temperature. The materials in the kettle, known to the public as plaster of Paris and to the
manufacturer as first-settle plaster, may be withdrawn and sold at th~s
219
CALCIUM SULFIDE
point, or it may be heated further to 190C. to give a material known as

second-settle plaster. First-settle plaster is approximately the half hy...
drate, CaSOd,,~H20, and the second form is anhydrous. Practically all
the gypsum plaster sold is in the form of first-settle plaster mixed with
sand or wood pulp. The second form is used in the manufacture of plasterboard and other gypsum products. Gypsum may be calcined also in ro-,
tary kilns similar to those used for limestone.
Hardening of Plaster. The hardening of plaster is essentially a hydration reaction, as represented by the equation
t::.H
-3,800 caL
This equation is the reverse of that for the dehydration of gypsum. The
plaster sets and hardens because the liquid water reacts to form a solid'
crystalline hydrate. Referring to Fig. 6, it is apparent that hydration
with liquid water will take place at temperatures below about 99C., and
that the gypsum must be heated above 99C. for practical dehydration.
Commercial plaster usually contains some glue in the water used or a
material such as hair or tankage from the stockyards to rF,tard the setting
time in order to give the plasterer opportunity to apply the material.
I
I
MISCELLANEOUS CALCIUM COMPOUNDS
Calcium Carbonate. Calcium carbonate is a very wi ely used industrial chemical, in both its' pure and its impure state. As marble chips, it
is sold in many sizes as a filler in artificial stone, for'the eutralization of
acids, or for chicken grit. The marble dust is employed 'n abrasives and
in soaps. Some pulverized and levigated limestone, to replace the imported chalk and whiting, is manufactured quite carefull from very pure
raw material and is finding acceptance. l Whiting is pu e finely divided
calcium carbonate prepared by ,,'et grinding and levigati g natural chalk.
Whiting mixed with 18 per cent boiled linseed oil furni hes putty which
sets by oxidation and by formation of the calcium sal . Much whiting
also is consumed in the ceramic industry. Precipitated r artificial whiting arises through precipitation as by reacting a boilin solution of calcium chloride with a iboiling solution of sodium carbona e, or by passing
carbon dioxide into a milk of lime suspension. This la ter form has its
largest uses in the paint,. rubber, pharmaceutical, and p per industries.
Calcium Sulfide. Calcium sulfide is made by reducin calcium sulfate
with coke. Its main use is as a depilatory in the tannin industry and in
cosmetics. In the finely divided form it is employed in uminous paints.
I,
1 TURNER, "Condensed Chemical Dictionary," 4th ed.,

inhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1950. This book is invaluable for prese ting outline specifications for industrial chemicals.
220
Polysulfides, such as CaS2 and CaS. made by heating sulfur and calcium
hydroxide, are consumed as fungicides.
Halide Salts. Calcium chloride is obtained commercially as a by-product of chemical manufacture, principally the Solvay process and from
natural brines. For this reason and since large tonnages are available, it
is a very cheap chemical. .Its main applications are in solutions that are
used to lay dust on highways (because it is deliquescent and remains
moist) and in low-temperature refrigeration. Calcium bromide and iodide
have properties similar to those of the chloride. They are prepared by
the action of the halogen acids on calcium oxide or calcium carbonate.
They are sold as the hexahydrates for use in medicine and photography.
Calcium fluoride occurs naturally as a fluorspar.
Calcium Arsenate. This chemical is produced by the reaction of calcium chloride, calcium hydroxide, and sodium arsenate or lime and arsenic acid,
2CaCI 2 (aq)
+ Ca(OHhCc) + 2Na HAs0 (aq) -->

Caa(As04h + 4NaCI(aq) + 2H 0(l);
2
AH
-6,640 cal.
Ther~.is usually some free lime present (see Chap. 26). Calcium arsenate
has a huge application as an insecticide and as a fungicide. It is especially useful on cotton plants to poison the boll weevil.
Calcium Organic Compounds. Calcium acetate and lactate are prepared by the reaction of calcium carbonate or hydroxide with acetic or
lactic acid. The acetate was formerly pyrolyzed in large amounts to produce acetone but now it is employed largely in the dyeing of textiles. The
lactate is sold for use in medicines and in food as a source of calcium; it is
an intermediate in the purification of fermentation lactic acid. Calcium
soaps such as stearate, palmitate, and the abietate are made by the action of the sodium salts of the acids on a soluble calcium salt such as the
chloride. These soaps are insoluble in water bpt are soluble in hydrocarbons. Many of these form jellylike masses which are a constituent of
greases. These soaps are used main!y as waterproofing agents.
Sand-lime Brick. Where a cheap white face brick is desired as for
courts in apartment hollses and buildings or where sand is more avail- _
able than clay, the sand-lime brick industry Has flourished. These bricks
are largely com petitive I with common bricks and are sold at around the
same price. They are manufactured by mixing about 8 per cent of thoroughly hydrated lime with a good grade of sand, pressing this mixture
to the shape desired, and hardening it in a steam autoclave under about
125 lb. steam pressure for around 8 hr. If the hydrated lime used contains any quicklime, this will eventually hydrate or carbonate with ex.pansion. This has caused cracking in the past. However, the operators
of modern sand-lime brick factories have been trained to hydrate the'
lime completely. Consequently no trouble along this line may be expected
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
22i'
from sand-lime brick. The bond holding together the sand particles is
monocalcium silicate. I
MAGNESIUM OXYCHLORIDE CEMENT
This cement, discovered by the French chemist Sorel and sometime~

called Sorel' 8 cement is produced by the exothermic action of a 20 per
cent solution magnesium chloride on a blend of magnesia obtained by
calcining magnesite and magnesia obtained from brines:
3MgO
+ MgCb + llH 20
-+
3MgOMgCldlH 20
The resulting crystalline oxychloride, 3MgOMgCldlH 20, contributes

the cementing action to the commercial cements. The product is hard
and strong but is attacked by water which leaches out the magnesium
chloride. Its main applications are as a flooring cement with an inert
filler and a coloring pigment, or as a base for such interior floorings as
tile and terazzo. It is strongly corrosive on iron pipes in contact with it.
Sand and wood pulp may be added as fillers. The expense of these cements restricts their use to special purposes. They do not reflect sound.
They can be made sparkproof2 and as such have been widely employed
in ordnance plants.
The magnesia used may contain small amounts of calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, or some calcium silicates, which during the setting process increase the volume changes thus decreasing strength and durability.
To eliminate this lime effect hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgS0 4 7H 20,
or 10 per cent of finely divided metallic copper is ~dded to the mixture.
The use of copper powder not only corrects the excessive expansion but
greatly increases the water resistance, the adhesion, and the dry and wet
strength over the ordinary magnesium oxychloride cement. 3
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
Magnesium is one of the most widely distributed elements, occupying

1.9 per cent of the e'arth's crust. It occurs usually as the chloride, sill,..
cate, hydrated oxide: sulfate, or carbonate, in either complex or simple
salts. Magnesium metal first became available commercially shortly before 1914 when the Germans initiated production, using magnesium chloride 4 from the Stassfurt
, deposits as the raw material. In 1915, consump1 EMLEY, Manufacture and Properties of Sand-lime Brick, Nall. Bur. Standards
(U.S.) Technol. Paper 85, Washington, 1917.
SEATON, Magnesiuq Oxychloride Spark-proof Floors, Chem. lnds., 61 (1), 74
(1942).
"
,
3 KIRK and OTHMER, lop. cit., Vol. 3, pp. 435-438; cf. HUBBELL, A Npw Inorganic,
Cement and Adhesive, Ind. Eng. Chem., 29, 123-131 (1937), referencps .
Available as a by-product of the production of potassium salts.
222
tion of the metaP in the United States was 87,500 lb., at an average price
of $5 per pound. Table 10 gives recent production figures for magnesium
and its compounds.
Raw Materials and Uses. Important domestic sources of magnesium
salts are sea water, bitterns from salt brines and from sea brine, salines,
dolomite, and magnesite, MgCO a
The largest and growing consumption of magnesium compounds is for
the production of metallic magnesium (cf. Chap. 16). Magnesium compounds are used extensively for refractories and insulating compounds
TABLE 10. MAGNESIUM AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
Products
Quantity
produced
1952, tons
Quantity
produced
1951, tons
Average
value, 1952
Magnesium, primary ...............

Magnesite, crude ..................
Magnesia, caustic-calcined ..........
Magnesia, refractory ..............
Magnesia, special (U.S.P., etc.) ......
Dolomite, "dead-burned .............
Magnesium carbonate, ppd ..........
105,521
510,750
38,055
386,873
1,986
1,928,025
43,267
40,881
670,167
49,981
432,197
2,251
1,966,460
60,530
$ 24.54 lb.
5.62 ton
99.00 ton
44.00 ton
550.00 ton
13.00 ton
.161.00 ton
"Minerals Yearbook," 1952.
as well as in tlie manufacture of rubber, printing inks, pharmaceuticals,

and toilet goods~
Manufacture. The manufacture of magnesium compounds from salines
has long been successful in Germany. As the result of thorough physical
and chemical study, the International Minerals and Chemical Corp. is
making magnesium chloride from langbeinite 2 crystallizing out carnallite,
KCIMgCh6H 20. This double salt is decomposed to furnish residual
magnesium chloride of the requisite high purity needed for electrolysis
to metallic magnesium.
The production of magnesium compounds by separation .from aqueous
Isolutions may be divided into four 'processes: ,
1. Manufacture from sea water without evaporation, using sea water
and lime as the principal raw materials. This is done by Dow Chemical
Company at Freeport, Tex. (Fig. 3, Chap. 16), and by Marine Magnesium
Products Corporation (Merck & Co.) at South San Francisco (Fig. 7).
2. Manufacture from bitterns or. mother liquors from the solar evaporation of sea water for salt. Westvaco Division of Food Machinery and
,
,
phap. i6 for manufacture of the metal.
MANNING and KIRKPATRICK, Better Utilization of Mineral Resources through
New Chemical Technology, Chem. & Met. Eng., 61 (5),92, 142 (1944), pictured flow
sheet.
1
CI.
223
MANUFACTURE
ChemIcal' Corp. employs this source, with its plant on San Francisco
Bay (Fig. 8).
3. Manufacture from dolomite and sea water with factories operating
at Cape May, N.J., and in England (Fig. 9).
4. Manufacture from deep-well brines. This has been done by Dow
Chemical Company at Midland, Mich.
TABLE 11. COMPOSITION OF SEA WATER
(In grams per liter of spo gr. = 1.024)
NaCI. ............... '...... .

MgCJ. ..................... .
MgSO .....................
MgBr......................
CaSO ........................ .
27.319
4.176
1.668
0.076
1.268
Ca(HCO a).. ..
K.SO .....................
B.O, ...................... .
SiO .......................
Iron and alumina, R 2 0, ..... .
0.178
0.8(j!)
0.029
0.008
0.022
CHESNY, Magnesium Compounds from Ocean Water, Ind. Eng. Chern., 28, 38:l
(1936).
G
A typical analysis of sea water is giveJl in Table 11. The production

of magnesium compounds from sea water is made possible by the almost
total insolubility of magnesium hydroxide in water. The successful obtaining of magnesium compounds by such a process depends upon
a. The means to soften the sel!- water cheaply, generally with lime.
b. The preparation of a purified lime slurry of proper characteristics.
c. The economical removal of the precipitated hydroxide from the large volume
of water.
d. The inexpensive purification of the' hydrous precipitates.
e. The development of means to filter the viscous slimes. '
The reactions are

MgC1 2(aq)
+ Ca(OH)2(c) ~ Mg(OH)2(c) + CaC1 2(aq);
MgS04(aq)
+ Ca(OH)2(c) + 2H 0(l) ~
t::.H
= 2,260
cal.
Mg(OH)2(c)
+ CaS042H20(C);
t::.H
-3,170 cal.
Figure 7 shows 2 a flow sheet of magnesium products from sea water. Thio
process specializes in] pr~ducing such fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals
as milk of magnesia; and several basic magnesium carbonates such as
3MgCO aMg(OH)24H 20 for tooth powders and antacid remedies, for
coating of table salt ~o render it noncaking, and for paint fillers. Certai.n
of these basic magriesium compounds are also employed with rubber
accelerators.
1 CHESNY, Magnesium Compounds from Oc~an Water, Ind. Eng. Chern., 28, 383
(1936).
'
'
MANNING, Magnesium Metal and Compounds, Chem . .(; Mel. Eng., 46,478 (I \)38);
CHESNY, op. cit., pictu~ed flow sheet; ANON., Chem. & Met. Eng., 64 (8),132 (1\)47).
224
The Dow Chemical Company of Freeport, Tex., also manufactures

magnesium compounds ' directly from sea water using lime produced by
roasting oystershells. This is employed to make magnesium hydrate
which is dissolved in 10 per cent hydrochloric acid to furnish a solution
of magnesium chloride. This is concentrated in direct-fired evaporators
followed by shelf driers, producing 76 per cent magnesium chloride ready
Various finishing operations fol"' oxides

(lind hydroxides, such os
(I) Filtel"ing
(2) Drying
(3) Calcining
(4) PockoglnQ)
FIG. 7. Purified magnesium products from sea water. (Courtesyo! Marine Magnesium
Products Corporation, now owned by Merck & Co.)
."
to be shoveled into the electrolytic cells to make metallic magnesium

(see Fig, 3 of Chap. 16).
Figure 8 presents a flow sheet for the manufacture of magnesium products (and gypsum) from the bitterns or mother liquors from the evaporation of sea water to obtain salt, as practiced on the south part of the
San Francisco Bay. The bittern is first chlorin~ted to recover the bromide (not shown). The flow sheet depicts first the removal of gypsum by
the reaction:
IMgS0 4 (aq)
+ CaCI (aq) + 2H 0(l) ~ MgCi Saq) + CaS04' 2H 20(C);

2
-!:1H = -910 cal.
Such a step is not necessary in those processes based on, sea water when
the dilution is sufficient to hold the CaS04 in solution. While calcined
oystershclls were formerly used, now dolomite is calcined to furnish
"dolime." This is ground, air-separated, and hydrated in the presence of
the purified bittern to produce a granular, easy-settling Mg(OH)2, which
1 ANclN., Magnesium from Sea Water, Chern. & Met. Eng., 48 (11), 130 (1941), pictured flow sheet and description; MURPHY, Magnesium from the Sea, Chern, Inds., 49,
618 (1942), flow'sheet and description; SCHRAMBA, The Dow Magnesium Process at
Freeport, Texas, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs., 41,
(1945).
as
MANUFACTURE
225
is thickened, washed, filtered, and calcined to active, chemical, insulation,

or periclase MgO, the grade being largely dependent upon calcining temperature. This Mg(OH)2 is quite different from the slow-settling Mg(OH)2
precipitated by a soluble alkali or by milk of lime.
FIG. 8. Flow sheet for magnesium products from bitterns. (After pr0ce88 of Food
Mlichinery and_Chemical Corp.)
Sea water 58,000 (lal.

Dolom ite
I. 7' Tons
fresh water SOO) Gal.
Steam BOO Ib. } Per ton washed Mg COHh

Elecfridly 30 Kwhr. (Dry basis) before conve"';l011
Oiredlabor Q>6Man-hr. lofinal produds
FIG. 9. Flow sheet for magnesium products from sea water and dolomite.
Where dolomite is uSed instead of calcium carbonate only about onehalf of the magnesia tnust come from the magnesium salts in the sea
water.' Consequently the size of the plant is much smaller, and the cost
of production is probaRly lower.
1 Sea water has normally 2.2 grams per liter of equivalent MgO, actually present as
MgCl. and MgSO . Hence:for 1 ton of MgO there is required theoretically 111,000 gal.
of sea water. Based on a 70 per cent yield, there would be pumped about 158,000 gal.
if all the magnesia comes from the sea water, or about half this gallonage if dolomite
is used.
226
The reactions, as illustrated in the flow sheet of Fig. 9, are principally

the following:
Calcination:
2CaMg(C0 3)2(c) - 2CaO(c) + 2MgO(c) + 4C0 2 (g);

.
t1H = + 145,880 cal.
Slaking:
2CaO(c) + 2MgO(c) + 4H 20(l) -
2Ca(OHh(c) + 2Mg(OH)2(c);
t1H = -40,320 cal.
Precipitation:
2Ca(OH)2(c) + 2Mg(OHh(c) + MgCh(aq) + MgSOt(aq) + 2H 2 0(l) --4

4Mg(OH)2(c) + CaCh(aq) + CaS042H20(S);
t1H = -5,430 cal.
Calcination:
4Mg(OHh(c) - 4MgO(c) + 4H 20(g);
t1H
+59,280 cal.
Only about 7 per cent of the slaked calcined dolomite is needed for soften~
ing the sea water, the rest precipitating a crystalline magnesium hydroxide which is easily filtered and washed. This hydroxide is frequently sold
to the makers of 85 per cent magnesia, or converted to other products.
Magnesium Carbonates. These vary from dense MgC0 3 used in magnesite bricks to the very low density 4MgC0 3Mg(OHh5H 20 or 3MgCO a Mg(OH)2-3H 20 employed so extensively for insulation. The basic magnesium carbonate, usually 3MgCO aMg(OHh4H 2 0, is made by diluting
the washed Mg(OHh, reacting it with CO 2 from the dolomite calcination,
and heating it to release some of the CO 2 and form the basic salt. This
is then mixed with 15 per cent asbestos, cast into the desired shapes and
dried for the market as "85 per cent magnesia" insulation (Fig. 9). There
are also other basic carbonates on the market, as described by Chesny,l
with variations in adsorptive index and apparent density. Many of these
are employed as fillers in inks, paints, and varnishes (see Fig. 9 for
manufacture). The newest process for magnesia insulation, now in use
I by the majority of producers, prepares needleFke crystals of magnesium
carbonate with self-setting properties. 2 Dolomite (see Fig. 10) or magnesium oxide' is used as the starting material. The dolomite is burned,
slaked, and carbonated to separate out the soluble magnesium bicarbonate from the insoluble calcium carbonate, after which the magnesium
1
cit., pp. 388-389.

Better Magnesia Insulation by New Process, Chern. Eng., 58 (9); 140
CHESNY, op.
ABRAHAMS,
I
(1951).
:
3 dL1VE, Control Methods for a Batch Process, Chem. Eng., 69 (1), 140 (1952);
ANON., Pre5ision Magnesia Insulation, Chern. Eng., 68 (12), 208 (1951), a pictured
flow, sheet.
227
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE
bicarbonate is heated under controlled conditions to precipitate the normal carbonate or basic carbonate.
Oxides and Hydroxide of Magnesium.' On heating magnesium.carbonate or hydroxide, magnesium oxide, MgO, is formed. This oxide has many
uses, such as in the vulcanization of rubber, as a material for making
other magnesium compounds, as an insulating material, as a refractory
material, and as an abrasive. The magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, is
now made directly from sea water as Fig. 7 shows. Mter purification this
Dolomile
Coke
Waler(variablel
2.5 Ions
0.23 Ion
18.0 Ions
Eleclricily 450 kw.- hr.

Sleam
8 Ions per Ion of
basic carbonale
Labor
Variable
*TO produce 1 ton

}
basic magnesium
carbonote
FIG. 10. Magnesium carbonates (normal and basic) from /dolomite. (Courte8y of
Philip Carey Manufacturing Co.)
is the well-known milk of magnesia used in medicine. See also the flow
charts depicted in Figs. 8 and 9. Magnesium peroxide is available from
the reaction of magnesium sulfate and barium peroxide. It is employed
as an antiseptic and as a bleaching agent.
Magnesium Sulfate. Commercially, this is prepared by the action of
sulfuric acid on magnesium carbonate or hydroxide. It is sold in many
forms, one of which is,the hydrate, MgS0 4 '7H 2 0, long known as epsom
salt. The less pure material is used extensively as sizing and as a fireproofing agent.
Magnesium Chloride. As would be expected, this salt is made from hydrochloric acid and magnesium carbonate, hydroxide or oxide, although
it occurs in brines and :salines in nature from which commercial amounts
are obtained directly. The compound itself much resembles calcium chloride and has many of ,the same uses. In addition, it finds application in
ceramics, in the sizing' of paper, and in the manufacture of oxychloride
1 SMITH, Complex Processing Used for Light Magnesium Oxide, Chem. Eng., 63 (10),
119 (1946).
228
cement. For making metallic magnesium its manufacture is described

earlier in this chapter and in Chap. 16 (Fig. 3).
Magnesium Silicates. A consideration of magnesium silicates ' includes
two widely used naturally occurring compounds: asbestos and talc. Asbestos is a magnesium silicate mixed with varying quantities of silicates
of calcium and iron. It is a fibrous, noncombustible mineral and is used
in the manufacture of many fireproof and insulating materials. Talc is a
rather pure magnesium silicate in the form of 3MgO'4Si0 2 'H 2 0 which is
found naturally in soapstone. It is employed as a filler in paper and
plastics and in' many cosmetic and toilet preparations.
Magnesium Soaps. Magnesium soaps in general are prepared in the
same way and have the same properties as calcium soaps .. An additional
use of magnesium stearate is as a drier in protectivJ coatirigS:.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Bogue, R. H., "The Chemistry of Portland Cement," Reinhold Publishing Corpo'

ration, New York, 1947. A most excellent hook.
Witt, J. C., "Portland Cement Technology," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc.,
New York, 1947.
Portland Cement Association, 33 West Grand Ave., Chicago, Ill. Various bulletins,
many reporting on research in cooperation with National Bureau of Standards.
Eckel, E. C., "Cements, Limes and Plasters," 3d ed., John Wiley & ,Sons, Inc., New
York, 1928.
Martin, Geoffrey, "Chemical Engineering and Thermodynamics Applied to the
Cement Rotary Kiln," The Technical Press, Ltd., London, 1932. Filled with
pertinent data, calculations, and designs.
Lea, F. M., and C. H. Desch, "The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete," Longmans,
Green & Co., Inc., New York, 1935.
Lime: Its Properties and Uses, Nail. Bur. Standards Cire. 30, Washington, 1920.
Bowles, Oliver, and D. M. Banks, Lime, U.S. Bur. Mines Inform. Cire. 6884R, 1941.
Extensive bibliography.
Azbe, V. J., "Theory and Practice of Lime Manufacture," Azbe Corporation, St.
Louis, Missouri, 1946.
National Lime Association, various bulletins.
Armstrong, E. F., and L. M. Miall, "RRw Materials from the Sea," Constructive
Publications, Ltd., Leicester, 1946.
Gross, W. H., "The Story of Magnesium," Americ,anlSociety for Metals, Cleveland,
1949.
1
Cf. phase diagram of the system MgO-SiO. in Chap. 10.
CHAPTER
12
GLASS INDUSTRIES
Glass has three important properties that have made it indispensable

as a building material in modern civilization: its hardness, its transparency, and)ts chemical resistance. To these should be added refractive
and dispers'h;e powers, compressive and tensile strengths, as well as coefficient of e~q)ansion. Whatever has been done in recent years to extend
the usefulness of glass has depended largely upon the ability of the glass
technologist to vary and control these essential properties, particularly
the three first named.
History.l Like many other commonplace materials of our modern civilization, the discovery of glass is very uncertain. One of the earliest references to this material was by Pliny, who related the familiar story of
thow some ancient Phoenician merchants discovered it while cooking a
meal in a vessel placed accidentally upon a mass of trona at the seashore.
The union of the sand and alkali caught the men's attention and led to
subsequent efforts at imitation.
As early as 6,000 or 5,000 B.C. the Egyptians /were making sham
jewels of glass which were often of fine workmanship and marked beauty.
During medieval times Venice enjoyed a monopoly as the center of the
glass industry; and, it was 'not until the sixteenth century that any glass
was made in either Germany or England. Window glass is mentioned as
early as A.D. 290. The hand-blown window-glass cylinder was invented
by a twelfth-century monk. However, it was not until the fifteenth century that the use of window glass became general. Plate glass appeared
as a rolled product in France in 1688.
The first glassworks lin America were founded at the beginning of the
seventeenth century at Jamestown in 1608 and at Salem, Mass., in 1639.
For more than three c~nturies after it had been established in America,
the glass industry rem~ined essentially stagnant as far as technological
advance was concerned. The processes were practically all manual and
rule of thumb. From ,the chemical point of view, the only major improvements during this peripd were confined to purifying the batch materials
and increasing the economy in fuel. To be sure, some relations were
established between tlJ,e chemical composition of glasses and their optical
1 SILVERMAN;
':".lass, What ,Is Old, What Is New'? Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 1415 (1940).
229
230
GLASS INDUSTRIES
and other physical properties but, all in all, the industry prior to 1900
was an art, with closely guarded secret formulas and empirical processes
of manufacture based primarily upon experience.
Toward the end of the nineteenth century Lubbers invented a mechanical adaptation of the hand-blown window-glass cylinder process, and in
1914 the Fourcault process for drawing a sheet of glass continuously was
developed in Belgium. These were followed by other direct continuoussheet processes, including the Colburn, Pittsburgh Plate Glass, and
Libbey-Owens processes. The advent of the closed automobile created
an enormous demand for small sizes 'Of plate glass, which was partly met
by the entrance of the automobile manufacturers themselves into this
manufacture. Meanwhile, nearly all branches of the industry were in
process of rapid evolution. Scientists and engineers entered the field in
increasing numbers. Automatic machines were invented to speed up production of bottles, light bulbs, etc., and new products appeared as the
result of intensive research. As a result, today the glass industry is a
highly specialized 'field employing all the tools of modern science in the
production, control, and development of its many products.
Uses and Economics. The glass and glassware production by types is
shown in Tabie 1. The uses and applications of glass are very numerous
._ but some conception of the versatility of this material can be gained from
. the discussion of the various types, as described in the rest of this chapter.
TABLE
1.
VALUE OF GLASS AND GLASSWARE SHIPPED"
(Thousands of dollars)
Flat glass, total. .................................. .

Sheet window glass .............................. .
Plate glass ...................................... .
Other flat glass ................................. \ .
Glass containers ................................... .
Pressed and blown glassware (except containers) ...... .
Other glass products:
.
Laminated glass ............................. ' .... .
Mirrors ....................................... ; .
Other glass products ............................. .
1952
1947
$231,508
88,375
$196,703
72,525
84,164
40,014
422,963
234,795
559,952
324,579
179,812
101,033
55,428
86,959
Annual Survey of Manufactures, 1952.
MANUFACTURE
Glass m~y be defined: physically as a rigid, undercooled liquid having

no definite melting point and a sufficiently high viscosity (greater than
10 13 poises) to prevent crystallization; chemically as the union of the nonvolatile inorganic oxides resulting from the decomposition and fusing of
231
COMPOSITION
the alkali and alkaline earth compounds, sand, and other glass constituents. Glass is a completely vitrified product or at least such a product
with a relatively small amount of nonvitreous material in suspension.
TABLE 2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL GLASSESa
(In per cent)
B,O. AI.o. Fe.O. As,O. CaO MgO
- - --- - -- ---- -4.0 2.3
. ... ' "
67.8 ..... 4.4
7.2 .. , .
1.1
69.4 ... .. 3.5
'"
0.4
70.5 .... . 1.9
'"
. 13.0 .., .
... . ' " . 13.0 . ...
71.5 .. , .. 1.5
12.68 0.22
0.78
72.88 .....
'"
7.9 2.8
0.7
72.9 . ....
'"
.
72.68 .. , ., 0.50) 0.07 .. , . 12.95 .. , .
5.5 4.1
74.50 ..... 0.81 0.09 ' " .
0.4
5.3 3.7
72.4 ... .. 0.8
- ..
2.24
0.73 .... . ... '.
73.88 16.48
4.3 3.2
0.4 ... . .... 0.2
74.2
0.9 . ...
67.2 ..... .... . ... . 0.5.
12.07 , ..
69.04 0.25 . , .. '" . '"
64.7 10.6 4.2
.. , . .... 0.6 , ..
No. Sio.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 80.75 12.00
2.20
16 80.9 12.6 1.8
....
17 96.0
3.6
0.40
....
0.30
. ...
, ..
0"
Na.O
K.O
PbO
SO.
------- 2.3 .... 1.0

13.7
17.3
12.0
1.9
14.0
12.69
15.0
13.17 . .... ' " . . 0.44
15.0
17.4
6.67 Trace
17.7
7.1 14.8
9.5
5.95 11.75
0.3
7.8
4.10 0.10
4.4
Data from either SHARP, Chemical Composition of Commercial Glasses, Ind. Eng.
Chern., 25, 755 (1933) or BLAU, Chemical Trends, Ind. Eng. Chern., 32, 1429 (1940).
1. Egyptian from Thebes (1500 B.C.) (Blau).
I
2. Pompeian window (Blau).
3. German window (1849) hand-blown (Blau).
4. Representative window and bottle glass of nineteenth century (Sharp).
5. Machine cylinder glass (Sharp).
6. Fourcault process sheet with 0.7 per cent BaO (Sharp).
7. Polished plate with 0.18 per cent Sb,O, (Sharp).
8. Owens ,machine bottle (Sharp).
9. Electric light bulb (Sharp).
10. Jena, incandescent
chimney (Sharp).
11. Tableware, lime crystal (Sharp).
12. Tableware, lead crystal (Sharp).
13. Spectacle with 0.9 per cent Sb.O. (Sharp).
14. Jena with 10.9 per ~ent ZnO, 1911 laboratory (Sharp).
15. Corning Pyrex laboratory (Sharp).
16. Laboratory Pyrex 774 (Blau).
17. 96 per cent silica N~. 790 (1940) (Blau).
a
gas
Composition. In spi~e of hundreds of new developments in glass during the past thirty years, it is worthy of note that lime, silica, and soda
still form over 90 per :cent of all the glass of the world, just as they did
2,000 years ago. It should not be inferred that there have been no impor-
232
GLASS INDUSTRIES
tant changes in composition during this period. Rather, there have been
minor changes in major ingredients or major changes in minor ingredients. The major ingredients are sand, lime, and soda ,ash, and any other
raw materials may be considered to be minor ingredients, even though
the effects produced may be of major importance. Table 2 shows the
chemical composition of various glasses.
In general, commercial glasses fall into six different classes:
1. Vitreous silica-a glass made by fusing pure silica without a flux, and very
resistant thermally and chemically.
2. Alkali silicates-soluble glasses used only as solutions.
3. Lime glass-the soda-lime-silica glass of such wide applications, for windows, transparent fixtures, and all manner of containers.
4. Lead glass-the product obtained from lead oxide, silica, and alkali for
decorative and optical effects.
5. Borosilicate glass-boric oxide and silica glasses for optical and scientific
work.
6. Special glass-such as colored glass, translucent glass, safety and laminated
glassl fiber glass, photosensitive glass, phosphate glass, and specialties for chemical uses.
e
.,
Vitreous silica, sometimes referred to erroneously as quartz glass, is tlW

end member of the silicate glasses. It is characterized bylow expansion
and high softening point, which impart high thermal resistance and permit this to be used beyond the temperature ranges of other glasses. This
glass is also extraordinarily transparent to ultraviolet radiation.
The alkali silicates are the only two-component glasses of commercial
importance. These are water-soluble. The sand and soda ash are simply
melted together and the products designated as sodium silicates, 1 having
a range of composition from N a 20Si0 2 to N a 204Si0 2 A knowledge of
the equilibrium relations 2 in these two component systems has aided the
glass technologist in understanding the behavior of the more complicated
systems. Silicate of soda solution, also known as water glass, is widely.
consumed as an adhesive for paper in the manufacture of corrugated
paper boxes. Other uses include fireproofing and egg preser.vation. The
higher alkaline varieties' enter into laundering as detergents and as soap
builders.
I
Lime glass represents by far the largest tonnage o~ glass made today
and serves for the manufacture of containers of all kinds, flat glass (window, plate, wire and figured), tumblers and tableware. There has been a
general betterment in the physical quality of all flat glass such al?_ increased flatness and freedom from waves and strains, but the chemical
!
I
See Chap. 14 for fuller descriptions.
See MOREY, "The Properties of Glass," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1938.
1
COMPOSITION
233
composition has not varied greatly. This composition as a rule lies between the following limits:' (1) Si0 2, 69 to 72 per cent, (2) CaO, 12.5 to
13.5 per cent, (3) N a 2 0, 13 to 15 per cent, becau~e products of these
ratios do not melt too high and are sufficiently viscous so that they do
not devitrify and yet are not too viscous to be workable at reasonable
temPElratures. The great improvement has been in the substitution of instrument-controlled mechanical devices for the individualism of the hand
operator. Similarly in container glass, the progress has been largely of a
mechanical nature. However, the influence of the liquor trade has caused
a tendency among manufacturers to make glassware particularly high in
alumina and lime and low in alkali. This type of glass melts with more
difficulty b~t,i~ more chemically resistant. It might be mentioned i~ passing that the color of container glass is much better than formerly because
of a better selection and purification of raw materials, and the use of
selenium as a decolorizer.
The applications of phase-rule 2 studies have explained many of the
earlier empirical observations of the glassmaker, have led to some improvements such as more exactness in the manufacture of lime glass, and
have laid the basis for new glass formulations. The phase diagrams for
many systems are known and published, but the system Na 2 0-CaO-Si0 2
has been particularly detailed. a
Lead glasses are of very great importance in optical work because of
their high index of refraction and high dispersion. Lead contents as high
as 92 per cent (density 8.0, refractive index 2.2) have been made. The
brilliancy of good "cut glass" is due to its lead-bearing composition.
Large quantities are used also for the construction of electric light bulbs,
neon-sign tubing, and radiotrons, because of the high electrical resistance
of the glass.
The borosilicates 4 usually contain about 10 to 13 per cent of B 20 a and
80lto 83 per cent of silica and have low expansion coefficients, superior
resistance to shock, excellent chemical stability, and high electrical resistance. Wide and ever-increasing uses for these glasses have revolutionized the ideas of the laymen toward the properties of glass. Among the
diversified application's of :these glasses are baking dishes, laboratory glassware, pipe lines, high~tension insulators, and wash~s. Probably the most
1 MOREY, in "Rogers' !Manual of Inqustrial Chemistry," 6th ed., p. 781, D. Van
LEWIS, SQUIRES, and IJ3ROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and Amorphous Materials," pp. 285--304, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942; MOREY,
Phase Equilibrium Relationships Determining Glass Compositions, Ind. Eng. CheT/!"
26, 742 (1933); SHARP, ~ Chemical Composition, of Commercial Glasses, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 26,755 (1933).
3 MOREY, in "Rogersr Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., pp. 776-781,
D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
Frequently sold under the name of Pyrex.
'
234
GLASS INDUSTRIES
famous casting of the borosilicate glasses is the 200-in. disk for the giart
telescope at Mt. Palomar.
The special glasses include (1) colored glass, (2) translucent glass, (3)
safety or laminated glass, (4) fiber glass, (5) high-silica glass, (6) photosensitive glass, and (7) phosphate and borate glasses.
1. Though for many centuries colored glass was used merely for decoration, today colored transparent glasses are essential for both technical
and scientific purposes and are produced in many hundreds of colors.
Colored glass may be one of three types: (a) Color is produced by the
absorption of certain light frequencies by agents in solution in the glass.
The coloring agents of this group are the oxides of the transition elements, especially the first group, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and Cu. This
class can be subdivided as to those in which the color is due to chemical
structural environment or those in which the color is caused by differences in state of oxidation. As an example of the former, NiO dissolved
in sodium-lead glass yields a brown color, but in a potash glass it produces a heliotrope. In the latter, chromium oxides will produce colors
ranging from green to orange depending on the proportions of the basic
oxide, Cr 20a, to the acidic oxide and the composition of glass as to
whether it is basic or acidic. (b) Color is produced by colloidal particles
precipitated within an originally colorless glass by heat-treatment. The
classical example is the precipitation of colloidal gold prodt{cing gold ruby
glass. (c) Color is produced by microscopic or larger particles which may
be colored themselves such as selenium reds (Se02) used in traffic lights,
lantern globes, etc., or the particles may be colorless, producing opals.
2. Opal or translucent glasses are clear when molten but become opalescent as the glass is worked into form, owing to the separation and suspension of minute particles in the medium which disperse the light passing through them. They are important commercially as di.ffusing media
in illumination, as containers, and as cons,truction material. Fluorides
are among the ingredients required as well as special manufacturing
procedures.
_
3. Safety or laminated glasses may be defined as of a composite structure consisting of two layers of glass with an inter leaf of plastic, plasticized polyvinyl butyral resin. When the gl~ss is broken, the fragments
are held in place by the interlayer. Another type is casehardened safety
glass, which, with a blow sufficiently hard to break it, disintegrates into
many small pieces without the usual sharp cutting edges. The manufacture of safety glass is presented later in this chapter.
4. Modern fiber glass 1 (cf. Chap. 34, Synthetic Fibers), although-not a,
new product, owes its' enhanced usefulness to its extreme fineness (of the
order of 0.00005 in. and as small as 0.00002 in.). It can be spun into yarn,
1 ANON., Fiber Glass, Chem. Eng., 64 (6), 130 (1947), pictured flow sheet of both
glass wool and textile fibers.
RAW MATERIAl,S
235
gathered into a mat, made into insulation, tape, air filters, and a 'great
variety of other products such as pipe with plastic bond.
.
5. The making of high-silica glass is considered on page 249.
6. In 1947 Corning Glass Works announced the development of photosensitive' glass which makes it possible to print three-dimensional colored
photographic images within glass articles. Photosensitive metals, such as
gold, silver, and copper, and sensitizers, either thermo-reducing or optical, are added to conventional silicate glasses containing at least 5 per
cent alkali metal oxide. The optical sensitizer cerium is preferred because
it is the most versatile in color. Conventional glass-melting and forming
methods are used with the batch. A black-and-white negative is placed
on the sensitized glass and exposed to ultraviolet light. Color variations
depend directly on exposure time. Orange and red colors, characteristic
of strong exposures, develop faster than the purples and blues. The picture is developed by heating the glass to the annealing temperature or
above. The result is a fadeproof photograph resistant to abrasion, heat,
moisture, or dirt.
I
7. Phosphate glass contains phosphorous pentoxide as a major ingredient wholly or partially displacing silica. An important property or' phosphate glass is its ability to resist hydrofluoric acid, for example, in fluorinations. Sight glasses for the handling of uranium hexafluoride in the
separation of uranium isotopes for making atomic bombs are made from
phosphate glass. Phosphate glass is also used in special optical, ultraviolet, heat-absorbing, and fluorescent glasses. 2
Raw Materials. In order to produce all these v_arious glasses, over
5,000,000 tons of glass sand are used in the United States each year. To
flux this silica requires over 1,500,000 tons of soda ash, 113,000 tQns of
salt cake, and 875,000 tons of limestone or equivalent lime. In addition
to these, there is a heavy consumption of lead oxide, pearl ash (potassium carbonate), saltpeter, borax, boric acid, arsenic trioxide, felllspar,
and fluorspar, together with a great variety of metallic oxides, carbonates, and the other salts fequired for colored glass. In finishing operations, such diverse products as abrasives and hydrofluoric acid are
consumed.
.
Sand for glass manufacture should be almost pure quartz. A glass-sand
deposit has, in many C!1ses, determined the locationof glass factories. Its
iron content should not exceed 0.045 per cent for tableware or 0.015
per cent for optical glass, as iron affects adversely the color of most
glass.
Soda, N a 20, is principally suppHed by dense soda ash, N a 2C0 3 Other
sources are sodium bidarbonate, salt cake, and sodium nitrate. The latter
is useful in oxidizing iron and in accelerating the melting. The important
Photosensitive Glass, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41, 856 (1949).
Phosphate Glasses, Chem. Eng. New8, 27, 1048 (1949).
, STOOKEY,
2 WEYL,
236
GLASS INDUSTRIES
sources for lime, CaO, are limestone and burnt lime from dolomite,
CaCOaMgCO a the latter introducing MgO into the batch.
Feldspars have the general formula R20'Ah03'6SiO~, where R 20 represents N a 2 0 or K 20 or a mixture of these two. They have many advantages over most other materials as a source of aluminum oxide, because
they are cheap, pure, and fusible and are composed entirely of glassforming oxides. AhOa itself is used only when cost is a secondary item.
Feldspars also supply N a 2 0 or K 2 0 and Si0 2. The alumina content serves
to lower the melting point of the glass and to retard devitrification.
!.
Borax, as a minor ingredient, supplies the glass with both sodium oxide and boric oxide. Though seldom employed in window or plate glass,
borax is now in common use in certain types of container glass. There is
also a high-index borate glass which has a lower disp,ersi<;>n 'value and
higher refractive index than any glass previously known. This is valuable
as an optical glass. Besides its high fluxing power, borax not only lowers
the expansion coefficient but increases chemical durability. Boric acid is
used in batches where only a small amount of alkali is wanted. Its price
is about twice that of borax.
Salt cake, long accepted as a minor ingredient of glass, and also other
sulfates, such as ammonium and barium sulfates, are encountered frequently in all types of glass. Salt cake is said to remove the troublesome
scum from tank furnaces. Carbon should be used with sulfates to reduce
them to sulfites. Arsenic trioxide may be added to facilitate the removal
of bubbles. Nitrates of either sodium or potassium serve to oxidize iron
and make it less noticeable in the finished glass. Potassium 1 nitrate or
carbonate is employed in many of the better grades of table, decorative,
and optical glass.
Gullet is the crushed glass from imperfect articles, trim or otherwise
waste glass. It facilitates the melting and utilizes a waste. It may be as low as 10 per cent of the charge or as high as'SO per cent.
Refractory blocks for the glass industry have been developed especially because of the severe conditions encountered here. Electrocast alu- 'mina, zirconia-alumina, mullite, 'mullite-alumina, magnesia-alumina, and
chrome-alumina combinations are typical Of these for glass tanks. Latest'
practice in regenerators and recuperators utilizes basic refractories (see
Chap. 10) because of the alkali dust.
Chemical Reactions. The chemical reactions involved may be summarized:
Na2CO a + aSi0 2 -+ Na 20'aSi0 2 + CO 2
(1)
CaC0 3 + 'bSi0 2 -+ CaObSi0 2 + CO 2
(2)
Na 2SO. + cSi02 + C -+ Na20'cSi0 2 + S02 + CO
(3)
1
FINN, Potash in the Glass Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 30, 891 (1938).
237'
UNIT OPERATIONS AND UNIT PItOCESSES
The last reaction may take place as in equations (4) or (5), and (6):
Na 2S04 + C ~ Na 2SOs + CO
2Na2S04 + C ~ 2Na2SOa + CO2
Na2SOa + cSi02 ~ Na 2 0'cSi0 2 + S02
(4)
(5)
(6)
It should be noted that the ratios Na20jSi0 2 and CaOjSi0 2 need not
be 1 to 1 molecular ratios. The compounds may be of the type formula
Na 2 01.8Si0 2 , for example. In an ordinary window glass the molecular
ratios are approximately: 2 moles Na 20, 1 mole CaO, 5 moles SiOi.
Other glasses vary widely (see Table 2).
Sand
Approximate batch
~g?tc~t~den$"
100 III
f61g.
Powdered co", 0.5 lb.
Lime
Cullel
Olher
15 lb.
50 II>
I-lib.
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for fiat-glass manufacture.
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. Typical manufacturing sequences can be broken down into the following unit operations (Op.) and
unit processes (Pr.) (cf. Fig. 1):
,.
/
Transportation of raw materials to plant (Op.).

Sizing of some raw materials (Op.).
Storage of raw materials (Op.).
Conveying to, weighing and feeding raw materials into glass furnace (Op.).
Reacting in furnace to form the glass (Pr.).
Burning of fuel to secure temperature needed for glass formation (Pr.).
Heat saving by regeneration or recuperation (Op.).
Shaping of glass products (Op.).
Annealing of glass prodtlcts (Op.).
Finishing of glass produbts (Op.).
j
To carry out these unit operations and unit processes, the modern
glass factories are chadcterized by the use of materials-handling machinery supplying automatic and continuous manufacturing equipment, in
contrast to the" shovel and wheelbarrow" methods of the older fa~tories.
In spite of the modernization of many plants, however, manual charging
of furnaces is still carried on, though a dusty atmosphere is created. The
trend, however, is to~a:rd mechanical batch transporting and !Ilixing
238
GLASS INDUSTRIES
systems so completely enclosed that practically no dust is emitted at

any stage of the handling of glass or raw materials. This is important,
because in most states the restrictions against silica dust are becoming
more rigorous.
METHODS OF MANUFACTURE
The manufacturing procedures may be divided (cf. Fig. 1) into four

major phases: (1) melting, (2) shaping, (3) annealing, and (4) finishing.
1. Melting. Glass furnaces may be classified as either pot or tank furnaces and subclassified as either regenerative or recuperative (cf. Fig. 2
of tank furnace).
Pot furnaces, approximate capacity of 2 tons or less, are used advantageously for small production of special glasses or where it is essential
to protect the melting batch from the products of combustion. They are
employed principally in the manufacture of optical glass, art glass, and
plate glass by the casting process. The pots are really crucibles made of
selected clay or platinum. It is very difficult to melt glass in these vessels without contaminating the product or partly melting the container
itself except when platinum is used.
In a tank furnace (Fig. 2) batch materials are charged into one end of
a large "tank" built of refractory blocks. Some measure 125 by 30 by
5 ft. with a capacity of 1,400 tons of molten glass. The glass forms a pool
in the hearth of the furnace, across which the flames play alternately
from one side or the other. The" fined" glass is worked out of the opposite end of the tank, the operation being continuous. In this type of furnace, as in the pot, the walls gradually wear away under the action of
the hot glass. The quality of the glass and the life of the tank are dependent upon the quality of the blocks of construction. For this reason,
much study has been given to glass furnace refractories. '
Each of the foregoing types of furnaces may be of either regenerative
or recuperative design. The regenerative furnace operates in two cycles
with two sets of checkerwork chambers. The flame gases, after giving up
their heat in passing across the furnace contaipiIlg the molten glass, go
downward through one set .of chambers stacked with open brickwork or
checkerwork, as shown in Fig. 2. A great deal of the sensible heat content of the gases is removed thereby-the checkerwork' reaching temperatures ranging from 2800F., near the furnace, to 1200F. on the exit
side. Simultaneously, air is being preheated by passing up the other previously heated regenerative cha~ber and is mixed with the fuel gas 2 and
I See Refractories, Chap. 10; Symposium, High Temperature Refractories, Chern.
Eng. Progr., 44, 869-878, 933-942 (1948).
If the fuel is producer gas, it is preheated also, but not if a higher B.t.u. type is
employed, such as natural gas or oil.
MELTING
239
burned, the resulting flame being of greater temperature than would have
been possible if the air had not been preheated. At regular intervals, the
flow of air-fuel mixture or the cycle is reversed, entering the furnace from
the opposite side, through the previously heated checkerwork, alld passing through the original checkerwork, now considerably cooled. The time
required for each cycle is 20 to 30 min. Much heat is saved by this regenerative principle and a higher temperature is reached.
Recuperation accomplishes the same effect as regeneration, namely, the
preheating of entering air, but the incoming gases flow continuously in
FIG. 2. Cross section of glass tank furnace showing regenerative chambers.
one direction only. In a recuperative furnace the hot gases pass through
one set of tile passages on their way to the stack, and the air passes
through adjacent parallel passages and is preheated. as it moves to the
furnace. No reversing rilechanism is necessary, but disadvantages due to
leaking and clogging make it difficult for these furnaces to compete with
regenerative furnaces, especially in larger designs.
The temperature of a furnace just entering production can be raised
only certain increments each day depending upon the ability of the refractory used to stand the expansion. Once'the regenerative furnace has
been heated, a temperature at least of 2200F. is .maintained at all times.
Melting cost is about $2 per ton of glass. The larger part of the. heat is
lost by radiation from the furnace and the much smaller part is actually
240
GLASS INDUSTRIES
expended in the melting. However, unless the walls were allowed to cool
somewhat by radiation, their temperature would get so high that the
molten glass would dissolve or corrode them much faster. To reduce the
action of the molten glass on the furnace wall, water cooling pipes are
frequently placed in the furnace wall.
2. Shaping or Forming. Glass may be shaped by either machine or
hand molding. The outstanding factor to be considered in machine molding is that the design of the glass machine should be such that the article
is completed in a very few seconds. During this relatively short time the
glass changes from a viscous liquid to a clear solid. It can, therefore, be
readily appreciated that the design problems to be solved, such as flow
of heat, stability of metals, and clearance of bearings, are very complicated. The success of such machines is an outstanding tribute to the
glass engineer. Following is a description of the most common types of
machine-shaped glass, i.e., window glass, plate glass, bottles, light bulbs,
and tubing.
Window Glass. For many. 'Years window glass was made oy an extremely arduous hand process that involved gathering a gob of glass on
the end of a blowpipe and blowing it into a cylinder. The ends of the
latter were cut off, the hollow cylinder split, heated in an oven, and flattened. This tedious manual process has now been entirely'supplanted by
two continuous processes or their modifications, the Fourcault process
and the Colburn process, as outlined in the flow sheets of Fig. 1.
In the Fourcault process a drawing chamber is filled with glass from
the melting tank. The glass is drawn vertically from the kiln through a
so-called debiteuse by means of a drawing machine. The debiteuse consists of a refractory boat with a slot in the center through which the
glass flows continuously upward when the boat is partly submerged. A
metal bait lowered into the glass through the slot at the same time that
the debiteuse is lowered starts the drawing as the glass starts flowing.
The glass is continuously drawn upward in ribbon form as fast as it_.
flows up through the slot, and its' surface is chilled by adjacent water
coils. The ribbon, still traveling vertically and supported by means of
asbestos-covered steel rollers, passes through a 25-ft.-long annealing
chimney or lehr. On emerging from the lehr, it is cut into sheets of the
desired size and sent on for grading and cutting. This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.
The Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company operates a modified Fourcault
process which produces their Pennvernon glass. These sheets are d_rawn
90 in. wide and of all thicknesses up to %2 in. by varying the drawing
rate froni 38 in. a minute for single strength ' to 12 in. for %2 in. This
process substitutes for the floating debiteuse a submerged drawbar for
1 Single-strength window glass has a thickness of 0.087 to 0.100 in.; double-strength
glass measures 0.118 to 0.132 in.
SHAPING OR FORMING
241
controlling and directing the sheet. After being drawn vertically through
a distance of 26 ft., most of which is an annealing lehr, the glass is cut.
For thicknesses above single and double strength, a second annealing is
given in a 120-ft. standard form horizontallehr.
During 1917 the Libbey-Owens Sheet Glass Company (now LibbeyOwens-Ford Glass Company) began drawing sheet glass by the Colburn
process. In this process drawing is started vertically from the furnace, as
in the Fourcault process, but after traveling for about 3 ft., the glass is
heated and b!)nt over a horizontal roller and is carried forward by grip
bars attached to traveling belts. The sheet moves over the flattening
table through the horizontal annealing lehr, with its 200 power-driven
rolls, onto the cutting table.
Plate Glass. Previous to the First World War, plate glass was manufactured by pouring the molten charge on a fiat, cast-iron table, just
ahead of a heavy cast-iron, water-cooled roller which rolled the glass into
a plate of uniform thickness. These tables were usually about 16 by 30 ft.
and were covered with fine sand to prevent sticking and chilling. The
glass was then pushed into a series of five annealing ovens. Great skill
and' careful timing were required to coordinate the roll speed and rate of
pouring so that the glass produced might be rolled smoothly without
seams or folds. This process has now been entirely abandoned in favor
of several continuous processes.
Between 1922 and 1924 the Ford ' Motor Company and the Pittsburgh
Plate Glass Company each developed a continuous automatic process for
removing rough-rolled glass in a continuous ribbon (cr Continuous Sheet
Process of Fig. 1). The glass is melted in large continuous furnaces holding about 1,000 tons at a time. The raw materials are fed into one end
of the furnace, and the melted glass passes through the refining zone and
out of the opposite end in an unbroken flow. From the wide refractory
outlet, it passes between two water-cooled forming rolls and travels down
an incline onto a table of moving metal plates, where rollers squeeze the
glass into a ribbon of uniform thickness. While still red hot, the sheet
passes over conveyer ro~ls to a continuous annealing lehr several hundred
feet in length. The glass is,' removed from the lehr, cut into sheets, and
then sent on for grindi~g and finishing, as illustratill in Fig. 3.
The continuous processes have very large capacities and are particularly adapted to the pr6duction of a glass with a uniform thickness and a
composition suited to the requirements of the automobile industry. Short
runs of plate or special glass cannot be produced economically by these
machines but are handled in pots and mechanically cast by machines
made especially for thili type of operation. "Bottle Glass. Glass blowing, one of the most ancient arts, has until
the last century depe~ded solely upon human lungs for power to form
1
McBRIDE, Again Ford Shows the Way; Chem. & Met. Eng., 46 (3), 150 (1939).
242
GLASS INDUSTlUES
and shape the molten glass. Modern demands for blown glass, however,
have required the development of more rapid and cheaper methods of
production. 1
The machine making of bottles is really only a casting operation using
air pressure to create a hollow. There are several types of machines producing "parisons," the partly formed bottle or bottle blank. One is the
suction-feed type used, with certain variations, in bulb and tumbler production. Another is the gob-feed type, which has been applied to the
FIG. 3. After the rough plate glass comes from the rolls and the annealing lehr, it is
ground and polished under many rapidly revolving wheels as it moves along beneath
them on a table. The glass is embedded in plaster to hold it firmly. This view shows
the final polishing operation, after the glass has been ground by wheels using successively finer sand mixed with water. When one side is finished, the large sheets
are turned over and the same operations repeated on the other side. The completed
glass has both surfaces absolutely parallel, hence the lack of distortion characteristic
of plate glass. (Courtesy of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company.)
manufacture of all types of ware made by pressing, blowing, or a combination of "press and blow."
In the suction-feed type, glass contained in a shallow circular revolving tank is drawn up into molds by suction. The mold then swings away
from the surface of t he glass, opens, and drops away, leaving the parison
sustained by the neck. The bottle mold next rises into position around
the parison, and a blast of compressed air flows the glass into the mold.
The latter remains around the bottle until another gathering operation
1 HODKIN and COUBEN, "A Textbook of Glass Technology," D. Van Nostrand
ComDany, Inc., New York, 1929.
BBA-PING OB
~"" Ii1G
has been performed; it then drops the bottle and ri8e8 to close around
a fresh pari80n. The operations are completely automatic, and speeds of
60 units per minute are not uncommon.
Delivery
I
Settle blow
Counter bloW
I
I
r--{
I
:" I
I' I'
{~_:.~~J;:
4
Transfer from blank mold to blow mold
5
Reheat
6
Fihal blow
7
Takeout
FIG Automatic bottle manufacture by I-S machine. (Courtuy of Glass Pader.)
The gob feeder repreeents one of the most important developments in

automatic glassworkiug. In this operation the molten glass flows from
the furnace through a trough, at the lower end of which is an orifice.
The glass drops through the orifice and is cut into a gob of the exactly
desired size by mechanical shears. It is delivered through a funnel into
244
GLASS INDUSTRIES
the parison mold which starts the formation of the bottle in an inverted
position, as shown in Fig. 4. A neck pin rises into place and another
plunger drops from the top, whereupon compressed air in the "settle
blow" forces the glass to the finished form of the neck. The mold is
closed on top (bottom of the bottle), the neck pin is retracted, and air is
injected in the "counterblow" through the newly formed neck to form
the inner cavity. The parison mold opens and the parison is inverted as
it passes to the next station, so that the partly formed bottle is now upright. The blow mold closes around the parison which is reheated for a
brief interval. Air is now injected for the final blow, simultaneously shaping the inner and outer surfaces of the bottle. The blow mold swings
away and the bottle moves on to the lehr.
Automatic bottle-blowing machines usually consist of two circular
tables, known as the parison mold table, and the blow table. As the glass
moves around the periphery of the table, the various operations described above take place. Table movement is controlled by compressed
air which operates reciprocating pistons, while the various operations
occurring on the table are coordinated with the table movement by a
motor-timing mechanism. This latter device constitutes one of the most
vital and expensive parts of the equipment.
Light Bulbs. The blowing of a thin bulbI differs from bottle manufacture in that the shape and size of the bulb are determined initially by
the air blast itself and not by the f:llold. The molten glass flows through
an annular opening in the furnace and down between two watercooled
rollers, one of which has circular depressions that cause swellings on a
glass ribbon coinciding with circular holes on a horizontal chain conveyer
onto which the ribbon moves next. Through these holes the glass sags of
its own weight. Below each hole is a rotating mold. Air nozzles drop on
the surface of the ribbon, one above each of the glass swellings or conveyer holes. As the ribbon moves along, these 'nozzles eject a puff of air
which forms a preliminary blob in the ribbon. The spinning mold now
rises and a second puff of air, under considerably less pressure than the
I first, shapes the blob to ,the mold and forms the bulb. The mold opens
and a small hammer knocks the bulb loose, from the ribbon. The bulbs
drop onto an asbestos belt which carries them to the lehr rack, where
they slip neck down between two parallel vertical strips which support
them as they are annealed. The total time for the entire series of operations, including annealing, is about 8 min. Machine speeds of 400 to
600 bulbs per minute are common and speeds as high as 700 bulbs per
minute have been attained ..Because of the numerous sizes and styles of
bulbs, the machines are assembled as light cars and pushed on rails to the
1 KILLEFFER, Automatic Glass Blowing, Ind. Eng. Chern., 28, 789 (1936). This
reference includes illustrations and details.
SHA PING
on
FORMING
245
melting tank. The cooled bulbs are frosted by spraying the interior with
hydrofluoric acid, in a semiautomatic frosting machine.
Glass Tubing. For many years glass tubing has been drawn by hand
and, for certain special tubings, it is still being made in that way. However, most tubing sold today is produced by machines, using either of
two processes: the Danner process' or the Vello process. In the Danner
process, glass that has been melted in either a tank or a pot furnace is
transferred to a special pot which feeds into a constant-level trough or
forehearth. This trough is divided into three compartments by bridges
which hold back surface impurities from the molten glass passing through.
The flow is..3ntrolled by a gate as shown in Fig. 5. The glass escapes ovel
"Gale
t.
,
'Ni Cr hlow pipe
FIG. 5. Machine (Danner) for automatically and continuously drawing glass tubing or
rods.
a lip onto the revolving mandrel in the form of a ribbon. The mandrel is
a tube of nickel-chrome alloy on which is mounted a sleeve of clay or
other refractory material. The mandrel is provided with a nichrome tip
(see Fig. 5) and is housed in a muffle heated by a gas burner to a controlled temperature. Th~ inclination of the mandrel (12 to 18 deg.) causes
the glass to flow toward,l the tip from which it is drawn off as a tube or a
rod, depending on whetlier or not air pressu,re is supplied to the mandrel.
The glass passes over pulleys and through an annealing oven for several
hundred feet on its way/ to the drawing machine and the cutter.
In the Vello process' molten glass flows into a drawing compartment
from which it drops vertically through an annular space surrounding a
I,
PHILLIPS, "Glass the Miracle Maker," 2d ed.: pp. 215-218, Pitman Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1948; THORPE, "Dictionary of Applied Chemistry," 4th ed.,
Vol. 5, p. 589, Longmans, Green & Co., Inc., New York, 1941.
1
246
GLASS INDUSTRIES
rotating rod or blowpipe in which air pressure is maintained to produce

tubing of the desired diameter and wall thickness.
The drawing of thermometer tubing is one of the most difficult of
glass-forming operations. A certain quantity of hot glass is selected,
backed on one side with opaque white glass and covered with clear glass,
and a small depression is blown in by hand. The end of the composite
glass mass is attached to an elevating mechanism and the tube drawn by
machinery 125 ft. up a tower.
Glass tower plates and bubble caps, prisms, and most other optical
glass, most kitchenware, insulators, certain colored glasses, architectural
glass, and many similar items are lWnd-molded. The process consists
essentially in drawing a quantity of glass, known as the gather, from the
pot or tank and carrying it to the mold. Here the exact quantity of glass
required is cut off with a pair of shears, and the ram of the mold driven
home by hand or by hydraulic pressure. Certain glass forming is carried
out by semiautomatic methods which involve a combination of the machine- and hand-molding processes previously described. Volumetric
Basks and cylindrical Pyrex sections for towers are fabricated in this
manner.
3. Annealing. To reduce strains, it is necessary to anneal all glass objects, whether formed by machine- or hand-molding methods. Briefly,
annealing involves two operations: (1) holding a mass of glass above a
certain critical temperature long enough to reduce internal strain by
plastic flow to less than a predetermined maximum and (2) cooling the
mass to room temperature slowly enough to hold the strains below this
same maximum. The lehr or annealing oven is nothing more than a carefully designed heated chamber in which the rate of cooling can be controlled so as to meet the foregoing requirements.
The establishment of a quantitative relationshipl between stress and
birefringence caused by the stress has enable~ glass technologists to design glass to meet certain conditions of mechanical and thermal stress.
With the foregoing data as a basis, .engineers have produced continuous
annealing equipment with automatic temperature regulation and conI trolled circulation, which permits better annealing at lower fuel cost and
with less loss in product.
4. Finishing. All types of annealed glass must undergo certain finishing operations, which, though relatively simple, are very important. These
include cleaning, grinding, polishing, cutting, sandblasting, enameling,
grading, and gaging. Although all of these are not required for every
glass object, one or more is almost always necessary.
.
~HILLIPS, op.
cit., pp. 229, 117; MOREY and W ARIUlN, Annealing of Pyrex Chemical Resistant Glass, Ind. Eng. Chem., 27, 966 (1935); MOIUlY, Physical Tendencies,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 1423 (1940}.
1
OPTICAL GLASS
247
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIAL GLASSES
Optical Glass. It should be noted at the very beginning that- optical

glass' includes only those glasses with high homogeneity and special composition which have definite predetermined optical characteristics of such
accuracy as to permit their use in scientific instruments. Spectacle glass
and ordinary mirror glass are not included.
Optical glass should fill certain rigid requirements: (1) Its composition
should be such as to ensure the required optical properties. (2) The .batch
should produce glass of sufficiently low viscosity. (3) The glass should
not devitrify, even upon long annealing. (4) It should produce as nearly
a colorless product as possible without the use of decolorizing agents. (5)
It should be free from bubbles and striae. (6) Its properties with respect
to grinding and polishing should be advantageous. (7) It should be capable of withstanding the action of the atmosphere and of maintaining its
surface after long usage under all climatic conditions.
The melting pots for optical glass are made from selected high-purity
clay,s and are of different compositions for different types of glass. Platinum is alsQ used. The raw materials of the batch are chosen for purity
and composition and compounded very carefully. The empty pots are
heated slowly for 4 or 5 days, till a temperature of 1900F. is reached,
after which they are transferred to the melting furnace, where th~y are
heated to 2600F. for several hours before the batch and cullet are
charged into them. After the batch has melted, stirring is carried out
with a hollow clay tube. The stirring, rapid at first, is' gradually reduced
after the cooling begins and the glass becomes more viscous. The tube
is removed just before the glass is taken from the furnace.
After removal from the furnace the pot is covered with a thermally insulated jacket so the glass will cool slowly enough to break into large
chunks. 2 The pot is broken open and, after removal of visible imperfections, the rough chunks are broken or sawed to a convenient size' for hot
molding in a steel or ceramic mold. On cooling the molded blanks are
inspected by immersiorf in a liquid having a refractive index similar to
the glass to reveal subsurface imperfections. Annealing, followed by another inspection, are th'e final steps before the blank is ready for grindI
ing and polishing.
An important new development in melting of optical glass involves reusable platinum pots r~sulting in little or no corrosion or contamination
and sometimes yielding up to 90 per cent first-class quality optical glass
1 MOULTON, Optical ChLracteristics, Ind. Eng. ,Chem., 32, 1428 (1940), spectral.
transmission curves.
For picture sequence and description, see HAHNER, Optical Glass Productioll,
Chem. Eng., 54 (4), 122 (1947).
248
GLASS INDUSTRIES
as compared with 20 per cent or less in conventional refractory pots.

Small platinum-lined tank furnaces are also being employed by Corning
Glass Works for continuous melting of optical glass. Essentially the process consists of melting the batch in aT-shaped furnace heated by graphite electrodes immersed in the liquid glass which is stirred, fined, and
extruded in the shape of a bar.
Safety Glass. Safety glasses ' may be grouped into two general classes:
laminated safety glass and heat-strengthened or tempered safety glass.
Structural wire glass may also be considered a safety glass.
Laminated safety glass, which is by, far the most widely used in this
country, consists of two sheets of thin plate glass, each of which is about
0.125 in. thick, with a sheet of nonbrittle plastic material between. The
manufacturing procedure is somewhat as follows: The plastic and glass
are washed and an adhesive is applied to the glass (if the plastic used
requires it, such not always being the case). The glass and plastic sheet
are pressed together under moderate heat to seal the edges. The glass is
subjected to high temperatures and hydraulic pressures in an autoclave,
in order to bring the entire interlayer into intimate contact, after
which the edges of the sandwich may be sealed with a water-resistant
compound.
The glass used in the manufacture of laminated safety glass has the
same physical properties as ordinary glass; so that the safety features depend solely upon the ability of the plastic interlayer to hold the fragments caused by accidental breaking of the glass itself. The first plastic
used commercially was cellulose nitrate which was replaced by cellulose
acetate. Now practically all laminated safety glass uses polyvinyl butyral
resin. This vinyl plastic is more elastic than the cellulose acetate, since
it stretches under relatively low stresses up to its elastic limit, after which
considerable additional stress is necessary to make it fail. It remains clear
and colorless under all conditions of use, is not'affected by sunlight, and
does not need adhesives or water-resistant compounds in manufacturing.
The second type of safety glass, tempered safety glass, is considerably
more resistant to forces that produce bending and to obj~cts that do not
I crack or penetrate the compressional layer, b.p,t it is weaker to the impact
of missiles traveling at sufficiently high velocities to break the compression layer. It is merely ~ single sheet of glass, heat-treated so that the
outer surface is in a state of compression caused by cooling. When the
outer layer is punctured, it shatters into many small pieces.
Structural wire glass has great value as a fire retardant. In the manufacture of this material, steel wire netting is laid onto ordinary soft lime
glass immed.iately after its discharge from the furnace and passed beI
Evolution of Safety Glass, Modern Plastics, 18 (10), 31 (1941); cf.

History and Development of Laminated Safety Glass, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
31, 563 (1939).
1 RANDOLPH,
WEIDLEIN,
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
249
tween two rolls. The operation is continuous and the glass is cut into the
desired Ilhape by bending the wire, which breaks easily.
High-silica Glass. This product' constitutes an even greater advance
toward the production of a glass approaching fused silica in composition
and properties. This has been accomplished with the avoidance of former
limitations of melting and forming. The finished articles contain approximately 96 per cent silica, 3 per cent boric oxide, and the rest alumina and
alkali. Borosilicate glass compositions of about 75 per cent silica content
are used in the earlier stages of the process, in which the glasses are
melted and molded. 2 After cooling, the articles are subjected to heattreatment which induces the glass to separate into two distinct physical
phases. One of these phases is so high in boric and alkaline oxides that it
is readily soluble in hot acid solutions, while the other is rich in silica
and therefore insoluble in these same solutions. After heat-treatment and
annealing, the glass article is immersed in a 10 per cent hydrochloric acid
(98C.) bath for sufficient time to permit the soluble phase to. be virtually all leached out. It is washed thoroughly to remove traces of the
soluble phase as well as impurities and subjected to another heat-treatment which serves to dehydrate the body and to convert the cellular
structure to a nonporous vitreous glass. In the course of these processes
the glassware undergoes a shrinkage in linear dimensions amounting to
14 per cent of its original size. Table 3 compares its properties with those
of other glasses. This method of glass manufacture furnishes a product
that can be h(Olated to a cherry red and then plunged into ice water without any ill effects. Also this glass has high chemical durability and is extremely stable to all acids except hydrofluoric which attacks this glass
considerably more slowly than others.
Chemical Engineering Applications. 3 Glass, because of its reasonable
price, its surface hardness and smoothness, its low coefficient of expansion, and its chemical inertness and transparency has taken an important
place in industry as an essential chemical engineering material. According to Smith, glass is used in three forms that are of interest to the procI
ess engineer:
I
(1) in bulk, in fairly large pieces of equipmen1i, such as pipe, towers and pumps;
(2) as a coating, over s:teel and cast iron, as in tanks, reactors and pipe;
(3) as fibers, in insulation, fabrics, tower packings, and plastic laminates.
I
Only borosilicate glass"high-silica glass, and pure fused silica are of much
interest as materials of construction in process industries. By reasons of
1 This is known as Vyc,or and is made by the Corning Glass Works, U.S. Pat.
2106744 (1938); 2221709 (1940).
2 PHILLIPS, op. cit., pp. 49-50, 388.
3 SMITH, Glass-Its Place in Chemical Processing, Chern. Eng., 68 (4), 117 (1951);
cf. the Ceramics section of the Materials of Construction reviews, Ind. Eng~ Chern.,
October issue. annual since 1947.
250
GLASS INDUSTRIES
improvements in the formulas for glass, these materials have had their
chemical resistance as well as their mechanical properties greatly improved (see Table 3).
TABLE 3. COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF GLASSES
Pyrex
No. 774
Common
lime
96 per cent
silica No. 790
Fused
quartz
Softening point, C .....

696
819
1442
1667
Annealing point, C ....
510
553
931
1140
Strain point, C........
475
510
857
1070
Maximum temperature
for use (for limited
500-550
1000-1090
1400
periods), C......... ........
2.47
2.23
Specific gravity .......
2.18
2.01
Coefficient of linear expansion (per C.) ... 92 X 10- 7 32-33 X 10-7 7.8-8 X 10-1 5.5-5.95 X 10-1
-
BLAU, Chemical Trends, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 1419 (1940); cf. PERRY, ap. cit.,
p. 1548. The coefficient of linear expansion in the change in length (centimeters) per
unit of length (centimeters) per centigrade degree change in temperature.
ROCK OR MINERAL WOOL
Allied to the making of glass are the fusing and spinning of a suitable
rock to form rock woo!. Slag wool is a similar product from the melting
of by-product furnace slag. These mineral wools are of great value for
both heat and sound insulation, particularly as they have a low coefficient of heat transfer, do not attract moisture, are permanent, and are
absolutely fireproof and verminproof. They are also relatively inexpensive and can be fabricated wherever there is the suitable rock available.
The mineral wools are employed in theJoose form or shaped into blankets
for insulating homes or railroad cars. Specially ~olded sheets or blocks
?nter into the making of refrigerators. In the loose form, much rock wool
IS blown into the open spaces in walls and ceilings of already constructed
houses. For these purposes 100,000 tons of rOl!k ,wool are manufactured
annually with additional tonnages of slag and glass wool. Each year sees
mineral wool become more important in chemical construction, especially
with the current trend to outdoor plants. 1
The wool rock 2 should contain silica, alumina, lime, and magnesia
1 For further information, see VON LUDWIG, Insulating Unhoused Plants, Chern.
Eng., 54 (3),114 (1947); OTTO, Estimating Mineral Wool Insulation, Chem. Eng., 54
(7), 1()2 (1947).
FRYLING and WHITE, Considerations in Developing II Mineral Wool Industry,
Chem~ & Met. Eng., 42, 550 (1935); THOENEN, Mineral Wool, U.S. Bur. Mines
Inform. Circ. 6984 (1938); AZBE, Solution of Problems in Manufacturing Rock Wool,
Rock Product3, 61 (11),97 (1948).
251
ROCK OR MINERAL WOOL
approximating the ratio shown in the formula on the flow sheet pf Fig. 6,
so as to give a product molten over a sufficiently long interval to enable
the fibers to be made. To meet these specifications for wool rock there
is usually chosen a self-fluxing siliceous and argillaceous dolomite which
may have a composition as shown in Table 4. This composition balances
Note:- Approximate composifion
or wool given by molecular rafio

SlOt of- Alz 0,
CaO+ M90
'Endless belt
Blowing
no~zle
3,000 lb.
1,200 Ib.
3,000 lb.
Woolrock
Coke(,..ppro~
Steam{approx.)
Electric power (approl<) 40 kW-hr.} Pertan of

Cooling .water (approx.j 4,000 901.
rock wool
Direct labor
16 man-h"
FIG. 6. Flow sheet for rock or mineral wool.
the fluxing properties of the constituents. Such natural wool rock is

mined in the states of Indiana, Ohio, and elsewhere.
The process for making rock wool involves the simple melting, in a
cupola, of the wool rock at around 3000F. and the blowing of this into
the fibers by means of steam at 100 lb. pressure. The steam first atomizes
the molten rock to small globules which stream through, the air leaving
a fibrous tail behind. The centrifugal action of a rapidly revolving disk
TABLE
4.
LIMITS OF COMPOSITION OF WOOL ROCKO
Silica ................ /.............

Ferric oxide .......; .................. .
Alumina .............................
Calcium oxide ..... ~ .................. .
Magnesium oxide .. : ...................
Volatile matter ....
!................... ,
DAKE,
Minimum,
per cent
Maximum,
per cent
24
2
32
8
16
10
12
21
13
26
29
Rock as an Ins~lator, Mineralogi8t, 10, 177 (1942).
is also employed to furnish fine fibers (1 to 3 in. long and 3 microns in

diameter). The fibers are collected on a belt and subjected to the operations needed to furnish the desired finished wool. Somewhat allied to
mineral wool is fiber ~lass, which is presented in Chap. 34.
252
GLASS INDUSTRIES
SELECTED REFERENCES
Hodkin, F. W., and A. Cousen, "A Textbook of Glass Technology," Constable &
Co., Ltd., London, 1929; D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc'., New York, 1929.
Sharp, Donald E., "Feldspar as a Constituent of Glass," National Feldspar Association, New York, 1937.
Sosman, R. B.. "The Properties of Silica," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1927.
Morey, G. W., "The Properties of Glass," 2d ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1954.
Flat Glass and Related Glass Products, U.S. Tariff Comm. Rept. 123, Washington,
D.C., 1937.
The Glass Packer, Ogden Watney, Inc., New York.
Furnas, C. C., editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., Chap. 20,
. Glass, by G. W. Morey, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
Glass Symposia, various authors, Ind. Eng. Chem., 26,742-764 (1933); 32,1415 (1940).
Angus-Butterworth, L. M., "The Manufacture of Glass," Pitman Publishing Cor-'
poration, New York, 1948.
Phillips, C. J., "Glass, the Miracle Maker, Its History, Technology, Manufacture
and Applications," Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York, 1948.
Davis, Pear~e, "The Development of the American Glass Industry," Harvard University P~ess, Cambridge, Mass., 1949.
.
Dickson, J. H., "Glass," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
CHAPTER
13
POTASSIUM SALTS AND MIXED FERTILIZERS
Potassium salts must be present in the soil solution in order to have

normal plant growth. Hence potassium salts have a high and an essential value in fertilizers needed for the food of the nations. The yardstick
by which potassium compounds are measured is the content of potash
as K 20. Indeed, this term has become by usage descriptive of the industry. The various potassium salts are also basically important as raw
materials for many commodities such as soaps, detergents, glass, dyes,
gunpowder, and pyrotechnics.
The establishment of this industry in America has been difficult. Prior
to the middle of the nineteenth century the United States was even an
important exporter of a crude potassium carbonate from the leaching of
hardwood ashes. Potash was first imported from Germany in 1869 and
for over 45 years that country furnished America and the rest of the
world with potash. After the German salts became available, there was
little interest in domestic production of potash until,the First World War
prevented its importation. At this time the scarcity of potash became a
matter of national concern and prices rose to $500 a ton of 50 per cent
muriate. Efforts by the Federal, state, and commercial companies developed several sources of potash supply. Among these were'l>l:mes from the
saline lakes in the West, kelp harvested f~om th~ #acific ~;listJ calcined
fermentation slop, cement kiln dust, wood, and ~otton huil *r-shes, and
many minerals of great variety such as alunite, l!;)ucit!'l,: gree)1sand, feldspar, and shale. Production rose from 1,000 tons. in.)9.1{> ~o ~5,700 tons
of potash, K 20, in 1919. When the end of the war came, imports were resumed and domestic production fell.
_ . ; .. "\ :' ~:
Since that time th~ discovery of new deposits, follow!Jd by new de~
velopments in methods of processing; has caused a constant increase in
the amount and quality of potash salts produced and in'cofIlpetition with
.
low-priced European imports.
In 1941 and 1942 the United States produced its entire need of potash
for the first time. Table 1 illustrates the growth of this industry.
Raw Materials. The largest domestic production of potassium salts
comes from deep Perrriian sedimentary deposits of sylvinite (a natural
mixture of sylvite, 'KCI, and halite, NaCI) and Iangbeinite, K 2S0 4 ~"""'''~\~t' ... ,~_.
253
254
2MgS0 4 , of the Carlsbad, N. Mex., region. The sylvinite is mined and

treated to yield high-grade potassium chloride. Langbeinite is processed
to make potassium sulfate. The second important domestic source of
potassium salts is Searles Lake at Trona, Calif., which is a deposit of
solid sodium salts permeated by a saturated complex brine. This brine
is processed to separate high-grade potassium chloride and borax together with numerous minor saline products (Fig. 1). Other sources contribute in a minor way to the annual potash production: alcohol fermentation using molasses as a raw material, by-product from natural salt
TABLE
1.
STATISTICS OF POTASH INDUSTRY SINCE
(In thousands of tons of
1919"
K~O)
Year
Production
Exports
Imports
1919
1925
1931
1937
1943
1\)48
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
46
26
64
267
732
1,140
1,118
1,286
1,420
1,665
1,912
0.5
1
16
62
70
70
70
65
68
56
49
40
258
215
352
17
27
19
199
313
190
130
Consumption
85
283
262
556
67~
1,100
1,070
1,409
1,653
1,733
1,813
Chern. Eng., 66 (6), 313 (1948); "Minerals Yearbook," 1952,1953.
brines, and potassium sulfate recovered by one portland cement company from its kiln dust. Bonneville, Ltd., evaporates by solar heat, the
Salduro Marsh brines, at the western edge of the Salt Lake Basin 1 _in
Utah, crystallizing out the sodium and potassium chloride. The two salts
are repulped and separated by froth flotation to yield potassium chloride.
Subterranean deposits of potash salts occur in Europe notably in Russia,
Poland, Germany, France (Alsace), and Spain. The brine of the Dead
Sea in Palestine also is being successfully exploited as a source of potassium chloride and other saline products.
~
I
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE
In this country potassium chloride is being produced principally as a

high-grade salt of around 98 per cent purity. As such it is suitable for
use in both the chemical and the fertilizer industries, some 90 per cent
of the total being used in the latter. In the fertilizer trad" it is referred
1 SMITH,
& Met.
Utah Desert Yields Potassium Chloride for Western Agriculture, Chern.

61 (8),94 (1944).
Eng.,
MANUFACTURE BY THE TRONA PROCESS
255
to its muriate of potash and in smaller amounts is marketed in the less

refined state as "60 per cent muriate," "manure salts," and the crude
material as mined, "run-of-mine salts." The refined potassium chloride
is the basis of the manufacture of most of the other potassium salts. The
more important commercial processes in the United States will be
described.
Manufacture by the Trona Process. From Searles Lake, California, the
shipment of potash was begun in 1916 and, including numerous other
products, has continued since that time on an ever-expanding scale. The
"lake" is composed of four layers. The upper layer of crystalline salt is
from 70 to 90 ft. deep; the secontllayer about 12 to 15 ft. of mud; the
third layer about 25 ft. of salt; and finally mud interspersed with minor
salt seams. Ln processing, the brine is pumped from the interstices in the
salt body from the first and third layers. The handling of the third layer
is a recent development. The brines have the following approximate constant composition:
Expressed as
Upper deposit, Lower deposit,

per cent
per cent
KC!... . .. ... . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . .
4.85
3.00
NaC!.........................
16.25
16.25
Na,SO,.......................
7.20
6.75
6.35
Na'C0 3 . .
4.65
Na2B.07. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. 50
1. 77
Na 3 PO............. . .. . . . .. . . .
0.155
/
NaBr.........................
0.109
Miscellaneous .................. 1_ _,-0_.-:1.".1_6__ __----::,..,0_. .".35-,---__
1
Total salts (approx.)..........
34.83
34.60
H 20..........................
65.17
65.40
Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. 303
1. 305
pH (approx.)..................
9.45
9.60
As the unraveling of the composition of the various salts of the German potash deposits at Stassfurt by van't Hoff from 1895 to 1910 helped
greatly in the developilient of the German potash industry, likewise the
phase-rule study! of tlie much more complex systems existing at Searles
Lake by Morse, Teeplr, Burke, Mumford, Gale, and many others was
1 TEEPLE, "Industrial Deveiopment of Searles Lake Brines," Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1929; ROBERTSON, The Trona Enterprise, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
21, 520 (1929); ROBERTSOJ, Expansion of the Trona Enterprise, Ind. Eng. Chem., 34,
133 (1942); GALE, Chemistry of the Trona Process, from the Standpoint of the Phase
Rule, Ind. Eng. Chem., 30, 867 (1938). The triangular phase diagrams of the more
common constituents of Searles Lake brine at 20'and 100C. are presented and described on pp. 71-74ff. in KOBE, "Inorganic Chemical Processes," The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1948. These are for the brines saturated with NaCI and for
burkeite, Na,sO" glaserite and KCI and Na,CO .
256
Raw lake brine
+ soda products and borax mother liquors
t
!
Warmed by condensing vapors in vacuum crystallizers
(Na.CO.2Na.SO.)
Evaporated in triple-effect evaporators

Salts separated hot
NaCl + Li,NaPO. I KCl + Na,B.O, both in hot solution
Halite: NaCI, coarse crystals

Burkeite (Na.CO.2Na.SO.) and Li.NaPO.:
fine crystals
Separated by countercurrent washing
Mother liquor: Quick vacuum

cooling to 38C.
KCI centrifuged,. dried,

arid shi'pped
Mother liquor
, "J
cooled to 24C.,.seeqed, and
crystallized
Underflow NaCl,
washed away
I
Overflow filtered and washed with lake brine
t
!
Filtered-------_j
Brine
Crude borax
Recrystallized
Burkeite, dissolved in H 20, J1ooled, and

Li,NaPO. froth floated
" ". j-;-_____________--+IRefined borN

ax
mpure Li, aPO. hot lcachc
1---
Burkeite liquor cooled to

22C., filtered
Burkeite liquor
Li.NaPO. (20 per cent LiO,)
Dried
I
Liquor heated
to 70C. and
treated with NaCI
Burkeite (to start
Cooled to 30C. and filtered

1------->some NaCI
Cooled to 5C. and filtered
1---+
Na.SO.l0H,O
j).
NaCI added to lower

transition to 17C. to Na 2SO .
Filter
J-
~_NaCI
mother liquor
Na,SO. Refined salt cake

Dried
Brine
Na.CO.10H,O
Recrystallized hot
Na.C0 3H.O
Calcined
Soda A8h 58 per cent Na.O
FIG. 1. Outline of Trona procedures.
....o ._
c
:x: t..
..0
257
258
another striking investigation carried to a successful application in the

Trona process. In the first-layer brine of Searles Lake the main system is
composed of Na-K-H-S04-COa-B204-CI-F-H20. The references cited, particularly the one by Gale, demonstrate with appropriate solubility charts
this important and commercial application of the phase rule wherein the
conditions are presented for the desired fractional crystallization.
The phase-rule chemists and the engineers at Trona have been exceedingly clever in obtaining pure salts from this complex brine and in building a profitable industry in a competitive field and under the handicap
of being in the desert 200 miles from the nearest city. The town of Trona,
Calif., houses over 2,000 inha_bitants dependent on this one industry.
Figure 1 outlines the steps, based on the phase-rule study, necessary to
commercialize this brine. Figure 2 gives more details 01 the divisions,of
the procedures leading to potassium chloride, borax, and soda products.
There is no profitable market for the large tonnages of common salt obtained, and it is washed back to the lake.
In general this successful process is founded upon many years of intensive research wherein exact conditions were worked out and then applied in the plant. In barest outline this involves the concentration of the
potassium chloride and the borax in the hot brine with the simultaneous
separation of salt and burkeite, a new mineral with the .composition
N a 2CO a'2N a 2S04. By virtue of the "lazy" crystallization of borax,. the
potassium chloride ca.n be obtained by the rapid cooling of the concentrated brine in vacuum coolers and crystallizers. 1 After cent.rifugation the
potash mother liquor is refrigerated and furnishes the borax.
The somewhat detailed 2 flow sheet of Fig. 2 can be resolved into the
following unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
Concentration and Soda Products Separation:
Raw brine is mixed with end liquors from the soda products and potash borax
crystallizing house, and pumped into the third effect of triple-effect evaporators
(Op.).
.
The brine is hot concentrated with salting out in the three effects counter to
the steam flow (Op. and Pr.). (see Fig. 3).
The suspended salts, NaC}
Na 2C0 3 :2Na 2S04, are removed from the liquors
~f each effect by continuously circulating the hot'li4uor through cone settlers
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1065-1069; see particularly Turrentine, \'Potash in North
America," pp. 105-107, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1943, where
the first vacuum cooler-crystallizer is pictured and described. This invention of
Turrentine's has had a profound influence upon the cheap production of pure potassium chloride both in the United States and abroad.
2 MUMFORD, Potassium Chloride from the Brine of Searles Lake, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
30,872 \1938); KIRKPATRICK, A Potash Industry-At Last, Chern. & Met. Eng., 45,
488 (1938); ANON., S2arles Lake Chemicals, Chern. & Met. Eng., 52 (10), 134 (1945),
for pictured flow sheet.
MANUFACTURE BY THE TRONA PROCESS
259
called salt separators or salt traps. The underflow from the first-effect cone containing the salts passes through an orifice into the second-effect cone, receiving
a countercurrent wash with clarified liquor from the second-effect cone. The
combined salts from the first and second cones are given a countercurrent wash
with liquor from the third cone as they pass through an orifice into this third cone.
The combined salts of the first, second, and third cones are given a countercurrent wash with raw brine as they leave the third-effect cone (Op.). All these
are hot washes. The combined underflow is filtered and the filtrate returned to
the evaporators (Op.).
The cake (salt: NaCI
burkeite: Na 2CO a2Na.SO,) is sent to the soda
products plant (Op.) (left part of Fig. 1).
The final hot concentrated liquor is withdrawn from the overflow of the firsteffect cone to an auxiliary settler called a clarifier (Op.). The overflow from the
clarifier is pumped to storage at the potash plant (Op.).
The underflow from the clarifier is filtered and treated in the same manner as
the previous underflow' (Op.).
Separation of Potassium Chloride:
The hot concentrated liquor leaving the clarifiers is saturated with potassium
chloride and borax. The potassium chloride is obtained by cooling quickly to
lOOF. and crystallizing in three-stage vacuum cooler-crystallizers (Op. and Pr.).
Enough water is added to replace that evaporated so that the sodium chloride
remains in solution (Op.).
The suspension of solid potassium chloride in the mother liquor is passed to a
cone settler where the thickened sludge obtained in the underflow goes to a
battery of Weston-type sugar centrifuges (Op.).
The potassium chloride is dried in rotary driers, yiekling 97 per cent KCI
(Op.). This salt is ('onveyed to storage, to the bagging plant, or to a recrystallizing
procedure (Op.).
Separation of Borax:
The overflow, combined with the filtrate from the centrifuges, is pumped to
the borax plant for the removal of borax (Op.).
The potash mother liquor is cooled by evaporation to 75F. in vacuum crystallizers by expansion of liquid ammonia in reflux condensers, as shown in Fig. 3
(Op.). The water lost by eyaporation is returned to the boiling (but cooling)
solution to prevent the concentration of this solution will} consequent crystallization of potassium chloride with the crude borax.
The borax crystallizes out (Pr.) and is settled in a thickener (Op.).
The crude borax is fiitered off and washed (Op.).
The overflow from the thickener and from the filter is returned to the start of
the evaporator cycle (Op.).
When necessary, the/crude borax is refined ?y recrystallization (Op.).
This salt is centrifuged, dried, and packaged for market (Op.).
I
op. cit., pp. 876, 877; HIGHTOWER, The Trona Process, Chern. Eng.,
68 (8), 104 (1951), excellent flow sheets.
1
MUMFORD,
260
POTASSIUM SALTS ANO MIXED FF.RTILlZERS
The preceding description deals with the processing of the upper brine
layer. In 1948 a new plant was finished at Trona for the lower brine
layer. This involves carbonation of this brine with flue gas from the
boiler plant. 1 The sodium bicarbonate separated by this reaction is calcined and converted to dense soda ash. Crude borax is crystallized from
the carbonated end liquor by cooling under vacuum and the filtrate is returned to the lake. The daily production of American Potash and Chemical Company in 1954 was approximately 700 tons of muriate of potash,
350 tons of borax and boric acid, 650 tons of salt cake, and 400 tons of
soda ash. This large production was not achieved without solving many
more problems than those of the phase-rule diagrams. The evaporation is
at the rate of several million gallons of water per day. To effect the requisite heat transfer when salts crystallize out at the same time was a
major chemical engineering problem. This was brought about by removing the miles of piping from the inside of t he evaporators and doing tbe
heating in outside heaters arranged with spares around and beneath each
evaporator,2 as shown in Fig. 3. Heat transfer is also facilitated (footnote, page 258) by vacuum cooling through vaporization instead of using
cooling liquids in coils which would become fouled with encrusting solids.
The soda and lithium products 3 are a development of recent years by
an extension of the phase studies and sound engineering. Figure 1 outlines the production of soda ash, a nhydrous sodium sulfate, and lithium
sodium phosphate.
Manufacture from Sylvinite. In 1925, potash was discovered at Carlsbad, N . Mexico. 4 After much prospecting and drilling, a shaft to mine
the mineral was sunk to about 1,000 ft. In 1932 a refinery was constructed and now the largest proportion of the supply of potassium chloride for the United States is being produced here. The ore is sylvinite,
which is the accepted term for the natural mixture of sylvite, KCI, with
halite, N aCl.
The process employed by t he Unit ed States Potash Company 5 depends primarily upon the fact that sodium chloride is less soluble in a
f ot than in a cold saturated solution of potassium chloride. Thus, when
1 HIGHTOWER, New Carbonation Technique-More Natural Soda Ash, Chem. Eng.,
A (5),162 (1951 ); ANON ., Chern. Eng., 66 (4), 102 (1949).
I MANNI NG, Capital + Vision + Research = An American Potash Indul!try, Chem.
&: Met . Eng., 36, 268 (1929).
I ROBERTSON, Expansion of the Trona Enterprise, Ind. Eng. Chern., M, 133 (1942);
GALE, Lithium from Searles Lake, Chern. Inds., 67, 442 (1945).
SMITH, Potash in the Permian Salt Basin, Ind. Eng. Chern., 30, 854 (1938). For the
separation of two salts with a com~on ion like NaCI-KCl, see the phase diagrams
Figs. 3-1 and 3-2 of KOBE " Inorganic Process Industries," The Macmillan Company,
New York, 1948. The text on pp. 60--63 elucidates these diagrams.
i Private communication from Henry H . Bruhn; cf WHITE and AREND, Potash
Production at Carlsbad, Chem. Eng. Progr., 46,523 (1950).
MANUFACTURE FROM 8YLVINITE
261
a saturated solution of the mixed salts in water is cooled from its boiling
point, KCI separates out contaminated with only what N aCI is entrained. The cold mother liquor is heated to 1100. by use of heat exchangers employing exhaust steam, as shown in Fig. 4. The hot mother
liquor is passed through a series of steam-heated turbo-mixer dissolvers
countercurrent to a flow of ore crushed to -4-mesh size, which is moved
FIG. 3. Vacuum evaporator unit at Trona, Calif. Outside heaters are underneath
pan. (Courluy of American PotGIl& ct CMmical Corp.)
from dissolver to dissolver by mechanical elevating equipment. Potassium chloride goes into solution together with a small amount of sodium
chloride. In this step colloidal and semicolloidal clay present in the ore
is suspended in the potash-bearing solution. The enriched mother liquor
passes through thickener equipment where this insoluble mud is settled
out. The underflow mud is washed by countercurrent decantation in a
tray thickener, while the hot clear saturated overflow solution is pumped
262
to vacuum coolers and crystallizers. Tailings from this process, largely

N aCI, after passing through Bird centrifuges where adhering potashbearing brine is removed, are carried out of the plant to waste storage.
Vacuum in the coolers and crystallizers is maintained by means of steam
ejectors. In these vessels the solution is cooled to 27C. and the potassium chloride falls out of solution and, in suspension, is pumped to settling tanks where a large part of the liquor is decanted through launders
to be used again. The thickened crystal mass is filtered, washed, and
--Solids
---- Liquids
---.- Vapors
Dorr self lers
Sylvinite
Water
Steam
Electricity
Direct lobar
2.5
2500
2000
50
1.3
Tons' }
Gals.
Per ton
Lbs.
refined Kef
K.W. Hrs.
Man Hrs.
FIG. 4. Potassium chloride (muriate) from sylvinite with continuous flow dissolving
for hot-solution refining. (Courtesy of u.s. Potash Co.)
dried on Oliver filters. The dried cake is crushed, screened, and conveyed
either to warehouse or to cars.
The United States Potash Company's granular plant for producing
50 per cent KCI used almost entirely by the fertilizer industry operat~s
as follows: Crushed and sized ore suspended in a brine saturated with
both sodium and potassium. chloride is ~arried to a bank of Wilfley tables,
where sodium chloride and potassium chloride are separated by differ?nce in gravity. A product carrying 50 to 51 per gent K 20 is debrined in
drag classifiers and passed through gas-fired rotary driers .from which it
goes to storage and shipping. A middling product is further tabled after
debrining, while the tailing is debrined and carried to a salt storage pile.
The process of the Potash Company of America separates the KCI
from the N aCI chiefly by a metallurgical concentration method using a
soap-flotation process and represents the first adaptation to water-sol.:
uble ores of the flotation principle so long familiar in the concentration
of insoluble ores. "The sylvinite ore, having been coarsely crushed underground, is fed to a Symons cone intermediate crusher, which in turn discharges to a series of fine crushers close-circuited with the screens." The
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE AND CARBONATE
263
ore is then wet-ground by ball mills to 100 mesh. "The mill product, having been ground sufficiently to release the KCI and N aCI, is treated in
two series of flotation cells to float off a N aCI concentrate and depress a
KCI concentrate. The N aCI crystals are washed and separated from the
solution by means of a Dorr thickener and g, Moore filter and sent to
waste while the KCI concentrate, together with KCI crystals recovered
from various circulating solutions, is separated by a classifier into fine
and coarse fractions. Recovery of fines is accomplished by a thickener
and centrifuges."!
The flotation process is used also by the International Minerals and
Chemical Corporation in the refining of sylvinite to produce potassium
chloride. 2 This company also processes potassium sulfate 3 from the mineral langbeinite, K 2SO"2MgS0 4, by reacting with KCI to yield the sulfate and the by-product MgCh. This latter is of particular interest as a
raw material for the production of metallic magnesium, potassium chloride, and sulfate of potash-magnesia.
VARIOUS POTASSIUM SALTS
Potassium Sulfate. Prim' to 1939, the German potash industry was the
chief source of potassium sulfate for American chemical and fertilizer industries, although considerable tonnages were being produced in this
country by the interaction of potassium chloride and suEuric acid as a
side product of salt-cake manufacture. With the terminat.ion of European
imports the production of the salt was undertaken on the larger scale
by the American Potash and Chemical Corporati6n through the interaction of burkeite, N a 2 CO a2N a 2S04, with potassium chloride,4 followed
in turn by the successful recovery of this salt from langbeinite by the
International Minerals and Chemical Corporation as mentioned above.
Recently the Potash Company of America inaugurated a modified Hargr~aves process where potash will be reacted with sulfur dioxide, air, and
steam to yield potassium sulfate. In its agricultural use potassium sulfate is preferred for the tobacco crop of the Southeast and for the citrus
crop of southern California.
Potassium Hydroxide and Carbonate. These two chemicals are very
closely related. Some' years ago most of the potassium hydroxide was
made from potassium; carbonate by reaction with calcium hydroxide.
1 KIRKPA'l'RICK, op. cit'i p. 491; MAGRAW, New Mexico Sylvinite, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
30, 861 (1938).
WREGE and DANEY, Quality by the Ton, Chem. Inds., 65,46 (1949); see ANON.,
Potassium Chloride and,SlIlfate, Chem. Eng., 57 (1), 168 (1950), for pictures and
flow sheet.
,
3 HARLEY and ATWOOD, Langbeinite . . . Mining and Processing, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
.39,43 (1947).
'
ROBERTSON, Expansion of Trona Enterprise, Ind. Eng. Chem., 84, 136 (1942).
264
K 2CO a(aq)
POTASSIUM SALTS AND MIXED FERTILIZERR
+ Ca(OH)2(s) -t 2KOH(aq) + CaCOa(s);

AH
2,080 cal.
But the production of potassium hydroxide by electrolysis of potassium

chloride solutions has led to the production of potassium carbonate from
potassium hydroxide. The abundant supplies of refined potassium chloride now cheaply available, combined with low-cost electrical energy, indicate that this will continue to be the principal method of production
for the future. About 34,000,000 lb. of caustic potash are consumed per
year in the soap, detergent, and dye fields. The carbonate, like the caustic, is used mainly for soaps and chemicals (about 36,000,000 lb. per
year) and is the preferred source of potash in the glass industry (a~~mt
30,000,000 lb. per year).
Potassium Nitrate. This salt is made by the double decomposition reaction of sodium nitrate and potassium chloride.
NaN0 3 (aq)
+ KCI(s) -t NaCI(s) + KN0
3 (aq);
AH
+3,160 cal.
A strong hot solution of the sodium nitrate is made and the solid potassium chloride dumped into the kettle. Upon heating, the KCI changes to
NaCI, whereupon the hot KN0 3 solution is run through the NaCI crystals in the bottom of the kettle. A little water is added to prevent any
further deposition of NaCI, and the solution is cooled. A goo~ yield of
,~ __
potassium nitrate results.
Potassium nitrate is frequently referred.1:2:-~essential in the manufacture 'of slow-burning black powder which is
in' fuses and: in the
ignition of sm.Qk.~less powder. Other uses are in the manufacture of pyrotechnics and glass. 1
Potassium Acid Tartrate. At the present time a domestic tartrate industry is being developed by processing pomace,2 which is the discarded
mass from wine fermentors and contains from 1 to 4 per cent potassium
bitartrate. Still the greater part of the supply is imported crude argols
~rom wine vats. The pure salt is obtained from the argols by leaching and
crystallizing. The main uses are as the acid ingredient of baking powder,
for the preparation of tartaric acid, and in meaicine.
Potassium and Potassium Peroxide. The meta'! potassium is usually
made by fusing potassium chloride with an excess of metallic sodium in
a stainless-stel.ll fu~ion pot. The following reaction takes place:
usea'
Na
+ KCI-t NaCI + K
and is carried out concurrently with distillation separation of the potas-_

sium and sodium with a bottoms,temperature on the still reactor of about
Potash in the Glass Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 30, 891 (1938).
Tartrates from Winery Pomace, Chem. Eng. Progr., 43, 160 (1947);
HALPERIN, Tartrates Recovered from Winpry Wastes, Chem. & Met. Eng., 62 (9), 116
(1945).
1 FINN:
2 METZNER,
MIXED FERTILIZERs
265
1650F. Potassium is distilled <1verhead through a stainless-steel packed
column giving a product of 99 per cent purity.
During the Second WorId War a somewhat similar reaction using sodium and caustic potash was employed but this has been superseded by
the above-mentioned reaction. The larger proportion of the potassium
made is used to produce K0 2 for use in protective breathing equipment.
Here the K0 2 reacts with the expelled breath to liberate oxygen and remove CO 2 and H 2 0 in the so-called "re-breather" gas mask. Some potassium is used to make a eutectic or other alloy of sodium and potassium
which if! liquid at room temperature and is a good heat-transfer medium
because of its unusually high thermal conductivity, stability, and low
vql;ttility at high temperature. Indeed it is employed at temperatures
.above 1200F.. '"
::';;For safe transpbrtation, potassium should be stored in an inert nitro. gen atmosphere i~ sealed cans. In the past, potassium has been stored
under~oil 'but oxygen has been carried through the oil, forming K0 2 The
latter is such a strong oxidant that explosions with hydrocarbons have
resulted.
MIXED FERTILIZERS
When a balan~ejs struck showing the removal of plant food from our
soils by' the crops we eat or wear or employ as a raw material in our
factories, the paramount importance of fertilizers becomes strikingly
clear. In fertilizers, we add 'back to the soil either the materials removed
by plants or those chemicals needed in native soils t6 make them either
productive at all or more productive. The food and clothlng of the nations at our present rate of production are dependent largely on the use
of fertilizers. Tables 2 and 3, pertaining to potash, illustrate balance and
wit~drawals from our soils. Table 3, Chap. 20, presents the nitrogen balance for the United States and shows the heavy annual loss.
Man early discovered that the excreta of animal life are the food for
plant life. Indeed, the, Chinese have maintained the fertility of their soil
for 5,000 years by the application of this principle. Even in the superaesthetic civilization of the United States we recognize the need and apply animal manure on a large scale to maintain a better plant yield from
our soils.
~
In fertilizers l there are three main chemicals and many minor ones that
are needed by our cr~ps. The three principal ones are nitrogen, N, phosphoric acid, P 20 5, an.d potash, K 20. We generally speak of fertilizers as
having formulas, such as 3-12-12, 2-12-6, or 5-10-5, which mean that
these fertilizers have: 3,12,12, or 2,12,6, or 5,10,5 per cent, respectively,
of total nitrogen, N,;of available phosphate, P 20 5, and of soluble potash,
1 ANON.,
Mixed Fertilizer, Chern. Eng., 1i4 (7), 132 (1947), pictured flow sheet.
266
K 20. Note, for a memory jog, that these constituents are in alphabetical
order. Another way of evaluating these fertilizer formulas is as "units."
Here one unit is 1 per cent of a ton or 20 lb. Hence the first of the formulas given above would contain 3 units of nitrogen, 12 units of P206J
TABLE 2. BALANCE SHEET OF POTASH FROM THE SOILS OF THE UNITED STATES, H130"
Losses:
Acreage
By
By
By
By
367,554,485
464,154,524
367,554,486
352,380,258
harvested crops ...................... " .....

grazing .....................................
erosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
leaching ......................... : ..........
3,824,149
11,355,534
34, 990, 58!J
9,960,000)
60,130,272
Additions:
Fertilizers ............................ '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
359,464
Manures ....................................................... 3,331,523
Rainfall (dust). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,835,280
Irrigation ........................ , . " ...................... : . '.'f 592,531
Seeds ............................................................ :
62,492
6,181,290
a FREAR, D. E. H., editor, "Agricultural Chemistry," Vol. II, pp. '215,218, D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1951. On p. 218 it is noted that the additions
for 1948 would probably be about the sain~ except that the figure for potash in fertilizers would be around 900,000 tons of K,O. Table 1 shows that in 1952 the fertilizer
industry would consume over 1.5 million tons of K,O.
TABLE '3. POTASH REMOVED PER ACRE BY VARIOUS CR<;ll'Sa

i
Cr.op
. I
Yield per acre
Potash removed,
lb. K,O
Alfalfa ...............
Clover hay ...........
COrn .................
COtton ...............
Oats .................
Potatoes .............
Rye .................
SOybeans .............
Sugar beets ...........
Tobacco ..............
Wheat ...............
4 tons
2 tons
75 bu. (plus stalks)
600 lb. lint (entire plant)
50 bu. (plus straw)
300 bu.
35 bu. (grain)
25 bu. (beans)
10 tons
1,900 lb. leaves (plus stalks)
30 bu. grain (plus straw)
178.4
65.2
82.8
59.6
40.8
95.0
40.0
86.0'
fj4.0
78.0
25.2
.. LODGE, Potash in the Fertilizer Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 30, 878 (1938).
and 12 units of K 2 0. These formulas are listed in the order of magnitudeof their sales in 1951, the 3-12-12 being the largest sold. In addition,
many of the c~mmercial fertilizers contain the minor chemicals needed
by plants. Table 4 gives a summary of the important chemicals that are
commercially used to supply these three fertilizing radicals.
267
MIXED FERTILIZERS
Not all chemicals or other constituents of fertilizers are available to all

plants with equal facility because so much depends upon the nature of
the chemical used, upon the other materials in the soil, and in particular
on the soil pH or its chemical reaction as well as upon the crop itself.
From this it can be seen that not only must the mixing but also the
application of the fertilizers be carried out properly. Fortunately the
farmers of the nation have at their call the various county agents of the
Department of Agriculture who act in cooperation with various experimental stations aI\d can select and supply that fertilizer which will give
the best results for the dollar expended.
TABLE 4. THE MORE IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS CONSUMED IN
UNITED STATES, 1950
(In thousands of short tons)
Commodity
Quantity
Commodity
THE
Quantity
Mixtures:
N-P-K (Complete) .......... . 11,198
N-P ............~ .... p . ,
178
P-K ........................ .
831
N-K ....................... .
K ......... : ...............
Chemical nitrogen materials:
Ammonia, anhydrous ........
Ammonia, ./tqua .............
Ammonium nitrate ..........
Ammonium sullate ..........
Calcium cyanamide ...........
Calcium nitrate ... '.' ........
Sodi1,lm nitrate .. '.' ...........
Urea .......................
Organics:
Manures, dried .......... '...
Sewage sludge ..............
, Castor pomace ............
Cottonseed meal. .........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Phosphates:
Ammonium phosphate ........ .
143
Basic slag ................... .
287
74
Bone meal. ................. .
12
Calcium metaphosphate ...... .
28
10
Ca-Mg-phosphate, fused ...... .
5
86
Fused tri-Ca phosphate ....... .
16
11
Phosphoric acid .............. .
7
578
Phosphate rock, ground ....... .
729
235
Colloidal phosphate .......... .
21
82
Superphosphate, normal. ..... . 1,857
22
Superphosphate, cone ........ .
265
627 Potash:-18
Manure salts, 22-30 per cent .. .
19
Muriates, 50-60 per cent ..... .
109
165
Potassium sulfate ............ .
14
90
10
13
SCHOLL and WALLACE, Commercial Fertilizers, Agr. Chemicals, VI (6), 31 (1951).

The total consumption of fertilizers for this period, including minor and secondary
elements, was 18,354,636; tons.
As many of the constituents necessary for fertilizers must be shipped

a considerable distaJce, the trend in recent years has been to use the
more concentrated ferlilizers. In a 3-12-12 mixture there is a total of only
27 per cent of active fertilizer constituents. The other 73 per cent consists of filler, carrier; or soil-conditioning materials. The day will come
everywhere, as the day has come in many places, when much more concentrated fertilizers ~re economically available to the farmers. If necessary, the diluting materials can be added from the farmers' own back
yards to prevent a too strong or a burning action on the delicate young
268
plants. Examples of concentrated fertilizer chemicals are ammonia, am

monium nitrate, potassium metaphosphate, ammonium phosphate, and
potassium nitrate.
Minor constituents that research has shown to be necessary for plant
life are sodium, calcium, and magnesium compounds in small amounts
accompanied by much smaller quantities of boron, iron, sulfur, manganese, zinc, and copper compounds. Some of these derivatives, such as
boron, are disadvantageous if their presence is larger than a certain minimum. Everyone knows that water and carbon dioxide are consumed by
the plants in enormous amount and that humus is helpful to better the
general soil condition.
The modern fertilizer chemist in cooperation with the soil scientist
actually feeds the plants and overcomes much of the necessity of l~tting
the fields regenerate their fertility by lying fallow every third season as
was the custom from ancient times. To be sure, the modern soil scientist
also utilizes certain crops to replenish some elements'qf soil fertility, as is
done so extensively to supply nitrogen by the, -use of legumes such as
clover and alfalfa.
Nitrogen Fertilizing Constituents. Chapter 20 presents the source and
methods of manufacture of various nitrogen compounds which are used
both in industry and fertilizers. Table 4 indicates that nitrogen is employed in the form of ammonia, ammonium salts, nitrates, and organic
nitrogenous materials. Nitrogen compounds stimulate the vegetative
growth in plant~, through nitrogen-containing proteins and chlorophyll.
Plants ,lacking nitrogen have yellow leaves. Too much nitrogen causes
rank growth and'de"tays maturity.
Phosphate Fertilizing Constituents. Throughout the world there exist
very large deposits of apatite or phosphate rock. This has the formula,
3Ca3(P0 4)2-CaF 2 ,-from which it can be seen ~hat this compound is really
calcium fluorphosphate. If simply placed on the soil after being very
finely ground, it becomes gradually available. As' Table 4 shows, over
729,000 tons are consumed yearly. If, however, this phosphate rock is
decomposed by the action of sulfuric acid, superphosphate results in
w~ich 18 to 20 per cent of ,P 20. is immediately available. Superphosphate manufa,cture is described in Chap. 18. To'save some cost in tranS>porting and to secure a more concentrated fertilizer, the phosphate rock
is decomposed with phosphoric acid, yielding a stronger fertilizer known
as triple superphosphate, which contains 48 per cent P 20 . Bone meal,
made by grinding old or fresh bones, is also an important source of this
fertilizing constituent. Indeed, it is known that many years after the herds of buffaloes were slaughtered for their hides, their whitened bones
were collected from the plains of the West for their fertilizer value. The
function of phosphorus in plants is really complex, the phosphates stimulating plant growth, causing resistance to disease, producing more vigor-
POTASH FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS
269
ous seedlings, and hastening crop maturing. Phosphorus like nitrogen is

a part of protoplasm that is essential to life.
Potash Fertilizing Constituents. For three quarters of a century, the
rich deposits of Germany satisfied the potash demands of the world.
However, the uncertain supplies in wartime forced the United States
and other nations to develop their own potash resources to ensure the
productivity of their soils. Potassium chloride or muriate of potash,
either as an almost pure salt or in the form of impure manure salt, is
widely used in fertilizer mixes. On certain crops, as, for instance, tobacco,
the chloride ion in high concentration is disadvantageous; consequently
potassium sulfate or potassium nitrate, when available, is preferred.
When fields lie fallow, and even in the process of ordinary weathering,
potassium minerals such as feldspar gradually d~compose, liberating from
year to year consiqerable amounts of p()tash to the plants. Some of the
potash absorbed by the plant remaip.s in the vegetative parts which are
not normally sold off the farm. Potassium is an essential element in all
growing plants and in particular in all crops; it is necessary in all cell
metabolic processes..Lodge l summarizes the effect of potash on plants
by writing,
(a) It facilitates either the production or the translocation of sugars and
starches from the leaf, hence its value for sugar- and starch-making crops; (b) it
stiffens the straw of cereal crops and the grass tribe generally; and (c) it enables
the plant tAj withstand adverse conditions of soil, climate, and disease, making it
more resistant to drought, rust, and other diseases. By balancing the plant food
ration, potash tends to counteract rankness of growth developed by abundant
nitrogen.
/
While this chapter has considered the different types of fertilizers, the
use of chemicals in agriculture has broadened in recent years. Indeed,
i Ilsecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are considered together under the
broad title of pesticides in Chap. 26. Antibiotics for the agricultural field
are presented in Chap. 31. The last division of agricultural chemicals may
be classified under soil conditioning, of which Krilium of Monsanto Chemical Company has received the most publicity. It is a polyacrylonitrile
product that makes a ~ore desirable soil structure for improving the
growing of plants.
lI
_
Potash in the Fjrtilizer Industry, Ind. Eng. Chern., SO, 878 (1938); TROUG
Fate of Soluble iPotash Applied to Soils, Ind. En(J. Chem., SO, 882 (1938);
Hm'FER, Potash in Plant Metabolism, Ind. Eng. Chern., SO, 885 (1938); also Sympo~ium-Potash in Agriculture, Soil Sci., 65, 87jJ. (1943).
1
LODGE,
and
JONES,
L
I
270
PO'l'ASSIUM SALTS AND MIXED FERTILIZERS
SELECTED REFERENCES
Teeple, J. E., "Industrial Development of Searles Lake Brine," Reinhold Publishing
Turrentine, J. W., chairman, Symposium on Potash, Ind. Eng. Chern., 30, 853-896
(1938). This symposium embraced 12 papers on the actual accomplishments in
the United States in this field.
- - - , "Potash; A Review, Estimate and Forecast," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1926.
- - - , "Potash in North America," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1943.
Cowie, G. A., "Potash," Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1951.
Waggaman, W. H., "Phosphoric Acid, Phosphate, and Phosphatic Fertilizers," 2d
ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1952.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., publishers of various farmers'
bulletins and circulars pertaining to fertilizers. Lists are available on request.
Collings, G. H., "Commercial Fertilizers," 4th ed., Blakiston Division, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947.
Sanchilli, V., "Manual on Fertilizer Manufacture," Davison Chemical Company,
Baltimore, 1947.
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," Vol. 6,
pp. 376--452, The In.terscience En.cycl{)pedia, Inc., New York, 1951.
CHAPTER
14
There are a considerable number of sodium salts that are of definite

industrial necessity. Most of these are derived directly or indirectly from
ordinary salt so far as their sodium content is concerned. In one sense,
the sodium may be viewed simply as a carrier for the more active anion
to which the compound. owes its indust~ial importance. For instance, in
sodium sulfide it is the sulfide part that is the more active. Similarly this
is the case with sodium thiosulfate and sodium silicate. We could use in
most cases the corresponding potassium salts which in past years were
consumed more extensively. The present situation is that sodium salts
can he manufactured more cheaply and in sufficient purity to meet the
industrial demands. Therefore, industry has turned, in the last few decades, to a greater utilization of the various sodium salts. Sodium salts
are described elsewhere as follows: Sodium chlorate and perchlorate in
Chap. 16; sodium hypochlorite in Chap. 15, which includes the various
sodium alkali compounds; the sodium phosphates ~re in Chap. 18; sodium nitrate in Chap. 20; and sodium bichromate and sodium borate in
Chap. 21.
SODIUM CHLORIDE OR COMMON SALT
Historical. Salt has long been an essential part of the human diet. It
has served as an object of worship and as a medium of exchange, lumps
of salt being used in 1;ibet. and Mongolia for money. Its distribution has
been employed as a political weapon by ancient governments and even
today in Oriental countries high taxes are placed on salt.
Uses and Economicll. S.odium chloride is the basic raw material of a
great many chemical qompounds such as sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium sulfatfl, hydrochloric acid, sodium phosphates, and sodium chlorate and chlorite. l It should be remembered also that it is the
source of many other ,compounds through its derivatives. Practically all
chlorine comes from the electrolysis of sodium chloride. It is important
in the zeolite process of water softening, and it has many uses in the field
of organic chemistry such as the salting out of soap and the precipitation
1 LOOKER,
Salt as a Chemical Raw
~aterial,
271
Chem. 1nds., 49, 594, 790 (1941).
272
SAT,T AND MISCEI,LANEOUS SODIUM COMPOUNDS
of dyes. It is employed to preserve fish, meat, and hides both directly

and indirectly through the medium of refrigeration. The dairying and
pickling industries also consume large quantities of sodium chloride. Probably the most important use of sodium chloride is as an essential part of
everyone's diet. Large quantities of the purest of sodium chloride are
sold as table salt. The latter may have a small amount of iodide added
in certain sections of the country.
The total salt output in the United States in 1952, including evaporated salt brine and rock salt, amounted to 19,544,492 tons valued
at $70,992,925.
TABLE 1. THE UNITED STATES PRODUCTION (TONS) OF SODIUM SALTS
IN 1947 AND 1952'
Sodium chloride ............................... .

Sodium sulfa,te (anhydrous) ..................... .
Sodium sulfate (crude Na,SO.) .................. .
Glauber's salt (Na.SO.lOH.O) .................. .
Sodium .bisulfate (niter cake) ................... .
Sodium sulfite ................................ .
Sodium hyd~osulfide (NaSH) ................... .
Sodium hydrosulfite (Na,S,O.) .................. .
Sodium sulfide (60-62 per cent) ................. .
'Sod~um ~t~~osulfate .............. 'c' ............ .
SodIUm sIlICates, water glass. . . . . ., . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sodium silicates, meta (Na 2SiO.5H,O) ........... .
Sodium silicates, ortho (Na,SiO.) ................ .
1947
1952
16,138,374
19,544,952
202,813
662,373
177,929
38,275
43,483
19,680
24,574
24,016
36,081
519,039
117,631i
27,753
693,373
202,285
41,663
36,364
20,910
39,245
34,809
492,837
76,035
35,566
"Minerals Yearbook," 1952. Statistics that have been publishpci for 1953, show
somewhat more than 10 per cent increase for these items.
Manufacture. Salt occurs throughout the United States and is obtained in three different ways. One of these ihethods is by solar evaporation of sea water or salt lake -water, or by evaporation and crystallization from brines pu'~p~d from wells: The second method is the mining of
rock salt while the third involves the direct consumption of the salt brine. _
! Over 1,000,000 tons are produced annually by solar evaporation, a large
portion of which comes from the San Francisco Bay regIon and the Great
Salt Lake of Utah. 1 The purity of ,salt first obtained from the evaporation
of salt water is usually about 95 per cent; salt that is' mined varies very
widely in composition depending on the locality in which it is found.
Some rock salt, however, runs as high as 99.5 per cent pure sodium chloride. The siolution obtained fJ,"om wells is usually only about 98 per cent
pure;
For many purposes the salt obtained from the mines and by direct
1
SCHRIER, Passing the Salt, Chem. Eng.,
sa (10),
138 (1952).
MANUFACTURE
273
evaporation of salt solutions is pure enough for use; however, 'a large
portion must be purified. If the evaporated salt from brines is to be
treated, the solid may be dried in a kiln at 300F. and the principal impurity, Glauber's salt, dehydrated and blown up by the air blast in the
drier.' The only other treatment given this salt is crushing and screening. A purity of 99.8 per cent is easily obtained. Artificial brine, though
used directly in many processes, is frequently evaporated mostly by the'
Grainer Sysh:m
C/rcu/Cllinq
,brine---".~___....::=e._-._ _ _ _ _ _--,Q.!L=[!u=~
-key ~- .. - sieom.- 01her process lines; 5,10 sewer; S. eond.10 bOiler; X. e"hau.st $te~m.
FIG, 1. Salt from brine.
vacuum pan procedure, under controlled conditions to furnish a very

pure product (see Fig. 1).2 The treatment of the rock salt that is mined
depends upon the purity of the salt, but in many cases it is sufficiently
high grade for direct use.
The, caking of salt crys~als is very troublesome and can be minimized
as pointed out by Perry 3 ~f tne following conditions are maintained:
1. Highest possible criticai humidity is increased in case oTsalt by the removal
such impurities as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, or free acid, all of
which have a lower critical humidity than pure sodium chloride.
I BRIGHTON and Die,", IncJeasing the Purity of Common Salt, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
23,336 (1931); SIMMONS, Something New in Saltmaking, Chern. Eng., 57 (11), 156
o~
(1950).
.
2 For a detailed description ~f the purification and manufacture of salt, spe BADGER
and BAKER, "Inorganic Chemic'tl Technology," 2d ed., Chap. 2, !\1cGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1941; PERRY, op. cit., pp. 922-923; LEE, How Morton
Salt Refines Salt, Chern. Eng., 58 (1), 102 (1951).
3 Op. cit., pp. 1070-1071, critical humidity defined.
274
2. Most uniform graining which brings about the greatest percentage of

voids for the size of crystals desired and the least points of contact.
3. Coating with a powder capable of absorbing some moisture. For salt, magnesia or tricalcium phosphate is employed.
SODIUM SULFATE (Salt Cake and Glauber's Salt)
The important method of obtaining salt cake or crude sodium sulfate

is through the action of sulfuric acid on salt to obtain hydrochloric acid.
Another important source is the recovery of natural sodium sulfate as a
by-product in mining natural mineral deposits. A prime example is the
Trona operations (Chap. 13) which accounts for over half of the total
natural output. A considerable tonnage of salt cake is imported, principally from Canada. When the crude salt cake is purified and cryst~l
lized, Glauber's salt (Na 2SOdOH 20) results. The world's largest known
deposits of natural sodium sulfate are located in Saskatchewan, 1 Canada,
although both anhydrous sodium sulfate and Glauber's salt occur naturally in this country.
Uses' and' Economics. About three-fourths of the sodium sulfate consumed in thi~1 country is, for the: manufacture of kraft pulp. The second
largest current consumption is as a diluent in powdered synthetic detergents which u~ually contain from 50 to 75 per cent by weight of sodium
sulfate. Other important uses are in the manufacture of sodium sulfide,
glass, Glauber's salt, sodium silicate, sodium hyposulfite, nickel smelting, barium sulfate, sodium aluminum sulfate, hog and cattle powders,
and in dyeing. Besides the manufactured salt cake about 100,000 tons
are recovered yearly from spent viscose rayon spin-bath liquor. Production statistics are given in Table 1.
Manufacture of Salt Cake. The equations for the production ot salt
cake from sulfuric acid and salt are 2
NaCI + H2S04.~ NaHS0 4 + HCI

NaHS0 4 + NaCI ~ Na 2S04 + HCI
The equipment and the procedure for commercializing these reactions
are described under Hydrochloric Acid in Chap. 21.-When the temperature has reached the proper level in the furnace, the finely ground salt
and other raw material are charged. The furnace runs continuously,
batch after batch, until shut down for the necessary' periodical cleaning
and repair. Most products from the Mannheim furnace go into the manufacture of' other materials in' the same plant where this type of furnace is
operated.
1 HOI,LAND, More Saskatchewan Salt Cake, Chern. Eng., 55 (12), 121 (1948).
LAURY, "Hydrochloric Acid and Sodium Sulfate," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1927.
MANUFACTURE OF GLAUBER'S SALT
275
Another method of making sodium sulfate, which originated in Europe,

is the Hargreaves process. The equation for the reaction is as follows:
This is carried out by passing sulfur dioxide and air from a furnace over
prepared salt lumps in vertical steel chambers with false bottoms. Several of these chambers are run in series, and the gas is moved countercurrently. The complete cycle for the reaction, cleaning, and repacking
is three days for each individual chamber. Very good cake and hydrochloric apici are made. in this process, but the fact that it requires a large
amount 0. hand labor has prohibited its wide use in this country. The
Bay Chemical Co. of Weeks Island, La., is the only American Hargreaves
plant.
Becaus~"'of the increased d.~mand for sodium sulfate in the kraft-paper
manufacture, "synth~tic sait cake" has resulted. "Synthetic salt cake"
is a silltered mixture of soda ash and sulfur in the proportions of 3 parts
I:lH = -1950 B.t.u. per lb.!
of sulfur to 10 of soda ash. This product! is not satisfactory as a substitute for sodium sulfate in applications other than the kraft-paper
industry.
Manufacture of Glauber's Salt. Glauber's sa1.t is made by dissolving
salt cak~oin mother liquor, removing the impurities, clarifying, and crystallizing. The salt cake is dissolved in large, circular, lead-lined wooden
tanks. The solution is then treated with a paste of chloride of lime followed by milk of lime in sufficient quantities to neutralize the solution.
Stirring is carried out by a paddle and heating by a lead pipe running to
the bottom. The precipitated impurities of iron, magnesium, and calcium
are allowed to settle, and the clear solution is run to crystallizers by side
outlets. The precipitated mud is washed with water and the water is
used as make-up for the, process. Crystallization is carried out in pans
lined with lead. When tile solution cools to room temperature, the pan
is drained and the crysta:ls are collected and centrifuged.
Pure anhydrous sodiuk sulfate is also sold in the market. It is made
by dehydrating Glauber'~ salt in a brick-lined rotary furnace, by crystallizing out from a hot con'centrated solution, or by chilling and dehydrating. 2 Figure 2 shows th~ steps in the productioI_l of anhydrous sodium
I SAVELL, The Application of Synthetic Salt Cake, Paper Trade J., 111 (8), 31
(1940); New Ideas on the Use of Salt Cake in Kraft Pulp Process, Paper Trade J.,
109 (24), 18 (1939).
I
'
2 DOUGLASS and ANDERSON, Submerged Combustion as Applied to Sodium Sulfate
Productions, Chern. & Mel. Eng., 48 (5), 135 (1941); HOLLAND, New Type Evaporator,
Chern. Eng., 68 (1), 106 (1951).
276
sulfate from naturally occurring Glauber's salt. Because of the expanding kraft-paper industry, the development of sodium sulfate from these
natural sources has been greatly stimulated.
Note' 71 per Cl'nf offhe
dehydration is occam
Glaubers Salt
(Lake Crystal.
p/ished in the drum dryers, while 29 per cent is

done in the direct-heat
.see note*
fortypica:
composition)
dryers.
*Oata are those for a 100ke crysfal containing 52% water and
48% solids of whicfl42-43 %
;~:aaru~?: and 4-6 % is wafer
Bc.sed on "dicle by J. B. Pierce. Chern.

Lake crystal >I:
..
Co,,1 (6.800 B.t.u. "9n1le)
Steam (nol dupl. of coal)
Toiol power (incl. mining)
$ Met.. Dec. 1937, P"iI8
5.000 lb.
} Per ton anhyd.
I
415 lb.
Sodium sulphale(95+%)
3.650 lb.
produced
3711 kw~hr.
.
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for naturally occurring sodium sulfa te by the three-stage procedure .
.\
SODIUM BISULFATE OR NITER CAKE
Sodium hisulfate, NaHS0 4 , is commonly called niter cake hecause it

was ohtained by the now almost obsolete reaction of sodium nitrate or
"niter" with sulfuric acid.
The acid sodium sulfate may be manufactured from salt and sulfuric
acid. This compound is used as a mild acid ingredient in dye baths, -in
the cleaning of sanitary porcelain objects, and asa cleaner in automobile
radiators. It is also employed as a flux_in metallurgical industries.
SODIUM BISULFITE
Uses and Economics. Sodium bisulfite finds industria:! employment

either in solution or as a solid. The solid is of the anhydrous form and
has the formula N aHS0 3 for the pure reagent. The commercial product
usually consists almost entirely of NaZSZ06 known as sodium pyrosulfite,
or sodium metabisulfite, which is the dehydrated derivative of two molecules of sodium bisulfite. The solutions may be easily shipped, stored,
and handled in lead-lined equipment. In the tanning industry this acid
salt is used as a reducing agent for chrome solutions; in the textile field
it is a bleaching agent, an antichlor, and a raw material for the manufac-
277
MANUFACTURE
ture of hydrosulfite solutions. It is also consumed in the paper, photographic, and organic chemical industries.
Manufacture. Sodium bisulfite is produced by passing sulfur dioxide
through mother liquors from previous processes containing in solution
small amounts of sodium bisulfite and in suspension a considerable
amount of soda ash. The reaction takIng place is
2NaHSO a + 2Na 2CO a + 2H 20
+ 480
6NaHSO a + 2C0 2
The product is obtained as a suspension which is removed from the solution by centrifuging. The dried product is really the sodium met.abisulfite, Na 28 2 0 6
SODIUM SULFITE
Uses and Economics. Sodium sulfite is a compound that is very easily

oxidized. For this reason it is employed in many cases where a gentle reducing agent IS desired. It is employed to bleach wool and silk, as an
antichlor after the bleaching of yarns, textiles, and paper, as a preservative for foodstuffs, and to prevent raw sugar solutions from coloring upon
evaporation. It is very widely used in the preparation of photographic
developers as a preventive of the oxidation of hydro quinone and other
agents. It has a small application in the field of medicine as an antiseptic
and as an antizymotic for internal use. The reason for the increase in the
use of sodium sulfite is the recent discovery that its addition to boiler
feed water will remove oxygen from the water and thus help prevent corrosion and scale formation. Any excess of this salt is sOld to the sulfate
pulp mills.
Manufacture. The most important commercial procedure for this compound is by passing sulfur dioxide into a solution of soda ash until the
product has an acid reaction. At this point the solution consists chiefly
of sodium bisulfite. This may be converted into sodium sulfite by adding
more soda ash to the solution and boiling until all the carbon dioxide is
evolved. The reaction is .carried out in large lead-lined wooden vessels.
After the solution has settled, it is concentrated, whereupon crystals of
Na 280 a7H 20 settle out upon cooling.
Another commercial so~rce of this compound in the- crude anhydrous
form is from the preparation of phenol by the fusion of sodium benzene
sulfonate with sodium hy~roxide.'
SOaNa
ONa
+ 2~aOH ~
+ Na,sO, + H,O
1 GROGGINS, "Unit Processes :in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., p. 691, McGraw-Hill
278
SODIUM HYDROSULFITE'
One of the most important chemicals in the dyeiT\g and printing industries is sodium hydrosulfite. It is a very powerful reducing agent with
a specific action on many dyes, particularly the "vat dyes," reducing
them to the soluble form. This reducing agent is employed for stripping
certain dyes from fabrics and for bleaching straws and soaps. Form,.erly
one of the main difficulties with this compound was the lack of stability;
however, this has been corrected and it may be. shipped, and, stored. Another name for this substance is sodium hyposulfite, though the dye-house
workers call it simply hydro .
Manufacture. There are two methods ... ormanufacture both of which
require zinc dust. In the first process the .zinc dust is allo~kd to reduce
sodium bisulfite at room temperature:~
2NaHSOa + H 2SO a + Zn -+ ZnSOa
/rr
+ Na2S204 -f 2H 20
The products of the reaction are treated with milk of lime to neutralize
any free acid and hence to reduce the solubility of the ZnSOa which is
filtered off. Sodium chloride is added to salt out the Na2S2042H20. This
is dehydrated with alcohol-and dried. The crystals are stable only in the
dry state.
The second process consists of treating an aqmfous suspension of zinc
dust in fQrmaldehyde with sulfur, dioxide at 80C. A double decomposition reaction is carried out with soda ash forming the sodium salt. A pure
product is obtained by evaporation in vacuum.
SODIUM SULFIDE
Uses and Economics. Sodium sulfide, Na 2S, is an inorganic chemical

that has attained a very important position in the organic chemic~l industry. It is consumed as a reducing agent in the manufacture of amino
compounds, and it enters into the preparation of many dyes. It is also .employed extensively in the leather industry as a depilatory, i.e., for the
removal of hair from hIdes. Sodium polysulfide is one of the necessary
reactants for making Thiokol synthetic rubber. Other industries where
its use is important are the rayon, metallurgical, photographic, and engraving fields. The production of sodium sulfide is given in Table 1.
Manufacture. This chemical may be obtained as 30 per cent crystals
or as 62 per cent flakes. Here the percentage refers to Na 2S. Solutions
of it may' be shipped in steel very conveniently. One disadvantageous
1 This compound is named 80dium hypo8Ulfite by Chemical Ab8tract8. In commerCe
it is also called 80dium 8ulfoxylate.
2 RANSHAW, Hydrosulfites and Their Derivatives, Chern. Age, 41, 359 (1939);
PRATT, Sodium Hydrosulfite as a Dry Powder, Chem. & Met. Eng., 31, 11 (1924).
279
SODIUM THIOSULFATE
property of sodium sulfide is its deliquescence. It crystallizes with nine

molecules of water, Na 2S9H 20.
There are three methods of producing this chemical. The oldest and
the most used is the reduction of sodium sulfate with powdered coal in
a reverberatory furnace. Another similar process is the reduction of barite
in the same manner, lea'ilhing, and double decomposition with soda ash.
The third and ne~est method"of production involves the saturation of a
caustic soda solutio~ with hydrdgen sulfide and the addition of another
equal portion of sodium hydroxide. For the reactions involving the reduction of salt cake
Na 2SO. +. 40 - Na:2S
Na 2SO. + 4CO - Na 2S
+ 4CO
+ 4C0
very drastic conditions are needed. Since the reaction must be carried
out above 850C., there has been a great deal of work undertaken to improve not only the"medium in which the reaction is carried out but also
the conditions for the reaction so that lower temperatures may be used.!
Specially designed sm~ll reverberatory furnaces seem to give the least
difficulty because they avoid oV!lrh~ating the charge. The .reaction takes
place in a liquid phase and is very, rapid. Rotary kilns of the type used
for calcining limestone have been applied with some success to this
reaction. The reduction of barium sulfate takes place very similarly.
N ewer plants are using nickel or nickel-clad equipment to reduce iron
contamination.
The substance issuing from the furnace is known as black ash. This
product is run into iron tanks and allowed to cool. It may be used in
this crude form but it contains many impurities. This crude sulfide may
be dissolved hot; after settling, it may be run into shallow crystallizing
tanks where colorless crystals of Na 2S9H 20 separate out. A more concentrated sulfide may be obtained by evaporating the liquor at 160C.
for 4 to 6 hr. in a cast-iron pot. The molten hot sulfide is then pumped
into ordinary caustic soda .steel drums for shipping.
SODIUM THIOSULFATE
Sodium thiosulfate crYstallizes in large, transparent, extremely soluble

prisms with five molecules of water. It is used as a Inild reducing agent
like sodium sulfite. It i~ employed as an antichlor following the bleaching
of ceilulose products and as a source of sulfur dioxide in the bleaching of
wool, oil, and ivory. In: photography it is used to dissolve unaltered silver
halogen compounds fr~m.negatives or prints where it is commonly called
1 WHITE and WroTE, Manufacture of Sodium Sulfide, Ind. Eng. Chern., 28, 244
(1936); cf. NYMAN and O'BRIEN, Catalytic Reduction of Sodium Sulfate, Ind. Eng.
Chern., 39, 1019 (1947).
280
hypo. It is a preservative against fermentation in dyeing industries and

serves in the preparation of mordants. Other minor uses of sodium thiosulfate are in the reduction of indigo, in the preparation of cinnabar, in
the preparation of silvering solutions, and in medicine.
Manufacture. There are several methods for the production of sodium
thiosulfate, the most important of which is from sodium sulfite and free
sulfur.
The reaction of the sulfur with a concentrated solution ofs.odium sulfite

is carried out in a ceramic-lined iron pot provided with agitation. The
resulting liquor is concentrated and crystallized. The crystals formed,
Na2S 20a'5H 20, should be packed immediately In. airtight containers to
prevent efflorescence.
. A second method of preparation is from sodium sulfide. Sulfur dioxide
..: is passed into a solution of sodium sulfide and sodium carbonate of low
concentration (not more than 10 per cent of each).
Na 2CO a + 2Na2S
+ 4S0 2 ~ 3Na2S20a + CO 2
The sodium thiosulfate is obtained by evaporation and crystallization.

\
I
SODIUM NITRITE
From the ;;tlndpoint of the dye indu;;try, sodium nitrite is a very important chemi~al. Here it is employed for the diazotization of amines for
making azo dyes. It does not hiwe a great many other uses. Formerly, it
was prepared by the reaction,
NaNO a +
Pb~
NaN0 2
+ PbO
Sodium nitrite is now manufactured by pas::;illg the oxidation product of

ammonia into soda ash solution.
'
Na2CO a + 2NO
+ H02~ 2NaN0 2 + CO2
Any sodium nitrate also formed may be separated by cry::;tallization.

Lead-lined equipment is satisfactory.
SODIUM SILICATES
Uses and Economics. Sodium silicates are unique in that the ratio of
their constituent parts, Na 20 and Si0 2, may be varied to obtain the de-,
sired properti~s. At the present time there are over forty varieties of commercial sodium silicates, each with a specific use. Silicates that have a
ratio fr~m INa20/1.6Si02 up to INa 20/4Si0 2 are called colloidal silicates. Sodium metasilicate has a ratio of 1 mole of sodium oxide to 1 mole
281
MANUFACTUHF.
of silica, Na2SiCh, A compound with a higher content of sodium oxide

with IH moles of Na 20 to 1 mole of Si0 2 is called sesquisi/icaie. Another
compound still higher in sodium oxide content is sodium orthosilicate,
Na 4Si0 4 , which contains 2 moles of Na 20 to 1 mole of Si0 2
About 400,000 tons yearly of the lower colloidal silicates (water glass)
are sold as 32 to 47 per cent solutions for use as adhesives for many kinds
of materials, especially paperboard for cor~ugated containers. These solutions are also consumed alone or In mixture with many other materials
as adhesives for plywoods, wallboard, flooring, and metal foils.' Besides
a large number of other us.es, silicates are important for detergency, metal
cleaning, fireproofing, and sizing. The sodium metasilicate exists in the
hydrated form and is sold as a solid. It is more alkaline than soda ash
and is used in metal cleaning and as a strongly alkaline detergent. Sodium sesquisilicate, N a 4Si0 4 Na 2Si0 3 11 H 2 0, and sodium orthosilicate,
Na4Si04, are employed in the same fields as the metasilicates but where
a more strongly alkaline product is needed.
SoGiium cQrbonate (densp.,56"lo)

Sand
Go. (1,000 B.t. u,)
312 lb.
586 lb.
5.000cu ft
Woter
Ste"m
gl~;~tir~tYor
160 9 ' ' 1 . }

,
1.040 lb.
Per ton4Oose
~~QJ;:;:;~~~hr.
water glass
FIG. 3. Flow slw!'\. for manufacture of sodium silicate.

/
Manufacture. These silicates are made by fusing sodium carbonate and

silica (sand) in a furnace resembling that for the manufacture of glass as
shown in Fig. 3. The reaction takes place around 1300C. as follows: 2
The most common commercial silicates occur when n equals 2.0 and 3.2.
The intermediate compositions are obtained by mixing, and the more
alkaline ratios by adding caustic soda or by initially fusing the sand with
caustic soda.
I
The product upon cooling forms a clear light bluish-green glass. This
color is due to impurities Qf less than 1 per cent, usually iron. If the
material is sold as a ~olution, the product is ground and dissolved in
water or by steam under pressure when the ratio of silica to alkali is
above 2. This procedure is shown in Fig. 3, but where the liquids are
1 MERRICL, Industrial Applications of the Sodium Silicates, Ind. Eng. Chern., 41,
337 (1949); WILLS and SAMS, Industrial Adhesives, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41, 81 (1949);
VAIL, "Soluble Silicates," 2d ed., 2 vols., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1952.
MERRILL, Chemistry of the sOluble Silicates, J. Chern. Educ., 24, 262 (1947).
282
made directly, the melt flows from the furnace and without chilling passes
into an open rotary dissolver where it is hydrated in steam and water not
under pressure. The resulting solution from either method is usually sold
as concentrated as possible. In the case of INa 20j3.2Si0 2, 43B6. or
40 per cent solids is the upper limit, while 1Na20j2Si0 2 has an upper
limit of 54 per cent solids or 60 oB6.
SODIUM PEROXIDE
Sodium peroxide is a pale-yellow hygroscopic powder. It absorbs moisture from the air and forms a snow-white hydrate, Na 2028H 20. When
added to water, this compound forms sodium hydroxide and oxygen. It
is a powerful oxidizing agent, and its principal uses depend upon this
property. It is employed for the bleaching of wool, silk, and fine cotton
articles and in chemical synthesis.
Manufacture. It is prepared by burning s~dium in an excess of air.
The reaction is carried out in heated revolving drums or continuously
by placing sodium in wagons and moving them through a furnace maintained at 300o e. A current of dry air is passed through the furnace
countercurrent to the wagons containing the sodium. The product has
a purity of about 95' p,er cent. Sodium peroxide must be packed in clean
dry ir~n or nickel. .care should be taken in handling since, when it is
placed on paper or "wood, the heat of hydration of the material is sufficient to cause ignition. Fused sodium peroxide reacts with platinum, iron,
copper, tin, and brass:but
not with nickel.
,
'
SODIUM PERBORATE
~odium perborate,I NaBO a'4H 20, is a mild oxidizing agent tha! has
recently gained widespread use in the medical and dental fields. It is recommended as a mouthwash because of its oxidIzing and cleansing effects.
Other uses are as oxidizing and bleaching agents in cosmetics, soaps, and
textiles. It is made by mixing solutions of borax, sodium peroxide, and
I hydrogen peroxide, heating slightly, and all!lwing to crystallize.
Na2B407 + Na202 + 3H20 2 -+ 4NaB0 3 +'3H 20

SODIUM AMIDE
Sodium amide 2 is another chemical that has found many special uses
in organic chemistry. It is a vigorous dehydrating agent and, for this
reason, is used in the synthesis of indigo and in the preparation of pure
1
See Boron Compounds in Chap. 21.

and FERNELIUS, Alkali Amides, Chern. Revs., 34,449 (1954).
2 LEVINE
SODIUM CYANIDE AND FEUROCYANIDE
283
hydrazine. It is also an intermediate in the preparation of sodium cyanide and finds application as an aminating agent.
It is prepared by passing ammonia into metallic sodium at 200 to
300C.
This reaction may be carried out in iron equipment; in many cases a
ball-mill type reactorl is satisfactory. This compound should be handled
with care a& it decomposes with water explosively. Also it should not be
kept, as disastrous explosions have resulted from handling material that
had been stored. It should be consumed as made.
SODIUM CYANIDE AND FERROCYANIDE
Sodium cyanide 'is not only important in the inorganic and organic
chemical fields but al;o has many metallurgical applications. It is used
in treating gold ore, in the casehardening of steel, in electroplating, in
organic reactions, in the preparation of hydrocyanic acid, and in making
adiponitrile. Sodium cyanide can be made from sodium amide heated with
carbon at 800C., the carbon as charcoal being thrown into the molten
sodium amide.
600C.
2NaNH 2
C ~ Na 2NCN
2H2
SOOC.
Na 2NCN
C ~ 2NaCN
+
+
+
/
Another method of manufacture is to melt together sodium chloride and

calcium cyanamide in an electric furnace. The most recent commercial
method consists of the dehydration of formamide by heat and a catalyst
into hydrocyanic acid. The hydrocyanic acid is then converted to sodium
cy'anide by treatment with caustic soda.
HCN
HCONH2 ----- HCN + H 20

+ NaOH----- NaCN + H 20
Sodium ferrocyanide 2 lis manufactured from a crude sodium cyanide

made from calcium c~anamide by fusion with sodium chloride in an electric furnace. The ferrocyanide reaction is carried on in a hot aqueou,,!
solution with ferrous sulfate. Soluble sodium and calcium ferrocyanides
are formed and calci~m sulfate precipitated. The calcium ferrocyanide is
changed ~o the sodium salt by addition of soda ash precipitating cal1 SHREVE, RIECHERS, RUBENKOENIG, and GOOIJMAN, Aminations by Sodium Amide,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 173 (1940).
'
2 American Cyanamid Company, "The Chemistry of Ferrocyanides," American.
Cyanamid Co., 105 pp., iJ.953, 742 references, New York; ANON., Sodium Ferrocyanide,
Chern. Eng., 60 (2), 240' (1953), pictured flow sheet.
284
cium carbonate. The slurry is filtered and washed and the decahydrate
Na 4 Fe(CN)dOH 20 crystallizes out on cooling.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Snell, F. D., and C. T. Snell, "Chemicals of Commerce," D. Van Nostrand Company,
THORPE, "Dictionary of Applied Chemistry," 4~h ed., Longmans, Green & Co., Inc.,
New York, 1937.
IDlmann, Fritz, "Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 3d ed., Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1951-.
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," 15 vols.,
Eskew, G. L., Salt-The Fifth Element, J. G. Ferguson & Associates, Chicag~, 1948.
CHAPTER
15
The manufacture of soda ash, caustic soda, and chlorine is one of the
most important heavy chemical industries.! these chemicals rank next
to sulfuric acid in quantity produced and in wid'} diversity of use. Soda
ash finds application in glass, detergents, soaps, pulp and paper, textiles,
and water softeners as well as in the manufacture of caustic soda, sodium
phosphates, and sodium bicarbonate. Caustic soda from soda ash and
from the electrolysis of salt brine is consumed in large quantities in the
manufacture of rayon, explosives, soap, paper, and in many other processes. The demand for chlorine has developed phenomenally in the past
few years.
Historical. The present process for the manufacture of soda ash is the
Solvay process. Before this method was developed, the LeBlanc process
was in universal use. Nicholas LeBlanc devised his famous process for
soda ash manulacture around 1773. 2 It was based on roasting salt cake'
with carbon and limestone in a rotary furnace, with subsequent leaching
of the pr~duct with water. The reactions were
/
2NaCI + H 2S0 4 ----> Na2S04 + 2HCl
Na 2S04 + 2(; --> Na 2S + 2C0 2
Na2S + CaCO:: ----> ~a2COa + CaS
The crude product of the reaction was called black ash. It was leached
cold, whereupon some hydrolysis of sulfides took place. These were
changed to carbonate by treatment with the carbon dioxide containing
gases from the black: ash furnace. The resulting sodium carbonate solu-1
tion was concentrated to obtain crystalline sodium~carbonate, 3 which wasl
1 KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 358--430; KOBE, "Inorganic Process Industries," Chap. 4, pp. 48--49, 81-120, The Macmillan Company, New' York, 1948.
Hou, "Manufacture of Soda," 2d ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York,1942. For further details on alkali and chlorine production, see also Chap. 10:
by the same authority in "Rogers' Manual o( Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
3 A flow sheet of this: obsolete process is given in Badger and Baker, "Inorganic'
Chemical Technology," '2d,ed., p. 137, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1941.
285
286
then dried or calcined. No LeBlanc plant was ever built in the United
States, and none is now being operated anywhere in the world.
In 1869 Ernest Solvay began developing the ammonia-soda process.
At first this method had great difficulty in competing with the older and
well-established LeBlanc process. But in a few years the Solvay process
Limestone
Sodium Chloride
Ammonia
Calcium ~I
carbonate
Icarbonl
dioxide
~~
<
Soda osh
I " I
Sodium
bicarbonate
-t
I
Glass
Paper,
Cement
Plaster.
Rubber'
Asphalt
Caustic
soda
,Soap ,
Rayon
Dyes
Paper
Drugs
Foods
Rubber
Textiles
Chemicals
Bleaching
Metallurgy
Petroleum
Sugar
Soap
Gloss
Foods
Dyes
Drugs
Shellac
Paper
Ceramics
Textiles
Metallurgy
Chemicals
Petroleum
Photography
Leather'
Agricu lture
Water softening
Illuminating gas
Drugs
Medicines
Beverages
Baking Powder
Food Products
Fire Edinguishers
FIG. 1. Alkali industry chart. '
reduced t.he price of soda asH to almost one-third the original price. After
a struggle during which the producers of LeBlanc soda sold at a loss for
many years, the ammonia-soda process completely had' displaced the
LeBlanc by 1915.
The electrolytic production of caustic soda was known in the eighteenth century,: but it was not 'until 1890 that caustic waS actually
produced in this way for industrial consumption. Electrolytic chlorine
developed with electrolytic caustic is the more valuable of the two products. The use of commercially fixed chlorine, in the form of bleaching
287
USES AND ECONOMICS
powder, had been developed earlier with chlorine made from the oxidation of HCI with air, catalyzed by Mn02 or by Cu 2CI 2.'
The first American production of electrolytic chlorine was at Rumford
Falls, Maine, in 1892.2 Electrolytic caustic and chlorine require cheap
electricity, a ready source of salt, and proximity to markets. For this
reason a large number of plants are located near Niagara Falls, Freeport,
Texas, and in West Virginia.
/'"
TABLE 1. UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF SODA ASH"
Ammoniasoda process
Year
1943-1947 (over)
1948
1949 ,
1950
1951
1952
1953
I Natural sodium carbonate
4,426
4,575
3,916
3,991
5,094
4,442
4,879
Production
211
289
201
351
351
323
424
Value
$3,547,342
6,623,280
4,163,714
7,543,769
8,368,037
7,828,033
n.a.
a" Minerals Yearbook," 1952, Preprint, 1953.
Uses and Economics. Soda ash is a lightweight solid, readily soluble in

water, and usually .. contains 99.2 per cent Na 2CO a. It is sold on the basis
of the sodiuIll oxide content which is generally 58 p'er cent. It is used in
the manufacture of many chemicals, the most important of which are
caustic soda and sodium bicarbonate. It also crystallizes with water to
form Na 2CO al0H 20 which is known as sal soda or washing soda. Besides
the applications listed in Table 2 and Fig. 1, another use for soda ash is
as' a desulfurizing agent in ferrous metallurgy. In 1954 the selling price
was $27 per ton.
Pure caustic soda is a brittle white solid which readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from the air. It is sold on the basis of its sodium
oxide content and usually contains about 76 per cent Na 20 or 98' per
cent NaOH. Special :uses, such as in rayon manufacture, require very
pure caustic. It is shipped either as a solid or as 50 or 73 per cent solutions in tank cars. At present there is a tendency toward shipping more
caustic as concentrat~d solutions. The price of solid caustic soda in 1954
was $77, and liquid $54 both per ton and on the basis of 76 per cent Na 20.
Reaction: 4HCl + 0.-> 2H.0 + 2C1.. U.S.'-Pat. 85370 (1868); c/. BADGER and l
BAKER, op. cit., p. 186. '
I
MURRAY, The Chlor Alkali Industry in the United States. Ind. Eng. Chern., 41,
2155 (1948).
1
288
TABLE
2.
ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF SODA ASH IN THE UNITED STATES IN
1949, 1950,
AND
1951"

Consuming industries
Glass ...............................
Soap ................................
Caustic and bicarbonate ...............
Other chemicals ......................
Cleansers and modified sodas ..........
Pulp and paper ......................
Water softeners ......................
Petroleum refining ....................
Textiles .............................
Nonferrous metals ....................
Exports .............................
Miscellaneous ........................
Total. .................. , .........
1943-1947
average
1,330
143
1,083
975
110
190
99
22
67
260
76
342b
4,621
1950
1951
1952
1,225
105
700
1,050
110
200
100
24
65
245
50
151
4,025
1,640
120
940
1,253
142
470
128
29
56
333
152
287
5,550
1,610
110
701
1,178
135
305
95
31
37
363
75
100
4,740
.. " Minerals Yearbook," 1952.

b Exports in Miscellaneous.
TABLE
3.
UNITED STATES PRODUCTiON OF CAUSTIC SODA"
(Short tons of 100 per cent NaOH)

Year
1921
1925
1929
1933
1937
1942
1946
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
Lime soda
Electrolytic
Total
16:3,044
355,783
524,985
439,363
488,807
634,291
742,932
767,000
566,230
505,300
668,310
507,537
504,052
75,547
141,478
,236,807
247,620
479,919
939,878
1,129,956
1,573,000
1,656,788
2,005,420
2,437,997
2,523,893
2,758,432
238,591
497,261
761,792
686,983
968,726
1,514,169
1,872,888
2, 340, ()()O
2,223,018'
2,510,720
3,106,307
3,031,430
3,262,484
G U.S. Bureau ,of the Census. Electr,olytic caustic soda figures up to 1941 do not
include that made and consumed at wood-pulp mills, estimated at about 30,000 tons
in 1929, 21,000 tons in 1933, and 19,000 tons in 1937.
289
RAW MATERIALS
Chlorine is a chemical of wide industrial importance. About 20 per cent

of the chlorine is used for the direct treatment of a given product, i.e.,
pulp, paper, and textile bleaching; water treatment; and sewage purification. About 30 per cent is employed in processes whose end products contain no chlorine, e.g., lead tetraethyl, ethylene glycol, phenol, and magnesium. Chlorine in the finished product, such as vinyl and vinylidene
polymers, chlorinated rubber and other plastics, and solvents account for
at least 40 per cent, while the remainder is used in insecticides, fungicides,
TABLE
4.
ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF CAUSTIC SODA IN THE UNITED STATES

IN
1948, 1949,
AND
1950"
CJ
Consuming industries
1948
1949
1950
Soap ......................
Chemicals ..................
Petroleum refining ..........
Rayon and film .............
Lye, cleansers ..............
Textiles ....................
Rubber reclaiming ..........
Vegetable oils ..............
Pulp and paper .............
Exports ....................
Miscellaneous ..............
Totals ...................
154
720
170
500
130
100
26
21
176
193
167
2,357
145
650
130
450
110
145
750
200
475
125
100
22
24
185
130
94
2,250
90
15
22
170
185
147
2,200/
Chem. Eng., 68 (2), 133 (1951).
bactericides, and herbicides. The electrolysis of sodium or potassium chloride solutions accounts for about 93 per cent of the United States chlorine production (78.6 per cent of the total stemming from diaphragm
cells and 14.5 per cent from mercury cells in 1953). The electrolysis of
fused sodium chloride accounts for about 6 per cent, and Solvay's nitrosyl
process for 1 per cent. Total production in 1952 was 2,600,000 tons. About
70 per cent of the chl~rine made is consumed directly by the producers.
MANUFACTURE OF SODA ASH
Soda ash is manufactured chiefly by the Solvay or ammonia-soda process. Natural soda ash is obtained from the brines of saline lakes in th~
West, particularly Se~rles Lake and Owens Lake in California. Wyoming
is also producing frorr{salines (Table 1). '
Raw Materials. The raw materials for the Solvay process are salt, lime,
and ammonia. The salt is used in the form of a brine which is made froni
rock salt, natural or artificial brine, or sea salt. Limestone is burned in
290
kilns to furnish both the carbon dioxide for the soda ash and lime for the
recovery of the ammonia. No strict specifications are required for the
limestone except that a minimum of the usual impurities of Si0 2, Ah03,
and Fe 20a is desirable.
Bri'f'II!
Flue
H20
9""
Ca/Cimr.
' - - - - - - ' StrongNH.
liquor still,
Ammonia ma~ up
\
~
~sto""
Coke
"""I boilers)
""'lld,."..rs)
NH.lo..
CO.
Na.5
t~g:m t~~
0.0.95-0.11 tons
0.25- 0.5 tons
0.16- 0.25 tons
P.rton of 5810 sod. ash
?-4kg.os(NH.),So.. Copit.lln_tmenH12,OOO
~OOo.-~7o.O cu.ft-.
".. doily ton capacity
0.0.010.002 ton
g~~.~r
IS.o~~~O~_OhrL
ona mcmrt,,,,,11Ce '2.6 man~ hr
Repair
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for the manufacture of soda ash by the ammonia-s?da process.
Reactions and Energy Changes. The Solvay process is carried out by

the following principal reactions:
CaC0 3(c) ---+ CaO(c)

C02(g);
tlH = +43,400 cal.
C(amorph.) + 02(g) ---+ C02(g);
tlH = -96,500 cal.
tlH = -15,900 cal.
CaO(s) + H 20(l) ---+ Ca(OHhCc);
tlH = -8,400 cal.
NH3(g) + H 20(l) ---+ NH 40H(aq);
2NH 40H(aq) + CO 2 (g) ---+ (NH4)2COa(aq) + H 20(l);
tlH = -22,100 cal.
(NH 4)2C0 3 + CO 2 + H 20 ---+ 2NH 4HC0 3
NH 4 HC0 3 + NaCI'---+ NH 4 CI + NaHCO a
2NaHCO a(c) ---+ Na2CO a(c) + CO 2(g) + H 20(g);
tlH = +30,700 cal.
2NH 4CI(aq) + Ca(OH)2(c) ---+ 2NH a(g) + CaCh(aq) + 2H 20(l);
tlH = +10,700 cal.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. The reactions are industrialized

by the following sequence of unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.)
as exemplified in the flow sheet! of Fig. 2.
Preparation and Purification of the Salt Brine:
Mining and solution of salt, or pumping of water to salt beds and of brine
from these deposits (Op.).
Purification of brine (Pr. and Op.).
1
See also the pictured flow sheet, Chem. & Met. Eng., 49 (2), 134 (1942).
291
Ammoniation of Brine:
Solution of NHa in the purified brine (Op. and Pr.).

Solution of weak C02 in the purified brine (Op. and Pr.).
Carbonation of Ammoniated Brine:
Formation of ammonium carbonate (Pr.).

Formation of ammonium bicarbonate (Pr.).Formation and controlled precipitation of sodium bicarbonate (Pr.).
Filtration and washing of the sodium bicarbonate (Op.).
Burning of limestone with coke to form CO 2 and CaO (Pr.).
Compressing and cooling of limekiln or lean CO 2 and piping to carbonator
(Op.).
Calcination of Sodium Bicarbonate:
Conveying and charging of moist sodium bicarbonate to calciner (Op.).

Calcination of sodium bicarbonate (Pr. and Op.).
Cooling, screening, and bagging of soda ash (for sale) (Op.).
Cooling, purifying, compressing, and piping of rich CO 2 gas to carbonator (Op.).
Recovery of Ammonia:
Slaking of quicklime (Pr.).

Treatment of sodium bicarbonate mother liquors with steam and Ca(OHh
in strong NHaliquor still to recover NHa (Pr.).
Manufacturing Procedures. Preparation of the Brine, The salt used in

the process is in the form of an almost saturated NaGI solution as a natural or artificial brine pumped from wells. Such brines come usually from
underground salt deposits. Sea water contains much more impurity than
does the rock salt brine and is seldom employed. The chief impurities in
rock salt brine are calcium sulfate, magnesium, and iron salts. These may
be removed by special pret:reatments of the brine with lime and soda ash
as well as by the ordinary precipitation with weak ammonia and weak
carbon dioxide in the washer tower where residual gases are scrubbed or
washed before discharg~. Although Fig. 2 does not so indicate, the brine
is clarified by settling in vats before it flows to the strong ammonia absorber, to remove the Jrecipitated impurities of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate and hydroxide, and iron hydroxide. The clarified brine
is also cooled.
,
Ammoniation of Brine. The clarified brine flows to the strong ammonia or first absorber where. it takes up the necessary amount of ammonia.
The ammoniation liberates much heat from the dissolving of the NHa
gas as shown by reacti6'n (4). This brine contains about 83 grams of NHa
and 260 grams of NaGa per liter. Some carbon dioxide is also absorbed
with the ammonia. The brine is settled, cooled to 25C, and pumped to
the carbonating towers.
292
Carbonation of Ammoniated Brine. CarLon dioxide is obtained along

with calcium oxide by calcining limestone mixed with coke. Thus some
additional carbon dioxide is yielded from the burning of the coke necessary to supply the heat required to decompose the limestone. At least a
part of this carbon dioxide gas, 41 to 43 per cent strong, is compressed
and conducted to the bottom of a fouled carbonating tower, operating
in series with four working or precipitating towers, while the ammoniated
brine is fed into the top; In this way,
.....--n:---.._
the towers, clogged and fouled by 4
days' service as "making" or preJ~[
cipitating towers, are cleaned by solu~
tion in fresh ammoniated brine of the
crusts of sodium bicarbonate previously deposited on the baffles and
J.~.[
cooling pipes. Thus the heat transfer
~
~
rate is increased by removal of the fouling on the interfaces; likewise the ab~
sorption of the carbon dioxide is improved by solution of the crusts that
interfered with the contact of gas and
liquid. In practice, the fresh am~.
.;bmoniated brine flows down one such
J~~L
fouled tower with its cooling coils shut
~~
off, and this partly carbonated and
warm brine is fed to four making
towers by carbon dioxide lifts. In the
first carbonating tower reaction (5)
takes place forming ammonium carbonate in solution. Each carbonating
tow;er is about' 75 ft. high, 6 or 7 ft.
inside diameter, and is constructed
largely of cast-iron sections bolted
together. Typical absorbing and cooling sections of such a tower are illusFIG. 3. Carbonating tower.,
trated in FIg. 3. The absorption is not
very efficient. Hence a comparatively great height is neede<;l.. In the second
or making tower l ammonium bicarbonate is formed and, reacting with salt,
forms sodium bicarbonate which is gradually precipitated out. 2 The rich
carbon dioxide (90 to 95 per cent) from the calcination of the sodium.
-/(
[
..
~
..
..
1 Figure 2 for :simplicity makes no separation of the lean from the rich CO 2 gasas is the actual practice in a few plants-nor does this figure differentiate between the
cleaning and "making" carbonations.
2 SHERWOOD and PIGFORD, "Absorption and Extraction," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book
293
bicarbonate is compressed and used here. Each making tower produces

the equivalent of about 50 tons of soda ash per 24 hr.
The procedure in these towers is the heart of the ammonia-soda process. It is a liquid-gas absorption but is complicated by the precipitation
of the solid sodium bicarbonate. The absorption units should be constructed to permit the downward travel of the growing sodium bicarbonate crystals. This is done as shown in Fig. 3 by having each unit simulate
a very large single bubble cap with down sloping floors.
Also, the absorption is conducted with the towers filled with liquid;
hence the gas must be compressed. Because of this compression the partial pressure, hence the solubility, of the CO 2 is increased at the end of
the carbonating cycle where it favors reactions (5) to (7).
The crude sodium bicarbonate formed in the making tower is drawn
off from the bottom as a suspension. Careful control of all the conditions
in the column is necessary to ensure that the precipitated sodium bicarbonate is easily filterable and efficiently washed. This is largely effected
by regulating the temperature and concentration in the making tower so
that the initially formed fine crystals of NaHC0 3 are allowed to grow.
For example, at the top of the making tower the temperature is 25C.,
which is allowed to rise by heat of reaction to 55C. about halfway down.
This temperature is gradually reduced by use of cooling sections (see
Fig. 3) to 20C. at bottom, resulting in the growing of the NaHC0 3 crystals particularly in size. The suspension is filtered on a rotary open-drum
filter. The vacuum on the drum filter helps to dry the bicarbonate and
also to recover the ammonia. The filter cake is washed on the drum to
remove salt and ammonium chloride. About 10 per cent of the bicarbonate is dissolved during the washing. Fro'm here the sodium bicarbonate
may be sent to a centrifugal filter which reduces the moisture content to
about 7 per cent, or it may be calcined directly.
Calcination or "Drying" of the Sodium Bicarbonate. This operation is
one of the most troublesome steps in the manufacture of soda ash. The
washed, mOIst sodium bicarbonate from the filter is charged into the furnace by feed tables w~ich have an efficient gas seal. The difficulties are
due to the fact that moist sodium bicarbonate has a tendency to cake
into lumps and form a: nonconducting scale on the_teel shell of the calciner. Engineers have developed for this operation a steel rotary furnace
closed at both ends so as to be able to collect the gases evolved. The kiln
is of the horizontal type heated through the shell and with the firing furnace at the feed end so that the heating is not countercurrent. This prevents some of the caking. The inside of the drier has a heavy scraper
chain dragging on thlshell to keep it free from soda lumps. To reduce
the caking of the wet bicarbonate some of the hot soda ash taken from'
the calciner is fed babk and mixed with the fresh bicarbonate as "dry
feed" (see Fig. 2). The usual capacity for the rotary driers, about
29-1
8 ft. in diameter and 75 ft. long, is from 50 to 60 tons of soda ash per
24 hr.
The exit gases contain some ammonia, carbon dioxide, much steam,
and a little soda ash dust. These are cooled, precipitating a small quantity of an aqueous ammoniacal solution but permitting the large amount
of rich CO 2 to be freed. This is compressed and used in the making carbonator tower to form the sodium bicarbonate. The hot soda ash from
the calciner is passed through a rotary cooler and is screened through a
vibrating screen of 8 to 12 mesh. It is then packed in bags for sale. This
is the light ash of commerce. The coarser or dense soda ash occupies dilly
about half the bulk of the light ash, the dense ash weighing 64 to 67 lb.
per cu. ft. when loosely packed. It costs slightly more but this dense ash
is advantageous for the glass industry where less dusting results. The
dense ash is manufactured by adding sufficient water to the light soda
ash to form Na 2CO aH 20, an agglomerated product, whose recalcination
furnishes the dense ash.
Recovery of the Ammonia. Much of the economical operation of the
Solvay process depends upon the efficiency of the ammonia recovery.
For any given time the value of the ammonia in the system is several
times the value ot the soda ash produced.:The ammonia is recovered in
a distillation column called the strong ftrrimonia liquor still and consisting of two parts. The top part above the lime inlet is called the heater;
the bottom part below the li.~e'"iniet is called the lime still. The liquor
from the bicarbonate filter is fed into the heater or upper part of the
ammonia still, where the free ammonia is driven out by the following
reactions:
NHa(soln.) + heat ~
NH 4HCO a + heat ~
NaHCO a + NH 4CI->
Na2 CO a + 2NH 4CI ~
Na 2S + 2NH 4CI ~
NHa(g)
NHa + H 20 + CO 2
NaCI + NHa + H 20 + CO 2
2NaCI
2NHa + H 20 + CO 2
2NaCl + 2NHa + H 2S
-+
Mlik of lime suspension is fed through the lime jple,t and mixes with the
liquor from the upper or heater part. As this flows down the column, the
following reactions take place in the lime part of the still:
Na 2CO a + Ca(OHh -> 2NaOH + CaCO a
2NH.CI + Ca(OHh -> CaCh + 2NHa + 2H 2 0
(NH.)2S0. + Ca(OHh -> CaSO. + 2NHa + 2H 20
I
The liquor from the bottom of the lime still is free from ammonia and
contains about 50 grams per liter of residual and unreacted sodium chloride as well as the cdcium chloride formed. Calcium carbonate is in sus-
MISCELLANEOUS ALKALIES
295
pension. A small part of this residual liquor is settled, evaporated for separation of salt, and marketed for its calcium'chlorid~ ()ontent either as a
concentrated liquor or as a solid upon further evaporation. However,
most of this calcium chloride is wasted into the streams of the country.
Soda ash is manufactured from natural alkaline brines at Searles Lake
and Owens Lake in Cali_fornia. 1 The natural brine is carbonated with
carbon dioxide from limekihis and from sodium bicarbonate calciners.
The precipitated N aHC0 3 is filtered off, washed, and calcined.
i
"
MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM BICARBONATE
Sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda, is not made by refining the crude

sodium bicarbonate obtained from the filters in the Solvay process. There
are several reasons for this: (1) There is great difficulty in completely
drying this bicarbonate. (2) The value of the ammonia in this crude bicarbonate would be lost. (3) Even a small amount of ammonia gives the
bicarbonate an odor that renders it unfit for many uses. (4) The bicarbonate made in this way contains a great many other impurities.
To make sodium bicarbonate, there is first prepared a saturated solution of soda ash which is run into the top of a column similar to the carbonating tower in soda ash manufacture. Carbon dioxide is sent in from
compressors at the bottom of the tower, which is maintained at about
40C. The suspension of bicarbonate formed is removed, from the bottom
of the tower, filtered, and washed on a rotary drum filter. After centrifugation, the material is dried on a continuous-belt conveyer at 70C.
Bicarbonate from this process is about 99.9 per cent pure.
Sodium bicarbonate finds large usage for the manufacture of baking
powder, carbonated waters, leather goods, and in fire extinguishers. Annually around 160,000 tons are manufactured in the United States.
MISCELLANEOUS ALKALIES
\
There are consumed commercially a number of various alkalies of different strengths accordiAg to the contained amounts-of NaOH, Na 2CO S,
or NaHCO s. Some of these are mechanical mixtures as causticized ash
(soda ash with 10 to 50 'per cent of caustic) for bottle washing or metal
cleaning, and modified sJdas (soda ash with 25 to 75 per cent of sodium
bicarbonate) for mild alkali demands as in the tanning industry. Sodium
sesquicarbonate, or the' natural mineral trona, has the composition
Na 2C0 3NaHC0 32H 20 land is very stable. It finds use in wool scouring
and in laundering. Sal I'soda, Na2CO a'10H 20, is also known as washing
1 HIGHTOWER, New Carbonation Technique-More Natural Soda Ash, Chem. Eng.,
58 (5), 162 (1951); see Chap. 13.
296
soda or soda crystals. It has always been a pure product, but its consumption is declining because of the cost of transporting its water of crystallization in competition with the now quite pure soda ash manufactured
by the ammonia-soda process.
MANUFACTURE OF CAUSTIC SODA BY THE LIME-SODA PROCESS
Caustic soda is one of the main products from soda ash and is frequently made in the soda ash plant. The production of additional carbon dioxide frequently needed for the Solvay process furnishes calcium
oxide used in the causticization of the soda ash. The heat of this reaction is small.
This reaction depends on the low solubility product of Ca++ and COa
ions, forming calcium carbonate. The equilibrium varies with the concentration of the Na 2 CO a solution, a 10 per cent soda solution giving a
97 per cent conversion while a 16 per cent Na 2CO a solution furnishes
only a 91 per cent conversion.' The equation for this is as foll.ows:
Kl
(Ca++) (OH-) 2
(OH-)2
K = K2 = (Ca++)(COa ) = (COa)
As the heat change of this reaction is so low, the K and hence the equilibrium are but little affected by temperature. However both the speed of
the reaction and the rate of settling of the CaCO a increase with the temperature. Hence, in practice, the reaction is carried out near the boiling
point of the solution. The higher percentage of conversion at the more
dilute solution also follows from this equation since the concentration of
the hydroxyl ions varies as the square in relation to the first power of
the concentration of the carbonate ions. The chemical engineer in charge
9f causticizing soda ash must balance the additional fuel and plant
charges for concentrating the more dilute caustic :agains~ the advantages
of the greater conversion of the more dilute carbonate solution. At soda
ash plants, usually the crude bicarbonate directly from the rotary filters
is dissolved in water and changed to the carbonate by boiling with steam.
The carbon dioxide evolved is returned to the soda ash process.
The Dorr continuous, countercurrent decantation procedure is illustrated in Fig: 4, where a solution of sodium carbonate is made in an
agitated tank using weak liquor from a former reaction. Reburned lime
1 Hou, op. cit., Chap. 19. The mathematical treatment of this equilibrium is here
presented.
MANUFACTURE OF CAUSTIC SODA BY THE LIME-SODA PROCESS
297
and make-up lime, or all fresh lime, is fed along with some of the soda
ash solution to a combination classifier-slaker. Milk of lime is formed
while grit is removed from the slurry by the classifier.
The soda solution is causticized with a slight excess of lime in three
agitators in series. The solution is settled in thickeners,l usually of multitray design as shown in Fig. 4. The overflow solution takE!n from the first
thickener is sent to the evaporat01:s or is used directly as in the soda process for paper pulp manufacture. 1:;his solution contains about 11 per cent
NaOH. The sludge in the bottom of the first thickener"iJ pumped with a
Soda Ash (58 'Yo)

Lime make-up ('lO%CtlO)
~er
R~':.r;;.ing fuel
Electricily
Direct labor
2.900 Ib.}
160 lb.
18.000 lb. Per ton NoOH in 11% solution
13.000.0~g'ift~~: (plant capacily 100 tons/day)
18 kw.-hr:
0.9 man-hr.
FIG. 4. Flow sheet for caustic soda solution by Dorr continuous lime-soda
proceBB~
diaphragm pump to the second thickener. Here filtrate from the next
operation and water are added. The overflow from this thickener is used
as a weak liquor to make up the original soda solution. The sludge from
the second thickener is filtered on an Oliver filter and washed. The filtrate is returned to the second thickener as mentioned and the cake is
caicined in,the limekiln. 2
The evap~ration of caustic from soda ash causticization resembles that
from electrolysis of brine (see Fig. 5, and text) except that here only onetwentieth to one-tenth of the sodium salts is present to crystallize out
upon concentration of the NaOH solution. In this case the sodium salts
recovered consist mostly of unreacted N a 2CO a with whatever N aCI was
in the original soda ash.
For details of Dorr thickener and Dorr multitray thickener, 'see PERRY, op. cit;,
pp. 941, 942.
Frequently another Don' thickener is required to remove more of the caustic from
the precipitated CaCO . ,Calculations of countercurrent decantation (c.c.d.) as applied
to this reaction are exemplified on pp. 154ff. of BADGER and BAKER, op. cit. See also
OLSEN and DIRENGA, E\ettling Rate of Calcium Carbonate in Causticizing of Soda
Ash, Ind. Eng. Chem., 33, 204 (1941). The methods, equipment, and examples given
in Perry, op. cit., pp. \)41-943, 950--\)54, 976, 988 are particularly pertinent.
1
298
MANUFACTURE OF ELECTROLYTIC CAUSTIC SODA AND CHLORINE'
Raw Materials. The primary raw material for the manufacture of chlorine and electrolytic caustic is common salt which is available in large
quantities and high purity in many parts of the United States. Some
plants, like those in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia or in the salt
belt of Michigan, obtain their salt from the natural brines of underground deposits, while other plants, such as around St. Louis, ship in
r""k",,..
Salt
~~riccc:~mJr.~1
steam
tHons
25Jlo1lt
Zo,OOOIb.
fi",d evaporatiori
Electrici~
~r.:;~~.r:~:,
2,500 Kw;-hr. } Per ton 16'l'. caustic
Ig9J:~hr.
~~i~g!~h~n
Production, daily 75 tons caustic (50 lb. H2)
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for electrolytic caustic soda and chlorine:
salt from mines located elsewhere and make the brine at the plant. In
California, salt is obtained from'the evaporation of sea water. Other raw
materials are listed on the lower part of the flow sheet in Fig. 5.
Reactions and Energy Changes. Decomposition Voltage and Voltage
Efficiency. The energy consumed in the electrolysis of the brine is the
product of the current flowing and the potential of the cell. The theoretical or minimum voltage required for the process may be derived from the
Gibbs-Helmholtz equation which expresses the relation between the ele-ctrical energy and the heat of reaction, of a system:
-JIlHnF
TdE
dT
E=--+-
where E = theoretical decomposition voltage.'

IlH = enthalpy change of reaction, cal.
J = electrical equivalent of heat, or joules per calorie (4.182).
T = absolute temperature.
F = Faraday constant, coulombs per gram-equivalent (96,500).
n = number of equivalents involved.
The heat of reaction for the' electrolysis of salt may be found from
heats of formation of the components of the over-all reaction or from the
'KOBE, "Inorganic Process Industries," Chap. 5, The Macmillan Company, New
York,1948.
299
REACTIONS A.ND ENERGY CHANGES
negative of these values--the change in the heat contents of the systems.

The over-all reaction is
NaCl(aq) + H 20(l)
---+
NaOH(aq) +
~H2(g)
~Cb(g)
This may be broken down to the following reactions of formation:

llH = -97,105 cal.
llH = -68,372 cal.
llH = -112,053 cal.
Na(s) + ~02(g) + ~H2(g) ---+ NaOH(aq);
Na(s) +
~Cb(g) ---+
NaCl(aq);
H2(g) + ~02(g) ---+ H 20(l);
The net llH for the over-all reaction results from

+97,105 + 68,372 - 112,053 = +53,424 cal.
If this value of AH is substituted in the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation and!
the change in voltage with temperature is neglected, the value of E calculates to 2.31 volts. The omission of T . dE/dT involves an erro):" of less
than 10 per cent for 'most cells. l
The ratio of this theoretical voltage to that actually used is the voltage
efficiency of the cell. Voltage efficiencies range from 45 to 65 per cent ..
According to Faraday's law 96,500 coulombs of electricity passing through:
a cell will produce 1 gram-equivalent of chemical reaction at each elec-,
trode. Because of unavoidable side reactions, cells usually require more.
than this amount. The ratio of the theoretical to the actual current con-'
sumed is defined as the current efficiency. Current efficiencies run 95 to
97 per cent and, unless otherwise specified, are understood to be cathode'
current efficiencies. The current divided by the area in square inches, I
upon which the current in amperes acts, is known as the current density.'
A high value is desirable in cases where the product formed is subject to!
decomposition. The product of voltage efficiency and current effic~ency~
gives the energy efficiency of the cell. Another consideration is the decomposition 'efficiency, which is the ratio of equivalents produced in the cell,
to equivalents charged. 2 In the usual commercial cells this decomposition efficiency is about 50 per cent. If the cell is operated to attain 8,:
higher decomposition: efficiency, the natural flow of brine through the
cell is decreased with migration of OH- ions back to anode with forma-'
tion of hypochlorite ~hich means loss of caustic a~ chlorine. Also when.
OH- ions reach the anode the following reaction occurs:
I
j20H- ---+ H 20
+ ~02 + 2e
The oxygen formed reacts with the graphite of the anodes causing de-I
creased anode life.
;
1 BADGER and BAKER"Op. cit., p. 165; cJ. PERRY, op. cit., pp. 298, 344, 1784 and!
tables pp. 236-243.
2 A tabulation of such 'data for typical commercial cells is given by Perry, op. cit.,.
p.1810.
300
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. The main procedures for a typical electrolytie flow sheet, I as depicted in Fig. 5, may be represented in
the following unit operations (Op.) and unit processe.~ (Pr.):
Brine Purification:
To make a purer caustic soda and to lessen clogging of the cell diaphragm with
consequent voltage increase, purification of the NaCI solution from Ca, Fe, and
Mg compounds is practiced, using soda ash with some caustic soda. Sometimes
sulfates are removed with BaCI 2 or the hot brine is treated with hydroxyl and
carbonate ions. 2 The clear brine is neutralized with hydrochloric acid (Pr.). This
brine is stored, heated, and fed to the cells through a float feed system, designed
to maintain constant level in the anode compartments (Op.).
Brine Electrolysis:
Typical cells employed are depicted and described in the following section.
Each cell usually requires 3.0 to 4..') volts; consequently, 30 or more are put in
series to increase the voltage of a given group (Pr.).
Evaporation 3 and Salt Separation:
The decomposition efficiency of the cells being in the range of only 50 per cent,
about half of the N aCl charged is in the weak caustic and is recovered by reason
of its low solubility in caustic soda solutions after concentration. Hence the weak
or about 10 or 15 per cent NaOH solution is evaporated to around 50 per cent
NaOH in a double- or triple-effect evaporator with salt separators, followed by a
washing filter. The salt so recovered is made again into charging brine. In the
evaporators, nickel tubes are usually used to lessen iron contamination. Sometimes even the evaporators are nickel lined to avoid this contamination and also
caustic embrittlement of the steel. With the caustic soda liquor from the evaporator containing 50 per cent NaOH, it will dissolve only about 1 per cent of NaCl
and other sodium salts after cooling. This liquor may be sold, after thorough
settling, as liquid caustic soda in tank cars or drums.
1 Further details as to the varied procedures used may be found on pp. 159ff. of
BADGER and BAKER, op. cit. In this book there is a particularly fine and detailed presentation of the evaporation of caustic soda and of the equipment required. See also
~he pictured flow sheets, Chem. & Met. Eng., 49 (12), 114, (1942); Chem. Eng., 57 (6),
178 (1950).
'
SHEARON, et al., Modern Production of Chlorine and Caustic Soda, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 40, 2002 (1948); HIGHTOWER, Chlorine-caustic Soda, Chern. Eng., 55 (12),
112 (1948), plus pictured flow sheet; ANON., Integrated Alkali Industry, Chem. Eng.,
53 (2), 172 (1946), with pictured flow sheet.
3 See PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1041-1078, for general principles of heat transfer, salt
separation, single- and multiple-effect evaporation, and necessary equipment involved
in the concentration of caustic soda solutions. See p. 1600 for calculations of c.c.d.
washing of the :salt separated, and pp. 2102-2103 for materials of construction. A
detailed ~tudy of the evaporation of cell liquor is presented on pp. 172-185 of BADGER
and BAKER, op. cit. SHERWIN, the Concentration of Caustic Soda Solution, Tmns.
Insl. Chem. Engr8., 24, 109 (1946).
301
CAUSTIC SODA
Final Evaporation:
Either the cooled and settled 50 per cent caustic or a specially purified caustic
may be concentrated in a single-effect final or high evaporator to 70 or 75 per cent
KaOH, using steam of 75 to 100 lb. gage. This very strong caustic must be
handled in steam-jacketed pipes to prevent solidification. It is run to the finishing pots. Another method of dehydrating 50 per cent caustic utilizes the precipitation of sodium hydroxide monohydrate. This monohydrate contains less 'water
than the original solution. The precipitation is accomplished by the addition
of ammonia to the 50 per cent solution. 1 This also purifies the caustic. If the
50 per rent caustic is treated with anhydrous ammonia' particularly in countercurrent manner, there separate from the resulting aqua ammqnia, free-fl()wing
anhydrous crystals. Naturally this procedure should be carried out in pressure
vessels (Pr.).
Finishing of Caustic in Pots:

Although 50 per cent,caustic was at one time finished in special close-grained
cast-iron direct-fired pots, the heat efficiency is so low that good practice now
handles only 70 or 75 per cent NaOH in this fashion. The final temperature is
500 to 600C. and boils off all the water but about 1 per cent or less. These pots
are now b~ing replaced by Dowtherm heated evaporators for caustic evaporation
above 50 per cent. The hot anhydrous caustic is treated with sulfur to preCipitate
iron and settled. The product is pumped out by lowering, into the molten caustic,
a eentrifugal pump that discharges the caustic into thin steel drums holding
about 700 lb. or to the flaking machine (Op.).
Special Purification of Caustic:
Some of the troublesome impurities in 50 per cent caustic are colloidal iron,
sodium chloride, and sodium chlorate. The iron is often removed by treating
the caustic with 1 per cent by weight of 300-mesh calcium carbonate and filtering
the resulting mixture through a Vallez filter on a calcium carbonate precoat. The
chloride and chlorate may be removed by allowing the 50 per ce~t caustic to drop
through a column of 50 per cent aqueous ammonia solution. This treatment
produces caustic almost as free of chlorides and chlorates as that made by the
mercury process. To reduce the salt content of the caustic necessary for certain
uses, it is cooled to 20(;. in equipment such as outlined in Fig. 5. However,
another crystallization nlethed used industrially involves the actual separation
of the compounds NaOH3HH.O or NaOH-2H.O le~ing the NaCl in the
mother liquor. A different procedure reduces the salt content of the caustic s()da
solution by formation onhe slightly soluble complex salt NaClNa.S04NaOH."
A new development i:n the continuous extraction of NaCl and NaC10. in
1 MACMULLIN, Concentration of Sodium Hydroxide, U.S. Pat. Hl61590 (1934);
;\IUSKAT, Concentration of Caustic, U.S. Pat. 2285300 (1942); MUSKAT and AYRES,
Purification of Canstie, UI.S. Pat. 228521)9 (1942).'
2 MUSKAT, Method for; Producing Anhydrous Caustic, U.S. Pat. 211)651)3 (H}40).
3 HUBEL and SWEETLAND, Removal of Salt from Caustic Soda Produced by Diaphragm Celis, Can. Chern'. Met., 17,52 (1933).
302
SODA ASH, CAUSTIC SODA, AND CHLORI NE
50 per cent caustic solution is countercurrent extraction in vertical columns with

70 to 95 per cent ammonia. I It should be noted that mercury cells furnish a
caustic soda free from salt. These purification or manufactu ring methods give a
high-grade caustic with less than 1 per cent impurities (anhydrous basis). The
standard grade contains 2% to 3 per cent impurities (anhydrous basis) (Pr.).
Chlorine Drying:
The hot chlorine evolved from the anode carries much water vapor. It is fiffit
cooled to condense most of this vapor and then dried in a sulfuric acid scrubber
FIG. 6. Nash Hytor pump. The rotor (5) revolves freely within the elliptical casing
(6) containing a liquid which is usually water or sulfuric acid. The latter is used when
the pum p is on chlorine service. The liquid turning with the rotor is forced up against
the casing (6) by centrifugal action and alternately recedes from (4) and is forced back
into the rotor at (3) twice in a revolution. As the liquid recedes from the rotor, it
draws the gas to be compressed through the inlet ports into the rotor by means of
openings in the bottom of the rotor chambers. When the liquid is forced back into
the rotor by the converging casing, the compressed gas is discharged through appropriate discharge ports at the bottom of the rotor chambers and out the pump
discharge.
I r tower as shown in Fig. 5. Up to the sulfuric acid tower, the wet chlorine
should be handled in stoneware, Duriron, or similar resistant material; after
drying, iron or steel can be employed (Op. and Pr.).
Chlurine Compression and Liquefaction: 2
The dried chlorine is compressed to 35 lb. gage or sometimes as high as 80 lb.

The usual type of compressor employed is the Nash Hytor (Fig. 6) constructed
I TWICHAUS
and EHl,ERS, Caustic Purification by Liquid-liquid Extraction, CIwnn.
Ind8., 83, 230 (1948).

I PERRY, op. cit., p. 990; EICHEN HOFER and
Modernized, Chem. Eng., &8 (12), 142 (1951).
FEDOROFF,
Chlorine Liquefaction
DIAPHRAGM CELUI
303
of iron and with concentrated sulfuric acid as the sealing liquid. The heat' of
compression is removed progressively by water and finally by refrigeration to
about -20F.; when all the chlorine must be liquefied, it is cooled to as low as
_50F. The liquid chlorine is stored and filled into either small cylinders, ton
cylinders, pipe line, or the 55-ton tank cars that are Bhipped to large consumers. 2
There is always some residual or "blow gas," this being the equilibrium mixture
of chlorine and air. The blow gas is used to malte chlorine derivatives, either
organic or inorganic, especially bleaching powder (Op.).
H 1Idrogen Disposal:
The hydrogen is very frequently made into other compounds such as hydrochloric acid or ammonia (see page 399) or is employed for hydrogenations of
organic compounds (Pr.).
Electrolytic Cells.' The cells used are of two general types: diaphragm
and mercury cathode as means for keeping apart the anode and cathode
products. This separation is essential to prevent interaction of t he primary products forming hypochlorites, which would greatly cut down the
current efficiency of the cell, contaminate the caustic soda, and oxidize
the anode graphite electrodes.
Diaphragm Cells. These cells contain a porous asbestos diaphragm to
separate the anode from the cathode. This allows ions t o pass through
by electrical migration but reduces diffusion of products. Diaphragms
permit the construction of compact cells of lowered resistance because
the electrodes can be placed close together. The diaphragms become
clogged with use, as indicated by higher voltage and higher hydrostatic
pressure on brine feed. They must be replaced from every 100 to 200
days. The diaphragm permits a flow of brine from the anode to cathode,
and thus greatly lessens or prevents by-reactions (sodium hypochlorite).
In some of the cells the cathode compartment is "dry" and in others
there is cathode liquor and kerosene, but in any case at a lower head
than in the anode compartment, in order to ensure liquor movement from
anode to cathode.
As shown in Table 5, the installed capacity of the Hooker diaphragm
ceU8 represents about 45 per cent of the United States total. The Hooker
Type S cell was originally designed in 1929 and is still preferred for small
plants. It is roughly oubical, being 80 built to oonserve floor space and
outside surface. The anodes are graphite plates which project upward
from a lead slab and between finger-type cathodes made from crimped
et al., op. cit., p. 2007, for diagrams.
In 1951 there were 10 chlorine barges in operation, 2 with a capacity of 380 tons
each and 8 with a capaci'y of 600 tons each.
I Ct. PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1806-1810, for cuts of various caustic cells and for a tabular
comparison of operatinl reeultsj MANTIILL, "Induatrial Electrochemistry," 3d ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Companv. Inc., New York, 19M1.
1 SIIEA.BON,
304
SODA ASH, CAUSTI C S ODA, AND CH LORINE
steel wire. This cathode is directly covered with asbestos and forms the
diaphragm which is completely submerged. The diaphragm is remarkably easy to apply. The steel screen cathode is dipped into a bath of
asbestos slurry and the asbestos is drawn onto the screen by applying
a vacuum to the hydrogen outlet. The outside is constructed of con crete
on a steel frame, heavily insulated to conserve heat since the cell operat.es at a higher temperature than most cells.'
HOOKER TYPE S-3A CELL
FIG. 7. (Courtesy of Hooker Electrochemir.al ro.)
The Hooker Type 8-3 was designed to provide a two- to threefold capacity advantage over the older Type 8. Actually the fundamental design of the 8-3 varies little from the 8. The 8-3 is larger and the various
leads and connections are relocated. The 8-3A cell depicted in Figs. 7 and
8 is essentially the 8-3 rotated 90 deg. It has heavier copper connections
than the 8-3 to provide for operation at overloads up to 30,000 amp. The
8-3 and 8-3A are cheaper to install and operate and take up less building
space per ton of capacity t han Type 8. Table 6 gives comparative performance figures on these Hooker cells. 2
There are two modifications of the cylindrical diaphragm Vorce cell,
the single-cathode cell (Fig. 9) and the newly developed double-cathode
I For an elevation and typical insta llation of this cell, see 1st ed. of this book, pp.
292-293; PERRY, op . cit., pp. 1807, 1810.
C/. H UBBAl!D, Optimum Operating Currents for Hooker Type S Cells, Chem. Eng.
Progr., 46, 435 (1950).
DIAPHRAGM CELLS
305
cell. The latter is 26 in. in diameter and 42 in. in height. Twenty-four

graphite anodes (2 sq. in. in cross section and 36 in. long) extend down
from the dome of the cell into the brine and are fastened to copper anode
rings outside the cell. The cathodes taper to secure uniform current density over the anode surface. The asbestos paper diaphragm rests on a
thin screen separator which lies against the cathode. The double-cathode
cell operates under a current of 2,000 to 2,500 amp. and 3.0 volts per
FIa. 8. Typical Hooker S-3A cell installation. (Cou.rteay 0/ Hoou,. Electrochemical Co .)
cell with about 80 cells in series. The single-cathode cell is usually operated with about 70 cells in series ullder a current of l,OOO amp. and
3.5 volts per cell.
There are several other cells in operation at various plants, mostly of
the rectangular type. The Dow jiUer-prUB cell is important. T he N elBon
cell has an asbestos diaphragm and a U-shaped steel cathode t hroughout
its length. The Allen-Moore, the Buck-McRae, and t.he Hargreaves-Bird
cells are described in outline in Perry, op. cit.
Mercury Cells. As in the diaphragm cells, the graphite anodes evolve
the chlorine from the brine solution. The cathode is a moving pool of
mercury and the sodium from the brine solution is deposited in it to for m
an amalgam. This amalgam is transferred either intermittently or con-
306
tinuously to a separate decomposing chamber where, under contact with

water, graphite grids, and the accelerating action of an electric couple,
the dissolved sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide. Simultaneously, hydrogen is evolved at the grids. Contamination from the brine
feed of the sodium hydroxide is almost entirely eliminated because the
Chlorine ouflef,
Cafhode
connecfion
I-
"Brine reed
"
_/
,,
Brine
level
indicafor
Hydrogen
ouffef
Cafhode
~_screen
FIG. 9. Vorce cell, elevation and cross section.
caustic is formlld in an operation completely removed. This makes it possible for1rayon manufacturers to 'employ this caustic directly while that
obtained from diaphragm cells must be further purified. Another advantage is that the caustic is up to five times as concentrated as the 10 to
15 per cent produced from the diaphragm cells, thus cheapening the evaporation operation.
307
DIAPHRAGM CELLS
The Castner cell, as operated by Mathieson Chemical Corporation, was

one of the first successful mercury cells. It consists of a concrete box 4 ft.
iong, 4 ft. wide, and 6 in. deep, which is divided into three compartment.s
by partitions that extend to within 716 in. of the bottom. A layer of mercury as an intermediary cathode is on the bottom and separates yet
connects the three compartments. In the outer compartments several
T-shaped graphite anodes extend withIn an inch of the mercury. The
inner compartment contains an iron grid which is the cathode. To start
the cell, the two outer sections are filled with brine and the center division with water. The cell is pivoted at one end and rests on an eccentric
at the other end, which rocks the mercury back'and forth between the
compartments about once every minute. "When the "amalgam flows into
the water compartment, the sodium reacts to give caustic soda and hydrogen. Salt is added continuously to the brine, and the caustic is drawn
off when it reaches a desired concentration. Ten per cent of the current
is shunted around the cathode compartment to prevent oxidation of the
mercury to HgO. The current at the anode is 630 amp. with a voltage
of 4.3. A newer cell operated by this same company is the Mathieson cell.
This is an American version of the horizontal mercury cell, largely developed in Germany during the Second World War, but requires less
floor space and has a lower energy consumption. l
The De Nora mercury cell is a long, narrow steel trough lined with
syenite, a chemically resistant stone. Suspended in the trough are blocks
of dense graphite which serve as anodes. The cathode is a thin film of
mercury flowing along the bottom of the trough. Brine floWfl on top of
the mercury and is decomposed by the electric current passing between
the mercury and graphite electrodes releasing 97 to 98 per cent chlorine
gas. Operating data for this cell are: current, 30,000 amp.; voltage across
cell, 4.3 volts; current efficiency, 94 to 96 per cent; and temperature, 60
to 75C. The first major installation in the United States of this cell was
at Muscle Shoals, Ala., in 1952.2 The Dow, Solvay, I.C.I., and Wyandotte
mercury cells are also operating successfully.
Many chemical or nonelectrolytic processes for chlorine manufacture
have been proposed,3 although only one, the Solvay nitrosyl chloride
process at Hopewell, Va., is i~ commercial operation. Common salt is
treated with nitric acid to form: sodium nitrate and chlorineWith nitrosyl
chloride (containing 4 to 10 per cent nitrogen tetroxide) as a by-product.
The nitrosyl chloride vapor is contacted with oxygen to produce nitrogen
tetroxide and chlorine: 2NOCl
O 2 ---+ N 20 4
Cb. After liquefying and
I
1 GARDINER, New Mercury Cell Makes Its Bow, Chem. Eng., 64 (ll), 108 (1947).
2 ANON., Acres of De Nora Chlorine Cells, Chem. Eng., 69 (8), 146 (1952).
3 JOHNSONTE, Chlorine Production Nonelectrolytic Processes, Chem. Eng. ProgT.,
44,657 (1948);
ANON., Indirect Electrolytic Process Makes Chlorine Cheaply from
By-product HCI, Chern. Inds., 66, 501, (1950).
ct.
308
TABLE 5. How THE UNITED STATES MAKES CHLORINE B

Tons per day
Diaphragm celis, total. .....................
Hooker Type S and Hooker-Columbia ......
Hooker Type 8-3 and 8-3A ................
Dow filter-press cell ......................
Other diaphragm cells, including Diamond,
Gibbs, Vorce, etc .......................
Mercury cathode cells, including Castner,
Mathieson, de Nora, Dow, Solvay, I.C.I.,
Wyandotte ..............................
Fused-salt cells .............................
Chemical processes .........................
Total. ..................................
B
Per cent of total
8,400
78.6
3,500
1,300
2,700
32.8
12.2
25.3
900
8.3
1,550
600
135
10.685
--
14.5
5.7
1.2
iOO.O
ANON., 'Trend to Bigger Cells, Chern. Eng., 69 (11), 234 (1952).

TABLE 6. How HOOKER CELLS PERFORM'
Type S
Types 8-3 and 8-3)(

//
Current, amp ............................. 10,000

Volts ....................................
3.75
Temperature of effluent, C .................
94
NaOH in effluent, per cent .................
11.30
NaClO, per 1,000 parts NaOH ..............
1.0
Current efficiency, per cent .................
96.0
Power consumption, kw-hr. per ton Cl, ...... 2,690
Average anode life, days ....................
360
Lb. graphite per ton Cb ....................
6.7
Average diaphragm life, days ................
120
C1. per cell per day, tons ................... 0.333
NaOH per cell per day, tons ......... '....... 0.367
Ch per sq. ft. of floor space .............. ; ..
9.0
15,000 ",20-,000
,3.65
3.4
91
95
<11.1
11.65
1.0
1.0
95.5
96.0
2,440
2,610
425
360
7.8
6.9
140
120
0.500
0.667
0.564
0.750
15.7
11.8
24,000
3.85
97
11.8
1.0
96.0
2,760
300
6.9
JOO
0.800
0.900
18.9
ANON., Trend to Bigger Cells, Chern. Eng., 69 (11), 236 (1952).
distilling the chlorine out, the nitrogen tetroxide is -absorbed in water

to make nitric and nitrous acids which are recycled: N 20 4 + H 20 ~
HNO a + HN0 2. The advantage of this process is that it produces chlorine but no caustic soda. The limited demand for sodium nitrate regulates the amount of chlorine that can be made in this way. The over.,all
reactions may be simplified as follows:
3NaCI + 4HNO a ~ 3NaNO a + CI, + NOCI + 2H 20
2NOCI + 3HN0 2 + 30 2 + H 2 0 ~ 5HNO. + Cb
309
BLEACHING POWDER
BLEACHING POWDER
A decreasing tonnage of chlorine goes into the production of bleaching

powder largely because of its instability and the large proportion of inert
material. The reaction by which bleaching powder is made is
O-Cl
Ca(OHh
+ Cb~ Ca<
.H 20
Cl
This reaction is carried out below 50C. in a countercurrent fashion by
passing chlorine through a rotating steel cylinder with inner lifting blades
which shower the solid in the path of the gas. When allowed to stand in
the air, the bleaching powder absorbs carbon dioxide. (Other inorganic
acids will also liberate the HOCl.)
2CaCl(OC1)
+ CO + H 0
2HCIO
CaCh + CaCO a + 2HCIO

2HCl + O2
However, simply on standing, the following decomposition takes place:
When dissolved in water, the reaction gives ionized calcium chloride and
hypochlorite.
2CaCl(OC1)
Ca++
+ 2Cl- + Ca++ + 20Cl-
The OC1- ion decomposes, liberat.ing oxygen. We say that, in general,

bleaching powder is an oxidizing agent. However, its activity is measured in what is termed available chlorine, which is, by definition, the same
weight as that of gaseous or liquid chlorine that would exert the same
action as the chlorine compound in question. In case of bleaching powder, CaOCh, the available chlorine is the same as the percentage of
chlorine, but in case of calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OC1)2, the available
chlorine is twice the percentage (49.6) of chlorine in Ca(OClh or 99.2 per
cent. This is another ';Yay of saying that 1 mole of Cb is equivalent in
oxidizing power to 1 rriole of HOCI, or to the ion OC1-. Bleaching powder by this conventio~ contains about 35 or less per cent of available
chlorine when freshly manufactured. The available chlorine concept may
be further explained by the reactions:
For calcium
hypochlorit~:
+ 2HCl ~ CaCb + 2HOCI

Ca(OC1)2 ~ Ca++ + 20Cl-
Ca(OClh
or
310
One mole of bleaching powder will furnish only half this amount of OCIions.
For chlorine:
Calcium hypochlorite,l Ca(OCI)2, itself may be made in several ways.
One method that has been used is the chlorination of calcium hydroxide
as in the manufacture of bleaching powder, followed by the separation of
the calcium hypochlorite through salting out from solution with sodium
chloride. It is also manufactured by the formation under refrigeration of
the salt, Ca(OCI)2NaOCINaCl-l2H20,l which is prepared by the chlorinatiDn of a mixture of sodium and calcium hydroxides. This is reacted
with a chlorinated lime slurry, filtered to remove salt, and dried, resulting finally in a stable product containing 65 to 70 per cent Ca(OCI)2. The'
final reaction is
2[Ca(OCI)2'NaOCI'NaCl-12H 20]
+ CaCh + Ca(OCI)2---+
4Ca(OClh'2H 0' + 4NaCI + 16H 20
2
The great advantage in calcium hypochlorite is that it does not de~

compose on standing as does bleaching powder. It is also twiC'e as strong
as ordinary bleaching powder, and it is not hygroscopic.
SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE
Sodium hypochlorite is employed as a disinfectant and deodorant in

dairies, creameries, water supplies, sewage disposal, and for household
purposes. It is also used as a bleach in laundries. During the First World
War, it was employed for treatment of wounds as a stabilized isotonic
solution. As a bleaching agent, it is very useful on cotton, linen, jute,
artificial silk, paper pulp, and oranges. Indeed much of the chlorine
bought for bleaching cellulose products is converted into sodium hypochlorite before use. The most common method for making it is the treatment of sodium hydroxide solution with gaseous chlorine.
/
Ch
+ 2Na'OH ---+ NaCI + H 20 + NaOCI
The other once widely 'used method was the electrolysis of a concentrated salt solution wherein the same product was made. These electrolytic cells do not have any diaphragm and are operateCl at high current
density in nearly neutral solution. The cells are designed to function at
a low temperature and to bring the cathode caustic soda solution in contact with the chlorine given off at the anode.
I
MACMULLIN and TAYLOR, U.S. Pat. 1787048 (1930); AVERY and EVANS, Modified
MgO Process Yields MgCI2 and Calcium Hypochlorite, Chern. & Met. Eng., 62 (4), 94
(1945), with pictured flow sheet p. 130.
1
311
SELECTED REFERENCES
SODIUM CHLORITE
Sodium chlorite, NaCI0 2 , was introduced in 1940 by the Mathieson

Chemical Corporation. The 80 per cent commercial material has about
125 per cent" available chlorine." It is manufactured ' from chlorine
through calcium chlorate to chlorine dioxide, ending with the reaction
4N~aOH
+ Ca(OH)2 + C + 4CI0
4NaCI0 2
+ CaCO a + 3H 0
2
After filtering off the calcium carbonate, the solution of NaCI0 2 is evapofated _arid drum-dried. Sodium chlorite is a powerful but stable oxidizingagent. It is capable of bleaching much of the coloration in cellulosic
materials without tendering the cellulose. Hence it finds use in the pulp
and textile industries, particularly in the final whitening of kraft paper.
Besides being employed as an oxidizer, sodium chlorite is also the source
of another chlorine compound, chlorine dioxide, through the reaction
NaCI0 2
+ YzCh ~ NaCI + CI0
Clilorine dioxide has 2}2' times the oxidizing power of chlorine and is
important in water purification 2 and for odor control.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Hou, T. P., "Manufacture of Soda," 2d cd., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1942.
BADGE_R, W. L., and E. M. Baker, "Inorganic Chemical Techn9!ogy," 2d ed., McGrawHIli Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941.
Mantell, C. L., "Industrial Electrochemistry," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Perry, J. H., editor-in-chief, "Chemical Engineers' Handbook," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, especially Alkaline Chloride Electrolysis, pp.
1806-1810; Evaporation, pp. 500-522.
Kortiim, G., and J. O. M. Bockris, "Textbook of Electrochemistry," 2 vols., Elsevier
Press, Inc., New Yor~, 1951.
I TAYLOR, et al., Sodiuni Chlorite, Properties and Reactions, Ind. Eng. Chern., 32,
899 (1940); HOLST, Produ<ition of Sodium Chlorite, Ind. Eng. Chern., 42, 2359 (1950).
2 VINCENT, et al., Two New Chlorine Compounds, J. Chern. Educ., 22, 283 (1945).
I
I.
I
I
I
CHAPTER
16
Electrical energy is extensively consumed by the chemical process industries not only to furnish power through electrical motors but to give
rise to elevated temperatures and directly to cause chemical change. Energy in the form of electricity causes chemical reactions to take place in
the electrolytic industries presented in this chapter. The heat produced
thereby is the basis for the high temperature required in the electrothermal industries, which will be discussed in Chap. 17. Most of the electrolytic processes have been developed since the First World War and
few of them are older. The materials manufactured by the aid of electricity vary from chemicals that are also produced by other methods,
such as caustic soda, hydrogen, and magnesium, to chemicals that at
present cannot be made economically in~ any other way, such as aluminum and calcium carbide. See Table 2 for chemicals and metals made
electrochemically.
TABLE 1. TYPICAL POWER COSTS FROM WATER POWER EXCEPT WHERE
OTHERWISE N OTEDo
Cents per kw.-hr.
New York Harbor (steam) ...............
Norway ............................. ,.
Sweden ................................
England. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Germany (brown coal) ..... .-. . . . . . . . . . ..
Niagara Falls ..........................
Tennessee (steain) .................... ,.
Ontario, Canada ........................
/
4
0.67-1.3
0.1 -1.5
0.1 -1.5
0.4 -{). 5
0.38
0.3 up
O. 38-{). 6
0.15-{).4
PERRY, op. cit., p. 1825, abridged.
The cost of electrical power is usually the deciding ifactor in the electrochemical industries. Thus, these industries have tended to become
established in regions of cheap electrical power based on falling water,
as at Niagara Falls and in ~orway. The recent establishment of new
areas of abundant and inexpensive electricity in the West and Northwest points the way to the growth of electrochemical industries in those
rcgiolls. Typical power costs in various parts of the United States and
312
313
TART.l'l
2.
Material
CHl'lMICALS AND Ml'lTAI,S MADl'l ELECTROCHEMICALLyB
Process
Kw.-hr.
per lh.
Voltage
Yearly
per cell
by.-hr.
or furconsumed
nace
1-1.5 100-110
Alumina, fused ........... Electrothermal fusion
)
Electrolytic reductiOl) of
10-12
5.5-7
Aluminum ..." ;..............
alumina to aluminum
Ammonia, synthetic ...... Electrolytic hydrogen;
6.5
........
pressure hydrogenation
Cadmium ............... Electrolytic precipita0.8
2.6
tion of zinc-lead residues
Calcium ................. Electrothermal reduc22-24 . ...... .
tion
Calcium carbide .......... Electrothermal reduc1.3-1.4 ........
,
tion
Calcium eyanamid ........ Electrothermal reduc1.4
........
tion
Carbon disulfide .......... Electrothermal reaction 0.4-0.5
60
Caustic soda chlorine ..... ElectrolysiR of hrine
1.1-1.5 3.4-4.3
Copper .................. Copper electrowinnin;!;
1-1.5 1. 9-2.4
Copper .................. Electrolytic refining
0.09-0.16 0.18-0.4
Ferrochromium, 70% ..... Electrothermal smelting
9(}-120
2-3
Ferromanganese, 80 % .... Electrothermal rpduc9(}-ll5
1.5-3
tion
Ferromolybdenum, 50 % .. Electrothermal smelting.
5(}-150
3-4/
Ferrosilicon, 50 % ......... Electrothermal smelting
2-3.5
75-150
Ferrotungsten, 70 % ...... Electrothermal smelting 1.5-2
9(}-120
and refining
Ferrouranium ............ Electrothermal smelting
3-5
........
Ferrovanadium ........... Electrothermal smelting
2-3.5 150-250
Gold, .................... Electrolytic refining
0.15
1.3-1.6
Graphite ................ Electrothermal change
1.5-2.0
8(}-200
Hydrogen and oxygen ... '.. Electrolysis of alkalized 140'>
... .....
water
Hypochlorite ............ ,. Electrolysis of salt solu- . . . . . . . . . ... .....
tion with mixing
Iron ................... 1. Reduction in arc furnace
1-1.25 ........
-.
Iron castings ............ j' Electric melting
duplex system
0.07 ........
0.225
continuous...........
Iron, sponge ............ ;. Electrothermallow-tem0.2
........
perature reduction
Lead ................... ,. Electrolytic refining
0.04-0.05 0.35-0.6
Mal!:nesillm, metallic .....~. Electrolysis of mag~e8-13
6--7
sium chloride
Phosphoric acid ........ , . Electrothermal reduc2.7
........
:
tion to phosphorus;
oxidation
"
Large
Very large
Large
Small
I
Small
Very large
Large
Large
Very large
Large
Very large
Large
Very small
Small
Very large
Small
Very small
Small
Very small
Large
Small
Medium
None
Very small
Ver-y:small
Small
Very large
I
Large
314
TABLE 2. CHEMICALS AND METALS MADE ELECTROCHEMICALLy a (Continued)
Material
Process
Phosphorus .............. Electrothermal reduction

Potassium chlorate. . . . . .. Electrolysis of potassium chloride solution
(mixing)
Potassium hydroxide. . . .. Electrolysis of potassium chloride solution
Quartz, fused ............ Electrothermal fusion
Silicon .................. Electrothermal reduction
Silicon carbide ........... Electrothermal reduction
Silver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Electrolytic refining
Sodium, metallic ......... Electrolysis of fused sodium chloride
Sodium chlorate ......... . Electrolysis of sodium
chloride solution (mixing)
Steel castings ........... . Electric melting cold
charge
Steel ingot .............. . Electric mplting or refining or supcrrefining of
molten charge
Zinc ................... . Electrolytic precipitation
Kw.-hr.
per lb.
Voltage
Yearly
per cell
kw.-hr.
or furconsumed
nace
4-5.5 ........ Large

3
.. ,
..... Small
1-1.2 ........ Small

5-8
6
3.2-3.85
. . . . . . . . Small
........ Small
,
75..:.230 Large
0.15-;:0,.37 2.7-3.5 Very small

7.1~7.3 ........ Large
2.55-13.0 2.8-3.5 Small
0.25-0 38 ..... , ~ "Large

0.1
...
,~,
.... Large
1. 4-1. 56 3.5-3.7 Very large
a Ba'sEid on House Document 103, 73d Congress, as reported in Chem. & Met. Eng.,
44, 539 (1937.), and supplemented by Mantell's tabulation in PERRY, op. cit., p. 1825.
Other c.hemicals made electrolytically: li\hium, fluorine, fluorocarbons, tin (pure),
manganese, titanium, nickel (pure), hydrogen peroxide"organic chemicals.
b Kw.-hr. per M cu. ft.
lother countries are given in Table 1, while Table 2 lists the kilowatthours needed to produce 1 lb. of the various materials~
Landis writes, I "The ~lectrochemical process has completely revolutionized the production of certain primary products and at such lowered
cost as to permit the development of new secondary industries utilizing
these cheaper raw materials." Examples of such lowered costs are for
.
chlorine, sodium, and hydrogen peroxide, as well as for aluminum.
Direct current is used in the' electrochemical industries. Since 1938 the
single~anode mercury-arc rectifier is used in 90 per cent of the electro1 FURNAS, editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., p. 479, D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942. Italics in quotation lire by Shreve.
ALUMINUM
315
chemical industries to convert alternating current into direct current. l

The balance is divided between motor-generator sets, synchronous converters, and multianode rectifiers. A recent development in the aluminum industry is the use of direct-current generators actuated by gas
engines. 2
ALUMINUM
Aluminum is potentially the most ahundant metal in the world. It

C/
makes up 8.05 per cent df the solid portion of the earth's crust. Every
country posr::;esses large supplies of aluminum-containing materials, but
as yet prot:esses-'f(;"r obtaining metallic aluminum from most of these compO\l.D~,, are not' economical.
History. Although Wohler is usually credited with the first production
t:;:o'f metallic aluminum in 1827, this metal was actually first obtained in
1825 by Oersted, a Dane. He heated aluminum chloride with a potassium-mercury amalgam. In 1845, Henri Sainte-Claire Deville produced
aluminum from sodium-aluminum ('hloride by heating with metallic sodium. This process was operated for about 35 years and the metal sold
for $100 a pound. By 1886 the price had been reduced to $8 a pound,
chiefly by reason of the use of cryolite as a flux in the bath, the lowered
cost of the metailic sodium needed for the reduction, and the iI\lprovements in the equipment.
Large-scale manufacture of aluminum was not achieved until the advent of the, Hall process. In 1886, Charles Hall produced the first aluminum by the present-day process: electrolysis of alumina dissolved in a
fused bath of cryolite. The same year Paul Hcroult was granted a French
patent for a process similar to that of Hall. He was not able, to obtain a
United States patent, however, as Hall's patcnts were granted the priority.3 By 1893, the productioll of aluminum had increased so rapidly by
Hall's procedure that the price had fallcn to $2 per pound. The industry
grew steadily, based soundly on new and expanding markets, created
largely by its own st]ldy of the properties of aluminum and of the avenues for economic consumption of this lIew metal. With this growth in
manufacture came a 'decrease in cost which the Aluminum Company of
America largely pass~d on to its customers, even-reducing the price first
to 17 cents per pound ,and then to 15 cents per pound (1943-1947 average). The price in 19~4 was 20 cents per pound.
Economics and Uses. Consumption of aluminum is increasing very
rapidly (Table 3) and has not reached the demands of domestic and governmental needs. Table
4 exhibits the main avenues of distribution.
I,
I
and OLSON, How Today's Conversion Devices Fit into Process Needs,
Chem. Eng., 67 (5), 133 (1950).
2 ANON., Gas Makes Power for Ahuuilllllll, CheJII, Eng" 57 (i), 102 (1950).
3 VAX DoaEN, Studies in Chemical' Patent Procedure, Ind. Eng. Chern., 21, 120
(1929).
1 eOEN
316
TABLE 3. ApPARENT CONSUMPTION OF PRIMARY ALUMINUM, TONS.
Year
Sold or
used by
producers
1943-1947 (average)
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
633,876
625,834
587,532
731,087
845,392
938,181
1,252,000
Imports
net
Apparent
consumption
-----
47,651
40.041
48,424
167,249
129,870
134,505
344,300
678,529
684,575
625,956
893,386
975,262
1 ,(}O72 ,686
1.542,200
"Minerals Yearbook," 1952, 1953.

TABLE 4. DISTRIBUTION OF ALUMINUM FOR 1952
I Per cent
Transportation: land, sea, air ... 1
Construction, building ......... 1
Electric, electronic ............ '1
Consumer durables... . . . . . . .. .
32
15
13
10
Per cent
Destructive uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machinery, equipment. . . . . . . .
Packaging, containers. . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous... . . . . . . .. . . . . .
6
6
4
14
"Minerals Yearbook," 1952.
The unusual combination of li!!;htness and strength makes aluminum

applicable for many uses that other metals cannot fill. Weight for weight,
aluminum has twice the conductivity of copper and it also has a high
ductility at elevated temperatures. Aluminum is commonly alloyed with
other metals, such as copper, magnesium, zinc. silicon, chromium, and
manganese and thus has its usefulness increased.'l ~Ietallir aluminum or
aluminum alloys are employed for structural shapes for aircraft, automobiles, trucks, and railway cars, for electrical conductors, and for cast
~nd forged structural parts.
Manufacture. Metallic aluminum is produced by the electrolytic reduction of pure alumina in a bath of fused cryolite. The production of the
pure alumina will be discussed in Chap. 21.2 It is not possible to reduce
alumina with carbon because at the temperature required for this reduction the aluminum comes off as a vapor and is carried away with the
carbon monoxide. This metallic vapor cannot be condensed by cooling
because the r~action reverses at lower temperatures and thus converts the
FRARY, The Aluminum Industry, Chem. Eng. News, 20, 1646 (1!)42); FRARY,
Economics of Aluminum Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 28, 146 (1936).
2 A:-WN., Making Alumina, Chem. & 1I1et. Eng., 47,707 (1940), pictured flow sbeet.
I
317
MANUFACTURE
aluminum back to alumina. The energy change involved in the reaction 1

Ll.H = +235,000 cal.
amounts practically to around 10 kw.-hr. per lb. Consequently this metal

cannot be made economically unless low-priced electrical energy is available. The carbon for the reaction comes from the anode, fo'r which is required from 0.6 to 0.7 lb. of carbon per pound of metal. The carbon dioxide evolved contains from 10 to 50 per cent carbon monoxide.
The unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.) involved in the production of metallic aluminum are as follows:
The cryolite bath is prepared (Pr.).
Alumina is dissolved in the molten cryolite bath (Op.).
The molten solution of alumina in cryolite is electrolyzed to form meta,llic
aluminum (Pr.).
The carbol!_!ilectrode is oxidized by the oxygen liberated (Pr.).
The molteh ahiminum is tapped off and cooled (Op.).
The cells used for the reduction are made of steel, lined with firebrick,
and covered with carbon to conduct the current,2 as depicted in Fig. 1.
/Frozen crusf
of e/ecfrolyfe
and a/um/na
,Clay seal ror
I
Tnefal ouflef
FIG. 1. Electrolytic aluminum cell.
The anodes are made from a mixture of coke, pitch, and tar and extend
to within about 2 in. of lthe molten aluminum in the bottom of the cell.
As they are gradually consumed by the oxygen liberated, they are hung
from an overhead bar so that they may be lowered as needed. For new
I
"
Some CO is formed. This reaction requires more energy.

2 MANTELL, "Industrial :Electrochemistry," 3d ed., p. 480, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York,' 1950; KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 602; FRARY,
The Electrolytic Production of Aluminum, Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 94 (1),31 (1948).
1
318
facilities, the trend is toward continuous self-baking electrodes (Soderburg type). Any impurities in the anodes would be liable to contaminate
the metal. The molten aluminum metal that gathers on the bottom serves
as the cathode for the cell. The bottom of the cell is slanted to permit the
metal to be tapped off daily or it is removed by siphoning.
The" solvent" for the alumina is fused cryolite, AIF s3N aF, obtained
from Greenland or manufactured synthetically by the action of hydrofluoric acid on aluminum hydroxide in the presence of soda. Fluorspar is
introduced into the bath to lower the melting point. The average bath
has the following approximate composition: 2AIF s6NaFCaF 2 The
alumina to be reduced is added to the molten cryolite at such intervals
as to maintain a 3 to 6 per cent dissolved alumina content in the bath at
all times.
If the bath fails to wet the carbon anode the resistance of the cell
increases, causing a signal lamp shunted across the cell to increase in
brightness. Additional alumina is then stirred in. The melted cryolite is
covered with a blanket of alumina which rests on a crust of frozen electrolyte. This alumina is thus preheated before being- dissolved in the bath.
The carbon dioxide and monoxide by-products are vented off through
hoods.
The tendency for the aluminum metal formed to sink to the bottom of
the cell is the result of careful control of the density of the various layers
of the bath. At a temperature of 1000C., the specific gravity of molten
cryolite is 2.095; molten aluminum, 2.29. The aluminum, being heavier,
can thus be easily tapped off the bottom of the cell. The theoretical voltage for reduction of the alumina is 2.0 volts, but in actual practice, 5.5 to
7' \;olts are ,necessary per cell. The cells are connected in series of about
100, and the amperage of eaeh cell is approximately 50,000. The more
current that, ean be used ip a cell, the lower the cost of producing the
aluminum' as the labor is about the same, but 'the higher the amperage,
the more mechanical and handling difficulties. A furnace 8 by 4 by 4 ft.
produces about 120 lb. of aluminum -per day. The energy consumption is
/ ahout 10 kw.-hr. per lb. of aluminum.
For electrical establishments such as those manufacturing aluminum,
large to!lnages of copper. are ordinarily required for bus bars, electrical
wiring, motors, and other such demands. During the national emergency
of the Second World War, the silver ordinarily store4 in the vaults at
'West Point was lent to the extent of thousands of tons to lessen demands
for ('opper. I
_
Alumillum is refined electrolytically. A copper-aluminum alloy in contact }vith carbon forms the anode of the cell, the cathode is purified molten
aluminum, and the electrolyte is a layer of fused cryolite, aluminum
1 JOLLY,
(1942).
The Hecent Expansion of the Aluminum Industry, Science, 96 (2480), 29
HISTORY
319
fluoride, and barium fluoride. The anode alloy, electrolyte, and cathode
aluminum are arranged vertically in a three-layer system. The differences
in specific gravity of each layer maintain their separate identity. The pure
aluminum is dissolved from the anode and deposited on the cathode. 1
The purity of this aluminum is 99.90 to 99.99 per cent. The highly refined
aluminum is appreciably softer than ordinary aluminum. Many alloys2 of
aluminum are emplo~d to give greater strength or hardness. These are
important because of their pleasing appearance, corrosion resistance, and
strength per unit of weight. The latter property makes aluminum and its
alloys of the utmost necessity for the manufacture of airplanes.
MAGNESIUM
"/ ' _Ma~nesium is a very light silvery white metal which has achieved wide~ -'spread industrial use. Magnesium is the eighth element in order of occurrence in the~world. The raw materials are widely distributed throughout
the globe, particularly as sea water is a practical and very important
source for magnesium compounds. Hence there need never be any shortage of the economical raw materials for magnesium metal and most of its
salts. Magnesium salts are presented in Chap. II.
History. Although metallic magnesium was first isolated by Bussy in
1829, its existence was discovered by Davy in 1808. Uses for this metal
were slow in being developed. As late as 1918 almost all of the magnesium
produced was used for flashlight powder, although during the First World
War part of the production was consumed in pyrotechnics. The United
States output in 1918 was only 284,118 lb. and this quantity dropped
sharply as soon as the war was over.3 During the next 15 years intensive
research brought forth many new uses for magnesium. By 1930 it was
being fabricated into complicated castings, sheets, and forgings, and a
method of welding it was' also perfected. Extremely lightweight, strong
magnesiu~ alloys of great importance to the aircraft industry were developed during the period 1930-1940. 4 The demands of the Second World
War for better and lighter airplanes were met by these light magnesium
alloys. Consequently magnesium production was expanded tremendously
to meet this new dem~nd and also to supply the !!laterial for incendiary
bombs. Some representative magnesium alloys are Dowmetal H: 1\1, 6.5
1 FRARY, Electrolytic Refining of Aluminum, Trans. Am. Electrochern. Soc., 47, 275
(1925); EDWARDS, Contributions of Aluminum to Metallurgical Progress, Metal Progr.,
29,234 (1936); KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 604.
, PERRY, op. cit., pp. Ip27, 1542, tabulates such alloys.
3 KILLEFFER, Magnesium from the Sea, Ind. Eng. Chem., News Ed., 19,1189 (1941).
For an extens'ive rJview of the corrosion-resistant properties of magnesiumaluminum alloys, see BENSON and MEARS, Aluminum-magnesium Alloys Resist
Attack, Chem. & Met. E~., 49 (1), 88 (1942).
320
per cent; Mn, 0.2 per cent; Zn, 3.0 per cent; Mg, the rest; and Dowmetal
M: Mn, 1.5 per cent, with Mg the rest.
Uses and Economics. The primary use for magnesium is in the production of lightweight structural alloys. Magnesium is especially important
in wartime for this reason and for incendiary bombs, flashlight powder,
and flares. An important postwar demand for this metal has been anodes
for protection against corrosion of other metals. In 1951, 2,000 tons of
magnesium went into the ground and into sea-water installations to protect pipe lines, flumes, and steel piling and 1,200 tons went into home
water-heater anodes.
During the Second World War, magnesium production averaged over
100,000 tons yearly; it then dropped to around 10,000 tons annually but
with the rearmament demand rose to 93,075 tons for 1953. About onethird is produced by Dow Chemical Co. at Freeport, Tex., with the rest
coming from the government-owned plants. As usual in the development
of a material from a relative rarity to a tonnage article, the price of
'magnesium dropped from $1.81 per pound in 1918 to approximately 27
cents per pound in 1954.
Manufacture. The cheapest method of making magnesium is by the
electrolytic process which is the only one used except in cases of national
emergency. During the Second World W ar magnesium_was~made by two
other processes: the silicothermic or ferrosilicon process and the carbon
reduction process. Figure 2 depicts simplified flow sequences for all three
processes. Demands. for magnesium have again caused the silicothermicprocess plants to be reactivated. The carbon reduction process never
operated satisfactorily and the-piant has been completely closed for a
number of y'ears.!
---~
Electrolysis of Magnesium Chloride. The magnesium chloride needed
is obtained (1) from salines,2 (2) from brine wells, (3) from the reaction of
magnesium hydroxide (from sea water or dolomite) with hydrochloric
acid, and (4) from the reaction of magnesium oxide with carbon and
chlorine.
The pioneer producer, Dow Chemical Co., at Freeport, Tex., makes
IJlagnesium by electrolyzing magnesium chloride from sea water, using
oystershells for the lime needed. The oystershells,' which are almost pure
calcium carbonate, are burned to lime, slaked, and mixed with the sea
water, thus precipitating magnesium hydroxide (Fig. 3 ~nd,also Chap. 11).
This magnesium hydroxide is filtered off and treated with hydrochloric
acid, prepared from natural gas and the chlorine evolved from the cells.
This forms a magnesium chloride solution which is evaporated to solid
magnesium chloride in direct-fired evaporators followed by shelf drying.
For further description and references, see 1st ed. of this book, pp. 310-311.
MANNING and KIRKPATRICK, Better Utilization of Mineral Resources through New
Chemical Technology, Chern. Met. Eng., 61(5), 92 (1944), with pictured flow sheet.
1
....u2
=>
11.1
Do!
z~
oUJ
UU
~g
",a.
I
Do!
'"
UJ
U.
~,;::
Ju
~
=>",
0",
L1.II1.I
Ql.U
z~
oa.
.~
CO
....,
Qt
<{
U
....S0
...=
.51
"::s
"0
8~
\0
...
,h
u
+
u
L
::>
in
L&J
Z
I!)
<{
l:UJ
o
u.iii
",-'
_x
"'u
>-'
00
.,
.,'"'"
"...0
....0
U1
n
I]
0+
:ex
uu
.,
...
:.@
<5
C'i
Do!
....U
._
II) e;::;
=QJo--
11.1
~I:a:
~L
-'
CIIOO-
321
322
After thorough drying the magnesium chloride! is fed to the Dow electrolytic cell where it is decomposed into the metal and chlorine gas.
These cells are large, rectangular ceramic-lined steel pots, 5 ft. wide,
11 ft. long, and 6 ft. deep with a capacity of about 10 tons molten magnesium chloride and salts. The internal parts of the cell act as the cathode
FIG. 3. Magnesium metal from sea water-Dow process.
and there are 22 graphite anodes suspended vertically in the top of the
cell. Sodium chloride ,is added to the bath to lower the melting point and
also to increase the conductivity. The salts are kept molten by the electriq
current used to extract the magnesium plus external heat supplied by gasfired outside furnaces. The usual operating tempe~ature is 7iooe. which

-..' ~
,11.
IS suffiCIent to melt the magneslUmc(m:p. 651 e.). Each cell operates at
about 6 volts and 30,000 to 70,000 amp. with a current efficiency of about
80 per cent. The power requireriifmts are 8 kw.-hr. per lb. of magnesium
produced.\The molten magnesium is liberated at the cathode and rises to
the bath surface where troughs lead to the metal wells in the front of the
cell. The 99.9 per cent pure magnesium metal is dipped out slveral timis
during the day, each dipperful containing enough metal to fill an I8-lb.
ingot mold. 2
Silicothermic or Ferrosilicon Process. 3 During the Second W orId War
the United States government financed construction of six silicothermic
plants with a total rated capacity of'70,000 tons per year. The cost of
IrAagnesium then produced by this process averaged 27.4 cents per pound
as compared with 18.2 cents per pound for electrolytic. After the war when
normal peacetime competition returned, these plants- were mothballed
until th,e Korean situation developed. The essential reaction of this
1 MANTELL, op. cit., pp. 505ff.; ANON., Magnesium from Sea Water, Chem. & Met.
Eng., 48 (11), 130 (1941), pictured flow sheet; SCHAMBaA, The Dow Magnesium
Process at Freeport, Texas, Trans., Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 41, 35 (1945); GROSS,
"The Story of, Magnesium," American Society for Metals, Cleveland, 1949.
MANTELL, op. cit.; PERRY, op. cit., p. 1811, gives data and cross section of cell.
3 SCHRIER, Silico~hermic Magnesium Comes Back, Chem. Eng., 69 (4), 148 (1952),
with a pictured flow sheet, p. 212.
MANUFACTURE
323
process is as follows:
+ ~'6FeSi6 ----> 2Mg + (CaO)2Si02 + ~'6Fe
2(MgOCaO)
The process consists of mixing ground dead-burned dolomite with ground

ferrosilicon and pelleting. The pellets are charged into the furnace. High
vacuum and heat (2140F.) are applied. The calcium oxide present in the
burnt dolomite forms infusible dicalcium silicate that is easily removed
from the retort at the end of the run. The chrome-alloy retort is equipped
with a condenser tube with a removable lining. The reaction is run at
very high vacuum (100 to 150 microns Hg), and the magnesium that is
liberatea is collected on the lining of the condenser. At the end of the run
the furnace is partly cooled and the magnesium is removed from the condense~ by the differential's:ontraction of the magnesium and the steel. At
present much study is being-dev-oted to this batch operation to make it
continuous and possi~ly more .competitive.
SODIUMl
,.
Sodium is a silvery white, very active metal. It reacts violently with

water .and is usually preserved by storage under kerosene or preferably in
containers under a nitrogen blanket. About 137,000,000 lb. of sodium
enters anp.ually into the manufacture of tetraethyl lead, 50,000,000 lb.
into sodium cyanide, and 45,000,000 lb. for sodium alkyl sulfate, and
20,000,000 lb. fo/miscellaneous uses, e.g., Na 202, hydride descaling and
for making other metals as potassium (see Chap. 13)./The total production
is 250,000,000 lb. for 1953.
Manufacture. The most important method of preparation of sodium is
by the electrolysis of fused sodium chloride. Originally, most of the
metallic sodium was produced by the electrolysis of fused caustic soda,
but the salt process has supplanted this older process. This has the advantages that it uses a natural raw material, NaCI, instead of a manufactured
product, NaOH, and also that it produces a valuable by-product, chlorine.
The reaction involv,ed in this process is as follows:
2NaCI----> 2Na
+ Ch
The cell for this electrolysis consists of a closed, rectangular refractorylined steel box (see Fig. 4). The anode is made of carbon and the cathode
of iron. 2 The anode aAd cathode are arranged in separate compartments
to facilitate the rec~v~ry of the sodium and the chlorine. Sodium chloride
J
1 SITTIG,
"Sodium .. I, Its Manufacture, Properties and Uses," A.C.S. Monograph, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1955.
, DOWNS, Electrolytic ~)rocess and Cell, U.S. Pat. 1501756 (1924). Downs received
the Schoellkopf medal in ~ 934 for the development of this cell. ZABEl., Metallic Sodium,
Chern. [ndB . 66, 714 (1949).
324
has a high melting point (804C.), but calcium chloride is added to lower
this so that the cell is operated at 600C. The electrolyte is a eutectic of
33.2 per cent sodium chloride and 66.8 per cent calcium chloride. The
lower temperature increases the life of the refractory lining of the cell,
makes it easier to collect the chlorine, and prevents the sodium from forming a difficultly recoverable fog. A sodium-calcium mixture deposits at
FIG. 4. Down's sodium cell. A is the graphite anode, B is the iron cathode, F is the
dome for collecting the chlorine, and K the pipe for conducting this chlorine away.
G is the annular sodium collector with H and I as pipes to conduct this sodium to the
vessel J. Land M are metal screens supported by F and serving to separate the cell
products. C is the shell of the cell made of steel but lined with refractory bricks. N is
the charge port for salt and 0 is the bath level.
the cathode, but the solubility of calcium in sodium decreases with

decreasing temperatures so that t.he heavier calci~m crystals, which form
as the mixture is cooled, settle back to the bath. The crude sodium is
filtered at 105 to 110C. giving a sodium 99.9 per cent pure. This is frec;luently run molten into a nitrogen-filled tank car, allowed to solidify,
and shipped.
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Hydrogen peroxide,l H 20 2 , may be prepared by both electrolytic and

chemicaf methods. It is sold in water solution in concentrations of 3, 35,
and 90 per cent. Many new uses for this chemical are being currently
developed. Ai present it is widely employed as a bleach, for wood pulp,
1 REICHERT, Hydrogen Peroxide, Chern. Eng. News, 21, 480 (1943); ZOTOS, Hydrogen Peroxide, Chern. Eng., 68 (4), 114 (1951); SHANLEY and GREENSPAN, Highly
Concentrated Hydrogen Peroxide, Ind. Eng. Chern., 39, 1536 (1947).
325
MANUFACTURE
but particularly for animal products: silk, wool, feathers, fur, and hair; as
a mild antiseptic, in the manufacture of metallic peroxides and in the
making of "per" salts. The new 90 per cent solutions represent.a self-contained energy source which leaves no residues or corrosive toxic gases,
ideal for explosives, rocket propellants, and synthetic chemicals. Its
unique property is that water is the only by-product of its oxidizing
action. The rate of oxidation is much influenced by temperature, concentration, and the pH of the medium; buffers are added to control the pH
as the reaction proceeds (silicates, phosphates, or carbonates). Its sale
has so increased that tank-car shipments of the strong solutions are
common.
Manufacture. In the electrolytic methods of manufacture of hydrogen
peroxide, the active .oxygen is produced by the anodic oxidation of sulfate
radicals. These are supplieq in the electrolyte from sulfuric acid or alkali
sulfate. Pure sulfuric acid has""ihe.lowest current efficiency (70 to 75 per
cent) and a low concentration of'persulfuric acid is formed; however,
there is no trouble with crystallization as when ammonium sulfate is used.
Usually 80 per cent and more current efficiency is obtained with mixtures
of ammonium sulfate and sulfuric acid. The lower solubility of the resulting ammonium persulfate limits the allowable saturation in active oxygen
because of crystal formation which would block the cell. The stra~(/ht
liquid process is a closed system comprising both electrolytic and hydrolyzing plants. The electrolyte is fed into a typical electrolytic cell which
is held at 35C. or below with platinum metal for the anode:
/
The cell pmducts, i.e., the persalt or peracid, sulfuric acid, and water, are
then hydrolyzed at temperatures from 60 to lOOC. to yield hydrogen
pero'fide as shown by the following simplified over-all reactions:
H 2S 20 s + H 20 P H 2S04 + H 2S0 6
H 2S0 6 + H 20 p H 2S0 4 + H 20 2
In the potassium conversion'.process following the electrolysis, the ammonium persulfate is converted by potassium bisulfate to potassium persulfate and ammonium bisulfate.
Barium peroxide is not prepared electrolytically but by the passing of
dry air or oxygen ove~ barium oxide at 600C. This process may be
symbolized as follows:
BaCO a + C - BaO + 2CO
BaO + Y202 - B~02
'Ba02 + H 2S04 - BaS04 + H 20 2
I.
326
Another chemical method, developed in Germany during the Second

World War, utilizes an easily oxidizable material such as 2-ethyl-anthraquinone. The main reactions can be summarized as follows:
CQf ~ c6JEt ~ c6JEt

OIl
+ H,
+ 0,
II
OIl
+ H,D,
II
CHLORATES AND PERCHLORATES
Sodium chlorate is manufactured in large quantities (about 22,000

tons annually) as a weed. killer. It is also used in textile printing and
dyeing. It cannot be empfoy'ed in explosives because of its hygroscopicity.,~
although potassium chi'6rate (about 9,000 tons annuall.y\)s satisfactory
in explosives, matches, and fireworks. Sodium perchlorate docs not hav~
many commercial applications because of its extreme solubility in water
but is used to prepare potassium and ammonium perchlorates which arc
consumed in explosives.
Manufacture. Sodium chlorate is produced py the electrolysis of saturated acidulated brhie mixed with sodium dichromate (about 2 grams per
liter) to reduce the corrosive action of the hypochlorous acid liberated by
- -the hydrochloric acid present. Figure 5 shows the essential steps in the
Salt I sodium chloride)

Hydrochloric acid
Sodium dichromate
Barium chloride
"r"phite consumed
1,130 Ib
27 lb.
I lb.
131b
171b
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for manufacture of sodium chlorate.
production of this chemical. The brine solution is made from soft wateror condensate :from the evaporat~r and rock salt, and purified from any
Ca and ~Mg. The rectangular steel cell is filled with either the brine solution or recovered salt solution made from recovered salt containing
OTHER PRODUCTS
327
chlorate, dissolved in condensate from the evaporator. The temperature

of the cell is maintained at 40C.l by cooling water. The products of the
electrolysis are actually sodium hydroxide at the cathode and chlorine at
the anode but, as there is no diaphragm in the cell, mixing occurs and
sodium hypochlorite is formed which is then oxidized to chlorate. The
over-all reaction is
NaCI(aq)
+ 3H 0(l)
2
----+
NaCI0 3 (aq)
+ 3H2(g);
I1H = +223,900 cal.
The finished cell liquor is pumped to tanks where it is heated with live
steam to 90C. to destroy any hypochlorite present. The liquor is analyzed
to determine the chromate content, and the required amount of barium
chloride is introduced to precipitate almost all of the chromate present.
The graphite mud from the electrodes and the barium chromate settle to
the bottom of the tank, and the clear liquor is pumped through a sand
filter to evaporator storage tanks. The liquor in the storage tank is
neutralized with soda ash and is evaporated in a double-effect evaporator
until it contains approximately 700 grams per liter of sodium chlorate.
After evaporation, the liquor is allowed to settle to remove the sodium
chloride which constitutes the recovered salt and chlorate, to be used over
again. The settled liquid is filt~ed and cooled. This cooling requires 3 to
5 days, and the crystals of sodium chlorate are spun in a centrifugal and
dried.
Potassium perchlorate 2 is made by converting sodium chlorate into
sodium perchlorate in steel electrolytic cells which hav~ platinum anodes
and operate at 5.5 to 6.0 volts, 2,500 amp., and a temperature of 65C.
Filtered potassium chloride is added to the sodium perchlorate, precipitating potassium perchlorate crystals which are centrifuged, washed, and
dried. The mother liquor now contains sodium chloride which can be used
as cell feed for sodium chlorate manufacture.
~
OTHER PRODUCTS
Elsewhere in this book a .few electrolytic processes are presented as in

the special chapter (15) pertaining to caustic soda and chlorine. Electrolytic hydrogen and oxygen are included with the other procedures for
hydrogen in Chap. 8 on Industrial Gases. Mention is made of electrolytic
fluorine in Chap. 21.
)
1 ANON., Electrolytic Sodi.um Chlorate, Chem. Met. & Eng., 61 (11), 130 (1944), with
pictured flow sheet of plan~,of Pennsylvania Salt Mfg. Co., operating at 80 to 90C.
SCHUMACHER, Continuous Electrolytic Process for Perchlorate, Chern. & Met. Eng.,
61 (12), 108 (1944), with ~ pictured flow sheet; Chlorates and Perchlorates, Chern.
Eng. Progr., 43, 177 (1947)1
328
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Electroorganic chemical preparations are not of great commercial

importance at the present time, although the literature contains much
information on organic reactions that can be carried out by the aid of
electricity. 1 One of the few industrially important organic electrolytic
reactions was the production of mannitol and sorbitol from glucose; this
electrolytic reduction has been superseded by a cheaper catalytic hydrogenation (Chap. 30).
PRIMARY ANP SECONDARY CELLS
Chemical reactions can be utilized to convert chemical energy into

electrical energy, the .converse of the procedures presented ill the earlier
parts of this chapter. The chemical reaction can be caused to take place
in a unit specially designed for the purpose of obtaining the electrical
energy. These units are commonly called cells or batteries. 2 Primary cells
produce electricity by means of a chemical reaction that is not easily
reversible, and thus the chemicals must be replaced after the reaction has
taken place. Secondary cells depend upon chemical reactions that are
reversible by electrical energy and thus do not require replacement of the
- chemical!components. Obviously then the cost of electrical energy from
primary batteries' is very high, especially if they are used for the production of large quantities of energy.
The commonest primary cell today is the dry cell. This consists of a
zinc container which serves as one electrode and a carbon rod which is the
other electrode. The electrolyte is a water solution of ammonium chloride
and zinc chloride adsorbed in flour or starch and manganese dioxide. The
manganese dioxide is added as a depolarizer. Graphite is usually introduced into this mixture to increase the conductivity. The whole cell is
insulated by a cardboard container.
The most important secondary cell is the lead storage battery. The
reactions that take place on discharge are
At positive plate:
Pb0 2 (s)
'+
4H+(aq)
2e
Pb++(aq)
S04'-(aq)
--->
Pb++(aq)
--->
PbS0 4 (s)
+ 2H 0(I)
2
I For an extensive list of electrochemical preparations, see SWANN, Eledro-organic

Chemical Preparations, I and II, Trans. Eleclrochern. Soc., 69, 287 (1936); 77, 45H
(1!l40); iSITTIG, Put Electro Organic Chemistry to Work, Chem. Eng., 69 (1), 150
(1952).
'PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1788-1793, giveR niRj!;rams ann descriptions of various cells.
329
SELECTED REFERENCES
At negative plate:
Pb(s)
Pb++(aq)
Pb(s)
--+
Pb++(aq)
4 (s)
PbS0 4 (s)
+ SO.-(aq) --+ PbS0
+ SO.-(aq) --+
+ 2e
+ 2e
The over-all reaction would then be:
Pb(s)
+ Pb0 (s) + 4H+(aq) + 2S0.-(aq) --+ 2PbS0 + 2H 0

4
Electrical energy is generated when these reactions take place. To

restore the activity or recharge the battery, electrical energy is applied
to it and the reactions are reversed. On discharge, the negative plate acts
as an anode and, on charge as a cathode. On discharge, the positive plate
acts as a cathode and on charge as an anode. The battery consists of lead
plates in tile fQrm of a grid filled, when charged, with lead peroxide on the
positive plate 'and sponge lead on the negative plate. The plates are
insulated from each other by means of separators which formerly were
made of cedar but at present are made of glass. The battery is filled with
dilute sulfuric acid. The ordinary battery consists of 13 or 15 plates per
cell and has 3 cells in series. It will deliver 2 volts per cell or 6 volts for the
complete battery.
The only o~her widely used secondary cell is the Edison battery.' The
positive plate consists of nickel peroxide and flaked metallic nickel; the
negative plate is finely divided iron. The electrolyte consists of a mixture
of potassium hydroxide and lithium hydroxide. A newer type employs
nickel and cadmium electrodes.
/
SELECTED REFERENCES
Mantell, C. L., "Industrial Electrochemistry," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
'Inc., New York, 1950.
Koehler, W. A.., "Applications of Electrochemistry," 2d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1944.
Creighton, H. J., "Principles and Applications of Electrochemistry," 4th cd., John
. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1943.
Glasstone, S., "An Introd'uction to Electrochemistry," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1942~
Kortum, C., and J. O'M. :Bockris, "Textbook of Electrochemistry," Vol. 1, Elsevier
Press, Inc., Houston, Tex., 1951. Thermodynamic viewpoint.
Brockman, C. J., "Electrochemistry, Principles and Practice," D. Van Nostrand
MacInnes, D. A., "The Principl~s of Electrochemistry," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,j1939.
1 PERRY, op. cit., p. 1793.
CHAPTER
17
Many chemical products, made at high temperatures, demand the usc

of an electric furnace. Electric furnaces are capable of producing temperatures as high as 4100C. This may be contrasted with the highest commercial comcustion-furnace temperatures of about 1700C._.T.he' effects
of high temperature are twofold: the speed of the_r~acti9n ~s increased and
new conditions of equilibrium are established: Tliese llew equilibrium
conditions have resulted in the production of compounds unknown before
the electric furnace. Silicon and calcium carbides are examples of new
prooucts thuBlonn~u. Th~ ~\~ctric furnac~ afiords mor~ ~xact control and
more concentration of heat with less thermal loss than is possible with
other types of furnace. This favorable situation is caused by lack of flue
gases and by the high temperature gradient between the source of heat
and the heated mass. The electric furnace is much cleaner and more
cOfivenient to operate than the combustion furnace. It is operated by
alternating current of large amperage usually with moderate voltage,
while the electrolytic industries require direct current.
The three chief types of electric furnaces are arc, induction, and
resistance. The heat in the arc furnace is produced by an electric arc
between two or more electrodes, which are usually graphite or carbon
between the electrodes and the furnace charge or between two or more
electrodes, which are usually graphite or carb.on and mayor may riot be
consumed in the operation. The furnace itself is generally a cylindrical
shell lined with a refractory material. Its use is not limited to those
industries for which it is a necessity; there are some companies with
rolling-mill operations on common-quality steels where electric-arc furnaces are the sole source of their ingots.
The induction furnac'e may be applied only for conducting substances
such as metals where the electrical energy is converted into heat by the
induced currents set up in the charge. The furnace can be considered as
a transformer with the secondary consisting of the metallic charge while
the primary consists of heavy copper coils connected to the power source.
Induction! furnaces operate at frequencies from 60 to 500,000 cycles per
second, but those used in commercial-scale electrothermal processes do
not usually use frequencies above 6,000 cycles per sec. The heating effect
is obtained with lower field strengths as the frequency is increased. The
330
SILICON CARBIDE
331
charge should be placed around an iron core in the low-frequency furnace,

but this core is unnecessary for high-frequency furnaces.
When the charged material furnishes the electrical resistance required
for the necessary heat, the furnace is a direct-heated resistance one; when
high-resistance material is added to the charge for the purpose of creating
heat, the furnace is indirect-heated.! In the electrochemical industry, the
arc and the resistance furnaces are used mostly.
ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES
History. Previous to 1891 all the abrasives used were natural products
such as diamouds, corundum, emery, garnet, quartz, kieselguhr, and
rouge. In that year E. G. Acheson produced the first man-made abrasive
in a homemade electric-arc furnace while attempting to harden clay.
Acheson found these new hard purple crystals to be silicon carbide. Discovering that these crystals were hard enough to cut glass, he sold them,
under the trade-mark Carborundum, to gem polishers for $880 per pound. 2
Another make of silicon carbide is sold under the trade-mark Crystolon.
Fused aluminum oxide, the most extensively used abrasive, is manufactured in the electric thermal furnace. Boron carbide, the hardest substance yet made synthetically, is also an electrothermal product.
Uses and Economics. The discovery and production of artificial
abrasives were the springboards for the evolution of modern grinding
tools which are of paramount importance in the modern precise fabrication of multitudinous metal parts for automobiles, airplanes, rifles,
cannon, and other manufactured items of present-day industrial endeavor.
To reduce wear, harder and harder alloys are being developed by the
metallurgist, many of which can be finally shaped economically only by
these hard artificial abrasives. Silicon carbide and alumina are also used
as a, refractory material, both in the form of brick and as loose material
for ramming in place. In 1952 the United States and Canada produced
91,531 short tons of silicon carbide and 180,375 short tons of fused aluminum oxide. Of these quantities 47 per cent of silicon carbide and 4 per cent
of aluminum oxide were used for nonabrasive purposes,3 principally as
refractories.
I
Silicon Carbide. The:raw materials for the production of silicon carbide 4
are sand and 'carbon. The carbon is obtained from anthracite, coke, pitch,
I
STANSEL, "Industrial Electric Heating," pp. 85-89, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1933.
2 COOPER, Modern Abra~ives, J. Chern. Educ., 19, 122 (1942); UPPER, The Manufacture of Abrasives, J. Chern. Educ., 26, 676 (1949).
3 "Minerals Yearbook," 1952.
4 RUFF, Formation and' Dissociation of Silicon Carbide, Trans. Eleclrochern. Soc.,
68, 87 (1935); TONE, High Temperature Products of Silicon, Ind. Eng. Chern., 23,
1312 (1931),
1
332
or petroleum cokes. The sand contains 98 to 99.5 per cent silica. The
equat.ions usually given for the reactions involved are
Si0 2 (c)
+ 2C(amorph.) ~ Si(c) + 2CO(g); AH = +144,800 cal.

+ C(amorph. ) ~ SiC (c) ; AH = -30,500 cal.
Si(c)
The total reaction, obtained by combining these equations, is

Si0 2 (c)
+ 3C(amorph.) ~ SiC(c) + 2CO (g);
AH =
+ 114,300 cal.
Figure 1 is a flow sheet for the production of silicon carbide. Sand and
carbon are mixed in the approximate mole ratio of 1 to 3 and charged into
Magnetic SepQrator
IO$sifier
Sand
Coke
Sawdust (if used)

Electricity
2.IOto
1.40 tonn
o SO ton
8.000'WOO kw,hr.
#..
. .
..
Per ton flnlahed slhc.on carbIde

(Including unc:onwrted chcargo!>
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for silicon carbide.
the furnace. Sawdust, if added, increases the porosity of the charge to

permit the circulation of vapors and the escape of the carbon monoxide
produced. T he charge is built up in the fu rnace around a heating core of
granular carbon. This core is in the center of the 30- to 5O-ft.-long furnace
and connects the electrodes. The walls of the furnace are loose firebrick
supported by iron castings and are taken away at the end of a charge to
facilitate product removal. Excessive heat loss does not occur because the
outside unreacted charge serves as an insulator. A typical initial current
between the electrodes is 6,000 amp. at 230 volts and the final is 20,000
amp. at 75 volts. 1 This change in voltage is due to the decrease in the
resistance of the charge as the reaction progresses. The temperature at
the core is 2200C. The temperature should not get too high or the silicon
carbide will decompose with volatilization of the silicon and formation of
graphite. Indeed artificial graphite was so discovered. The energy efficiency is about 50 per cent with a chemical conversion of from 70 to 80
per cent.
The time of the reaction is about 60 hr.-36 hr. of heating and 24 hr.
of cooling. After cooling, the silicon carbide crystals are removed with a
yield of about 6 to 8 tons per furnace. The larger pieces of crystals are
broken, washed, and cleaned by chemical treatment with sulfuric acid
and caustic soda. The crystals are classified and screened, the finished
1
PERRY, op. cit., p. 1819.
)'USED ALUKINUIl OXIDE
333
product ranging from 6 mesh to fine powder. The outer unreacted part of
the charge is combined with the next charge for the furnace.
A part of the core used in the furnace can be made of coke suitable for
graphite maaufacture. After the run is completed, the graphite can be
separated frtm the silicon carbide and converted to desired shapes. 1
Pute4 Aluminum Ozide. The raw material for fused alu minum oxide
abrasiv. such as those sold under the trade-marks Alundum and Aloxite
may be an impure bauxite, often called red bataite. The impurities,
FIo. 2. Electric-resistance furnace in which Carborundum brand silicon carbide is

produced. (Courteay of Tile Ct.rioruftdum Comporl,.)
mainly iron and silicon oxides, have a .great etTect on t he structure and
properties and Dlust be carefully controlled. Pure alumina is also fused
for particular demands as where the grinding-wheel temperature must be
kept low. In any ease the aluminous material should be calcined before
charging into the furnace.
The vertical arc-resistance furnace consists of a circular steel shell about
7 ft. high resting on a crucible carbon base about 5 ft. in dia.meter. The
shell has a slight taper at the top for easy removal from the pig. The
outside surface of the furnace is water-cooled so that the unfused alumina
around the walls furnishes a refractory lining for the furnace. The round
carbon electrodes are lowered into the furnace and arcs are drawn between
them and the fused furnace charge. The fusion is usually started by forming a trench in the top of the "starting batch" and packing it with coarse
1 VARIA-NOV
and NGOVuu,
RuBBian Pat. 52fJ08 (1938).
ProdUCtioD
of Grapbite in Silicon Carbide Furnace,
334
coke. The electrodes are lowered to make contact with opposite ends of
the trench. As soon as the alumina begins to fuse, it carries the current
and the starting coke is rapidly consumed. A typical charge to the furnace
is calcined bauxite (89 per cent), coke (2 per cent), and scrap'irqn (9 per
cent). The charge is added as fast as it fuses between the arcs, and this
molten alumina carries the current while much of the iron and' silica is
reduced to form a heavy alloy and sinks to the bottoci. As the level of
fused alumina rises, 1 the electrodes are raised and mOre' charge is added
until finally the furnace is full. Then the current is. shut off and the entire
mass cooled under controlled conditions to obtain the texture desired. )
Although this product has the h~ri;lhess 9 in the Moh scale for corundum,'
it is blebbular in structure and not uniform, and therefore bearings cannot
be made from it. The cooled ingots are broken up by roll crushers, washeq ~/
with chemical .sQlutions; arid sieved. The product is fabricated in:t~
abrasive wheels, papers, and powders, or into refractory shapes. For the
hard bearings necessary for watches and modern instruments, artificial
corundum or white sapphire is made by crystallizing through fusion pure
alumina in a hydrogen-oxygen upside-down flame by the Verneuil
proce~s. The crystal boules are cut and polished as desired. Many gems
are als.o made by this same process.
Bordn Carbide. 2 This is the hardest abrasive ever made artificially,
though far from the hardness of the diamond. It first made its appearance
in 1934 under the name Norbide. The reaction for its production is as
follows:
The boric oxide is caused to react with coke in a carbon resistance furnace
at 2600C. The product is about 99 per cent B 4 C. It finds specialized use
as a powdered abrasive and in molded shapes such as nozzles for sandblasting. Other such products as tungsten and tantalum carbide are also
manufactured.
CALCIUM CARBIDE.
History. The first production of calcium carbide was an accident. In

1892, Thomas L. Willson was attempting to prepare metallic calcium from
lime and tar in an electric furnace at Spray, N.C. The product obtained,
obviously not calcium, was thrown into a near-by stream and Willson
Iwas amazed to note that it liberated great quantities of combustible gas.
,
PERRY, op. cit., p. 1819, energy consumption and other technical data are given;
COOPER, op. cit.
2 RIDGWAY, Boron Carbide, Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 66, 117 (1934); U.S. Pat.
1897214; KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 8:30-834.
1
335.
MANUFACTURE
The first hctory for the production of calcium carbide was built at
Niagara Falls in 1896.'
-Uses and Economics. Calcium carbide is consumed by two principal.
:,procedures: to manufacture cyanamide by combining it with nitrogen and
! to prepare acetylene by reacting it with water. The cyanamide is made by;
" heating calcium carbide in an atmosphere of nitrogen (see Chap. 20). A
"' ~ubstantial proportion of the total calcium carbide produced is converted
~,to cyanamide, but about 70 per cent of the carbide made is used in making
\ acetylene. Acetylene is a very important raw material for a great variety
chemical syntheses and as a fuel for welding torches. A small amount
of calcium carbide is employed as a reducing agent in some metallurgical
processes and as a drying agent. In 1953, 793,335 tons of calcium
carbide were produced.
Manufacture. Calcium carbide 2 is prepared from quicklime and carbon
at 2000 to 2200C. The source of carbon is usually coke, anthracite, or
petroleum coke. Coke is most widely used. It should be
" qf'
CaO(c)
+ 3C(amorph.) -> CaC (l) + CO(g);

2
t:.H
+111,000 cal.
compact and have a low ash content, a low ignition point, and high
electrical resistivity so that the bulk of the furnace charge is highly
resistant to the flow of energy. Thus the energy is concentrated, resulting
in more rapid and complete reaction. Phosphorus should be absent as it
forms a phosphide which is converted to poisonous phosphine, PH a, when
the carbide is made into acetylene. The quicklime is produced by burning
limestone containing at least 97 per cent calcium carbonate. Impuritie,s
such as magnesia, silica, and iron hamper production and give a less pure
carbide.
The carbide furnace is not a true arc-resistance furnace, but has been
developed from the familiar arc furnace. Ingot furnaces, similar to those
producing fused aluminum oxide, have been replaced in the carbide industry by continuous or intermittent tapping furnaces producing molten
carbide. The furnace c6nsists
of a steel shell with the side walls lined with
I
ordinary firebrick andithe bottom covered with carbon blocks or anthracite to withstand thet extremely hot, alkaline conditions. Most of the
l~rger furnaces use three-phase electrical current and have suspended in
the shell three vertical electrodes.
Improvements inchlde the" closed" furnace where almost all the carbon monoxide from the reaction is collected and utilized, and SOderberg
continuous self-baking eiectrodes which permit larger-capacity furnaces
I,
'ANON., Carbide and Acetylene, Chem. Eng., 67 (6), 129 (1950).

KIRK and OTHMER, pp., cit., Vol. 2, p. 337; NIEBANCK, The Carbide Industry,
Chem. Eng., 67 (6), 131 :(1950); see pictured flow sheet, Chem. & Met. Eng., 47, 253
(1940).
336
than did the old prebaked electrodes. The (~apacity range of the furnaces
is generally between 5,000 to 18,000 kw.-hr. or higher, and a three-phase
tapping furnace of 25,000 kw-hr. produces about 200 tons of commercial
product (usually 85 per cent carbide) per day. The approximate consumption of materials per ton of carbide is 1,900 lb. lime, 1,300 lb. coke, 35 lb.
electrode paste, and 3,000 kw.-hr. energy (see Fig. 1, Chap, 20). The lime
and coke are charged continuously with intermittent or continuous
tapping of the liquid product directly into cast-iron chill pots of about 5
tons capacity each. The carbide is cooled, crushed, and sized, then
packed in 10- to 220-lb. steel drums or up to 5 ton containers for shipping.
MISCELLANEOUS ELECTROTHERMAL PRODUCTS
Carbon Disulfide. About 500,000,000 lb, of carbon disulfide are pro- ~

duced in the United States annually with a value of around $25,000,000.
Although it is employed mostly for the manufacture of viscose rayon
and cellophane, it. does have many smaller uses such as a solvent and as
an insecticide.
Carbon disulfide is made by the reaction:
C
750-1000C.
+ 2S -
------+
CS 2
This reaction is carried out by either the retort or the electrothermal

process. A newer process uses hydrocarbons and sulfur as the raw materials,! but at present there is only one small commercial installation. The
retort process utilizes direct-fired steel or cast-iron retorts. These retorts
are generally cylinders, 8 to 10 ft. long and 2 to 3 ft. in diameter with a
daily carbon disulfide production of 1,000 to 3,000 lb. each. The retorts
are set in gas-heated furnaGes in a bank or series where liquid sulfur and
charcoal are charged batchwise to the individual retort. The products are
distilled through overhead condensers where the carbon disulfide is
separated. Generally, the carbon disulfide is purified by lime, but more
. efficient practice utilizes refrigeration. The electrothermal process is
carried out 2 in a shaft electric-arc furnace wh!:)re the sulfur melted by the
arc comes into contact with the charcoal, fo;ming the carbon disulfide
which is then volatilized. This is an illustration of the applicability of the
electric furnace to specialized conditions with excellent efficiency. The
furnace is constructed with an inner tube containing the charcoal and up
, which the carbon disulfide passes. Around this is a concentric ring with the
I KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit" Vol. 3, pp, 142-148; FOL:KINS, et al., Carbon Disulfide
from Natural Gas and Sulfur, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 2202 (1950)
TAYLOR, Carbon Disulfide, Tram. Am. Electrochem, Soc., 1, 115 (1902); 2, 185
(1902); PERRY, op. cit., p. 1820 (data given); for a pictured flow sheet, see Chem.
Eng., 68 (1), 174 (1951).
ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITE AND ELECTRODES
337
sulfur. The mult.iple electrodes are at the bottom where t.he reaction
occurs.
Fused Silica. This very useful material of construction for the chemical
industries is heat.ed to fabrication temperature in an electric furnace.
Artificial Graphite and Electrodes. These are described in Chap. 9
devoted to carbon, while phosphorus is presented in Chap. 18 on Phosphorus Industries. See also Tahle 2 in Chap. 16 for a summary of the
yarious products made hy electrochemical processes.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Mantell, C. L., "Industrial Electrochemistry," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Rook Company,
Pond, G. G., "Calcium Carbide and Acetylene," Pennsylvania State College, State
College, Pa., 1908.
Stansel, N. R., "Industrial Electric Heating," .Tohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
i933.
Taussig, R., "Die Indust.rie des Calcium carbides," W. Knapp Verlag, Halle, Germany,
19:10.
Landis, W. S., Chap. 12 in "Rog!'rs' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., C. C.

Furnas, editor, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
Mantell, C. L., Electrochemistry, Sec. 28 in Perry, op. cit. This section, embracing
pp. 1771-1826, is a very practical summary with many excellent tabulations (e.g.,
Materials of Construction) and diagrams of furnaces.
CHAPTER
18
Owing chiefly to an aggressive and intelligent consumption promotion

on the part of the various manufacturers as well as the Federal agencies,
the use of artificial fertilizers, phosphoric acid, and phosphate salts and
derivatives has increased greatly. However, before these products could
be as widely consumed in their fast developing fields, newer, more efficient,
and less expensive methods of production had to be developed. During
the recent decades, the various phosphate industries have made rapid
strides in cutting the costs of production and have thus enabled phosphorus, phosphoric acid, and its salts to be employed in wider fields, and
newer derivatives to be introduced. The phosphorus! industry is the
fastest-growing branch of the inorganic field and one of the few that has
not been overshadowed by the fast-moving organic chemical Q~vl'llop
ments of recent years. Indeed, phosphorus-organic compounds are of
increasing industrial importance each year.
CALCIUM PHOSPHATES
Historical. The use of phosphatic materials as fertilizers was practiced

unknowingly long before the isolation and discovery of phosphorus by the
German alchemist, Brand, in 1669. As early as 200 B.C., the Carthaginians
recommended and employed bird dung for increasing the yields from
their fields. The Incas of Peru prized guano and bird dung on their islands
I so highly that it was made a capital offense to kill any of the birds. Then
too, we are all familiar with the use of fish and bones by the American
Indian in his crude agricultural methods. Bones and guano continued to
be the chief sources of phosphorus and phosphoric acid until after the
middle of the nineteenth century, but these supplies were and stilI are
limited.
In 1842 a British patent was issued to John B. Lawes for the treatment
of bo~e ash:with sulfuric acid.' This patent marked the beginning of the
1 WAGGAMAN, "Phosphoric Acids, Phosphates, and Phosphatic Fertilizers," 2d ed.,
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1952. This is an excellent book and
should be freely consulted.
338
RA W MA'fERIAL
339
large acid phosphate industry which became the basis of our domestic
fertilizer industry.
Soon afterward various grades of phosphate ores were discovered in
England. These were first finely ground and applied directly to the soil.
It was soon recognized, however, that treBtment of these phosphate
minerals with sulfuric acid increased the availability and efficiency of
the phosphate for agricultural purposes. This process was so timely that
by 1862 the annual production of superphosphates in England had
reached 200,000 tons. Table 1 shows the United States distribution of
phosphate rock by uses.
Raw Material. Phosphate rock, when very finely pulverized, has an
important but limited use as a fertilizer itself, owing chiefly to the relatively slow availability of the P 20 5 However, its main consumption is as
a raw material for the manufacture of phosphoric acid and superphosphate. Florida has been the principal producing area for phosphate rock
with Tennessee ranking second until recently. Now Idaho ranks above
Tennessee. The United States has slightly over half of the world's estimated reserves of nearly 29 billion tons of phosphate rock. l Table 2 shows
phosphate rock mined over a period of years.
In Florida both hard and pebble rock phosphate are mined. Hard rock
phosphate occurs as nodules and boulders in irregular pockets but only
one company is now actively exploiting these deposits. The more extensive
and cheaply mined pebble deposits occur with an average of 20 ft. of
overburden Wh9Se phosphatic value is too low to process and from 10 to
30 ft. of ore called matrix in the industry. This matrix is composed of clay
slimes, silica sand, and phosphate pebble. The sizes range from pebbles at
lY2 to 2 in. (small amount) down to 400 mesh. The overburden is removed
generally by a drag line which dumps into a previously mined-out cut.
Drag-line operations remove the matrix and drop it into an excavated
area. ,Hydraulic guns break down the mud in the matrix and wash it to
the pump suction where it is transported through hoses by large sand
pumps to the beneficiati9n plant (Fig. 1).
In Tennessee four types of phosphate rock are found-nodular, blue,
white, and brown. Only the latter is mined at present, following somewhat
the Florida procedures. The overburden here is at extreme varying depths
with an average of from! 6 to 8 ft.
Although originally deposited in horizontal layers,2 the large Western
!
WILKERSON, Processing Phosphate Rock for Use in Agriculture, Ind. Eng. Ghent.,
41, 1316 (1949); ct. Chap. 33, Phosphate Rock, by FULToN in "Industrial Minerals
and Rocks," 2d ed., American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, 1\:)49;
MANSFIELD, Phosphate Deposits of the World, Ind.'Eng. Ghent., 34, 9 (1942).
2 See WAGGAMAN and BELL, Western Phosphates . . . Factors Affecting Development, Ind. En!!. Chent., 42, 269 (11150); Western Phosphates .. Potential Markets,
Ind. Eng. Ghem., 42, 286 (HJ50).
1
340
TABLE
1.
USE DISTRmUTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK IN THE UNITED STATESG
(In long tons)

1949
Superphosphate ............................. .
Phosphates, phosphoric acid, phosphorus, ferrophosphorus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Direct application to soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fertilizer filler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stock and poultry feed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Undistributed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1952
5,598,423
6,494,921
1,254,615
732,695
18,815
62,236
3,330
2,024,206
1,205,993
15,737
179,186
2,166
Ex;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :I--~_::-!-~:_:_::-~-:-I--l-~-'--::-~-~-'-:-~:-:Total value at mines... .....................
$51,415,027
$68,120,918
G"Minerals Yearbook," 1950 and 1952.

TABLE
2.
PHOSPHATE ROCK SOLD OR USED IN THE UNl'rED S'l'ATESG
(In thousands of long tons)

Average value at
mine per long ton
Year
Florida
Tennessee
Western
states
1934
1938
1942
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
2,465
2,723
2,985
5,280
6,381
7,184
6,6.95
8,597
8,497
8,781
9,167
394
1,000
1,568
1,316
1,490
1,500
1,403
1,472
1,419
1,452
1,622
39
138
266
572
1,240
704
779
1,045
1,178
1,091
1,729
United
States
$3.54
3.46
3.57
4.52
5.17
5.83
5.72
5.76
5.97
5.94
6.13
2,898
3d~60
4,819
7,169
9,111
9,388
8,877
11,114
11,095
11,32<1
12,518
GVarious "Minerals Yearbooks" up to 1952. "Chemical Statistics Handbook,"

Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Washington, 1955. The statistics for phosphate
frock in Tables 1 and 2 refer to the beneficiated rock. As mined during 1953, for example, the long tons for the impure rock were 40,139,000, which furnished the U.S. consumption indicated in Table 2,plus 1,950,15810ng tons net exports.
fields of phosphate rock have been severely folded, faulted, and elevated
by crustal deformations and resemble fissure veins. The ,rock may contain
approximately 75 per cent bone phosphate of lime 1 but, owing to admixture with wall material, it usually averages nearer 70 per cent b.p.l.
Because of its rather soft structure, the rock has a moisture content of 4
to 6 per cent. It is generally mined by underground methods.
1 This is usually abbreviated b.p.I. and actually means tricalcium phosphate, that
being the chief inorganic constituent of bones,
341
USES AND ECONOMICS
Florida and Western phosphate rock contain anywhere from 0.2 to

0.8 lb. uranium per ton of rock. The complicated and costly recovery
process now in use extracts uranium from phosphate rock via wet-process
phosphoric acid, where the uranium goes into solution upon treatment
with sulfuric acid. After filtration, the bulk of the uranium is found in the
acid filtrate. All details of this process are restricted by the Atomic
Energy Act. Much research is focused on uranium recovery from normal
superphosphate manufacture where larger tonnages are involved. Fluorine and vanadium are also valuable by-products from phosphate rock.
In the Florida pebble district, the recovery was initially only of the
coarse phosphate rock which had a high b.p.I. while the fines, with a much
lower b.p.l., representing about an equal tonnage, were wasted. In the
1920's experimental work was started to develop a froth-flotation process
which would increase the b.p.}. of the fines or raw matrix to at least 66 or
68 per cent from about 40 per cent or under. This procedure is frequently
spoken of as beneficiation, and one of the successful processes currently
employed is illustrated by Fig. 1. Such upgrading operations are of farreaching and increasing importance as the easily mined or better-grade
deposits of phosphate rock, or any other mineral, become exhausted.
These operations not only produce a higher grade of product but enable
larger amounts to be recovened, beneficiated, and used, even in the case of
such a low-priced product as phusphate rock which sells for about $6 per
long ton. Beneficiation was largely abandoned in Tennessee when it was
found that the deslimed phosphatic sand on which it worked best could
be used directly in electric furnaces to produce elemental phosphorus.
The bulk of the high-grade lump rock and sands in Tennessee has been
exhausted and operations would mostly be abandoned were it not for
cheap electricity for the phosphorus furnaces and economical mechanical
mining operations .
.The matrix from the Florida phosphate pebble deposits is beneficiated
through three general sequences as shown in Fig. 1: (1) washing, milling,
classifying, and screening to give coarse rock and fine rock; (2) hydroseparation, classification, ',and table concentration of the -14- to 150-mesh
raw feed, to give cla~sifier product and table concentrate product; and (3)
hydroseparation and flotation of the -35 to +150_mesh to give a flotation
concentrate product. I~ the flotation (third sequence), the ore is separated
as a froth in the first flotation cells, from the sand which is sent to tailings
waste. Following this~ the phosphate ore is acidulated, deoiled, and subjected to another flotttion machine where the remaining silica is floated
off using an amine for the flotation agent. The coarse and fine rock, and
the other products ire taken to the phosphate plant for acidulation or
other chemical treatment.
Uses and Economics, As can be seen in Table 1 the most important use
of phosphate rock js in fertilizers. Table 3 gives a compilation of phos-
342
phate-rock treatment processes. Tricalcium phosphate in raw and/O\"

steamed and degreased bones and in basic slag is also used after grinding
as a direct phosphate fertilizer. A small percentage of the former is sometimes treated with sulfuric acid for superphosphate or as a source material
for phosphate chemicals. Some phosphate rock is applied directly on the
Tt]
.,..
=~r~
"l
on
R
f
rtlil;"g. to
.,lli", . . .
O.f.Mltllli"".
Feed
rni..
l!!!!!!/!!!!!!!
FIG. 1. Beneficiation of Florida phosphate ore by screening, milling, hydroseparation,

classification, table concentration, and flotation in various sequences. O.f.: overflow.
Numbers when marked" are sizes in inches, but when given as -14, +150 mean fines
through 14-mesh screen and over 150-mesh screen. In place of the Allen cones, some
engineers prefer a rake or spiral classifier. See PERRY, op. cit., pp. 924-926 classifiers,
p. 940 Allen cones, pp. 941-947 hydroseparators (thickeners), pp. 955ff. screening,
p. 1080 tabling, p. 1089 froth flotation. (Courtesy of R. C. Specht.)
soil after being dried and very finely ground, but most of it for fertilizer
use is acidulated with sulfuric or nitric acid to form superphosphate.
However, it has long been recognized that in the soil much of the citratesoluble superphosphate is changed to water-insoluble tricalcium phosIphate. 1 This is not a change from one form of Ca3(P04)2 to a finer divided
one as "domestic phosph~te rocks are essentially fluorapatite, admixed
with various proportions of other compounds of calcium, fluorine, iron,
aluminum and silicon."2
1 Or to insoluble iron, aluminum, or magnesium phosphates; cf. BEAR and TOTtI,
Phosphate Fixation in Soil and Its Practical Control, Ind. Eng. Chern., 34, 49 (1942).
ELMOllE, et:al., Defluorination of ' Phosphate Rock in the Molten State, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 34, 40 (1942); cf. EASTERWOOD, Recent Developments in the Phosphate Field,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 34, 13 (1942); HENDRICKS, et a/., Structural Characteristics of
Apatite-like Substances and Composition of Phosphate Rock and Bone as Determined from Microscopical and X-ray Diffraction Examinations, Ind. Eng. Chem., 23,
1413 (1931).
343
USES AND ECONOMICS
The formula of fluorapatite may be expressed,

(CaF)Ca4(P0 4)a or CaF23Ca3P20s
This compound is extremely insoluble. The various means for making the
P 20 L content more soluble, not necessarily in water but in the plant
juices,l are the manufag.tyre of the various superphosphates, the defluorination of fluorapatite by the melting at about 1450C. of phosphate rock,
and the products of the processes where phosphate rock is fused with
alkali metal salts or olivine.
The uses to which phosphate compounds are put in the fertilizer field
are largely dependent upon the solubilities or the a-Vailability to the
plants. These compounds may be classified:
1. Water-insoluble products: rock phosphate or fluorapatite, CaFCa4(P04)~.
This can be solubilized by the sulfuric or nitric acid of the superphosphate process
or by the slow dissolving action of plant juices.
TABLE 3. PHOSPHATE-ROCK, PROCESSING, PRODUCTS, AND BY-PRODUCTS"
Process
Raw materials and

reagents
Main products
and derivatives
Addulation ... Phosphate rock, sul- Superphosphate,

furic acid, or nitric phosphoric acid,
triple superphosacid
phate, monoammonium phosphate,
diammonium phos-'
phate, monopotassium phosphate
Phosphorus, p):J.OsThermal rePhosphate rock, siduction
liceous flux, coke (for phoric acid, triple
superphosphate,
reduction), electric
(electric or
energy or fuel coke, monoammonium
blast furphosphate, diamcondensing water
nace)
monium phosphate,
monopotassium
phosphate, potassium metaphosI
phate
Calcium. meta- .Phosphate rock, phos- Calcium metaphosphosphat,e
phorus, air..,r oxygen phate
Defluorinated phosCalcination'
Phosphate rock,
phate
or defl.uorisilica, water or
nation
steam, fuel
By-products
Uranium, fluorine
compounds, vanadium
Fluorine compound~,
carbon monoxide,
slag (for RR ballast),
ferrophosphorus,
vanadiumb
Fluorine compounds
Fluorine compounds
"Data compiled froni. WAGGAMAN and BELL, Western Phosphates . . . Factors

Affecting Development, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 269 (1950).
b Vanadium is present in appreciable quantities only in the Western phosphates .
Includes processes '\Vherein phosphate rock is fused with alkali metal salts or
magnesium silicate (olivine).
1 As measured by "citrate solubility."
344
2. Citrate-soluble products: dicalcium phosphate, CaHP0 4, commonly called

precipitated phosphate or precipitated bone; basic slag, the calcium and potassium
metaphosphates, the deftuorinated phosphates (calcined phosphates and fused
phosphate rock). Also part of the tricalcium phosphate of bone meal is citratesoluble. These products are soluble in ammonium citrate solution and are considered to be available for plant food.
3. lVater-soluble products: monocalcium phosphate, CaH 4 (P0 4)2, is the principal member of this class and is the chief ingredient of superphosphate. Here
also are monoammonium and diammonium phosphates and monopotassium
phosphate and some organic phosphates.
Manufacture of Superphosphate. The acidulation of phosphate rock to

produce superphosphate! has been the most important method of making
phosphate available for fertilizer purposes for nearly a century. The reactions have long been given as
Ca a(P0 4)2
+ 2H 2S0 4 + 4H 20
In water,
---+
CaH4(P04)2
Monocalcium
phosphate
+ 2(CaSO~'2H20)
Gypsum
CaF2 + H 2S0 4 ---+ CaS04 + 2HF

4HF + Si02 ---+ SiF 4 + 2H 20
3SiF 4+ 2H 20 ---+ Si0 2 + 2H 2SiF 6
The following is a more probable expression of the main reaction:

2[(CaF)Ca4(P0 4)a]
Phosphate
rock
+ 7H2S04 + 3H 0
2
---+
3CaH 4(P0 4)2H 2 0

Monocalcium
phosphate
+ 2HF + 7CaS04'anhydrite
The hydrofluoric acid reacts as shown above, forming fluosilicic acid

(see Chap. 21). An excess of sulfuric acid is consumed by such impurities
in the phosphate rock as CaCO a, Fe20a, AhOa, and CaF 2. The product
increases in weight over the 70 to 75 per cent b.p.l. phosphate rock us~
as much as 70 per cent, resulting in a superphosphate with 16 to 20 per
cent available P 20 6 In 1950 about 60 per cent of the 54 to 56Be. sulfuric
I:}cid used in normal superphosphate was made in coexisting acid plants,
,
92 per cent from elemental 'sulfur.
The manufacture of sup~rphosphate involves four steps: (1) preparation of phosphate rock, (2) mixing with acid, (3) curing and drying of the
material, and (4) excavation, milling, and bagging of the finished product.
Although a few plants use continuous processes, most plants still conduct
these operations in the various separate steps described below. All plants
first pulverize their rock. Wit~ modern pulverizing and air separation
equipIIj.ent, ~ost rock is ground to an average fineness of 80 to 90 per cent
through a 100-mesh screen, with the following benefits: (1) the reaction
I Symposium, Phosphates for Agriculture, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41, 1314 (1949).
Phosphorics and Phosphates, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 1319 (1952).
MANUFACTURE OF SUPERPHOSPHATE
345
rate is faster, (2) more efficient use is made of the sulfuric acid with consequent less acid, (3) a higher grade of product in better condition is
obtained. Figure 2 indicates the sequences of these steps, together with
ammoniation, when it is practiced.
1. Den Process. The reaction between the sulfuric acid and the mineral
rock in this method usually takes place in pan mixers (Fig. 4). The mixer
has a capacity of approximately 2 tons per charge, is of lead-covered cast
Phosphate rock
1,000 lb.
~~~~~ r~~d~~~o(:2deg. BeJa~~b\~
Pel'" ton
~uperphosphate
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for superphosphate. TIll' product from the den is also sold aft!'r
aging, pulverizing, and bagging.
iron, and may be approximately 8 ft. in diameter and 2Y2 ft. in depth.
The pan itself is sometimes revolved Oil a vert.iral axis, while a set of
blades is rotated in the opposite direetion. The phosphate rock and a
predetermined quantity of chamber or stronger sulfuric acid 1 (50 to
56 Be.) are usually added simultaneously to the mi 7er and agitated 1 to
3 min. The sirupy mixture is usually dumped directly into a "den" below
the mixer. The den may be rectangular ill shape, but it is frequently of a
cylindrical or silo type and is cOllstrueted of concrete or brick, holding
100 to 300 tons. To ensure complete rea:t!tioll, the material is left in the
dep. for 6 to 24 hr. The temperature of the mass is usually above 100C.,
and carbon dioxide, steam, and gaseous compounds of fluorine escape,
leaving a fairly dry and porous product. The superphosphate is removed
from the den by a clamshell shovel or other mechanical means and after
aeration is transferred to .the storage pile where it is allowed to cure from
4 to 16 weeks. The sJperphosphate may be sold in this form directly, or
it may be artificially further dried and disintegratea to a uniform size.
2. Continuous Procqsses. The two continuous processes are: the Broadfield pI:ocess and Sackett Super-Flow process. However, most superphosphate is made by th~ batch process described above. In the Broadfield
process the acid and pust rock are fed simultaneously, continuously, and
automatically into a cast-steel trough cov~red with a hood. In the trough
is a horizontal rotating shaft with mixing blades which advances the
1 SHOELD, et al., Rock-acia Ratio in Superphosphate Manufacture, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
41, 1334 (1949).
346
material and discharges it into a mechanical den. This is a slow-moving

(4 ft. per min.) conveyer 30 ft. in length with moving sides also made of
steel slats. Reaction time in the den is 1:l-i hr., after which the material is
stored.
The Sackett Super-Flow process 1 differs radically in the initial mixing
of the rock and acid. Pulverized rock is delivered as a dust stream to the
top of an acidulating tower along with an atomized spray of 56Be.
sulfuric acid. During the movement through the tower the material
undergoes rapid and final acidulation evolving hydrogen fluoride and
other by-product gases which are flas~ed off, dissolved in water, and
concentrated. The superphosphate drops from the bottom of the tower
as a thin slurrylike material to a puddler which conveys it to the solidifier.
The solidifier, a channel-like pallet conveyer, functions as the den in the
older process and the material leaving it is ready for storage and curing.
The final product has a hard, porous grain structure of gqod physical
properties.
Granular Superphosphate. 2 The Oberphos process early utilized a
method differing greatly from the den process to produce a granular
product directly. This was expensive and other methods of granulation
are used. Most feature self-aggregation of particles by moistening, tumbling, and rotary drying. The Davison process which will be described
uses, as do all the other methods, the material as it comes from the den in
the regular process.
The moist and warm crude superphosphate is brought by crane from
the den to a feed hopper for the granulating and conditioning system. A
variable-speed screw feeder transfers classifier dust to a conveyer system
where it is mixed in with this moist superphosphate. The second step is
extremely important since the granulating properties of the superphosphate depend upon the moisture content. The superphosphate goes froni
the feeding device to a "conditioner" which is a rotating cylinder and
where the material is subjected to water sprays to form balls or granules
and to accelerate the chemical aeidulation. An operator is stationed at
the discharge end, to watch constantly the material discharged and to
adjust the sprays as ne;;essary.
,
The conditioned -material is fed into the oil-fired rotary-dI:ier, which is
about 8 ft. in diameter and 50 ft. long, and discharged into a pit at its
lower end. The combustion gases are drawn from the lower end and
foreed by a draft fan through a cyclone dust eolleetor. The material is
1 DEMMERLE and SACKE'l'T, Continuous Superphosphate Production, Ind. Eng.
ehem., 41, 1306 (1949); GARIBY, Instru'mentatioll for SUPNphosphate Manufacture,
Ind. Eng. r;:hem., 41, 1338 (i!l4!l).
2 MACKALl. and SHOELD, Granulating Phosphate Fcrtiliz!'rs, ehem. & Met. Eng., 47,
102 (1!l40); c/. ehem. & Met. Eng., 50 (4), 132 (J!)43), for parallel picture flow sheets
for the den and granulated superphosphat.es.
347
TRIPLE SUPEBPHOSPHATE
aged for at least 10 days as compared with the 4 to 12 weeks of storage

required by the den process. The shorter period of cure is due to the
accelerated acidulation of this process caused by improved mixing, proper
moisture adjustment, and enhanced temperature. The granular product
also is free flowing and handles and mixes better than the old powdery
den product.
Nitric and Mixed Acid Acidulation of Phosphate Rock. l Europe probably first used nitric and mixed acid acidulation of phosphate rock. Nitric
substitution for sulfuric acid is desirable since nitrogen has an essential
value as plant food and can be resold at its purchase price. Also this saves
sulfur. Simple acidulation with nitric acid produces a hygroscopic superphosphate since it contains calcium nitrate. T.V.A. has studied and
recommended four processes for commercial purposes. In one the phosphate rock is extracted by mixed nitric and sulfuric acids, followed by
ammoniation, drying, and addition of potassium chloride (optional).
Another features mixed nitric and sulfuric acidulation followed by the
previously described steps and the other two use nitric acid alone for the
aci,dulation. These processes, as well as the conditioning against moisture
absorption as practiced for ammohium nitrate, give promise to an extension of this use of nitric acid.
Triple Superphosphate. This material is a inuch more concentrated
fertilizer than ordinary superphosphate, containing from 45 to 50 per cent
of available P 20 6 or nearly three times the amount in the regular superphosphate. Triple superphosphate is made by the action of phosphoric
acid on the phosphate rock, and thus no diluent calci6m sulfate is formed.
(CaF)Ca4(P04)a
+ 7H P0 4 + 5H 0
3
-4
5CaH 4 (P0 4hH 20
+ HF
6-
The cost per unit of P 2 0 6 in this concentrate as compared with ordinary

superphosphate is higher because of greater capital investment and additional labor and processing. However, this is offset to a great extent
by the ability to use a lower-grade, cheaper phosphate rock than possible
in the manufacture. of ordinary superphosphate and the substantial savIngs on handling, bagging, shipping, and distributing. The productioll for
1953 of the concentrated superphosphate had grown to 457,235 short tOllS
in terms of 100 per ~ent A.P.A. (available phosphoric acid). The normal
superphosphate produ~tion had dropped slightly for 1953 to 1,678,459
tons A.P.A.
Most triple superphosphate is made from phosphoric acid produced by
the sulfuric acid or wet method. T.V.A. has made many investigations
1 TURRENTINE, Phosph~te Production without,Sulfuric Acid,' Chem. Eng. News,
29, 3454 (1951); HlGNETT, Nitric Acidulation of Rock Phosphate, Chell!. Bug., 68
(5), 166 (1951); CRI'l'TE~!JEN, What's Ahead for Nitric Acid, Chern. Eng., 69 (6),
177 (1952); YATES, et ai" Enriched and Concentrated Superphosphutes, Ind. EnU.
Chem., 46, 496 (1953).
348
into the use of electric-furnace acid and now recommends a continuous

method. Bridgerl and his associates recommend the following: Phosphoric
acid "wet method" (2,800 lb. at 140F.) and phosphate rock (1,500 lb.
at 80 per cent -100 mesh) are added simultaneously to a 2-ton Steadman
mixer (cf. den process). The mixture is thoroughly stirred for 3 min., and
the slurry discharged into a bin or upon a conveyer belt which carries it
to a reaction chamber where it sets up into a fairly stiff mass. After
several hours it is removed to a pile for curing over a course of 3 weeks.
The triple superphosphate is dried, cooled, crushed, screened, and stored.
It may be granulated by moistening to form pellets and again dried.
Ammoniated Superphosphates. Ammoniation of superphosphate (Fig.
2), triple superphosphate, or mixtures produces a fertilizer with the desirable properties of chemical stability, uniformity in texture, and resistance to moisture. This has been proved an effective way of introducing
nitrogen into finished fertilizers. Too much uncombined ammonia added
to superphosphate causes excessive reversion of phosphate into insoluble
forms. Because of this "nitrogen solutions" containing urea or ammonium nitrate are preferred in current ammoniation practice. Two typical
solution compositions are, percentagewise: (1) Nitrogen solution 2!\.:
NH.N0 3, 65.0; NH 3, 21.7; H 20, 13.3. (2) Urea ammonia. liquor A: urea,
32.5; NH 3, 28.9; ammonium carbamate, 18.1; H 20, 20.5. The ammoniation is done simply by spraying a measured weight or volume of ammoniation solution into a weighed quantity of solid material and mixing
in a 1- or 2-ton rotary batch mixer. As discharged from the mixer, the
material feels warm and moist. Upon cooling it becomes dry and friable.
Ammoniated products cure rapidly and are easy to handle.
Calcium Metaphosphate. 2 In 1937, T.V.A. developed from phosphate
rock a concentrated fp.rtilizer, Ca(PO a)2, by the following reaction:
where the P 206 contacts the lump rock in a vertical shaft.

Fused Tricalcium Phosphate and Other l .tlcined Phosphates. Tricalqum phosphatc 3 containing about 28 per cent P 2 0 6 is produced by defluorinating rock phosphate in an oil-fired shaft furnace af:j shown by the
following presumed reaction':
1 BRIDGER, et al., Continuous-mixing Process for Manufacture of Concentrated

Superphosphate, Ind. Eng. Chem., 89, 1265 (1947); ANON., Continuous Triple-super-phosphate, Chem~ Eng., 68 (5), 208 (1951), pictured flow sheet.
2 YATES, et al., Improved Fertilizer Plant Design, Chem. Eng., 68 (6), 135 (1951).
a HlGNETT and HUBBUCH, Fused Tricalcium Phosphat.e, Ind. Eng. Chem., 88, 1208
(1946); HIGNETT and SIEGEL, Recovery of Fluorine from Stack Gases, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
U, 2493 (1949).
DICALCIUM PHOSPHATE
349
If needed, silica is also charged to the furnace. The molten product, as it

is tapped from the furnace, is granulated by high-velocity water jets and
is prepared for shipment by drying, screening, and grinding the small percentage of oversize. More than 90 per cent of the fluorine in the stack
can now be recovered through absorption in a limestone bed.
Calcium magnesium phosphate is a calcined phosphate fertilizer l resulting from the electric-furnace fusion of olivine (a natural magnesium silicate) and phosphate rock. Only Manganese Products, Inc., at Seattle
produces this product commercially because of the limited operating requirements, i.e., abundant supplies of olivine and electric power. This
fertilizer is comparable with superphosphate in plant-food value, yet
needs no curing, is noncorrosive, and is nonhygroscopic.
Dicalcium Phosphate. At the end of the Second World War production
was less than 40,000 tons. In 1952 over 100,000 tons were manufactured
and proposed expansion will bring this to 275,000 tons by 1955. Its growing use is as an animal-feed supplement. Dicalcium phosphate ordinarily
is manufactured from phosphoric acid, or from water-soluble phosphates
produced by the action of nitric or hydrochloric acid on bones or mineral
phosphates, by neutralizing with lime. A new process 2 reacts phosphoric
acid and phosphate rock removing the toxic fluorine and furnishing animal-feed-grade salt.
The following procedure has been used for the manufacture of monocalcium phosphates 3 for baking powders:
Monocalcium phosphate is made by placing a weighed amount of phosphoric
acid of about 75 per cent strength in a stainless steel or ceramic-lined batch tub
equipped with efficient agitators. Hot lime in slightly less than the calculated
amount for the equation CaO + 2H 3P0 4 -> CaH 4 (P0 4h' H 20 is added at such
rate that the temperature of the batch is maintained at about 75 to BOC. Near
the end of the reaction period the final traces of free phosphoric acid are neutralized with hydrated lime. The resulting product is a fairly dry lumpy material
which is further dried under controlled temperature conditions and milled. The
milled material is then screened or air separated into granular and powder
products and bagged.
PHOSPHORUS
I
This element was first produced on a small commercial scale by treating calcined bone with sulfuric acid, filtering off the phosphoric acid, and
evaporating it to specific gravity of 1.45. It was mixed with charcoal or
1
MOULTON, Electric Furnace Fertilizer: Ca-Mg-Phosphate, Chem. Eng., 66 (7), 102
(1949).
'
ANON., A New Way: to Make Dicalcium Phosphate, Chern. Eng., 69 (12), 258
(1952).
EASTERWOOD,
in
WAGGAMAN,
op. cit., p. 443.
350
coke, again heated, and the water evaporated off until the moisture content was less than 6 per cent. This mixture was placed in retorts and
brought to white heat. The phosphorus was thus distilled off, collected
under water, and purified by redistillation.
The production of phosphorus today still depends on the volatilization
of the element from its compounds under reducing conditions. During
the past decades, the method has changed chiefly in details and size of
production. At the present time, elementary phosphorus is manufactured on a large scale as a heavy chemical and is shipred in tank cars
from the point of initial manufacture, where the raw materials are cheap,
to distant plants for its conversion to phosphoric acid, phosphates, and
other compounds.
Uses and Economics. With the commercialization of cheaper methods
for producing phosphorus on a large scale, widening fields have been developed for it and its compounds. Table 4 shows the production of the
more important commercial compounds of phosphorus in recent years.
Channels of consumption for phosphorus derivatives other than as fertilizers may be divided into four groups: (1) water treatment, (2) food
and medicine, (3) phosphate esters, and (4) miscellaneous uses.
Excluding fertilizers, the main outlet for phosphorus derivatives is in
water treatment and detergents as various sodium phosphates. These salts,
because of their ability to precipitate or sequester lime and magnesia, to
emulsify or disperse solids in the detergent solution, and to augment the
inherent detergent properties of soap and synthetic surface-active agents,
are much used as soap builders or detergent synergists. Trisodium phosphate (TSP) was the first and for many years the largest seller. It is still
used in many household cleaning and washing powders, but the preference l for a sequestering agent which would tie up the Ca and Mg ions
in water as soluble complexes without precipitation led to the development of tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP) and sodium tripolyphos-'
phate (STP). About three-fourths of all STP is made from electric-furnace acid and the rest by converting disodium phosphate into tripoly.
Over 85 per cent of the tripoly production is employed as a builder in
syn,thetic detergents. This salt was first brought onto the market in significant quantities only in 1945 but production in 195~ iVas around
360,000 tons, almost entirely/as a builder in detergents. Mono- and di~
sodium phosphates and metaphosphate also have water-softening properties and are extensively employed for boiler-water conditioning.
The food uses include the important medicinal compounds of the glycerophosphates and the hypophosphites as well as the sodium and calcium
phosphates. Mo~ocalcium phosphate is employed more extensively than
all other chemical leavening agents. Sodium pyrophosphate is incorporated in the formulation of self-rising flours and baking powders as a bak1
AAJ.J., The Ameri('an Phosphorus Inrlustry, Ind. Eng. Chern., 44, 1520 (1952).
351
USES AND ECONOMICS
TABLE 4.
PRODUCTION OF CERTAIN PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDSG
(In short tons)

Compound
1949
Phosphoric acid, 50% H.PO,:

Total .................................. 1,394,544
From phosphorus .......................
716,944
From phosphate rock ....................
677,600
Calcium phosphate:
Monobasic, 100 per cent CaH,(PO.). ......
n.a.
Dibasic, 100 per cent CaHPO, ............
n.a.
Sodium phosphate:
Monobasic, 100 per cent NaH,pO, ........
12,722
Dibasic, 100 per cent Na,HpO ...........
130,555
70,367
Tribasic, 100 per cent Na'pO ........ '" .
27,823
Meta, 100 per cent NapO, ...............
Tetra, 100 per cent Na,P,07 ....... '.' ....
78,376
Acid pyro, 100 per cent Na.H,P.0 7 .........
Tripoly, 100 per cent Na.P,O.o ...........
n.a.
1951
1953
1,846,841
911 ,361
935,480
2,646,967
1,277,139
1,369,828
n.a.
38,421
n.a.
100,937b
18,479
182,650
67,605
51,020
84,867
11 ,434
312,283
20,738
n.a.
50,494
52,437
95,287
12,580
468,035
a "Inorganic Chemicals, United States Production, Facts for Industry," Series

M19A, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, 1952; "Statistics Handbook,"
Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Washington, 1955.
b Preliminary.
ing acid reacting with sodium bicarbonate when heated. The soft-drink
industry buys tonnage quantities of pure acid to add tartness. Mono- and
diammonium phosphate are consumed in tonnage am~unts in yeast culture and fermentation. These compounds supply the phosphorus and nitrogen required in the growth and propagation of yeast cells needed in
the baking, brewing, and alcohol manufacturing industries. Calcium salts
are employed in tooth powders, in foods as mineral supplements, and for
pharmaceuticals.
Tricresyl (TCP) and triphenyl phosphates are organic esters of phosphoric acid and are widely employed as plasticizers. Sales of the former
alone amounted to over: 5 million dollars in 1952. A recent insistent demand for TCP has beeJ created by skillful advertising, as a petroleum
additive. The chief metl).od of production of these is 'oy the condensation
of phosphorus oxychloride with sodium cresol or phenol. Tetraethyl pyrophosphate (sales of ~86,OOO lb. in 1954) is a valuable insecticide.
Alkyl alkali phosphates ar~ employed as nonflammable hydraulic fluids
and humectants. With ~ome research and development, many other organic derivatives of phqsphorus may open up entirely new and profitable
fields in the future.
A seemingly infinite 'number of miscellaneous uses may be mentioned
for phosphorus and its derivatives, among which the following are im-
352
portant: Phosphorus enters the metallurgical fields as an alloying agent.

Phosphorus and its compounds are constituents of match compositions.
Phosphoric acid is employed as a petroleum refining agent and as a catalyst for polymerizing olefins and for alkylating reactions. The sodium
salts also find application as emulsifiers in making process cheese, for
conditioning oil-well-drilling muds, and in preparation of enamels, glazes
for pottery, and many more uses. In fact it seems that in almost any industry that one might analyze one is certain.to find phosphoric acid used
or some other phosphorus derivative, in at least one step of the process.
MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHORUS AND PHOSPHORIC ACID
Reactions. Phosphorus has been produced by both the blast-furnace

and the electric-furnace 1 methods. Currently only the electric-furnace
method is active. The following reaction is considered to take place, the
raw materials being phosphate rock, silica, and coke:
2(CaF)Ca4(P04)a
+ 9Si0 + 15C ~ CaF + 9CaOSi0 + 6P + 15CO

2
or more simply expressed,

Ca a(P0 4)2
+ 3Si0 + 5C ~ 3CaSiO a + 2P + 5CO

2
The phosphorus is employed frequently as an intermediate product, being

burned or oxidized to P 20 S, which is dissolved in water to form the acids 2
or other compounds.
Phosphorus pent oxide :
4P + 50 2 ~ 2P 2 0 S
Metaphosphoric acid:
P 2 0 S + H 20 ~ 2HPO a
Pyrophosphoric acid:
P 20 S + 2H 20 ~ H 4P 2 0 7
Orthophosphoric acid: P 20 S + 3H 20 ~ 2H aP0 4
In addition, the old sulfuric acid or wet method is employed to manufacture phosphoric acid directly, by the reaction
The foregoing reactions are commercialized in the following sequences

and LUCAS, Phosphorus Furnace Reactions, Trans. Electrochem. Soc.,
,
I
DURGIN, LUM, :and MALOWAN, The Chemical and Physical Properties of Strong
Phosphoric 'Acids, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs., 33, 643 (1937); Chem. & Met. Eng.,
44,721 (1937); BELL, Composition of Strong Phosphoric Acids, Ind. Eng. Chern., 40,
1464 (1948).
1
ZERG1EBEL
31, 97 (1942).
353
REACTIONS
Solids
Liquids
~ses
Phosphate rock (70 S.P.L.)
Suffuric acid (94 ':To)
2,350. lb.
1.950 lb.
~f:~:;,(ChieflycOOlin9)
7'igg~~
Electricity
52.5 kW.-hr.
Direct labor
Filter
Per ton of 35% P,OS"cid
0.8 mon-hr.
FIG. 3. Phosphoric acid by Dorr strong-acid process.
of unit operation~ (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.), as exemplified by Figs. 3

and 5:
Sulfuric Acid:
Electric Furnace:
Phosphate rock ground and calcined Phosphate rock ground (Op.)
(Op. and Pr.)
Ground rock reacted in mill with part Rock and sand mixed with coke and
sintered, introduced into electric furof weak H aP0 4 (Pr.)
nace (Op.)
Reaction continued in three agitators Mix heated to reaction temperature
(Pr.)
(Pr. and Op.)
Reaction continued with rest of weak Slag and ferro phosphorus run off (Op.)
H aP0 4 and with H 2S0 4 (1'1'.)
/
SiF 4 recovered (Op. and Pr.)
Phosphorus and CO drawn off, P COlldensed or oxidized with air (Pr.)
Calcium sulfate filtered off and washed P 20, cooled and hydrated (Op. and
Pr.)
(Op.)
This sludge pulped, refiltered, ,and re- Strong H SP0 4 filtered and purified (Op.
washed (Op.)
and Pr.)
Strong acid from first filter evaporated
to stronger acid (Op.)
Phosphafe
ro(,k--_fSiinie:recn
Sand----,
Co~~bnz~--~~------~
Slag
spray
Ferrophosphorvs
Phosphate rock (6Q.8 B.P. L.l

Silica rock
Cok~ breeze
j,970 Ib
1,210 Ib
' 7481b
Iron depends on ferrophosphorus ""Iuirements } Per ton

Electricity
3;460 kw-hr.
85"1.
Direct lacor'
(est.) 0.5-1 man-hr. HJPO.
FIG. 4. Phosphoric acid flow sheet. Electric-furnace process by one-step system.

The two-step system separates the phosphorus after condensation, ships it to consuming centers to save freight, and there oxidizes the phosphorus.
354
Sulfuric Acid or the Wet Method. In the past, most of the phosphoric
acid produced was prepared by the action of dilute sulfuric acid, 30o Be.,
on ground phosphate rock or bones. This method has been supplanted
by the Dorr strong-acid process! which produces a stronger, cheaper, and
purer acid. This follows the flow sheet of Fig. 3. The equipment should
be lead-lined, and sufficient time provided in the various agitators for the
reaction to go to completion. The temperature in the digester should be
kept low enough to ensure the precipitation of gypsum, CaS04'2H 2 0,
and not anhydrite. If the latter is formed, it hydrates subsequently and
causes plugging of pipes. Acid made by this process is almost entirely
used in fertilizer production where impurities are unimportant, or after
some purification for various sodium phosphates. Pure acid is obtained
by the electric-furnace process.
Electric-furnace Method. The electric-furnace 2 process was first employed commercially in 1920. This process permits the use of lower-grade
rock than does the wet process as the slag carries off impurities. Indeed
the lower grades are frequently preferred because of the better CaO to
Si0 2 balance for slag formation. The principal requirement is cheap
electricity.
The phosphate rock must be charged in a lump form. Fine material
tends to block the exit of the phosphorus vapors and to cause bridging
and uneven descent of the furnace charge, resulting in puffs and the
carrying over of excessive quantities of dust. Phosphate lumps may be
prepared in the following ways: (1) pelletizing by tumbling or extrusion,
(2) agglomeration by noduli zing at high temperatures, (3) sintering a
mixture of phosphate fines and coke, and (4) briquetting with the addition of a suitable binder. After agglomeration, coke breeze and siliceous
flux (sand) are added, and the materials are charged to the electric furnace. Iron slugs are added to the charge if more ferrophosphorus is desired. A flow sheet with quantities required is shown in Fig. 4. "A typical
large commercial furnace (15,000 -kw-hr.), having a daily (24 hr.) output of 28 tons of phosphorus consists of an oblong water-cooled steel shell
?2 ft. in length, 15 ft. wide, and 12 ft. deep. Th~ bottom of the furnace
1 WEBER, SHAFOR, and ROBERTS, Dorr Strong Acid Process, U,S. Pat. 2049032
(1936); PERBY, op. cit., pp. 951-952, presents the c.c.d. practice still used in many
plants; ibid., p. 988, for filter media; WAGGAMAN and BELL, Western Phosphates . . .
Comparison of Sulfuric Acid and Thermal Reduction Processing, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42,
276 (1950); ANON., Equipment and Construction Materials for Phosphoric Acid,
Chem. Eng., 66 (11), 108 (1948).
CURTIS, The Manufacture of Phosphoric Acid by the Electric Furnace Method,
Trans. Am. Inst; Chern. Engrs., 31, 278 (1935); CURTIS, et al., Process Developments at
T.V.A. Phosphoric Acid Plant, Chern. & Met. Eng., 46, 193 (1938); CALLAHAM, How
Virginia-Carolina Makes Phosphorus, Chern. Eng., 68 (4), 102 (1951); KOBE, "Inorganic Process Industries," pp. 326ff., The Macmillan Company, New York, 1948, for
details.
355
BLAST-FURNACE METHOD
is composed of carbon blocks and this lining extends up the wall to a

point well above the slag pool. From this point a high-grade fire-brick
lining is used."! A domelike steel top with a cast refractory lining caps
the furnace. Openings for the electrodes and for introducing the raw materials are included here. The electrodes are threaded so as to facilitate
replacements as the carbon is consumed. The gases and phosphorus vapor
are removed at one end of the furnace. The calcium-rich slag from the
furnace is usually tapped periodically and is crushed for use in the manufacture of glass, for liming of soil, and as a roadbed ballast. The ferrophosphorus runs out with the slag, is separated and sold as a phosphorus
additive to steel. In this process most of the fluorine stays with the slag.
The small portion that leaves with the gas is absorbed in the water used
in condensing the phosphorus.
Blast-furnace Method. The first patent on the blast furnace 2 for making phosphorus was issued in France in 1867 and, at the time, was not
considered practicable. Little was done about it for the next 30 or 40
years, and it was not until 1929 that commercial production by this pro<)ess actually was successfully put into practice. The blast furnace used is
similar in appearance to that employed in the steel industry. The last
blast furnace operated was approximately 95 ft. high and had a maximum capacity of 250,000 lb. P 20. per day. This has been shut down
since 1939 but some engineers expect to see this process started again
using air blast enriched as to its oxygen content.
/
SODIUM PHOSPHATES
Although trisodium phosphate has long been an important article of

commerce (Table 4), since 1930 intensive development has resulted in
the manufacture of a number of new and very useful phosphates which
are ;eplacing TSP for many demands. a
The industrially important sodium phosphates may be classified:
Alkali metal metaphosphates, such as NaPO a, sodium metaphosphate,
and sodium hexametaphosphate, (NaPOa)s, or Graham's salt.
Alkali metal polyphosphates, such as Na.PSO lO, sodium tripolyphosphate.
WAGGAMAN, op. cit., p. 141EASTERWOOD, Making Phosphoric Acid in the Blast Furnace, Chern. & Met. Eng.,
40, 283 (1933); Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs:, 29, 1 (1933); pictured flow chart, Chern.
& Met. Eng., 46, 2{;g (1939). Forfurther details and flow sheet, cf. 1st ed. ofthis book,
pp. 343-344; cf. HIGNETT,IDevelopment of Blast Furnace Process for. Production of
Phosphoric Acid, Chern. Eng. Progr., 44, 753, 820, 895 (1948).
3 AALL, op. cit.; SCHWARTZ and MUNTER, Phosphates in Water Conditioning, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 34,32 (1942)., This is a very excellent article with phase diagrams and a.
splendid bibliography; for various sodium phosphates with phase diagram, cf. KOBE.,
op. cit., pp. 335if.
1
!
356
Alkali metal pYl'ophosphates, such as Na4P20710H20, sodium or tetrasodium pyrophosphate.

Alkali metal orthophosphates, such as NaH 2P04H 20, Na2HP0 4 '7H 2 0,
and Na aPOd2H 20.
The first three groups may be looked upon as molecularly dehydrated
from the orthophosphates. The alkali metal polyphosphates 1 are of rather
indefinite molecular composition and are frequently included among the
phosphate glasses, which also may embrace sodium meta phosphates,
Graham's salt.
The development of these various molecularly dehydrated phosphates,
with a range of properties particularly directed toward conditi_oning water, was stimulated, if not started, by the work of R. E. H~1l2 and his
associates of the Hall Laboratories. Water varies so much in its impurities and its pH that softening agents are needed of the varying properties
of phosphates, from the strongly alkaline Na aP0 4 through all ranges to
the strongly acid NaH 2P0 4 However, in water softening, the behavior
toward the deleterious constituents, calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum, is of the most importance. Although Na 3P0 4 precipitates insoluble phosphates or hydroxides usually of a loose form and hence easil~'
removable, yet the newly discovered properties of metaphospp.ates, poIS;phosphates, and tetra phosphate in solubilizing or repressing the.calcium
and magnesium precipitates, even in presence of soaps, are of the utmm;t._
industrial significance. Such action takes place by binding, for example,
the calcium and magnesium into such complexes as Na2(Ca2P601S) and
N a 2M gP 20 7
The molecularly dehydrated phosphat.es supplement the long-known
orthophosphates in practical water treatment. hy being able: a
1. To provide acid, neutral, OJ' alkaline solutions fOJ' control of pH value by'
both neutralization and buffer ,action.
2. To act as emulsifying agents.
.
3. To reduce metal-ion concentration by precipitation.
4. To reduce metal-ion concentration by-complex formation.
5. To reduce alkalinity by hydrolysis to orthophosphate.
/ 6. To stabilize solutions supersaturated with r~spect to ordinarily insoluble
salts.
'
7. To form adsorbed films on metal surfaces.
8. To disperse insoluble compounds through adsorption on the solid particles.
Meiaphosphates. Soluble, glassy sodium metaphosphate, (NaPOa)n, is

made by fusing practically pure monosodium phosphate at 760C. Th~
1 PARTRIDGE, HICKS, and SMITH, A/Thermal Microscopic and X-ray Study of the
System ~aPO:r-Na4P<07, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 63, 454 (.1941); PARTRIDGE, The Peculiar
Phosphates, Chem. Eng. News, 27, 214 (1949).
2 HALL, U.S. Pat. 1956515 (1934), Reissue 19719 (1935).
3 Quoted from SCHWARTZ and MUNTER, op. cit., p. 36.
357
METAPHOSPHATES
molten product is discharged to a belt where it is chilled by water sprays

on the underside. After flaking it is packaged and shipped. It finds wide
usage in water treatment.' The reactions may be expressed:
2H 3P0 4
Na2C03nNaH 2 P0 4 -
2NaH 2P0 4
CO2
(NaPOa)n + nH 20
+ H 20
T.V.A. has studied and manufactured many thousands of tons of metaphosphates chiefly for fertilizers. Potassium metaphosphate is composed
of 100 per cent of plant-food ingredients (approximately 40 per cent K 2 0
and 60 per cent P 2 0 5), but a successfully economic process has not been
developed.
,
Polyphosphates. According to the phase diagram of Partridge, Hicks,
:and Smith,2 only three molecular compositions, namely, NaP0 3, Na 4P 20 7 ,
and Na5P30'O, are definite in the system NaPO:rNa 4P 20 7 Although the
chemistry is very complex, the polyphosphates possess highly desirable
characteristics. Sodium tripolyphosphate is produced in the largest tonnages of all the phosphate salts (Table 4) with about 85 per cent employed as a builder in detergents.
To produce the sodium tripolyphosphate 3 a definite temperature control is
necessary. When mono- and disodium phosphates in correct proportions or
equivale~t mixtures of other phosphates are heated for a substantial time between
300 and 500C. and slowly cooled, the product will practically all be in the form
of the tripolyphosphate. If, however, the mixture is fused and rapidly cooled,
the product will be substantially a mixture of meta- and pyrophosphates. This
mixture may be converted to the tripolyphosphate by reheating and tempering
at a temperature above 300C. but below the fusion point.
The chemical properties of the alkalj metal tripolyphosphates would appear
to place them somewhere between pyro- and metaphosphates, having less calcium
and more magnesium repressing value than the meta phosphates, and more
calcium and less magnesium repressing value than the pyrophosphates.
Pyrophosphates. Tetrasodium pyrophosphate is one of the best allaround builders for .detergents of the dodecyl-benzene-sulfonate type. It
is also an excellent builder for soap, which helps account for its high level
of consumption. In its ~anufacture phosphoric acid.J!,nd soda ash are reacted to yield disodium 1phosphate solution which may be drum dried to
give anhydrous Na 2HP0 4 or crystallized to give Na 2HP0 4 '2H 20 or
N a 2HP0 4 7H 20. These lare calcined at a high temperature in an oil or
gas-fired rotary kiln .to yield tetrasodium pyrophosphate. The reactions
Cf. PARTRIDGE and TEXTER, Calgon, Chem. Eng. News, 27, 840 (1949).
A Thermal, Microscopic and X-ray Study of th~ System NaPO r Na.P.0 7, J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 63, 454 (1941).
EASTERWOOD, Recent Developments in the Phosphate Field, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
34, 13 (1942); cJ. SCHWARTZ and MUNTER, 01J. cit., particularly for application,
.
1
358
may be written:
2Na 2HPO. ~ Na.P 20 7
2Na 2HPO,'2H 20 ~ Na.P 2 0 7
+H 0
+ 5H 0
2
A nonhygroscopic sodium acid pyrophosphate is used extensively as a

chemical leavening agent in making doughnuts, cakes, and packaged biscuit doughs. It is manufactured by partially dehydrating monosodium
acid orthophosphate at a temperature between 25 and 250C. over the
course of I) to 12 hr.
Trisodium Phosphate. Na aPOd2H 20 is employed in industry because

of its two chief properties: (1) It is hydrolyzed in a water solution to
give a high pH solution well buffered against neutralization. (2) It possesses the ability to form soft and granular precipitates with heavy-metal
Phosphoric ac.id (45"10 P,OS)

Na,C03 158'oNa,O)
Na OH (16"/. Na,O)
Stearn
Electricity
Direct laDor
eeo lb.
&00 lb.
240 lb.
150 Ib.
eo
Kw.-hr.
8 man- hr.
,~
Per ton of Na, PO"1l! H20
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for trisodium phosphate.
ions such as magnesium, iron, aluminum, and calcium. For years TSP
was the most, important compound of phosphoric acid used as a water
softener and detergent. The polyphosphates have now greatly replaced
TSP because they are superior in det'ergency, water softening, lower alIkalinity, and sequestering ability. However, TSP will probably maintain
a certain position because of its low cost of mariufactu_re.
Its manufacture must be carried out in two steps:
Na 2CO a + HaPO. ~ Na 2 HPO. + CO2 + H 20
Na 2HPO. + NaOH ~ NaaPO. + H 20
The procedure 1 as depicted in the flow sheet of Fig. 5, is as follows:
6,000 lb. of 58 per cent soda asH are introduced into a 4,000-gaI. tank with
800 g'al. of hot liquor from previous crystallization of Na3PO"12H20;
8,800' lb. of phosphoric acid solution, containing 45 per cent P 20., are
1 SNELL,
470 (1931).
Trisodium Phosphate-Its Manufacture and Use, Ind. Eng. Chern., 28.
359
/AMMONIUM PHOSPHATES
added at the surface of the tank so that CO 2 can be liberated easily. A

slight excess of soda ash is added and the solution is boiled by steam until
all of the CO 2 has been driven out as confirmed by the test sample. Since
the pH level at which the third H of the acid is neutralized is higher than
that at which the second H of carbonic acid is converted to form sodium
carbonate, it is not to be expected that H aP0 4 can be neutralized further
than to the disodium stage with sodium carbonate. The disodium phosphate solution is filtered in a plate-and-frame filter press at 85 to 100C.,
and the filtrate is pumped to storage tanks or to the trisodium process
tank. This clear solution of disodium phosphate contains 14.5 per cent
P~OD and 13 per cent Na 20. The small amount of white mud (Fe and
Al phosphates plus Si0 2) in the press is wasted.
Fifteen hundred gail?ns of hot disodium phosphate solution is changed
to trisodium phosphate; in a 4,000-gai. iron tank, by adding 2,800 lb. of
caustic soda in 300 gal. ~f water at 90C.; an additional 1,000 gal. of disodium phosphate solution if> then added. Samples are titrated to control
this operation. The hot solution of trisodium phosphate is filtered and
passed to Swenson-Walker crystallizers.
The crystals are dried in a cen,
trifuge, further dried in a rotary drier, cooled, screened, and aged for 3
or 4 days by storage in piles. A spray congealed grade is also produced
by pumping a clear filtered solution of N aaP04 to the top of a spray
tower 70 ft. high where an atomizer discharges it. During the fall of
70 ft. countercurrent to hot air, the particles assume a spherical form and
congeal.
/
AMMONIUM PHOSPHATES
Both monoammonium phosphate, NH 4H 2P0 4, and diammonium phosphate, (NH 4)2HP0 4 , are used as fertilizers, as yeast nutrients, and as
ftameproofing agents for paper, wood, and textiles. High-grade monoammonium phosphate is, manufactured simply by the absorption of ammonia gas in 75 per cent H aP0 4 made from elementaY P. Considerable
heat is given off in the reaction, and the mass becomes pasty and crystallizes almost solid on ~ooling. The white crystals are centrifuged free
from the mother liquor itnd dried for sale. Wet-process phosphoric acid
and ammonia liquor from coking operations are reacted batchwise to
form a fertilizer-grade salt. The Dorr continuous process for granulated
concentrated fertilizers neu~ralizes phosphoric acid or a mixture of phosphoric and sulfuric acid.s with ammonia to monoammonium or diammonium (Fig. 6) phosphat!!. The product is mixed with a large quantity of
previously produced granules and dried. After screening to a closely sized
fraction, the remainder:circulates in the process.
Purified diammonium phosphate is made from phosphoric acid and
ammonia in two stages. The NHa introduced in the first stage removes
3()O
the bulk of the Fe, AI, F, Ca, and Mg present in wet-process acid as
filterable impurities. The filtrate, practically a pure solution of monoammonium phosphate, is evaporated. It is saturated with ammonia to a
NH a/P 2 0 6 mole ratio of 2 to 1 in a continuous single-stage saturator.
The product is crystallized, centrifuged, and dried for sale. T.V.A. has
perfected on a pilot-plant scale a continuous process for the crystalline

di salt.! This consists of passing anhydrous ammonia gas and pure 75 to
85 per cent H aP0 4 into a saturatE!d mother liquor. The heat of reaction
vaporizes \yater from the liquor while the crystals are withdrawn, centrifuged, washed, and dried.
BAKING POWDERS
The baking powder industry is an important consumer of phosphate

rock. The use of leavening agents to produce aeration and lightness in
breads and cakes, has been known since the tim~ of the Egyptians and
handed down through the Greeks and Romans. Leavened and unleavened bread are both mentioned in the Bible. Some form of yeast or ferment acting on the carbohydrates of the flour giving CO 2 and an alcohol
was the first of the leavening agents used. Later, baking soda (sodium
bicarbonate) was widely used but, because it often imparted an unpleasant; taste or even a yellowish color due to the alkalinity of the Na 2CO a
formed, the search for better reagents continued.
/ Baking powders consist of a dry mixture of s~dium bicarbonate with
one or more chemicals capable of completely decomposing it. The principal "baking acids" used 'are monocalcium phosphate monohydrate, anhydrous monocalcium phosphate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodi'lm
aluminum sulfate, tartaric acid, and the acid tartrates. The monocalcium phosphates are consumed more than all the others, the estimate
being 78,000,000 lb. annually in the United States. A filler or drying
agent, such as starch or flour, IS usually added to the active ingredients
I
et al., Diammonium Phosphate, Ind. Eng. Chem" 42, 2176 (1950);

et al., Properties of Diammonium Phosphate Fertilizer, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
41, 485 (1949). '
I
THOMPSON,
THOMPSON,
SELECTED REFERENCES
361
to give a better distribution throughout the dough and to act as a diluent

or preventative of the reaction until water and heat are applied. The following equations represent the actions of the different baking powders:
Na 2Ah(S04)4 + 6NaHCO a ~ 6C0 2 + 4Na 2 S04 + 2Al(OH)a
3CaH 4(P0 4)2H 2 0 + 8NaHCO a ~ 8C0 2 + Ca a(P0 4)2
+ 4N a 2HP0 4 + llH 2 0
KH 2 P0 4 + NaHCOa~ CO 2 + KNaHP0 4 + H 2 0
NaH 2P04 + NaHCOa ---> CO 2 + Na 2 HP0 4 + H 20
Na 2H 2P 20, + 2NaHCO a ---> 2C0 2 + 2Na 2 HP0 4 + H 2 0
KHC4H 40 6 + NaHCO a ---> KNaC 4H 40 6 + CO 2 + H 20
In the United States, bakidg powders l1).ust yield not less than 12 per
cent available CO 2 , and most po\vders are so made up that they contain
from 26 to 29 per cent N aHCO a and enough of the acid ingredients to decompose the bicarbonate and yield from 14 to 15 per cent CO 2 The rest
of the powder, 20 to 40 per cent, c,onsists of corn starch or flour.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Waggama~, W. H., "Phosphoric Acid, Phosphates and Phosphatic Fertilizers," 2d ed.,

Various Authors, A Symposium on Phosphorus and Phosphates, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44,
1519 (1952).
Striplin, M. M., "Development of Proc_esses and Equipment for Production of Phosphoric Acid/' Chemical Engineering Report, No.2, T.V.A., Wilson Dam,
Alabama, 1948.
/
Allon., "Pro~ess Flow Diagrams," T.V.A., Wilson Dam, Alabama, 1949.
Various Authors, A Symposium on Phosphates for Agriculture, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41,
1314 (1949).
.
Curtis, H. A.,. The Design of a Phosphate-smelting Furnace, T.V.A., Chemical
Engineering Bull. 1, Knoxville, Tenn., 1953.
I.
CHAPTER
19
SULFUR AND SULFURIC ACID
One of the most important and basic raw materials in the chemical
process industries is sulfur. It exists in nature both in the free state and
combined in ores such as pyrite, FeS 2 The mining of sulfur in Louisiana
and Texas by the Frasch process, with the produ<;.tio~6of I!ing,le blocks of
pure sulfur 100 to 300 ft. wide, 600 to 1,200 ft. long, and over 50 ft. high,
is a large and essential industry. Beside its most important application
in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, sulfur is used extensively in explosives, refrigerants, rubber, pulp, and paper.
Historical. Sulfur has a history as old as any other recorded and has
developed from a mystic yellow of the alchemist to one of the most useful substances in modern civilization. It was burned in early pagan rites
to drive away evil spirits, but even then the fumes were used as a bleach
for cloth and straw.
For many years a French company held a monopoly on elemental sulfur by controlling the world production from mines in Sicily. Partly for
this reason and partly because of the abundance of pyrite, sulfur itself
was little used prior to 1914. Though sulfur was discovered in the Gulf
region of the United States by oil prospectors in 1869, it was difficult to
mine because of overlying beds of quicksand. IBefore 1914 the United
States made most of its sulfuric acid from imported and domestic pyrite
and by-product sulfur dioxide from copper and zinc smelters. The mining of sulfur in Texas and Louisiana by the Frasch process was increased
I starting around 1914 to such an extent as .tp provide for all domestic
needs and to enter world markets.
Uses and Economics.' 'Production of elemental sulfur in the United
States in 1952 was 6,432,000 long tons. That year the United States
sources of sulfur were 82 per cent from Frasch mines, 9 per cent from
pyrites, 5 per cent from hydrogen sulfide, and 4 per cent from smelter
gases. Sulfu~ usage has increas~ tremendously during the past few years.
About thre~fourths of all the sulfur consumed in this country is converted into sulfuric acid. There are countless other outlets for the eleI ANON., Sulfur, Acid, Chem. Eng., 60 (3), 190 (1953); ANON., Sulfur, Chem. Eng.
New8, 29, 2126 (1951); Chem. Eng. New8, 30, 3094 (1952), new producers.
362
FRASCH PROCESS
363
ment. Large quantities of sulfur dioxide are needed in sulfite paper manufacture. A few of the many uses of elemental sulfur are in wood pulping
and in the making of carbon disulfide, medicinals, rubber, sulfur dyes,
insecticides, and fungicides.
Because of this increased sulfur usage, there was a serious shortage in
1951. Although many sources! of sulfur exist, none is currently available
at the low price of Gulf Coast sulfur. Since Gulf Coast deposits may be
depleted around 1985, other sulfur sources are being sought under the
following: elemental, pyrites, hydrogen sulfide from both natural and refinery gases, smelter gases, calcium sulfate, coal, and low grade sulfur
deposits. Calcium llulfate2 and coal are the most plentiful and widely distributed, but sulfur recovery from these is costly. The Chemical Construction Corporation is erecting a large plant in Colombia to obtain elemental acid-grade sulfur from surface deposits. Sit is claimed that deposits
containing over 20 per cent sulfur are competitive with the Frasch process. This new process consists of grinding native sulfur-bearing ore and
suspending it in water. The mixture is heated above the melting point of
sulfur when the fine sulfur particles coalesce: After cooling, the sulfur is
froth fiotated, and filtered.
MINING AND MANUFACTURE OF SULFUR
Sulfur is obtained as elemental sulfur from sulfur dioxide and from hydrogen sulfide .. Pure sulfur is mined but the sulfur dioxide comes from
the roasting of sulfide ores and the hydrogen sulfide is'removed from industrial gases.
Frasch Process. Ninety per cent of all the elemental sulfur of the world
is obtained from the sulfur-bearing porous limestones in the saltdome
cap rocks of Texas and Louisiana by the Frasch process. 4 As early as
the late 1890's, Herman Frasch devised the following ingenious method
of melting the sulfur underground and of pumping it up to the surface:
Ordinary oil-well equipment is used to bore holes to the bottom of the
sulfur-bearing strata, a distance underground of from 500 to 2,500 ft. A
nest of three concentric pipes, varying in size from 6 in. to 1 in., is slipped
down the well casing. The outside pipe of this nest, 6 in. in diameter,
1 LUNDY, Known and Potential Sulfur Resources of the World, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
42,2199 (1950); TODD, Offshore Sulfur Production, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 2210 (1950).
HIGSON, CaSO. as a Raw Material for Chemical Manufacture, Chem. Eng. News,
43,4469 (1951).
3 U.S. Pat. 2537842 (1951); O'CONNOR, New Sulfur Recovery Process, Chem. Eng.,
68 (3), 128 (1950).
'
4 SHEARON and POLLARD, Modern Sulfur Mining, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 2188 (1950);
a pictured flow sheet is giyen in Chem. & Met. Eng., 48 (3),104 (1941); c/. HAYNES,
"The Stone That Burns," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
364
FIG; 1. Sulfur-well piping. (Courtesy of Texas Gulf Sulphur Company, Inc.)
SULFUR FROM SMELTER GASES
365
passes through the sulfur-bearing stratum and rests on the upper portion of the barren anhydrite, as shown in Fig. 1. A 3-in. pipe passes
through the 6-in. one so that an annular space exists between the two,
extends nearly to the bottom of the sulfur-bearing rock, and rests on a
collar that seals the annular space between the 6-in. and the 3-in. pipes.
An air pipe, 1 in. in diameter, inside the others, reaches to a depth
slightly above the collar mentioned above. The 6-in. pipe is perforated
at two different levels, one above and the other below the annular collar.
The upper set of perforations permits escape of the hot water while the
molten sulfur enters the system through the lower perforations.
For operation of the well, hot water at about 330F. is passed down
the annular space between the 6-in. and the 3-in. pipes. It discharges
through the perforations into the porous formation near the foot of the
welL The sulfur-bearing rock about the well through which this water
circulates is raised to a temperature above the melting point of sulfur,
235F. Molten sulfur, being heavier than water, sinks to form a pool
around the base of the well where it enters through the lower perforations
and rises in the space between the 3-in. and the I-in. pipes, as depicted
in Fig. 1. The height to which the sulfur is forced by the pressure of the
hot watef'is about halfway to the surface. Air, compressed to 400 lb. at
the pump house and at the bottom of the central 1-in. pipe, rises and
mixes in the sulfur column in the 3-in. pipe, thu'l producing an air lift
that raises the sulfur to the surface. At the surface, the sulfur from the
wells is collected in steam-heated sumps at pumping stations from which
it is pumped through pipes heated by an inner steam pipe into large
storage vats where the sulfur solidifies. The block of sulfur is drilled,
broken down by blasting, and loaded into cars by a locomotive crane.
It is far-sighted business to maintain a large supply of sulfur aboveground sufficient for over a year, because the production of sulfur may be
seriously curtailed or entirely stopped for months at a time because of
underground movements following the sulfur removal.
Sulfur from Smelter Gases. Sulfur recovery from S02 and from H 2S
are not only becoming! more important as a sulfur source, but are mandatory in many localities because of stringent air-pollution, regulations.
Many processes! have'been developed to recover _02 from waste gases
resulting from roasting of sulfide ores, smelting of ores, coal combustion
in power stations, and burning of acid sludge from petroleum refining.
The possible products 'are, elemental sulfur, sulfuric acid, and liquid sulfur dioxide. It is estimated that sulfur loss to the atmosphere from zinc
plants and lead, copper, and nickel smelters alone is 5,000,000 tons anI.
"
1 KATZ and COLE, Reco"ery of Sulfur Compounds from Atmospheric Contaminants,

Ind. Eng. Chern., 42, 2258 (i950); cf. FLEMING and FITT, High Purity Sulfur from
Smelter Gases, Ind. Eng. :Ch:rn., 42, 2249 (1950); Liquid Sulfur Dioxide from Waste
Smelter Gases, Ind, Eng. Chern" 42, 2253 (1950).
366
nually. The recovery of S02 from smelter gases 1 at Trail, B.C., is a

famous and unique installation. Here the following units are in operation: absorption at the smelter operating on sintering plant gas, absorption at the zinc plant operating on zinc roaster gas, acidification unit
treating solution from both absorption plants, five conventional sulfuric
acid plants operating on enriched zinc roaster gas, and one cyclic-process
sulfuric acid plant operating on pure sulfur dioxide. Besides these there
are units treating the H 2S0 4 plant tail gases for recovery of S02; and
for processing zinc plant stripped electrolyte, for recovery of sulfuric
acid. In 1946, 375,595 tons of H 2S0 4 and 484,720 tons of elemental sulfur and fertilizer were recovered from sulfur dioxide at Trail.
Sulfur from Industrial Gases. Hydrogen sulfide is removed _in the purification of natural and manufactured gas and in petroleum refining, furnishing either pure hydrogen sulfide or free sulfur depending on the recovery systems 2 (see Chap. 7). The hydrogen sulfide thus produced may
be burned in specially constructed furnaces'to form sulfur dioxide for sulfuric acid. From these gases, the equivalent of approximately 260,000
long tons of sulfur are recovered annually.
Sulfur from Pyrites. This method of producing sulfur is largely limited
to those plants which, because of their location, are favored by low shipping and other costs. The majority of United States producers are around
Tennessee, although suitable ores also occur in eight other states. The
ore is usually fla!3h roasted to recover the sulfur dioxide. A recent development by the Dorr Company is expected to give a considerable boost
to pyrites utilization. Here the ore is crushed to 35 to 200 mesh and the
partially suspended sulfide particles are removed in an upward-moving
stream of air. This fluidization ensures complete combustion of the particles to sulfur dioxide, which may be converted to sulfuric acid.
Sulfur Dioxide from By-products. Sizable quantities of ferrous sulfa_te
are wasted into streams each year, coIning mostly from steel Inills and
titanium plants. The steel industry-consumes over 500,000 tons of 60o Be.
acid yearly for pickling. These wastes are water solutions 3 containing
from 2 to 15 per cent sulfuric acid and 10 to 15 per cent ferrous sulfate.
Much work has been done upon the recovery ,of the values of these liq1 KING, Economic Utilization of Sulfur Dioxide from Metallurgical Gases, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 42, 2241 (1950); KIRKPATRICK, Trail Refuses to Trail in Chemical Engineering, Chern. Eng., 66 (4), 96 (1948).
REED and UPDEGRAFF, Removal of Hydrogen Sulfide from Industrial Gases, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 42, 2269 (1950); SANDS and SCHMIDT, Recovery of Sulfur from Synthesis
Gas, Ind. Eng. Chern., 42, 2277 (1950); SAWYER, et al., Sulfur from Sour Gases, Ind~
Eng. Chern., 42; 1938 (1950); ANON!, Sulfur from H 2S, Chern. Eng., 69 (10), 210
(1952), pictured flow sheet.
3 BARTHOLOMEW, Chemico's New Pickle Liquor Process, Chern. Eng., 6'1 (8), 118
(1950); KRAIKER, Dispose of Pickle Liquor at a Profit, Chern. Eng., 66 (3), 112, 114
(1949); HOAK, Waste Pickle Liquor, Ind. Eng. Chern., S9, 416 (1947).
SULFURIC ACID
367
uors for nearly 75 years. Although ferrous sulfate recovery systems were
installed at two titanium pigment plants, 1 they were uneconomical because of heavy water-evaporation costs.
About 2,000,000 tons of spent acids are reused each year: (1) spent
sludge acids from petroleum refining; (2) spent alkylation catalyst as
black but still relatively strong and uncontaminated acid; and (3) nitration spent acid, diluted but frequently uncontaminated. Sludge and alkylation acids are recovered by decomposing to sulfur dioxide with heat
alone or by help of coke. In either case the resultant sulfur dioxide is
remade to acid in a sulfuric acid contact plant. Figure 2 shows the
FIG. 2. Sulfuric acid from sludge acid.
Chemico 2 sludge-conversion process wherein the acid sludge plus red-hot

coke is heated to about 550F. resulting in more solid coke, water vapor,
some hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide (15 to 25 per cent S02 by volume). After being cooled and purified, the sulfur dioxide is converted to
sulfuric acid by the contact process.
SULFURIC ACID
It seems hard to believe that a very.active chemical, such as sulfuric

aci<;i, is at the same ti~e one of the most widely used and most important
of technical products. It is of such paramount significance that the re~ark .has frequently ~e~n made that the per ca~ita use of .sulf~ri~ acid
IS an mdex of the tecHmcal development of a natIOn. SulfurIC aCId IS the
agent for sulfate formation and for sulfonation but is used more frequently by virtue of geing a rather strong and economically priced inorganic acid. It enters into countless industries, though infrequently apSee 1st ed. of this book, pp. 357-358, for description and flow sheet.
SPANGLER, Modified Acid Recovery Process'Treats Troublesom"e Acid Sludges,
Chem. & Met. Eng., 44, 368 (1937); ANON., Sulfuric Acid from Refinery Sludge, Chem.
& Met. Eng., 48, No.5; 144 (1941). The latter presents an excellent pictured flow
sheet, depicting particullirly the purification of the sulfur dioxide that is formed.
1
I
368
pearing in the finished material. It thus aids in the manufacture of leather

and tin plate, in the purification of petroleum, and in the dyeing of
fabrics.
Historica1. l The origin of the f.rst sulfuric acid is unknown, but it is
mentioned as far back as the tenth century. The preparation is first described by Valentinus in the fifteenth century by burning saltpeter with
sulfur. In 1746, Dr. Roebuck of Birmingham, England, introduced the
lead chamber. His process consisted of placing a mixture of brimstone
and saltpeter in iron carts and rolling them into the chamber. In 1774,
steam was first used in the chambers. Early in the nineteenth century,
the continuous method replaced batch operation. Another notable improvement in the process was the invention of the Gay-I,ussac tower for
the recovery of nitrogen oxides in 1827, which, however, was not applied
until the invention of the Glover tower in 1859. The Glover tower furnished a means of denitrating the nitrous acid from the Gay-Lussac
tower without diluting it with too much water; it complemented the use
of the Gay-Lussac tower. Since that time both towers have been st.andard equipment on all lead-chamber processes.
The contact process was first discovered in 1831 by Phillips, an Englishman, whose patent included the essential features of the modern contact process, namely, the passing of a mixture of sulfur dioxide over a
catalyst followed by absorption of the sulfur trioxide in water. Phillips's
invention was not a commercial success for more than 40 years, probably
owing to (1) the lack of demand for fuming acids, (2) inadequate knowledge of catalytic gas reactions, and (3) the slow progress of chemical t.echnology. The early years of the dye industry afforded a rising demand for
fuming acids for the manufacture of alizarin and other organic coloring
matters.
At first, fuming sulfuric acid was made by decomposing chamber a_,cid
by means of heat.
.:l
H 2S0 4 ~ H 20
-t:: S02 + 310 2
The sulfur dioxide and oxygen were dried and then passed over a catalyst
land absorbed in the chamber acid. This m~.thod was used until 1881,
when sulfur trioxide was made by passing sulfur dioxide and a theoretical
amount of air over a mixt~re of platinized asbestos. In 1889 it was demonstrated that excess of oxygen in the gaseous mixture. was advantageous. In recent years the contact process has been improved in all its
details until it is now one of industry's low-cost, almost wholly automatic
processes (see Fig. 8). In 1953, 79 per cent of the new sulfuric acid was
I
I
made by the; contact process.
I
"Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,

New York, 1936. This is the standard reference book on sulfuric acid and should be
freely consulted. Many references and sketches are included.
1 FAIRLIE,
369
PROPERTIES OF SULFURIC ACID
Properties of Sulfuric Acid. Sulfuric acid is a strong dibasic acid. In

addition, it is also an oxidizing and a dehydrating agent particularly toward organic compounds. The dehydrating action is important in absorbing water formed in such unit processes as nitration, esterification,
and sulfonation, thus ensuring high yields. Solutions of sulfuric acid may
be concentrated economically to about 93 per cent by weight of H 2S0 4
Stronger sulfuric acids mav be made by dissolving sulfur trioxide in this
concentrated acid. Sulfur trioxide forms many hydrates that have fairly
definite melting points, as shown in Table 1. The irregularities in the relation hetween strengths of the sulfuric acids and the corresponding specific gravities and freezing points are due to these hydrates.
TARLE 1. HYnRATES OF SULFURIC Acm" ANn SUI,FlIR TRIOXIDE
Pyrosulfuric acid ...................

Monohydrate ......................
Double hydrate .............. , .....
Triple hydrate .....................
Quintuple hydrate .. , ..............
Formula
Melting
point, C.
Specific
gravity
H:S,O,
H 2SO.
H,SO,H,O
H 2SO.2H,O
H,SO.4H,O
35
10.49
8.62
-38.9
-25
1. 920
1. 834'W
1.842'74
1. 650~'
"PERRY, op. cit., p~ 127; FAIRLIE, "Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid," p. 48, Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, New York, 1936.
Sulfuric acid is widely sold in the form of various/solutions of H 2S0 4

in water or of SOa in H 2S0 4 These latter are called oleums and are marketed on the basis of the percentage of SOa present; 20 per cent oleum
means that in 100 lb. there are 20 lb. of SOa and 80 lb. of H 2S0 4 This
20 per cent oleum if diluted with water to make monohydrate, H 2S0 4 ,
would furnish 104.5 lb. For convenience, now grown into an established
custom, the ordinary solutions of sulfuric acid and water are sold according to their specific gravity', or their Baume degree. Table 2 illustrates
the sulfuric acids of commerce. The usual temperature to which specific
gravity or Baume (Be:) is referred is 60F. for sulfuric acids. The specific gravity of sulfurip acid increases gradually to 1.844 at 60F. for
97 per cent sulfuric acid, after which it decreases to 1.835 at 60F. for
100 per cent acid. Consequently in this upper range, i.e., above 95 per
cent, the strengths shQuld be determined by other means, such as electrical conductivities, titrations, or heat rises. For some of the mediumrange oleums, however: specific gravity is again helpful.
The normal strengtns of commercial oleums are usually 20, 40, 60, and
65 per cent of free sulfur trioxide, the 20 and 60 being the most common.
The 20 per cent oleum has a melting point of about -10C., and the
65 per cent oleum has a melting point of OC. It is interesting to note
370
that the melting point of 45 per cent oleum is about 35C. This fact
accounts for the relatively small shipments of the 45 per cent oleum; the
40 or 45 per cent oleum may be made and mixed with nitric acid with
consequent reduction in the melting point.
TABLE 2. COMMERCIAL STRENGTHS OF SULFURIC ACID (60F.)G
Degree Be.,
Specific gravity,
60F. or 15.6C. 60F. or 15.6C.
Sulfuric acid,
per (,ent
----------1------- ------- --------Battery acid ...............

Chamber acid, fertilizer acid,
50 0 acid .................
Glover or tower acid, 60 acid
Oil of vitriol (O.V.), concentrated acid, 66 acid .......
98 0 acid ...................
Monohydrate, H,SO ........
20 per cent fuming, 20 per
cent oleum, 104.50 acid ....
29.&
1.250
33.4
50
60
1.526
1. 706
62.18
77.67
66
66.2
65.98
1.835
1.841
1.835
93.19
98.0
100.0
1.927
104.49, 20 per cent

free SO.
109.0, 40 per cent
free SO.
114.6; 65 per cent
free ,SO.
40 per cent oleum, 109 acid.
1.965
65 per cent oleum .......... ,
1.900
G PERRY, op. cit., pp. 184, 38. There are minor differences between different sulfuric
acid tables.
Uses of Sulfuric Acid. Fertilizer manufacture, as shown in Table 3, is

the greatest single use for sulfuric acid. About a dozen different gradea l
are supplied, each with a particular use. Grades of 53 to 56Be. or stronger
are employed in superphosphate manufacture, where much of this weaker
acid is supplied by chamber process. The 60oBe. grade is used for sulfates
of ammonia, copper (bluestone), aluminum (alum), magnesium (epsom
salts), zinc, iron (copperas), etc.; mineral acids; organic acids, such as
9itric, oxalic, acetic, and tartaric; pickling iron and steel before galvanizing and tinning; refining and producing of heavy metals; electroplating;
and preparing of sugar, starch, and sirup. The 66 to 66.2Be. grades are
utilized in purification of petroleum products; preparation of titanium
dioxide; alkylation of isobutane; manufacture of many nitrogen chemicals; synthesis of phenol; recovery of fatty acids in soap manufacture.
Oleums are needed for nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, TNT, and dye manufacture and!for fortifying weaker acids. Many other uses exist as can
b~ attested, to by the fact that few chemical products are made that sulfuric acid does not enter into the manufacture in some way or other.
1
Cf. SKEEN, Sulfuric Acid, Chem. Eng., 67 (4), 337 (1950).
371
MANU]<'AC'l'UUE
TABLE 3. ES'l'lMATED DISTRIBUTION OF SULFURIC ACID USED IN 'I'HE UNI'rED

STATES, INCLUDING RECYCLED ACID
(In 1,000 short tons, 100 per cent acid)
G
Fertilizers:
Superphosphate ............
Ammonium sulfate .........
Chemicals ...................
Petroleum ...................
Paints and pigments .........
Rayon and film ..............
Iron and steel. ..............
Other metallurgical ..........
Industrial explosives .........
Textile finishing .............
Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total. ....................
1950
1951
1953
3,800
1,450
3,625
1,500
1,270
700
1,050
190
115
40
380
14,120
3,900
1,500
3,800
1,550
1,250
710
1,080
200
110
40
380
14,520
4,050
1,200
4,180
1,720
1,370
760
1,160
220
420
40
410
15,530
Chem. Eng., 60 (3), 191 (1953). Recycled acid including reused acid, concentrated,
fortified, and reconstituted acid is estimated at 2,060,000 tons in 1950 and 2,130,000
tons each in 1951 and 1952.
G
Manufacture. There have long been two main procedures for the making of sulfuric acid: the chamber process and the contact process. Both
are based on sulfur dioxide, both are catalytic, both use air as the source
of oxygen for making the sulfur trioxide, and both have been operated
on a large scale for many years. l The chamber process produces directly
a weaker acid of from 50 to 55Be., and up to 66Be. acid by concentration. On the other hand, the contact process produces 98 and 100 per
cent acids and the various oleums. Much 66Be. acid results by dilution.
Unless the weak chamber acids can be consumed directly, the present
economics point to a production of more and more oil of vitriol (93.19 per
cent H 2S0 4) by the contact process rather than by concentration of chamber acid.
I
MANUFA<1TURE BY THE CHAMBER PROCESS
A typical flow sheet! for the chamber process is presented in Fig. 3.

The process starts when either the sulfur or pyrite is burned and the hot
gases are conducted through a combustion chamber which also may collect some dust. Sufficieht oxides of nitrogen; NO and N0 2, are introduced
I }<'or a chart of the distribution of sulfuric acid plants in the United States, sec
FAITH, KEYES, and CLARKE, "Industrial Chemicals," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York,1950.
372
into the hot mixture of air and sulfur dioxide from the burner. This may
be done either by the use of niter pots or by an ammonia oxidation unit.
The hot gaseous mixture passes up the Glover tower where it is met by
the downward flow of the diluted Gay-Lussac acid or the nitrous vitriol.
In the Glover tower about 10 per cent of the sulfuric acid is produced,
the so-called tower acid. If an ammonia oxidation unit supplies the nitrogen oxide, this is preferably entered into the gas stream, as shown by
Fig. 3 after the gas has been cooled by its passage up the Glover tower.
The cooled gases are blown to the chambers where most of the acid is
made and condensed. Finally, the unreacted gases pass to the GayLussac tower for the absorption of the oxides of nitrogen in the strong
Glover acid, producing the Gay-Lussac acid or the nitrous vitriol.
Reactions. The conversion of the sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid involves many fairly complex chemical changes. The over-all reaction is'
b.H
= -
54,500 cal.
The detailed reactions may be formulated (Lunge-Berl):

In the gaseous phase, hO'lnQgeneott8:
2NO
+O
-> 2~P2
(1)
On the gas-liquid interface, helerogeneou8 on welled walls:
S02 + H 20 -> H 2SO a

(::!)
H 2SO a + N0 2 -> H 2SO aN0 2 (violet acid or nitrosulfuric acid) (3)
2(H 2SO aN0 2) + Y202 (from N0 2 -> NO + !-~02) ->
H 20 + 2(HSO aN0 2) (nitrosyl sulfuric acid or nitro acid sulfite or
chamber crystals) (4a)
2(HSO aN0 2) + S02 + 2H 20 P 2(H 2SO a}W 2) + H 2S0 4
(5d)
In the liquid phase, homogeneous:
H 2SO aN0 2 p H 2S0 4 + NO

2(HSO aN0 2 ) + H 20 p 2H 2S0 4 +: ~O + N0 2
.
HSO aN0 2 + ,HNO a P 2N0 2 + H 2S0 4
(4b)
(5b)
(5c)
(HSO aN0 2 is sometimes written S05NH, and H 2SOsN0 2 as

H 2S0 4NO)
The important characteristics of the chamber process are the circulation of the catalytic oxides of nitrogen and the equipment needed for this;
but the heat of reaction must be dissipated to secure the desired favorable
equilibriums.
1 FAIRLIE, op. cit., p. 37; BERL, Studies of the Lead Chamber Process, Trans. Am.
Inst. Chem. Engr8., 31, 193 (1935).
UNIT Op~mATlONS. UNIT PROCESSES, AND ENERGY CHANGES
~73
Air
Sale
Sulfur"
677 lb.
Nitre (aoanhy.NH,) Sib.
Water
. ,,soollol.
Sale
Electricilv I~ kW.-h ... } Ftr ton 100'1. acid in a

.
Direct Ia60r 1.1 monhr. plont of SO tons por doy CGf"CilJ
FIG. 3. Sulfuric acid manufacture by the chamber pro('.ess .
....
Unit Operations, Unit Processes, and Energy Changes. The flow chart.
(Fig. ~) may 6e broken down into the following coordinated sequent"e of
~mit operations (Op.) and ~tnit processes (Pr.):
Transpmtation of sulfur Of sulfi<{es to plant. (Op.).
Melting of sulfur (Op.).
Burning of s,Ulfur or sulfirle (Pr.).
Rerovery of heat from hot sulfnr dioxide ga~ (Op.).
Purifil'ation of sulfur dioxide gas (Op.).
Mixing of sulfur dioxide gas with the nitl'Ogen oxideR catalYRt in Gloyer tower
(Pr. and Op.).
Oxidation of sulfur dioxide to Rlllfur trioxide (~ee ReartioJls) (Pr.).
Hydration of sulfur trioxide to sulfuric acid in Glovel/tower an!l cham herR
(Pr.).
Settling of sulfuric acid mist and dissipation of heat of reartion~ (Op.).
Ahsorption of nitrogen oxides from residual gas, forming nitl'oll~-vitriol in
Gay-Lussac tower (Pr.).
Pumping of acids over towers and through coolers (Op.).
Blowing of gases through system (Op.).
Oxidizing of ammonia to nitrogen oxide, NO, for catalyst make-up (Pr.).
The energy changes ;necessary to carry the chamber process into effect
involve not only the dissipation of the energy set free by the over-aU reaction but the supplying of the small amount oLpower shown on the
flow sheet (Fig. 3) fori the moving of the gases and liquids. In a few of
the newer plants part of the over-aU chemical energy is turned into useful work through by-product boilers following the sulfur dioxide furnace.
In some detail, these uuit sequences may be elaborated in connection
with the chamber-process flow sheet, classified largely by the typical
equipment commercially employed. Corrosion in such equipment can be
avoided by the proper: choice of the materials for construction. l
1 ANON., Sulfuric Acid, Chem. Eng., 67 (ll), 139 (1950). The materials of construction for Fig. 3 are also given here.
374
sur,FUR AND SULFURIC ACID
Burners and Furnaces.' The chief raw material is sulfur or brimstone,

although pyrite, FeS2, is used very ~xtensively, as well as pyrrhotite,
Fe 7Sg. Other processes for obtaining sulfur dioxide have been devised
and ~re now in operation, producing it as a by-pI:oduct in the refining
of zinc and copper from sulfide ores, from the pyrite from coal waste and
from hydrogen sulfide gases from natural and refinery gases and other
sources.
Most chamber plants and earlier contact plants, when burning sulfur
itself, use the Glen Falls burner shown in Fig. 3. This consists of a horizontal rotating steel drum in which the sulfur burns as a continuous film
on the inside surface. The drum is surmounted by a pan for melting the
sulfur before introduction into the cylinder. The new contact plants
mostly use either the cascade type of burner or the spray type. The
former is a steel vessel lined with insulation brick and the upper half a
firebrick checker. The molten sulfur flows by gravity ove!' the checker
where it is completely burned to sulfur dioxide gas. The bottom section
acts as a mixing chamber to ensure a homogeneous exit gas. In the spray
type depicted in Fig. 8, molten sulfur is atomized through a gun and
burns in suspension before it strikes the walls or bottom of the furnace.
Much fine sulfide of copper or zinc or iron is burned. Here a multiple
hearth is employed with mechanical stirring and moving of the" fines"
to secure efficient oxidation. The roasters generally consist 'of a central
rotating shaft with arms extended from the center over each hearth. The
fines are fed into the top of the Toaster and dropped upon the top hearth
where burning of the ore is started. The partly burned ore is caused to
drop downward to the .lower hearth by the rotating arm. This is continued to the bottom hearth where the cinder is removed. The gases pass
out the top to be used. 2 Several of the newer plants are burning very
fine pyrite or other .sulfide ore by blowing it into the furnace usually: in
connection with by-product boilers. ,
In general, the production of sulfur dioxide for the contact process is
the same for the chamber process. The types of furnace and raw materials do not change, nor the furnMe that would be adapted to a given
I raw material. The percen'tages of sulfur dioxide and oxygen in the gas
issuing from the burner aJ,"e very carefully controlled and the desired concentrations varied with the process used. For platinum catalysts 10 per
cent sulfur dioxide is desired while vanadium catalysts operate best with
gas containing from 7 to 8 per cent sulfur dioxide. It should be noted that
the percentage of oxygen decreases as that of the sulfur dioxide increases
and that where
gases of lower I percentage of sulfur dioxide are processed
I
largerI volumes of gas must be handled.
BUTCHER, Pyrites Roasting and Sulphur Burning, Chem. Age, 41, 411 (1939);
Improvements in Rotary Sulfur Burner, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 2215 (1950).
2 FAIRLIE, op. cit., pp. 98-107.
LIPPMAN,
GLOVER TOWERS
375
Dust Removal. When sulfide ores are the source of the sulfur dioxide,
dust removal becomes important. Many methods have been tried for removing dust from the gases, but now Cottrell dust precipitators and centrifugal-type dust collectors are the most used.' In centrifugal cyclone
dust catchers the particles are separated from the gas stream by impingement on the walls of the apparatus. In the Cottrell or electrical
precipitator the gases are allowed to pass through a direct-current, highvoltage (30,000 to 80,000 volts) electrical field, where a s,ilent discharge
of negative polarity ionizes the gas, causing the dust particles to become
electrically charged and, therefore, to be precipitated on the collecting
electrode. The dust falls to hoppers from which it is removed. The gases,
after going through the dust collectors and by-product boilers, pass to
where the nitrous oxides are introduced.
Introduction of the Oxides of Nitrogen. 2 The introduction of the" oxides of nitrogen" may be done in one of the following ways: (1) by the,
heating of sodIum nitrate and 60 o Be. sulfuric acid in cast-iron pots inside the sulfur dioxide gas tiue, (2) by feeding mixed nitric and sulfuric
acid into the top of a Glover tower or at times liquid nitric acid alone,
(3) by the oxidation of ammonia and the conduction of the oxides either
into the Glover tower or the first chamber.
The success of the ammonia oxidation and the cheap synthetic ammo-,
nia available have rendered the use of sodium nitrate obsolete. The ammonia is mixed with air and passed through a platinum-rhodium gauze
catalyst maintained at 950 to 1000C. by the heat of reaction. Hot nitrogen oxide is used to preheat the incoming air and to maintain the
catalyst at red heat. This gives a relatively inexpensive method for pro-,
ducing nitrogen oxide. The advantages of this method are, (1) no sulfuric
acid needed, (2) low cost of raw materials, (3) high purity of the gases
produced (no hydrochloric acid present to injure the lead chamber), (4)
a constant and continuous supply of the oxide, (5) lower labor costs because of simplicity of operation, (6) equipment that is longer lasting and
lower in maintenance, and (7) no by-product to dispose of. When nitro-,
gen oxide from ammdnia is used, it is introduced continuously into the
80 2 gas after the latt~r has passed up the Glover tower.
Glover Towers. The functions of the Glover tow~r are
1. The denitration of nitrous vitriol (Gay-Lussac acid). This is effected by
reducing the solubility of nitrogen oxides by dilution and heat, aided by the
passage of gases.
1
JONES, Chamber Pro<;ess Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42,
2208 (1950); PERRY, op. cit., chambers, p. 1035, cyclones, p. 1036, electrical precipitation, pp. 1039ff., especially ,po 1044; LAPPLE, Processes Use Many Collector Types,
Chem. Eng., 68 (5), 144 (1951).
s FAIRLIE, op. cit., Chap. 7, p. 143.
376
2. The conversion of the make-up nitric acid to nitrous acid and to nitrogen
oxides (omitted when NO from NHs is introduced).
3. The concentration of that part of the chamber acid which is added to
dilute the 60 o Be. (77.7 per cent) Gay-Lussac acid to 57Be. '(72.8 per cent) at
the top of the tower.
4. The cooling of the furnace gases.
5. The production of acid from about 10 per cent of the sulfur dioxide. This
takes place in the upper part of the tower.
6. The cleaning of the furnace gases.
7. The production of steam for the chambers.
8. The production of partly concentrated acid (60oBe. or 77.7 per cent or
slightly stronger) suitable for passing down the Gay-Lussac tower.
The Glover towers' are either all-masonry towers built from acid proof
bricks with acidproof cement or of lead supported by an outside steel
frame. At the bottom of the tower there is a brick flue inlet for the gases,
and at the top there is a distributing device for the Gay-Lussac acid
which is diluted to 57Be. or 72.8 per cent and caused to flow down the
tower. The interior of the tower is packed2 with hard-burned brick or
tile made in a number of different designs. The cooled gases pass out
near the top of the tower and are piped to the first chamber. The hot
(140 to 160C.) Glover or "tower" acid is collected at the bottom of the
tower in a lead pan and passed through an acid cooler. Part is used over
in the Gay-Lussac tower and the rest concentrated for consumption or
sale. The amount of acid necessary to circulate over the Gay-Lussac
tower and then to the Glover tower is from three to four times the daily
production of acid, based on 60 0 Be.
The sulfurous gases enter the tower between 425 and 600C. About
10 per cent of the sulfur dioxide is oxidized in the Glover tower. The
gaseous mixture of 80 2, 80 a, N 2 , O2 , NO, N0 2, N 2 0a, and steam leaves a
Glover tower at a temperature of from 70 to 110.o C. and is sucked to the
chamber by means of a fan.
Chambers. It is in the chambers that the grefLtest proportion of sulfur
dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide and hydrated to sulfuric acid. The
Ichambers consist of a large,steel framework with an interior of lead sheets
which are" burned" or welded together with "lead. These lead chambers
are generally built about 10 ft. above the ground so that leaks in the bottoms may be easily detected and cooling may be facilitated. The reactions in the chamber generate much heat which must be removed continuously if the rate of sulfuric acid production is to be maintained. Under
the ordinary condition of construction for chambers, this heat is dissipated slowly; Also some of the reactions proceed at a low rate. Thus, ordinarily,' considerable space is needed in the chambers alnounting to from
1 FAIRLIE, op. cit., Chap. 8, p. 159, heat balance, p. 170.
2 PERRY, op. cit., p. 709.
CONCENTRATION OF THE ACID
377
7.:) to 10 cu. ft. per lb. of sulfur burned per 24 hr. This can be much reduced by special cooling and mixing devices. The chambers may be enclosed in a building that is usually air-cooled. With good operation the
average chamber set lasts over 20 years. Although, formerly, stea~ was
introduced into the chambers, with the present excellent atomizing equipment water is used almost universally.
Gay-Lussac Tower and Recovery of Nitrogen Oxides. The function of
the Gay-Lussac tower' is to recover the nitrogen oxides (catalyst) from
spent gases. This is accomplished by washing these gases which should
not be warmer than 60C. with cold strong (60 o Be.) Glover acid in
packed towers. There results the nitrous vitriol or Gay-Lussac acid containing 1 to 2 per cent of oxides of nitrogen, calculated as N 20 3 The
modern Gay-Lussac towers are constructed of masonry with acid proof
cement. They are much taller and narrower and have thinner walls than
the Glover tower. In the bottom of the tower is a pan of lead to collect.
the nitrous vitriol from which it is pumped over the Glover tower. The
packing of the Gay-Lussac tower, like that of the Glover tower, is made
of special shapes of hard-burned ceramic material.
Concentration of the Acid. The acid issuing from the Glover tower is
usually between fiO and 61Be. in strength, and from the chambers, 50 to
55~ Be. For many purposes it is desired to concentrate these acids. Much
process sulfuric acid must be reconcentrated after use. This is true of denitrated spent acids from making nitro compounds or nitrate esters, and
of the sulfuric acid used t.o manufacture strong (95 per cent) nitric acid.
These spent acids illustrate the important dehydrating action of strong
sulfuric acid. Other acids that must be recovered and reconcentrated are
sludge acids from petroleum purification and the sulfuric acid from the
viscose rayon coagulation bath.
Sulfuric acid may be concentrated to around 66Be. by heat. Any furth~r fortification is usually done by the addition of oleum or sulfur trioxide. Two types of equipment for concentrating dilute acid operate
under a vacuum while the third under atmospheric pressure using airblown combustion gases.
The air-blown condentrator is exemplified by the Chemic0 2 drum-type
concentrator which is ~hown in Fig. 4. The burner supplies the hot gases
at about 1l00F. by \the combustion of oil or fucl gas. These hot combustion gases are blown countercurrent to the sulfuric acid in two compartments in the concentrating drum and remove water as they bubble
up through the acid. 'The off gases at 440 to 475F. from the first compartment of the drum pass to the second compartment along with a por
. tion of the hot gases ~from the combustion furnace. They leave at 340 to
cit., Chap. 10, p. 223.
and GLOSTER, The Chemico Drum Type Sulfuric Acid Concentrator,
Chern. Eng. Progr., 43, 225 (1947).
1
FAIRLIE, op.
BERGER
'378
CONCENTRATION
OF
THE ACID
379
360F. to enter a gas-cooling drum where they are cooled to 230 to

260F. in raising the dilute acid to its boiling point. Since some sulfuric
acid is entrained as a mist, the hot gases then pass through a Cottrelltype precipitatorl for the removal of the acid mist before discharge to
the atmosphere. A venturi scrubber with cyclone separator is also giving competitive results in removing acid mist by washing with feed add
(Chemico Pease-Anthony design). This procedure will give an acid with
a final concentration of 93 per cent or slightly higher. The hot gases also
burn out any impurities that may be in a spent acid being concentrated.
Hence such concentrators are being extensively employed in the concentration of spent nitrating acids from munition works. If sludge acid from
petroleum purification is being handled, the flow of acid from rear to
front compartment is passed through an intermediate storage tank where
a skimmer removes most of the nonvolatile carbonaceous impurities. The
front and rear concentrating compartments of the steel drum are lined
with lead and acid proof masonry. The repairs are remarkably low.
Vacuum concentrators (27 to 29.6 in. Hg) may be exemplified by the
Simonson-Mantius 2 concentrators made by National Lead Co. There are
five types which will permit concentration of practically any acid, though
clean acid is preferred to avoid fouling of interfaces. The necessary heat
is supplied by high-pressure steam or Dow-therm. The Type E concentrator is the largest and desirable for high concentrations. For the latter
reason, this type of concentrator is employed only on relatively clean
acids such as some nitration acids. It is a vertical steel shell lined (Fig. 5)
first with lead followed by acidproof brick. The ~etallic tubular heaters
inserted through the vertical wall of the vessel are constructed of Duriron
or Hastelloy D. Usually there are two or more units in series. The Type D
concentrator is a small batch unit with vertical tubes in a vertical cylindrical tank, suitable for acid concentrations up to 93 per cent. The Type C
4nit consists of many small compartments with individual heaters in
series through which the acid to be concentrated flows continuously. The
Type B concentrator, a batch unit, is a -.vertical tank with lead heating
coils used mainly for acid concentration up to 80 per cent. The Type A
unit can be operatea continuously or batchwise. This special corrosionresistant, high-circuiation evaporator is used quite often for the removal
of sodium sulfate fr.om the waste acid liquor being discharged from the
viscose spinning bath, as well as reconcentrating the remaining acid
values. Types C a~d E have a practical concentration limit of 95 per
cent acid.
The central section of the Du Ponts falling-film concentrator, shown
I
op. cit., pp. 1039-1045.

BURKE and MANTItJS, Concentration of Sulfuric Acid under Vacuum, Chern.
Eng. Progr., 43,237 (1947). Excellent tables and diagrams are presentC'd.
CHA~mERs and PE"l'ERSON, Sulfuric Acid Concentration by the Falling Film
Process, Chern. Eng. Progr., 43, 219 (1947).
I PERRY,
380
SECTIONAL PL"'N
SlEAM INlEl
I
ACID OUtLET
CONDENSATE
FIG. 5. 'Simonson-Mantius vacuum concentrator [or tiul[uric acid. Type .E. (Courtesy
of National Lead Company.)
CONCENTRATION
O~
381
THE ACID
Counterweight
supports
Weak acid feed
4---
Fm. 6. Du Pont falling-film sulfuric concentrator. (Courtesy of E. I. duPont de Nemours

& Co., Inc.)
382
SULFUR A ND
sur, Fume
A ern
in Fig. 6, is a vertiral st,cal1l-j acketed, high-silicon iron tube. The dilute

acid is preheated and distribut.ed around the internal periphery of the
tube as a falling film. A vacuum of 25 mm. Hg is employed in this concentrator to remove water at t he lowest possible temperature. The heating medium is steam at 250 lb. per sq. in. to give a 92 to 94 per cent acid.
The heat-transfer rates vary with t he temperature differential in the tube
as well as the cleanliness of the tube surface.
Improved Chambers. I About 140 Mills-Packard chambers (Fig. 7) are
in use in the United States though other de!'igns have been tried. This
/ FIG. 7. World's largest Mills-Packard chamber sulfuric acid plant, located at Tampa .
Fla. The 20 lead chambers have a total of 44.0,000 cu. ft . There are two Glover
and three Gay-Lussac towers. (Courtesy of U.S. P hosphoric Products Division,
'l'ennessee Corporation.)
chamber is in the form of a truncated cone and the reaction heat is removed by a film of water flowi ng down the outside. The chambers consist of a large steel framework with an interior of lead sheets which are
"burned" or welded together wit h lead. Some conventional box chambers, which are air-cooled, al!e still used, but t hese are mostly being re1 JONES,
op. cit,; FAIRLIE, Development Continues in Chamber Acid Plants, Chem.
Eng., 66 (7), ]08 (1948) For earlier improvl'ml'nts in hoth Aml'ril'a and EuropE', see
FAIRLIE, "Manufacturl' of Sulfuric Acid, " Chap. 9, etc., Reinhold Publil!hing Corporation, New York, 1936.
UNIT OPEUATIONS, UNIT PJWVESSES, AND ENEIWY CHA NGE S
383
placed. Mills-Packard chambers of small size are operating at 2.0 cu. ft.
per lb. of sulfur, and large ones at 3.5 cu. ft. These rates correspond to
approximately 0.5 and 0.7 sq. ft . per lb. of sulfur, and thus have onehalf to one-third the surface of conventional box chambers.
MANUFACTURE BY THE CONTACT PROCESS
Until 1900 no contact plant had been built in the United States, although this process had become very important in Europe because of their
need for oleums and high-strength acid for sulfonation, particularly in the
dye industry. About 1930, American practice demonstrated that the contact process could compete with the chamber process in producing such
acid as oil of vitriol. Since the Second World War, most of the new facilities built use the contact process with vanadium catalyst. l Probably no
new installations employ platinum catalysts, and several existing units
have been converted to vanadium catalysts. Except for the new Chemico 2
process, which will be discussed at the end of this chapter, the contact
process is based on the same principles as when introduced over 50 years
ago. Naturally there have been many improvements in heat exchangers,
sulfur burners, instrumentation, size, and catalysts. A typical flow sheet
is shown in Fig. 8 (see also Fig 2).
Unit Operations, Unit Processes, and Energy Changes. The flow sheet
of Fig. 8 can be divided into the following unit sequences:
Transportation of sulfur (or sulfides) to plant (Op.).
Melting of sulfur (Op.).
Pumping and atomizing of melted sulfur (Op.).
Burning of sulfur (or sulfide) (Pr.).
Drying of combustion air (Pr.).
Recovery of heat from or cooling of hot S02 gas (Op.).
Purification of S02 gas (Op.).
Oxidation of S02 to SO, in converters (Pr.).
Heat transfer to secure good yields of S03 (Op.).
Absorption of SO, in strong acid, 98.5 to 99 per cent (Pr.).
Cooling of acid from absorbers (Op.).
Pumping of acid over absorption towers (Op.).
The energy evolved by the oxidation of sulfur to sulfur dioxide and

from sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide has frequently been partly wasted
in air coolers and partly utilized to raise the sulfur dioxide to reaction
temperature in the converters. In Fig. 8, the heat of combustion of sulfur is partly utilized by a waste-heat boiler to generate steam for melting
1 KASTENS and HUTCHINSON, Contact Sulfuric Acid from Sulfur, Ind . Eng. Ch em.,
40, 1340 (1948).
t OLIVE, Modern Chemical Fdlgineering Revamps Conventional Contact Process,
Chelli. Eng., 67 (lO), 102 (1950).
384
K.y
PlTJ(es$ mQ"riQ/s
---- Air
Sulfur
686 lb.
Sal"
Sal"
W!lter
4,000 gal.
Per ton 10070 ootid In GI
.
Electricity
5 kw:hr. plont of 50 tons per doy copaclty
DiteCt lobor 064 mon-hr.
ZOO Ib.
Steam -
-Waste heat boiler will furnish up to 2,OOOlb. steam

FIG.
8. Sulfuric acid manufacture by the contact process.
the sulfur and for power purposes around the plant. In some other plants
(Monsanto particularly) that part of the heat of I:eaction not required
for converter temperature control is saved by "inter" and "after" cooling in waste-heat boilers, thus replacing the air coolers shown in Fig. 8.
Reactions. The reactions are
S(c)
S02(Y)
+ 02(Y) ......... SOz(Y);

+ ;'02(Y) P SOa(Y);
f).H = -70,900 cal.

f).H = -23,000 cal.
The oxidation of sulfur dioxide in the converters of the contact plant

is a very good example of the many industrial applications of the principles of physical chemistry. As shown above, the reaction from 80 2 to
80 3 is an exothermic reversible reaction. The equilibrium constant for
this reaction calculated from partial pressures according to Guldberg and
Waage's law of mass action may be expressed as
K
p -
pso,
pso, X Po,""
/
Values for this expression have been calculated based- on P in atmospheres and are presented here in Table 4, and are constant for any given
temperature.
From these values and from Fig. 9, it is apparent that the conversion
of the sulfur dioxide decrellses with an increase in temperature. For that
reason it is desirable to carry out the reaction at as Iowa temperature as
practicable. At 400C., where fom Fig. 9 the equilibrium condition is
seen to be very favorable, being almost 100 per cent, the rate of attainment of this equilibrium is slow. The rate at 5OQC. is 40 times as fast as
that at 400C.; at 550C. it is much faster. Since the reverse reaction,
80 3 ......... S02
H02, does not become appreciable until 550C., it would
::;eem advisable to run the reaction initially at this temperature in order
385
REACTIONS
TABLE 4. EQUII,IBRIUM CONSTANTS FOR SUU'lJR DIOXIDE OXIDATION"

Temperature,
DC.
Kp
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
llOO
397
48.1
9.53
2.63
0.915
0.384
0.1845
0.0980
"BODENSTEIl'> and POHL, Gleiehgewichtsmessungen an der Kontaktschwefelsaurc.,

Z. Elektrochelll., 11, 373 (1g05); FAIRLIE, "Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid," p. -12,
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1936. See "Rogers' Manual of Industrial
Chemistry," 6th ed., pp. 269-276, 311-321, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New
York,1942.
100
i"\
90
80
'"
0
....
V>
10
0
V)
60
4-
r:: 50
...
.2
1\
L.
c0>
40
....r::
30
..
..
\..
\\
I
I
20
Il-
10
100
200
300
rOO
1\
"'~
500
600
700
800
...........
900
1000
liDO
1200 1300 1400
Temperature,Deg.C.
FIG. g. Equilihrium-temperature relation for SO. conversion to S03. (Courtesy of
J nternational Correspo ndeiJ-ce. Schools.)
386
to get as much conversion as possible to take place quickly.l There is

here a conflict between the favorable conversion equilibriums at lower
temperatures and the favorable rates at higher temperatures.
The actual procedure in a contact plant takes advantage of both the
rate and equilibrium considerations by first passing the gases over a part
of the catalyst at about 575C. where the rate is high until about 80 per
cent of the sulfur dioxide is converted. Then the gas, before it passes
over the remainder of the catalyst, is cooled in a heat exchanger or in a
waste-heat boiler, until the temperature of the gases passing over the
last portion of the catalyst is only around 450C. The yields using this
procedure are over 97 per cent and the reaction rate is very rapid. Figures 10, 11, and 12 illustrate how these conditions are applied in practice
and how the heat of reaction is used.
By rewriting the expression for Kp in terms of mole fractions and total
pressures, for the equation 280 2 + O2 p 280 3 we have
Kp
N X ngo,
no, X P
n~o, X
where n = number moles of each component.

N = total moles.
P = total pressure.
By rearranging, we obtain
2
1180. -
n~o, X
no, X Kp X P
N
From this expression it may be seen that an increase either of sulfur

dioxide or of oxygen 2 will increase the formation of sulfur trioxide, thus
illustrating the law of mass action. It should be borne in mind that in
the burner gas, if the concentration of oxygen increases, that of the sulfur
dioxide decreases and vice versa. An increase of pressure, according to
the law of Le ChMelier, would also increase the: yield of the sulfur trioxide, but the effect is so small and costly that it is not taken advantage of
industrially. The fact that the moles of sulfur trioxide formed at equiIlibriu~ are inversely pr.oportional to N, the total moles,. shows ~hat if
the mIxture of gases gomg through the cOIiverter we~e dIluted WIth an
inert gas, such as nitrogen I the yield of sulfur trioxide would be decreased. 3
1 LEWIS and RIEs, Influence of Reaction. Rate on Operating Conditions in Contact
Sulfuric Acid Manufacture, Ind. Eng. Chern., 17, 593 (1925).
MILES, "Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid (Contact Process)," D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., New York, 1925; FAIRLIE, "Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid," p. 341.
As is true with all phases of sulfuric acid manufacture, FAIRLIE, ibid., should be
consulted; Chaps. 12 and 14 partiy elaborate on the subject here presented. For
a most! excellent presentation of the theory of the contact reaction see pp. 269-276,
311-321, of FURNAS, editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," Vol. 1; this
reference is written by GROSVENOR and PHILLIPS.
CATAT,YSTS
387
Catalysts. It should be remembered that in all catalytic reactions, the

only function of the catalyst is to increase the rate of the reactions. The
catalysts that are of interest for the production of contact sulfuric acid
are platinum and vanadium pentoxide. For many years platinum was the
only catalyst used industrially, but shortly after the First World War,
vanadium gained much ground and there soon arose a sharp rivalry between the advocates of these two. It was not until 1929, however, that
many plants began operating on the vanadium catalyst mass. Since that
time vanadium has become the mure popular and during and since the
Second W orld War has replaced platinum in many installations.
Platinum Catalysts. Platinum is applied as a catalyst on several carriers, the most important being silica gel, calcined magnesium sulfate,
and asbestos. The carriers for this catalyst must be porous, have a large
surface area, be chemically inert to the gases. at high temperatures, be
refractory enough to stand the high temperatures, and be strong enough
to resist the jars and strains placed on them.
Platinized a~bestQs is prepared by impregnating specially treated asbestos with a solution of platinic chloride to give a mass that contains
from 6 to 10 per cent platinum. The usual platinized asbestos requires
5 to 7 troy ounces of platinum per ton of 100 per cent sulfuric acid per
24 hr. Recently there has been produced a special type of "low-ignition"
platinized. asbestos which is capable of producing the same amount of
sulfuric acid with only 2 to 3 troy ounces of platinum. The impregnation
of calcined magnesium sulfate with platinic chloride is done in analogous
manner and requires about the same amount of platinum
as the ordinary
/
platinized asbestos.
One of the most recent contact catalysts is platinized silica gel. This
catalyst usually contains about 0.1 per cent platinum, gIves conversion
efficiencies of about 96 per cent, and requires only from 1.5 to 3.5 oz. of
platinum per daily ton of 100 per cent sulfuric acid.
Vanadium Catalysts. Soluble compounds of vanadium deposited on a
carrier were proposed as a catalyst for production of sulfuric acid as
early as 1895, but it was not until 1926 that a catalyst of vanadium was
used in the American sulfuric industry. The early vanadium catalysts,
known as Monsanto mass and the Selden mass, are prepared from ammonium vanadate or varj.adium pentoxide and a carrier such as a zeolite,
other base exchange substances, or kieselguhr.! The vanadium catalysts
give high conversions of 97 to 98 per cent.
The advantages 2 cl~imed for platinum are that 90 per cent of the
1 Patent and literature, references to catalysts, together with ahstracts therefrom,
and testimony in the various lawsuits are summarized by F-AIRI,IE, op. cit., Chap. 17.
'THOMPSON, Platinum vs. Vanadium Pentoxide as Catalysts for Sulfuric Acid
Manufacture, Tran.~. Am. In.~t. Chem. Engrs., 27, 264 (19:31); also FAIRLIE, op. cit.,
Chaps. 17 and 18.
388
original metal may be recovered, the operating cost is less (mainly owing
to the fact that there is a royalty charge for the vanadium catalyst), and
the initial capital cost of the plant is less because gases with higher
proportions of sulfur dioxide (8 to 10 per cent) may be used. The disadvantages of platinum are that it suffers a decline of activity with use,
the life of the catalyst is shorter, it is subject to poisoning under some
conditions, and it is very difficult to handle because it is so fragile. The
advantages claimed for vanadium masses are that they have a higher
conversion efficiency maintained for a longer period than platinum, the
catalysts are immune to poisoning (not now of any great importance),
the vanadium mass is less troublesome during operation, it is easier to'
handle, and has a lower initial cost. The disadvantages of vanadium are
that it handles a lower sulfur dioxide (7 to 8 per cent) content gas, it cannot be overloaded as can platinum and it has no salvage value when worn
out.
CONTACT PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Fairlie, in his book on sulfuric :wid manufacture, details tl;c many variations in the equipment employed that appeared to his dat.e of publication (1936).
Lee l lists more recently the materials of construction. Probably the
major innovation in the design of new plants is the "outdoor" type of construction, which saves initial capital investment. In almost all parts of
the country, new plants are"coIllpletely exposed to the elements with only
the control room, blower, .and feed-water pumps enclosed.
Treatment of. the Burner Gas. The sulfur dioxide burner gas for the
contact process may contain, in addition to dust, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen, such impurities as arsenic, chlorine, and fluorine. The
last three impurities are present only when pyrite is burned. To prevent
corrosion from the burner gases and to add the water more advanta/geously to the absorber acid, it is now customary, as shown in Fig. 8,
to dry the air for burning the sulfur or a sulfide. Such drying is done in
towers usually with 95 to 98 per cent sulfuric acid. The burner gas has
much of its heat removed in waste-heat boilers for the generation of
steam. If a sulfide is burned, an efficient dust collector and acid washing
towers may be added. The sulfuric acid wash removes halogens.
Preheaters and Coolers. Before the gases can be taken to the converter, they!should be heated to increase the speed of the reaction. Since
the converted gases should he cooled on issuing from the converter, all
plants use the heat from these gases to preheat the gases traveling to the
converter. These heat exchangers usually consist of large vertical cylin1 LEE, "Materials of Construction for Chemical Process Industries," McGraw-Hill
CONVEHTERS
389
del's containing many small tubes. The sulfur trioxide gas passes downward through the tubes while the sulfur dioxide gas surrounds the tubes
and passes upward against them. In some cases baffies are provided to
change the direction of the gases so that better heat transfer will be obtained. Several heat exchangers may be used and many complicated designs have been introduced.
Converters. Converters' are of two broad types: two-stage or multipass
converters with outside heat exchangers or by-product boilers (Figs. 8
and 12), and a converter that is a combination converter and heat exchanger' (Figs. 10 and 11). The first stage or the first converter operates
at ,a higher temperature up to from 500 to 600C. to ensure a rapid attainment of a moderate conversion equilibrium. The second stage or the
second converter is controlled to a lower temperature of around 400 to
-150C .. where the rate is slower but the conversion is higher. This combination results in a high over-all efficiency. Other factors in the conversion are the time of contact of the gas with the catalyst and the activity
of the catalyst.
The multipass type generally consists of a primary converter which
contains about 30 per cent of the total amount of catalyst. The secondary has the remaining portion of the catalyst divided into several layers.
These are usually operated in conjunction with two heat exchangers or
two by-product boilers. Burner gas, partly cooled by the by-product
boiler, passes downward and in the top of the primary converter. The
gas is about 80 per cent converted here and is heat/ci to the higher temperature. It flows to the intercooler or heat exchanger and enters the top
of the second converter at the lower temperature passing through the
catalyst layers where the conversion is brought to about 96 or 97 per
cent (see Fig. 8). The gas passes through the aftercooler or heat excha'nger and then to the absorber.2
The second type of converter passes the incoming sulfur dioxide gas
entering at about 260C., upward through inner pipes and downward
through the outer con'centric pipes embedded in a deep layer or 60 per
cent of the catalyst as shown by Figs. 10 and 11. This lower catalyst
bed is maintained at q70 to 595C. and accomplishes 85 per cent of the
conversion. The sulfu:r dioxide first has its temperature raised in the
outer pipe; it then enters the catalyst bed, oxidizes, and liberates heat
with a further rise in !temperature. This rise is checked and reduced by
the continued upward, flow through the catalyst bed and above it of the
partly converted sulfur dioxide (counter to the downflow of the incoming sulfur dioxide in the pipes). The partly converted sulfur dioxide con1 DuBoIS and HARNEY, Contact Sulfuric Acid Converters, Ind. Eng. Chern., 24,
1091 (1932).
2 Ct. ANON., Contact Acid from Pyrites, Chern. & Mel. Eng., 46, 477 (1939) for a
pictured flow sheet of a multipass plant with different arrangement of gas treatment.
390
FIG. 10. "Chemico" Selden converter for sulfur trioxide using vanadium pentoxide'.
(Courtesy of Chemical Construction Corporation.)
tinues tonse:upward at its lowered temperature through the second layer

of catalyst, maintained at 460 to 4750., and is there converted to sulfur trioxide up to 97 per cent. This hot gas passes to the aftercooler or
boiler and then on to the absorbers at a temperature of around 140C.
The figures, just cited, are for a Chemico vanadium converter which has
391
SUJ,FUR TJUOXIDE ABSORBERS
an ignition temperature of about 400C.; hence the gases must contact

the catalyst above this temperature to avoid cold spots.
The advantages l of the first type are the
lower cost of construction, greater accessibility for repair, the use of less catalyst,
less power for the movement of gases, and
ease of adaption to gases of varying sulfur
dioxide content. The advantages of the
other type are that it occupies less ground
space and that the heat-exchanger tubes
are not subject to rupture by buckling or
stretching.
Sulfur Trioxide Absorbers. It has been
known for a long time that a concentration
of acid between 98.5 and 99 per cent sulfuric acid is the most efficient agent for
absorption, probably because acid of this
strength has a lower vapor pressure than
any other concentration. Hence acid of this
strength is used for the final absorber before the waste gas is vented to the atmosphere. Water cannot be used because an
acid mist is formed by the direct contact
with the sulfur trioxide which is almost
impossible to absorb. Since the absorbing
acid is continuously becoming more concentrated, it is necessary to provide some
means for diluting that part of the acid
dis~harged from the final absorber which
is to be recirculated. Also, the absorbing
acid must be cooled. I The diluting of the
recirculating acid is done ,by adding spent
or dilute sulfuric acid or water in the
amount required, withdrawing from the
system any excess acid for sale.
The 20 per cent oleum is made in the
oleum absorber, as shown in Fig. 8, by FIG. 11. Detail of heat exchange
"Chemico" converter. (Courpassing cooled 99 per cent acid over this in
te8y of Chemical Construction Cortower. If an oleum of 60 to 70 per cent is, poration.)
wanted, it may be prepared by distilling
the 20 per cent oleum in steel vessels. The trioxide driven off is absorbed
in 20 per cent oleum in water-cooled vessels equipped with a mechanical
stirrer.
t
FAIRLIE, OD.
cit., p. R82, also pp. R65-383, quoting DuBOIR and
HARNEY,
up. cit.
392
SULF U R AND SU LFURIC ACID
Although bubble-cap towers have been used to absorb sulfur trioxide,

the most common ty pe is the packed steel towers lined with acid proof
masonry. Unlined towers are now being employed where cast iron is
used for the 98 to 99.5 per cent acid and steel for the oleums. The packing generally consists of chemical stoneware, 1 t hough at times lumps of
quartz or coke have been used. The gas enters the bottom and leaves
by a flue out of the t op. It has been found that a tower 6 ft. in diamet<'r
Fro. 12. Heat exchanger and secondary COllverter of the :\1onSltllto multipass system.
(Courtesy of ilfonsanto Chemical Company. )
and 24 ft. high will absorb X ton of sulfur trioxide per hour while recirculating 10 tons of acid. Newer developments in the latest plants are
Itowers capable of ahsorbing 4 tons of sulfur trioxide while fed with 110
tons of recirculating acid per hour. At least two absorbers are used, connected in series. In t he first tower 20 per cent oleum is usually made In
the second tower, 98 per cent sulfuric acid is made.
New Type Contact Process. 2 This new process, designed and built by
t he Chemical Construction Corp. at Hamilton, Ohio, in 1950, represents
the first real change in the contact process for over 50 years. The process
is conventional up to the converter except t hat the combustion air is
not dried . From the converter on, all the steps are new. Table 5 sumop. cit., p. 685.
Modern Chem ical Engineering Revamps Conventional Contact Process,
Chern. Eng., 67 (10), 102 (1950) , includ ing a comparison flow sheet of the old and new.
1
PERRY,
2 OLIVE,
393
SELECTED REFERENCES
marizes the equipment changes. This process claims a marked increase

in conversion efficiency, greatly simplified plant, and decreased investment and physical size. However, this plant is not recommended at present for acid over 95 per cent.
TABLE
5.
COMPARISON OF EQUIPMENT USED IN THE CONVE NTIONAL AN D N E W

CONTACT PROCESS
Equipment
Conventional
New
Converter . . . . . . . . . .. Usually in 2 stages, with each Four stages in a single vessel

stage in a separate vessel
Heat exchangers. . . .. Shell-and-tube heat exNo heat exchangers. Cools by
changers to cool the gas from direct injection of air into
each stage
the gas stream between converter stages
Absorber . . . . . . . . . . .. Packed tower
Horizontal vessel sim ilar to
drum concentrator (shown in
Fig. 4) which achieves direct
contact of gas and absorption
Final SO, cooler . . . . . . Used. Large amount of water Not used . Absorber has dual
needed. New process elimi- function. Also cools by
nates this, reducing cooling evaporating water from t he
water needs 90 per cent or absorption acid
more
Acid-mist cleanup .. .. Great care taken to avoid Produces a great deal of acid
acid-mist formation, i.e., air mist. Pease-Anthony vent uri
drying. Usually no need to scrubber combined with a
small cyclone scrubber efficlean up exit gases
ciently removes the mist
SELECTED REFERENCES
Fairlie, A. M., " Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1936.
Haynes, W., "The Stone That Burns," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York ,
1942. Book on sulfur.
De Wolf, P ., and E. Larison, "American Sulfuric Acid Practice," Mc Graw-Hill Book
Wells, A. E., and D . E. Fogg, The Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid in the United States,
U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 184, 216 pp., 1920.
Miles, F . D., "The Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid (Contact Process)," Gurney &
Jackson, London; D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1925.
Furnas, C. C., editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed ., 2 vols.,
"Chemical Plant Control Data," 4th ed., Chemical Construction Co., New York ,
1935.
Kreps, T . J., "Economics of the Sulfuric Acid Industry," Stanford University Press,
Stanford University, Calif., 1938.
Symposium, Sulfur, Ind. Eng. CMm., B, 2186-2302 (1950).
CHAPTER
20
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
Man must feed nitrogen back into the soil or face a decrease in his
suppfy of food. However much this latter was feared at one time, the
chemists and the chemical engineers found out how to make nitrogen derivatives out of air in an economical way. The first successful processthe arc process--required much cheap electrical energy. However, the
present solution of the nitrogen-fixation problem came from reacting nitrogen with low-cost hydrogen to make ammonia under conditions requiring low power demands and low conversion expense. This made the
arc process obsolete. Ammonia has now become one of our heavy chemicals produced in an enormous tonnage throughout the globe and at such
low prices as to dominate the world supply of nitrogen fertilizers and
most nitrogen compounds. It is probable that this is one of the most important chemical engineering achievements of history.
Historical. Priestley observed that an electric spark passed through air
confined over water caused a lessening in gas volume and acidification of
the water. A few years later, in 1780, Cavendish repeated Priestley's experiments and found that nitrites and nitrates were formed if the experiment was carried out over an alkaline solution. With the lowered cost of
electrical energy which came with the use of water power, interest in the
arc method of nitrogen fixation was revived and was accompanied by the
establishment of a successful arc process in Norway in 1904, known as
the Birkeland-Eyde process. Here air was passed through a flaming elecItric arc at a very high temperature when a small percentage of the nitrogen was burned to NO. T~s nitric oxide was rapidly c~ooled successively
in brick-lined iron pipes, steel boilers, and aluminum coolers, being oxidized to N0 2 at the lower temperatures. The initial cooling was rapid to
prevent reversal. Other arc furnaces rapidly followed, but today the arc
method is competitively uneconomical and is obsolete.
Attempts to produce cyanides of the alkaline earth metals as substitutes ~or the' more costly alkali cyanides resulted in the discovery of the
calcium cyanamide method of fixing nitrogen. The cyanamide, as such, is
a fertilizer but, by further treatment, may be transformed into a cyanide
or into numerous other nitrogen-containing chemicals such as guanidine.
394
395
USES AND ECONOMICS
The direct ammonia method was long in developing but it now holds
the paramount position. It was the researches of Haber, Nernst, and
their coworkers that laid the real foundation for the present exceedingly
important synthetic ammonia industry and, in the years 1904-1908, equilibrium data for the ammonia-nitrogen-hydrogen system were established
with fair accuracy over considerable ranges of temperatures and pressures. The development of a practical synthetic ammonia process was
carried out through the efforts of Haber and Bosch with their coworkers,
and the growth of this industry has continued since this beginning.
Curtis l describes various processes not now economical, such as the
arc,2 cyanide, and Serpek aluminum nitride procedure. The cyanamide
and the ammonia manufacturing procedures are the present ones of technical importance for supplying the world with fixed nitrogen, although
TABLE
1.
UNITED STATES NITROGEN STATISTICS,
1947-1953"
1943-1947
1948
over
1950
1953
--------Ammonia:
Synthetic, anhydrous .....................
By-product (NH3 content):
Aqua ammonia .........................
Ammonium sulfate .....................
Ammonium sulfate:
Synthetic ................................
By-product ..............................
Sodium nitrate, total synthetic and by-product
Ammonium nitrate, 100 per cent solution ......
695
1,090
1,565
2,288
28
190
25
208
23
208
25
237
264
831
210
988
1,138
831
576
946
1,214
1,558
119
759
...
744
"'''Minerals Yearbook." Many company details are given.
thermal fixation may develop into technical importance. The only plant
in North America producing calcium cyanamide is at Niagara Falls, Canada, and.is owned and: operated by the American Cyanamid Company. It
has an annual capacity of about 235,000 tons of calcium cyanamide.
Uses and Econom.ic~. The chetnical nitrogen industries include not only
the nitrogen fixed by iman, but also the by-product ammonia from coke
ovens and such natural nitrogen deposits as Chile saltpeter, all subjected
to manufacturing processes. Table 1 summarizes the statistics in the
United States while Table 2 illustrates the world nitrogen fertilizer situation only. Nitrogen'for fertilizers is still' in short supply and plants are
I CURTIS, "Fixed Nitrogen," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1932.
This is an excellent booldor this field and will be referred to frequently in this chapter.
2 Cf. PERRY, op. cit., 'po 1820, for a short presentation of the arc processes.
396
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
now building to increase the nitrogen production to 3,500,000 short tons

(nitrogen) by Jan. 1, 1957 (see Tables 1 and 5). To do this, as of April,
1954, 30 new or enlarged plants were under way, to cost 270 million dollars and to yield about 1,000,000 more tons of nitrogen as NH a Although Table 3 is old, it still illustrates the tremendous importance of
natural sources of nitrogen. According to Soday,!
Approximately 50 per cent of the plant food originally present in the soils of
this country has been removed by continued cropping, and the removal of
nitrogen by harvested crops each year still exceeds the amount added by fertilizers and manures by 80 per cent. The net loss of plant food each year in this
country is estimated at 40,000,000 tons.
TART,E
2.
\VORLD PRODUCTION OF FERTILIZER NITROGEN COMPOUNDS, FISCAL

YEARS,
1948-1953
(In metric tons of contained nitrogen)

Producing country
Austria ...............
Belgium ..............
Canada ..............
Chile ................
Czechoslovakia ........
Egypt ................
France ...............
Germany:
Federal Republic ....
Soviet Zone .........
India ................
Italy .................
.Japan ................
Korea, South .........
Netherlands ..........
Norway ..............
Peru .................
PoIRnd ...............
pain ................
Sweden ..............
Taiwan (Formosa) ....
United Kingdom ......
United States .........
Totalb ,
1948-1949
1949-1950
1950-1951
1952-1953
59,000
152,130
67,820
174,985
143,676
241,823
30,000
. ........
214,000
74,900
173,357
149,208
242,583
30,000
100,700
215,000
161,208
234,660
30,300
31,000
305,000
175,420
275,270
29,950
'" ......
187,500
327,600
110,000
12,630
104,330
274,070
........ .
85,080
107,500
22,210
55,080
.........
21,540
...... ...
f
280,800
975,000
3,310,900
259,030
431,405
130,000
9,200
136,905
378,481
464,677
205,000
8,417
177,301
414,595
. ........
'112,557
150,040
-34,159
60,000.
.0 . . . . . . .
23,397
. ........
275,282
1,048,000
3,707,000
189,053
160,747
35,440
65,000
6,600
I
25,421\
6,112
245,000
996,000
4,011,103
520,000
213,000
71,120
225,000
480,00(_)
1,122
245,000
164,795
36,000
65;000
7,000
24,659
14,320
286,000
1,202,000
4,705,864
4 "Minerals Yearbook," 1952-1953 preliminary; cf. "Nitrogen Fertilizers, A World

Report on Production and Consumption," Agricultural Organization, United Nations,
Bome, Italy, 1952.
b Exclusive of U.S.S.R.
SODAY, Future Trends in the Chemical Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 45, 325 (1953).
397
REACTIONS AND ENERGY CHANGES
TABLE 3. NITROGEN: BALANCE SHEET FOR THE UNITED STATES

(Based on a total acreage of harvested crops in 1930 of 366,505,000 acres)
G
Nitrogen
Short tons
Gains by
Bacterial fixation .........
Rainfall ........ , ........
Fertilizers ...............
Total gain .......... '"
Annual deficit ..............
3,000,000
1,300,000
400,000
4,700,000
3,700,000
Short tons
Nitrogen
Losses from
Harvested crops ......... 5,500,000
Pasturage ............... 1,500,000
900,000
Drainage ...............
500,000
Erosion ................ :
Total loss .......... ' .. 8,400,000
Data from G. H. Collings, "Commercial Fertilizers," 1st ed., p. 14, Blakiston Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1934.
G
CYANAMIDE
The major use of cyanamide is agricultural. Although it has a higher

cost per unit of fixed nitrogen than other common fertilizers, its high alkalinity and its. ability to speed equilibration in mixed fertilizers make it
economical. It is also a herbicide and a much used defoliant especially for
cotton plants to permit machine picking. However, its employment as a
chemical raw material is becoming increasingly important, with the largest chemical use being for the preparation of the dimer dicyandiamide.
l\Iost of this dimer is polymerized to produce the trimer melamine which
has many applications especially in plastic resins. /Many of the other
commercial derivatives are produced by way of a crude calcium cyanide' (48 to 50 per cent expressed as NaCN) from a high-temperature melt
of cyanamide with excess carbon and N aCl. This is used directly for
cyanidation of ores to manufacture ferrocyanides or acidified to yield
HCN gas. Hydrocyanic acid has many important derivatives, of which
acrylonitrile is probably the most promising commercially.
Reactions and Energy Changes.' The essential reactions for the production of calcium cyanamide are as follows:
CaCOa(s)
CaO(s)
GaO(s) + CO 2 (y);
llH
+ 3C(amorph.). ~ CaC (s) + CO (g) ;

2
= +43,500 cal.
llH =
(1)
+ 103,000 cal.
(2)
llH = - 68,000 cal. *
(3)
1 KASTENS and McBURNEY, Calcium Cyanamide, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43,1020 (1951).
This excellent article with many pictures should,be freely consulted. CJ. KIRK and
OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 4, ipp. 66;{ff.; pp. 708-712 for calcium cyanide. See Chap. 17
for more details on calcium parbide manufacture.
* The heat of this reaction as given in the literature variCl:! eonl$iderably. Studies at
American Cyanamid indicate a t:.H of 68,500 cal. at 11ooC.
398
Nl'fROG};N INDUSTRIES
Various catalysts or fluxes are used to increase the rate of reaction or

cause it to proceed at lower temperatures. American Cyanamid uses calcium fluoride, and reaction-rate studies have shown that it reduces the
temperature of optimum reactivity and increases the velocity of the reaction by 4.5 times at 1000C. Reaction (3) takes place at 900 to 1000C.
Reaction (2) at Cyanamid is carried out in a battery of two 20,000- and
Limestone
Coke
Coal
Power
Direct labor
4.Stons
}
1.86 tons
1.0 tons
Per ton of n1tn>gen f...a
9.000 KW.-hro
13.5 manhr.
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for making calcium carbide and calcium cyanamide.
two 10,000-kw. furnaces at about 2000 to 2200C. Under normal conditions reaction (2) yields up to 90 per cent calcium carbide. Considerable
over-all energy is needed, principally to secure the high temperature for (3)
to start when it is self-sustaining and for making the calcium carbide (2).
The source of carbon is usually coke. The coal is required to burn the
limestone and to dry the raw materials (Fig. 1).
The following unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.) are needed
to cOrn,mercialize1 the reactions on which Fig. 1 is based.
Limestone, coal, and coke are pulverized, separately (Op.).
Limestone is calcined to quicklime (Pr.).
Coke is pulverized, dried, and mixed with quicklime (Op.).
Carbide is formed in an electric furnac!_l at nearly 2000 to 2200C. and run out
molten (Pr.).
I Carbide is cooled, crushed, and finely ground (Op.).
Air is liquefied by compressing".cooling, and expansion (Op.).
Nitrogen is separated from oxygen by liquid rectification '(Op.).
Calcium carbide is nitrified over the course of 40 hr. with 99.9-per cent nitrogen
around 1000C. (Pr.).
Calcium cyanamide is pulverized and treated with a small amount of water to
hydrate residual CaO and CaC 2 It may be oiled to reduce dust (Op. and Pr.):
Ovens of the discontinuous type are the most common for the nitrification. They consist of a cylindrical steel shell, lined with refractory tile or
firebrick. The steel cover, also lined with firebrick, has a hole to permit
the escape of inert gas. The carbide is charged in paper-lined, perforated
1
ANON.,
Pictured Flow Sheet, Chem. & Met. Eng., 47, 253 (1940).
SYNTHETIC AMMONIA
399
steel baskets or the oven may be lined with paper and the carbide charged
directly. Nitrogen is admitted through the bottom and the sides near the
bottom. A carbon rod placed in the center of the oven serves as an electric resistance element to bring the carbide adjacent to it to the reaction
temperature. After this the exothermic nature of the reaction maintains
the necessary temperature. In most ovens a single electrode is used, but
in some of the larger furnaces there are as many as eight. The ovens
range "in size from 1 to 8 tons capacity with the corresponding time for
nitrification ranging from 30 hr. to 1 week. The treatment of the crude
cyanamide depends upon the end usage. For the manufacture of calcium
cyanide{ no further treatment is given. For chemical purposes sufficient
water is added to eliminate residual calcium carbide. The product for
agricultural purposes goes to a more elaborate milling system where water and sometimes milling oil are added.
SYNTHETIC AMMONIA
Uses and Economics. Ammonia is one of the truly fundamental raw

materials for modern civilization. In total chemical tonnage in this country, it is exceeded only by that of H 2S0 4 , Na 2CO a, NaOH, and Ch. The
largest peacetime consumer of anhydrous ammonia is the fertilizer industry; in the production of calcium and sodium nitrate, ammonium sulfate,
nitrate and phosphate, ammoniated superphosphates, ,;rea, and aqueous
ammonia. When applied by special machines, anhydrous ammonia has
become a very important fertilizer. For this direct application to soils, the
Department of Agriculture estimates that in 1953-1954, at-out 325,000
short tons of nitrogen as NHa will be available. Ammonia is the starting
point of nearly all military explosives. Scarcely an industry is untouched
as ammonia is required for the making of soda ash, nitric acid, nylon,
plastics, lacquers, dyes, rubber, and other products. 1
The product is handled. and' shipped in two forms: ammonia liquor and
ammonia anhydrous. Commercial grades of the liquor usually contain
28 per cent ammonia. Shipment of anhydrous in this country is largely
done in 26-ton special tank cars and in cylinders of 25;50, 100, or 150 lb.
See Tables 1 and 2 for statistics.
Reactions and Equilibriums. For the reaction
I
VzN + %H2 p
2
NHa
the equilibrium constant is expressed as

. K
_
P -
1 ANON.,
PNH,
PN,'" X Pn,*
Ammonia. Chern. Ena. News, 28, 3104 (1!l50).
400
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
The equilibrium constant can be calculated from known partial pressures

as exemplified by Perry.l Since the volume of ammonia obtained is less
than the combined volume of the nitrogen and hydrogen a pressure increase, according to the principle of I.e CMtelier, will give a higher percentage of ammonia at equilibrium. The conversion percentage increases
several fold as the pressure increases from 100 to 1,000 atm., but the percentage of ammonia in equilibrium with the reacting gases decreases continually wit.h the t.emperature rise up to 1100C., reaches a minimum at
t:
.2
'"<Ii
I-
:>
t:
....
t:
~
\..
<Ii
n..
Temperature, Deg.C.
I
FIG. 2. Percentajl;e of NH, at equilihrium at various pressures and temperatures.
(After data in Taille Hi, p. 152 of Curtis, "Fi.red Nitrogen," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, Hl:~2.)
this temperature, and increases again at higher temperatur.es. While it

amounts to only 0.003 volume per cent at 1l00C., it is 1.23 volume per
cent at 2400C. While operating below 1l00C. (see Fig. 2), the lower the temperature for a given pressur,e at which an ammonia converter can
be run, the larger the possible percentage of ammonia in the ammonianitrogen-hydrogen mixture, but the" longer the time required to attain
I equilibrium. Accordingly, temperatures in the converters, are kept as low
as is consistent with a sufficiently rapid reaction rate to be economical on
the catalyst used and with the investment required. Rate and Catalysis of the Reaction. To be economical, the rate of this
reaction must be increased because hydrogen and nitrogen of themselves
react very slowly. The solution of the commercial synthesis of ammonia
rests upon efficient catalysts to speed up the reaction rate to an econ9m1 PERRY,
1
01'.
cit., pp. 350, 356. See LEWIS and
RANDALL, "Thermodynamics and the

Free !Energy of Chemical Substances," p. 557, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1923, for plot of log K against reciprocal of absolute temperature and for
general free-energy equation.
RATE AND CATALYSIS OF THE REACTION
401
ical degree. Such catalysts have been found in iron whose rate is promoted
by the addition of small amounts of oxides of aluminum and potassium.
Space velocity is the number of cubic feet of exit gases, corrected to
standard conditions (OC. and 760 mm.), that pass over 1 cu. ft. of catalyst space per hour. The space velocity used in commercial operation differs considerably in different processes and in different plants using the
same process. Although the percentage of ammonia in the gas stream
issuing from a converter goes down as the space velocity goes up, the
amount of ammonia per cubic foot of catalyst space per hour increases.
However, a too high space velocity disturbs the thermal balance of a
converter, involves increased cost of ammonia removal because of the
smaller percentage present in the exit gases, and makes necessary the recirculation of large volumes of gas. Most commercial units use a space
velociW between 20,000 and 40,000.
Many reactions are known which occur as a result of one reacting constituent combining with the catalyst to form an intermediate compound
that is capable of reacting with the second reacting constituent to form
the product of the catalytic reaction and to regenerate the catalyst. Thus
it is postulated that nitride formation is possible on the active iron atoms
on the surface of the ammonia catalyst. Iron seems to be by far the most
satisfactory catalyst material, though it seems to lose it.s activity rapidly
if heated to temperatures above 520C. The catalyst is promoted by
metallic oxides, the activity being increased most by adding both an
amphoteric oxide of a metal such as aluminum, zirconium, or silicon and
an alkaline oxide such as potassium oxide. As P. If. Emmett 2 summarizes this, "The percentage ammonia in a gaseous mixture of pure 3:1
hydrogen-nitrogen gas passed over such a doubly promoted catalyst at
100 atm. pressure, 5,000 space velocity, and at 450C., is 13 to 14 for the
doubly promoted catalyst in contrast to 8 or 9 for the singly promoted
one and to 3 or 5 per cent for the pure iron catalyst." Many methods of
preparing p~omoted iron catalysts are found in the patent literature; however, practically all th~ catalysts now used commercially are made by
melting iron oxide together with the desired promoter ingredients upon
a protecting bed having the samE) composition as the catalyst material.
This is done in an elect.ric furnace in which the iron oxide itself acts as
the resistor. After coolihg, the material is crushed to the desired particle
size. These catalysts a}e ruined by contact with many substances like
l
1 EMMETI' and KUMM1(lR, Kinetics of Ammonia. Synthesis, Ind. Eng. Chem., 36,
677 (1943). This article includes the newer Russian equations of Temkin and
Pyzhev with many data a~d literature references. '
CURTIS, op. cit., p. 156.'From p. 154 to p. 206, this book contains a most excellent
summary of the theoretical and laboratory studies pertaining to the catalysis of
nitrogen and hydrogen to' form ammonia. Cf. EMMETI', Studies on the Mechanism
of Ammonia Synthesis over Iron Catalysts, J. Chem. Rduc., 7, 2571 (1930).
402
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
phosphorus, arsenic, and sulfur; carbon monoxide greatly reduces their

activity. Hence, much money must be spent in purifying the hydrogen
and nitrogen for the ammonia synthesis.
Manufacturing Procedures. There are numerous variations in pressure,
temperature, catalyst, and equipment from the original Haber procedure,
that have been put into practice in plants throughout the world. Table 4
summarizes these and includes the procedure for obtaining the hydrogen.
There is as much difference in the economic sources of hydrogen as in
any other variable. The principal hydrogen-manufacturing processes that
are in use for synthetic ammonia production are the steam-water gas
process, the steam-hydrocarbon (natural gas) process, the coke-oven gas
process, and the electrolysis of waterl (see Chap. 8, pages 134 to 138).
According'to van Krevelen 2 about 50 per cent of the nitrogen production
of the world in 1948 derived its hydrogen from, water gas, 25 per cent from
coke-oven gas, 15 per cent from electrolysis, and the remaining 10 per
cent primarily from natural gas. Now (1955) in the United States it is
estimated that hydrogen sources fo: ammonia are natural gas (81 per
cent), coke (13 per cent), electrolytic cells (4~ per cent), and catalytic
reforming of refinery gas (l~ per cent). However, much research work is
still directed to find cheaper manufacturing methods for hydrogen from
coke and even from charcoal by using oxygen instead of air in the reactions. Many new plants use ethanolamine to remove CO 2 from the gas
streams instead of high-pressure water.
In addition to its production by the electrolysis of water, hydrogen is
also obtained as a by-product in other electrochemical processes. In
smaller installations the electrolytic or by-product plant is the only one
that has been employed to any extent. In medium-sized plants all methods are used, and in large-scale plants primarily only coke and natural
gas methods. The electrolysis method is competitive in countries where
cheap water-power electricity is available (Norway, Italy, Japan). In
producing hydrogen from coke-oven .gas or by electrolysis methods nitro- "
gen required for the synthesis gas is obtained usually from an air lique/ faction plant. In water-gas and natural-gas processes, nitrogen is obtained in the same manufacturing procedure. as hydrogen. Air is added
in the secondary reformer of the natural-gas process and reacts with CO
to furnish CO 2 and N 2.
Nitrogen Engineering Corp. System. The system for ammonia synthesis
developed by the Nitrogen Engineering Corp. (now a part of the Chemical Construction Corp. of the American Cyanamid Company) is shown
For reactions and details on hydrogen manufacture, see Chap. 9; cf. KIRK and
op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 771jJ., ANON., Synthetic Ammonia Produced from Natufal Gas, Chem. Eng., 52 (12), 92 (1945), with a pictured flow sheet on pp. 134-137;
COPE, Ammonia, Chem. lnel8., 64, 920 (1949) .
IVAN KREVELEN, A Few Aspects of the Development and Technology of the
Nitrogen Industries, Chem. Weekblad, 44. 437 (1948).
1
OTHMER,
403
in the flow sheet of Fig. 3. Like all these ammonia syntheses, this one is
based on the following reaction:!
IlH !80C = - 22,000 cal.
IlH 659 c = -26,600 cal.
0
This reaction is highly exothermic and, con,'3equently, the design of the

converter should be such as to control the temperature at the point desired for the conversion deemed economical for the particular conditions
chosen by the chemical engineers (cf. Fig. 2).
The Nitrogen Engineering Corp.'s system is a modified and improved
Haber-Bosch system (cf. Table 4), and can best be presented by breaking
4.
TABLE
Designation
Pressure,
atm.
SYNTHETIC AMMONIA SYSTEMS
Temperature,
C.
Catalyst
Conversion RecirHydrogen and

perculanitrogen
centtion
age
-Haber-Bosch ....... 200
550
Modified Haber .... 250
550
Nitrogen Engineering Corp., or

American, or
F.N.R.L.a
20(}-300
Modifications of
above and
30(}-350
500
Promoted
8
iron
Doubly
20
promoted
iron
2(}-22
Doubly
promoted
iron
50(}-525 Doubly
24-32
promoted
iron
Kel~ogg
Claude ............ 90(}-1,000 50(}-650 Promoted 40L 85
iron
Yes
Water gaS and

producer gas
Yes
Yes
/
Natural gas or
water gas with
producer gas
or electrolytic
by-product
Yes
No
Liquefaction of
coke-oven gas
and air
L' air liquide ....... 90(}-1,000 500
Du Pont .......... 1,000

j
Casale ............ 60(}-610

1
i
Fauser ............ 20(}-240

Mont Cenis ....... 100
I,
1
Promoted
iron
500
Promoted .....
iron
500
Promoted 15-25
iron
500
Promoted 12-23
iron
40(}-425 Iron
9-20
cyanide,
o- Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Natural gas
Various
methods
Electrolytic,
spe~ial cell
Electrolytic
by-product or
natural gas
F.N.R.L., Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory.

& Conversion upon passage through a single converter. The 85 per cent is for conversion after passage through the series of converters.
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 347, 350 (equilibrium).
404
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
down this flow sheet (Fig. 3) into the following coordinated sequences of
unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
Coke is made into blue water gas by steam as the source of the hydrogen (Pr.).
Coke is converted by a little steam and air into producer gas as the source
of the nitrogen (Pr.). The exothermic producer gas reaction permits, to a slight
extent, the endothermic water-gas reaction. An alternate source of nitrogen is
the "blow gas" from the water-gas generator. The proportions are properly
adjusted to the desired ratio.
Heat is saved from hot gases (see Fig. 3) in waste-heat boiler (Op.).
After passing through waste-heat boiler, gases are further cooled and analyzed;
gases are warmed and saturated with water vapor in a'h.ot~water scrubber,
treated with steam, heated further in exchangers, and passed over iron oxide
catalyst to convertl CO -\- H.O into CO. R 2 ; ilH = .-9,800 cal. (Pr.).
The CO. and H. are cooled in the heat exclianger and cooling towers and conducted to gas holder which "floats" on the line (Op.). (Not shown in Fig. 3.)
To remove do. from the original gas reactions and from the catalytic CO
shift reaction, the gases are compressed to about 25 atm. and washed with water
under this pressure (Op.). About 50 per cent of the energy required for this
operation of raising the water pressure is recovered as shown in Fig. 3 in a water
turbine and used over again for the same purpose. (The "mountain system"
of energy recovery is shown in Fig. 4.)
The mixture of 3 parts of H. and 1 part of N. with residual CO (usually 2 per
cent) is compressed with cooling to 200 atm. (Op.).
The CO and any small amount of O. are removed (to be put back into start of
system) by solution in an ammoniacal cuprous formate solution which is regenerated by heat at atmospheric pressure and reused (Pr.).
The 3 to 1 hydrogen-nitrogen mixture, freed of its CO, is raised to the full
compression of 300 atm. and mixed with the recompressed, recirculated gases.
The gases then are passed through the oil filter and to the water-ammonia coolercondenser for removal of residual ammonia (Op.).
In the converter, the gases are raised in a countercurrent heat exchanger
to the reaction temperature and caused to react in the presence of the catalyst,
after which the gases are cooled and some of the ammonia liquefied (Pr.).
Part of the gases is purged to prevent undue accumulation of diluents, such as
methane or argon, and the rest is recompressed for recirculation (Op.).
The purge gas is burned.
' '
One of the plants of the Nitrogen Engineering C~rp. in the, United

States on by-product hydrogen experienced a catalyst life of about
3 years operating at 515C. and 4,400 lb. pressure. The gas charged
analyzed 72 to 73 per cent H 2 , and from 15 to 24 per cent was converted
to NH3 per pass. A total of 80,000 cu. ft. ,of hydrogen was needed for
1 ton of ~mmonia.
1
In a modified Nitrogen Engineering Corp. system, Charles o. Brown 2
r Cj. PERRY, op. cit., p. 350, for equilihrium calculations of this shift reaction.
i Consulting chemieal engineer, New York City, and one of the original group that
started the Nitrogen Engineering Corp.
405
406
NITROGEN INlllJSTRIES
runs the blue water gas of the "make" cycle into a gas holder, for its
hydrogen and carbon monoxide content. Part of the blow gas from the
same water-gas set is led to a smaller holder for its nitrogen (with carbon dioxide) content. The two are metered in the proper proportion and
put through the succeeding unit operations and unit processes as charted
in Fig. 3. A detailed description with pictured floW chart is available!
for the T.V.A. ammonia plant which was designed under the leadership
of Charles O. Brown and built by the T.V.A. engineers. The converter
is of the laminated-wall type.
The American system is a modified Haber-Bosch procedure, the
details of which were researched and fully published by the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory2 at Washington, D.C. Much of the findings
associated with the F.N.R.L. have been applied by the Nitrogen Engineering Corp.'s system. These work at 100 atm. above the Haber-Bosch
or at 300 atm. and 475C. A doubly promoted iron catalyst is used
operating on very pure gas and hence with a relatively long life; This
catalyst contains 1 per cent of potassium oxide and 3 per cent of aluminum
oxide, based on the iron bxide originally charged. The promoters prevent
sintering. A unique feature is the employment -of an initial ammonia
converter at a somewhat higher temperature, which has as its function
the conversion of carbon-oxygen or carbon-oxygen-hydrogen compounds
into water or hydrocarbons, as well as the removal of any sulfur compounds. Some ammonia is formed and condensed, taking out the impurities simultaneously. Several small plants in the United States have
employed this system and operate on hydrogen by-product from electrolysis of salt. Part of this hydrogen (about 15 per cent) is used to burn
the oxygen from air, leaving nitrogen which is Inixed with three volumes
of hydrogen, purified, compressed, heated, and reacted. The converter is of chrome-nickel-vanadium steel containing the heat interchanger and
the catalyst chamber. A certain amount ,of. the gas in recirculation ispurg':Jd to prevent accumulation of argon.
Haber-Bosch System: The Haber-Bosch system is the basis of the
industrial ammonia syntheses and is operated on a very large scale in
Germany, particularly at Oppau and Merseburg, and with modifications
elsewhere. It is understood that the very large plants of the Imperial
Chemical Industries at Billingham, England, and that of the Allied- Dye
an~ Che;mcal Corp. (Solvay Process Co.) at Hopewell, Va., employ the
H~ber-Bosch procedures with Ininor modifications. It operates at the
1 MILLER and JUNKINS, Nitrogen Fixation at the T.V.A. Ammonia Plant, Chern.
& Met. Eng., 60 (11), 119 (1943), with pictured flow sheet, p. 152; c/. ANON., Anhydrous Ammonia, Chem. Eng., 68 (8), 174 (1951).
2 ANON., The American Process Nitrogen Fixation, Chem. & Met. l!Atg., 30, 948
(1924); CURTIS, op. cit., pp. 237-239; ERNST, REED, and EDWARDS, A Direct Synthlltic
Ammonia Plant, Ind. Eng. Chem., 17,775 (1925).
407
comparatively low pressure of 200 atm. (and 550C.) with from 5 to 10

per cent conversion (of. Fig. 2). It has been fully described! and proceeds
somewhat as the system depicted in Fig. 3. The catalyst is a promoted iron
oxide. Because of the low pressure, the ammonia is somewhat more
difficult to remove as a liquid so the reaction gases are washed with water,
producing initially aqua ammonia from which anhydrous is manufactured.
Claude and Casale Systems. In 1927 the first Claude units, with modifications from the Casale process, were installed in the United States by
the Du Pont Company at Belle, W. Va. A few plants constructed during
the Second W orld War utilized a modified Claude process, which is
principally characterized by operating pressures near 1,000 atm. The
newest adaptation of the Claude process 2 is by the Mississippi Chemical
Corp. at Yazoo City, Miss. Besides high pressures in both the methane
reforming and synthesis reaction, an iron catalyst in the reforming step,
rather than nickel, is used and temperatures are 730 to 930F. Because of
this only about half as much catalyst is necessary and its life is twice
as long as compared with conventional processes. Carbon monoxide
impurity, another important factor, is low enough to be practically
insignificant.
The synthesis reaction takes place in two converters in series with
gas-steam recirculation. The temperature in the first ,converter will vary
from 900 to 1150F. depending on catalyst activity. The conversion is
about 80 per cent per pass, which is high. Other advantages are that only
about one-seventh as much catalyst is needed to produce the same amount
of ammonia and only about one-fifth as much gas must be handled on
the basis of actual volume at synthesis conditions. The catalyst is a
purified magnetic iron oxide, doubly promoted with small percentages of
aluminum and potassium oxides. The catalyst life is short, about 3
months, but the small volumes used help offset this loss.
The Casale system (cj. Table 4) is characterized chiefly by the design
of the converter and cdndenser wherein some of th~ ammonia is left in
the recirculated gases t9 temper or slow down the initial reaction in the
catalyst chamber. Also! the entering gases are passed down in contact
with the outside wall of the converter in order to keep its temperature
below 400C.
'
Du Pont System. The Du Pont much modified Claude-Casale system
is outlined in Fig. 4. The plant is located at-. Belle, W. Va., on 'the banks
of the Kanawha River where plentiful supplies of water and cheap coalare
available. The coal is delivered by river barges. The Du Pont engineers
1 CURTIS, op. cit., p. 229; PARTINGTON, The Haber Process at Merseburg, J. Soc.
Chem. Ind., 40, 144R (1921); WARDENBURG, High Pressure Synthesis Applied to
Manufacture of Things in EVeryday Use, J. Franklin Inst., 221, 449 (1936).
SHEARON and THOMPSON, Ammonia at 1000 Atmospheres, Ind. Eng. Chem., 40,
254 (1952).
408
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
until the Second W orid War used hydrogen produced by the water-gas
reaction from coke. Expansion marked the advent of natural gas, and now
all ammonia at thi:; plant is made from hydrogen derived from natural
gas. The hydrogen from the water-gas reaction is used for '''impure''
hydrogenations such as in the manufactu're of nylon intermediates, long
chain alcohols, ammonium carbonate, urea, and dozens of other chemicals
(see Fig. 1 in Chap. 39). A description of this older process follows, since it
is a unique development requiring a great deal of intelligence and stern vigilance and a great monetary outlay for automatic instruments and devices.
The ignited coke in the gas generators is blown with air, furnishing
"blow-run gas" or "blow gas" rich in nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
When this white-hot coke has .steam and some air passed through it,
"blue gas" is made, rich in hydrogen and carbon monoxide with some
nitrogen. As this latter is an endothermic reaction (cf. Chap. 7), it must
be succeeded by a "blow run." Thus alternately blowing air and steam
through coke, the four gases are produced. These gases are proportioned
to get the mixture required for the product desired. However, the blue gas
analyzing about 50 per pent CO, 40 per cent H 2 , and 10 per cent N 2 must
be purified of its sulfur. This is done by the Thylox process (see Chap. 7) .
.!S shown in Fig. 4 the Du Pont engineers remove the CO 2 ! by washing
with water under 30 atm. pressure. They, however, have developed an
economical method of recovering about 60 per cent of the energy in this
high-pressure aqueous solution of the carbon dioxide. This is the so-called
mountain recovery procedure in which the pressure in the water forces
it 600 ft. up ~o,the top of. the mountain adjoining the Belle plant. When
at the top of the mountain, the pressure having been expended in the
work done, the CO 2 mostly escapes, the residual being blown out with
air. This denuded water flows down again to the pumps but possessed'
of nearly 300 lb. actual pressure. Such a procedure also saves something
in the cost in water purifying as the water is used over and over again.
Before Second W orid War demands required an enlargement of this
Du Pont plant, it had a gas plant sufficien_t in size to supply a city of over.
2,000,000 inhabitants. It is obvious that it would not, be economical to'
store more than a few.minutes' supply. However, the various processes
are so rapid, the coordination so accurate, and the control so exact, that
. . . only thirty minutes are required for a unit of hydrogen lel).ving the coke bed
in the water-gas generators to appear as its equivalent of ammonia or alcohols
coming from the synthesis units. During the thirty minutes' ride taken by. the
gases in their journey at Belle"they are heated to 2400F., washed and rewashed
wat~r and other liquids, cooled to -350F., expanded to atmospheric
with
I
pressure, compressed to 12,000 pounds per square inch, and passed over various
catalysts.
1 ANON., The Pressure Synthesis of the Du Pont Ammouium Corp., Ind. En!1.
Chem., 22, 433 (1930).
MISCELLANEOUS AMMONIA SYSTEMS
409
Cool----+'I
Air
Benzene -4- toluene
Steam
Coal tor
Blow run 9 0S __ - - - Blue gas
COz+N
,...-....l..-------.L......, 50%CQ,40"foHz,IO%NZ
Z
Make up water.
Steam--~~-----~------'
4S01b.pressure
Cata lyst--:J..I---=----!:.,---='_;_--.:.......I
... ;ResiduoI9as
recycled and
recompressed
~----~'_--~Pu~e
Various products
FIG. 4. Flow chart for Du Pt:)nt hydrogen manufacture from coal, air, and water. The
hlowrun gas and the blue gas are made from the coke by alternately blowing with air
and steam. In 1957 the
source of CO and H 2 ,
ch~nge,
is being made to partial oxidation of methane as
Miscellaneous Ammbnia Systems. The Italian Fauser 1 procedure

employs an electrically controlled converter at 200 atm. and 500C. and
works on electrolytic hydrogen generated in a special cell. For some of
the foreign plants, the nitrogen is obtained by purification of the nitrogen from the exit gases arising from the air-ammonia oxidation procedure for nitric acid. At Trail, B.C., Claude liquid-air units furnish the
nitrogen.
1 For a flow sheet, see Chern. Met. Eng., 38, 628 (1931). This article describes with
considerable exactness the procedures operating at Trail, B,C.
410
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
This being a low-pressure system, the ammonia is frequently removed

by water scrubbing, though the Trail plant employs pressure cooling
first by water and next by ammonia refrigeration. The lowest pressure
system is the Mont Genis one, operating at 100 atm. and somewhat over
400C. The catalyst is an iron-cyanide complex. This system is used by
the Shell Chemical Co. at Pittsburg, Calif.
AMMONIUM SULFATE
Ammonium sulfate has long been an important 'nitrogen carrier for

fertilizers, although its industrial uses are growing. Less than half of its
more than a million ton per year production is still made by the old
process of recovering ammonia from coal gas (cf. Chap. 7) by scrubbing
with sulfuric acid. 1 The greater part is made by converting anhydrous
ammonia into the sulfate. The General Petroleum Corporation at
Torrance, Calif., makes 11 tons per day and simultaneously solves a
waste-disposal problem at a profit. They react refinery-waste sludge
sulfuric acid and ammonia from a by-product gas from cracking, to
make ammonium sulfate. Another process is in operation at Sindri, India,
where the principal raw materials 'for ammonium sulfate are gypsum
and coke: 2
(NH,)2C03(aq)
+ CaSO"2H 0(s)
2
---?
CaC0 3(s)
+ 2H 20 + (NH,)2S0,(aq)
Many foreign plants employ anhydrite as a raw material.

AMMONIUM PHOSPHATES
These salts are considered in Chap. 18. They are part.icularly valuable
in the fertilizer field as f.hey carry both NH3 and P 20 .
. AMMONIUM NITRArE
Ammonium nitrate .is the most important nitrogen fertilizer (see

Table 5) because of the high nitrogen content (35 per cent) and the
simplicity and cheapness of manufacture. It is a vital ingredient in the
so-called" safety" type explosives, e.g., dynamite, and is blended with
TNT to form Amato!. About 200,000 tons of ammonium nitrate_ are
consume<l in these nonfertilizer channels. A minor, but important,
application is in the manufacture of nitrous oxide, an anesthetic in
ext~nsive use. This gas is formed by heating ammonium nitrate under
controlled conditions at temperatures above 200C ..
and QTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 778.
ANON., Ammonium Sulfate from Gypsum, Chem. Eng., 69 (6), 242 (1952), a.
pictured flow sheet.
1 KIRK
I
411
AMMONIUM NITRATE
Ammonium nitrate is simply made by neutralizing nitric acid, oxidized

from ammonia, with ammonia:!
TABLE 5. NITROGEN FOR FERTILIZER PURPOSES
(Short tons of nitrogen)
Ammonium nitrate, all grades ......................

Ammonium sulfate and nitrate ....................
Other solids~ .....................................
Natural organics .................................
Compound ammoniating solution ...................
NH. for ammoniation .............................
NH. for direct application .........................
Total. ........................................
1952-1953
supply
1953-1954
est. supply
428,600
401,500
250,700
40,000
361,900
83,500
237,800
1,804,000
464,000
375,000
255,000
39,000
385,000
73,000
325,000
1,916,000
Department of Agriculture and Ind. Eng. Chem., 46, 1120 (1954).

Ammonium phosphates, sodium nitrate, urea, calcium nitrate, cyanamide, and
nitraphosphates.
NH3(g)
+ HN0 3(aq) --> NH N0 3(aq);

4
flH = -20,600 cal.
The neutralization is generally carried out batchwise. 2 A continuous

neutralization may be accomplished by introducing ammonia vapor at the
bottom of a neutralization tower with make-up nitrj.c acid added at the
top. The product is taken off at a plate slightly below the middle and
the heat of the reaction evaporates a portion of the water leaving a
solution of approximately 82 per cent strength. The Stengel 3 process,
installed by Commercial Solvents Corp., reacts ammonia and nitric acid
bet,ween 180 and 250C., furnishing a solid product in one step. To
lessen the deliquescence and caking and to obtain the best physical
characteristics in the final product, the ammonium nitrate is grained
or prilled. Graining involves batch evaporation of the ammonium nitrate
solution to about 98 per cent. By cooling under proper agitation small
rounded pellets or graIns result with relatively less surface. While these
grains, after coating, iare suitable for dynamite, this product has less
than the minimum size preferred for fertilizer use. Prilling consists in
spraying hot concentr~ted ammonium nitrate solution from the top of a
tower and allowing the .droplets to descend against a countercurrent
stream of air at a lower temperature, forming solid particles (called
"prills") about Ms to %2 in. in diameter:. After drying and screening,
1 MITCHELL, Ammonia; Petroleum Refiner, 25 (6), 245 (1946); SHEARON and DUNWOODY, Ammonium Nitr~te, Ind. Eng. Chem., 45, 496 (1953); ct. KIRK and OTHMER,
op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 820.
For a flow sheet with materials of construction, see Chem. Eng., fl7 (11), 115 (1950).
U.S. Pat. 2568901 (1951).
412
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
the priUs or grains are conditioned against moisture pickup by coating

them with a material such as diatomaceous earth and are bagged for sale.
UREA
The synthesis of urea by Wohler in 1828 by heating ammonium cyanate

. had a profound influence upon chemistry and upon civilization. It was
the first time that a substance produced by life had been prepared in the
laboratory, thus opening up the entire realm of synthetic organic chemistry. For 100 years, this epoch-making compound was relatively unimportant industrially and was made by the acid hydrolysis of .calcium
cyanamide. In 1933 Du Pont began production at Belle, W. Va.,. and
remained the sole domestic producer until 1950 when Solvay opened their
plant at South Point, Ohio. The most important uses of urea are those
in nitrogen fertilizers! and in plastics in combination with formaldehyde
and furfural. Urea also finds extensive applications in adhesives, coatings,
textile antishrink compounds, and ion-exchange resins. It is an intermediate for ammonium sulfamate, sulfamic acid, and phthalocyanine
pigments. In 1952, production was 200,000 tons. Approximately twothirds was the crystal form with the remainder divided' nearly even
between solid and solution products.
The commercial processes iIi current use are based on two reactions: 2
CO 2
+ 2NH3~ NH C0 NH
4
Ammonium
carbamate
NH 4C0 2 NH 2 ~ NH 2 CONH 2
!:lH = -67,000 B.t.u. per lb.-mole
2;
+ H 0;
2
!:lH
= + 18,000 B.t.u.
per lb.-mole
Since both reactions are reversible, the equilibrium depends on the

temperature, pressure, and concentration of the various components.
The conversion ratio increases with rising temperature; however, urea is
formed only in the liquid (solution) or solid phase making it necessary to
I maintain the liquid phase by pressure. Because the pressure increases
rapidly with rising temperature, reaction temperatures over 210C. are
rarely exceeded in commercial practice. This temperature corresponds
to a conversion ratio of about 0.55. Because the combined reactions are
highly.exothermic, this makes cooling necessary.
The Du Pont process continuously reacts purified carbon dioxide an,d
excess am~onia (3 to 5 moles), in the liquid (solution) phase in autoclaves
at 200 to 2ioC. The NHa and CO 2 as an aqueous solution of the ammonium: carbamate are recycled, and because of the presence of so much
1 SKEEN, Urea, Chem. Eng., 66 (6), 31!J (1949).
Roos.mooM, Urea: A Process Survey, Chem. Eng., 68 (3), 111 (1951). This article
contuins excellent physical data and process descriptions.
USES AND ECONOMICS
413
water in the system the above severe conditions necessitate a reactor

pressure of about 400 atm. The liquid reaction mass has a urea concentration of about 75 per cent after NHa stripping and may be used for
making urea-ammonia liquor (U.A.L.) without further concentration.
Although silver- or lead-lined equipment is used, corrosion is still a
major problem.
Solvay employs a once-through process feeding in a constant molar
ratio of 1 part compressed CO 2 to 2 or more liquid NHa at 150 to 200 atm.
and with the temperature controlled at 160 to 180C. The liquid reaction
mass passes into a flash stripper where the carbamate is dissociated into
NHa and CO 2 and these gases are removed, recovered, and reused. In
both cases, "crystal" urea results from purifying and filtering the crude
urea.
The Pechiney process, to be used in the John Dcere plant in Oklahoma,
differs in that it recycles solid carbamate as a slurry in a neutral mineral
oil. This is pumped into a reactor which operates at 180C. and 200
atm. The oil helps control the temperature in the reactor; and because
of the solid and lower reactor temperature corrosion in the lead-lined
shell is at a minimum.
NITRIC ACID
Historical. For many years nitric acid was made from Chile! saltpeter
according to the following reaction:
/
NaNO a + H 2S0 4 ---> NaHS0 4
+ HNO a
The present almost invariably more economical process involves the

commercialization of the oxidation reaction of ammonia with air or
oxygen. This has become economical because of the decreasing price of
ammonia and of the great savings of the plants in comparison with the
old sodium nitrate procedure. Not only is the capital investment in the
original plant less, brit the maintenance expense and repair are greatly
reduced.
!
The newest process of nitrogen fixation, although still experimental,
consists of oxidizing ,nitrogen with air to nitric oxide in a furnace at
4000F.2 Upon cooling the oxide is further oxidized to nitrogen tetraoxide
which dissolves in water to give nitric acid.
Uses and Economics. Nitric acid has some direct application as an
oxidizing acid in the/parting of gold and,silver, in the pickling of brass,
and in photoengravihg. However, its chief function is to make nitrates
1 Fuller descriptions of this process are found in the older books where details are.
given of the equipment required.
GILBERT and DANIELS, Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen in a Gas Heated Furnace, Ind. Eng. Chenl., 40, 1719 (1948).
414
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
in both the inorganic and the organic fields as well as nitro derivatives in
all branches of the organic division. The inorganic nitrates important
commercially are those of ammonia, sodium, copper, and silver, the
first being the most important outlet for nitric acid. A growing and
potentially very important use for nitric acid is to replace sulfuric acid
in acidulation of phosphate rock. Many of the nitrate or nitro compounds
are used directly especially in the explosives industry as is true of ammonium nitrate, nitro-glycerine, and nitro-cellulose (really glyceryl
trinitrate and cellulose polynitrate). The nitro aromatic compounds,
ammonium picrate and T.N.T. as well as tetryl, are most important
explosives. However, quite frequently the nitro group is used as an
entering step into' hydrocarbons of either aliphatic or aromatic divisions,
in order to act as the steppingstone to more technically useful derivatives.
This is exemplified by nitro-benzene in the manufacture of aniline (ci.
Chap. 38 on intermediates and dyes) and the nitro-paraffins in leading
to amines and amino-alcohols in the paraffin series (Chap. 39). For these
purposes, there was consumed in 1953 1,764,363 tons of 100 per cent
nitric acid.
Commercial grades l of nitric acid are
36Be. or 1.330 sp. gr ......................... 52.3 per cent RNO.
40 0 Be. or 1.381 sp. gr ......................... 61.4 per cent RNO.
42Be. or 1.408 sp. gr ......................... 67.2 per cent RNO.
Raw Materials. The essential raw materials for the modern manufacture of nitric acid are anhydrous ammonia, air, and water. Because
of the low molecular weight of the ammonia, it can be shipped economically from the large primary nitrogen-fixation plants to various oxidation
plants at the consuming centers. This effects a great saving in freight
as well as in equipment, because the anhydrous ammonia can be shipped
in steel cars in comparison with shipping aqueous nitric acid in stainlesssteel tank cars weighing five or six -times the weight of the ammonia.
I To these basic raw materials should be added the stainless-steel alloys2
required for the nitric acid part of the oxidation plant.
Reactions and Energy. Changes. The essential reactions for the production of nitric acid by the oxidation of ammonia may be represented
as follows:
4NH3(g)
+ 50 (g) - 4NO(g) + 6H 0(g);

2NO(g) + 02(g) - 2N0 (g);
2
3N0 2 (g)
+H
0(l) - 2HN0 3(aq)
AH = -216,600 cal.
AH = -27,100 cal.
NO(g);
AH = -32,200 cal.
(1)
(2)
(3)
There are several by-reactions which reduce somewhat the yield of

reaction (1).
1
I
op. cit., pp. 38, 180. The data given are for 60F. (15.5C.).
ANON., Nitric Acid, Chem. Eng., 117 (11), 726 (1950).
PERRY,
REACTIONS AND ENERGY CHANGES
4NHa(g) + 302(g) ~ 2N 2(g)

4NHa(g) + 6NO(g) ~ 5N 2(g)
+ 6H20(g);
+ 6H20(g);
AH = -302,700 cal.
AH = -431,900 cal.
415
(4)
(5)
Reaction (1) is essentially a very rapid catalytic one, carried on by

passing about 10.6 per cent of ammonia by volume, mixed with preheated
air through the multilayered, silk fine, platinum gauze, at a temperature
of approximately 920C. (see Fig. 5), and here, once ignited, the stream
of ammonia continues to burn. The yield is above 90 per cent. Formerly
the temperatures were lower, about 750C., where the platinum loss by
volatilization is much less, but also so is the production rate. Catalyst
temperatures in Europe are about 850 to 875C. This reaction is usually
carried out at a pressure of 100 lb. per sq. in.
Much work has been done on the study of the conditions surrounding
these reactions.! As can be seen from reaction (1), there is only a small
increase in volume, so that the principle of Le Ch~telier does not affect
the equilibrium very substantially. However, the increase in pressure,
by compressing the reactants, enables a greater space velocity to be
maintained with a consequent saving in plant until such a pressure is
reached that the cost of the increased thickness of the stainless steel
required more than counterbalances the saving in volume of the equipment per pound produced. Pressure oxidation also furnishes a nitric
acid containing 61 to 65 per cent HNO a III comparison with the 50 to
- 55 per cent HNO a obtained from atmospheric oxidation. The speed of
ammonia oxidation is extraordinarily high, giving an excellent conversion
in the short contact time of 3 X 10-4 sec. at 750C. with a fine platinum
gauze catalyst. Hence in the industrial procedure it has been found
economical to mix initially with the ammonia all the air needed for
reactions (1) and (2).
The oxidation of the nitric oxide, NO, to nitrogen dioxide, N0 2, is
the slowest reaction, but the equilibrium is more favorable at lower
temperatures. Hence this reaction is carried out in absorbers of considerable capacity and provided with cooling. Because of a decrease in
volume, this reaction ~s favored under pressure according to the principle
of Le Ch~telier. While these factors raise the cost of the equipment for
carrying out the oxidation of the nitric oxide, they increase the conversion.
It is necessary in the; design of a plant to know how long 2 this reaction
1 ANDRUSSOW, Catalytic Ammonia Oxidation, Z. angew. Chern., 39, 321 (1926);
cJ. Chap. 14 by KMSE in CURTIS, op. cit., pp. 366-408jf., for very full description of
all factors pertaining to I the basic physical chemistry surrounding the reactions, as
well as the equipment pecessary for its commercialization, together with copious
references to the original literature.
KMSE, pp. 384jf. in' CURTIS, op. cit., reviews the work of many researchers and
presents equations and 'curves derived therefrom pertaining to the velocity of the
reaction. For the calculation of time of this reaction as equaling 142 sec. at 25C.,
see KMSE in CURTIS. op. cit., p. 390.
416
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
will take, in order to calculate the volume necessary for the equipment.
(3)
Equation (3) is really an absorption phenomenon.' This reaction, in

the opinion of Taylor, Chilton, and Handforth,2 is the controlling one
in making nitric acid and its rate was increased by employing an absorption tower under pressure and cooling and with countercurrent
graded strengths of acid for the absorption. Cold air is introduced into a
short raschig ring packed section between the tower and acid trap. This
provides for the reoxidation of the NO formed and also desorbs (bleaches)
the dissolved nitrous oxides which would color the acid. Chemical engineers have developed a tower 572 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. high with a
capacity of about 55 tons of nitric acid per 24 hr. (cf. Fig. 5).
Manufacturing Procedures. Commercialization of these oxidation
reactions, from ammonia leading to nitric acid, are exemplified by the
flow sheet given in Fig. 5, which depicts the present-day procedure
under 100 lb. pressure. Small-scale plants without any absorption and
final oxidation steps are employed to supply the nitric oxide needed as a
I catalyst' in the chamber sulfuric acid procedure. The energy changes
involved in these reactions are given with t'he reactions themselves.
Much of the power required for compressing the air to 100 lb. pressure
can be regained by expanding the waste gas, mostly nitrogen, from the
top of the absorption tower, through a compressor for part of the needed
air. Naturally the drive cylinder of this power-recovery compressor
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 706-707. The entire section on gas absorption shou!d- be
studied.
I
I
I TIYLOR, CHILTON, and HANDFORTH, Manufacture of Nitric Acid by the Oxidation
of Ammonia, Ind. Eng. Chern., 23, 860 (1931).
I SPANGLER, Ammonia Oxidation Replaces Niter for Chamber Acid Plants, Chern. &
Met. 'Eng_. 36, 342 (1928).
CONCENTRATION OF NITRIC ACID
417
should be larger in diameter than the air cylinder. Actually per ton of
100 per cent nitric acid, the saving thus effected is 200 kw.-hr.
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. Figure 5 can be separated into
the following coordinated sequences:
Anhydrous ammonia is evaporated continuously and uniformly in an evaporator, using steam to supply the necessary heat of evaporation (Op.). Air for
all reactions shown on Fig. 5 is compressed in power recovery compressor and in
motor-driven compressor to 105 lb. per sq. in. gage and passed through heat
exchangers and air filter (Op.).
Ammonia gas is oxidized with air to nitric oxide at 100 lb. pressure in a converter, by passing through a platinum gauze at 920C. (Pr.).
Then nitric oxide with the excess air necessary for the succeeding oxidizing
steps is cooled in two heat exchangers and a water cooler, and conducted to the
bottom of the absorption tower (Op.).
The successive oxidations and hydrations of the nitric oxide are carried out
with continuous water cooling in a stainless-steel absorption tower (Pr. and Op.).
The nitric acid (61 to 65 per cent HNO a) is drawn off through an acid trap
(Op.).
The waste gas from the top of the absorption tower is heated in an exchanger
counter to reaction gases and expanded through a compressor for part of the air,
before being exhausted to the atmosphere (Op.).
Concentration of Nitric Acid. Water and nitric acid form an azeotrope

which makes it impossible to get higher than 68 per cent acid from dilute
acid by distillation. The 95 to 99 per cent nitric acid, often required by
industry, is usually concentrated by mixing 98 per cent sulfuric acid with
the 60 per cent nitric acid resulting from the above oxidation and absorption. The mixed acid is pumped to a dehydrating tower heated by
steam. The 99 per cent nitric acid vapors leave the top of the tower, are
condensed and stored. High-silicon iron is the material of construction
useq throughout. The aqueous sulfuric acid is concentrated and recirculated, but even so the process adds about $10 per ton to the cost of
manufacturIng.
SODIUM NITRATE
I
In recent years large tonnages of sodium nitrate l have been made

both in America at Ho~ewell and in Europe by reaction of sodium chloride
and soda ash from ammonia-soda or Solvay process, with nitric acid
from ammonia oxidation. This is a high-grade product and is sought
after for both industrial and fertilizer demands. Such sodium nitrate is
particularly excellent ih the making of dynamite. See Chap. 15, Chlorine,
for reactions.
:'
,
The Chilean nitrate industry was, until the rise of the synthetic
ammonia industry, the dominating factor in the world's nitrogen supply.
1 CURTIS,
op. cit., pp. 54-70, 415--416.
418
NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
The 50-year-old Shanks process for obtaining the nitrate was inefficient
and could not meet the competition. So following the First World War,
lean years came to Chile, which had depended on the export tax upon its
nitrate for its financial mainstay (42.8 per cent of total revenue or over
1 billion dollars from 1880 to 1930). Also 10 per cent of the total population of Chile had been directly connected with this industry.
These Chilean deposits occur in a desert area at an elevation of from
4,000 to 9,000 ft. and extending some 400 miles north and south with a
width of from 5 to 40 miles. The crude salt deposit is called caliche and
has the following typical analysis, according to Curtis:
Per cent
Sodium nitraw .............. .
Potassium nitrate ............ .
Sodium chloride ............. .
Sodium Bulfate .............. .
Potassium perchlorate ........ .
17.6
1.3
16.1
6.5
0.23
Per cent
Magnesium sulfate ........... .
Calcium sulfate .............. .
Sodium iodate ............... .
Sodium borate ............... .
3.9
5.5
0.11
0.94
The caliche usually worked varies in thickness from 8 in. to 14 ft. with an
overburden of from 1 to 4 ft. There are still enormous deposits available.
In 1920 the Guggenheim Brothers of New York, owners and developers
of large copper-mining operations, started to study the obtaining of
sodium nitrate from caliche. By applying modern chemical-engineering
knowledge of the unit operations of mining, transportation, crushing,
selective leaching, crystallization, and heat transfer, the Guggenheim
process has resulted. This has been applied (1) in the Oficina Maria
Elena, which produces 520,000 metric tons of sodium nitrate per year
and cost $43,000,000, and (2) in the Pedro de Valdivia plant, which
produces 750,000 tons of finished nitrate per year and cost $32,000,000.
The Guggenheim process as perfected consists of improved leaching
and crystallization operations on a very large scale using modern laborsaving machinery and various hea'tsaving devices. The leaching is
/countercurrent at 40C. with crystallization down to 5C. The heat
required for the 40C. level is from heat exchangers in connection with
the ammonia condensers and from the exhaust gases -and cooling water
from the large Diesel engines which supply the plant with electric power.
The 5C. level is attained (1) to 15C. in heat interchangers counter to
the nitrate ,mother liquor and (2) to 5C. by ammonia refrigeration.
This results in an increased production! of from 25 to 30 tons of nitrate
from a ton of fuel for the Guggenheim process in comparison with 6 to 7
tons by the Shanks process. The Chilean nitrate industry produces as
1 Chemical Nitrogen, U.S. Tariff Comm. Rept. 114, p. 112, 1937. For numerous
flow sheets covering the Guggenheim process, see CURTIS, op. cit., pp. 64-67.
SELECTED REFERENCES
419
by-products the world's main supply of iodine and also substantial quantities of potassium nitrate.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Curtis, Harry A., "Fixed Nitrogen," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1932. This book is a most excellent presentation and has a bibliography of 778
references.
Chemical Nitrogen, U.S. Tariff Comm. Rept. 114, 1937, bibliography, pp. 298-300.
Waeser, B., "The Atmospheric Nitrogen Industry," Blakiston Division, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1926. German, 2d ed., published by Otto
Spamer in Leipzig, 1932.
Lewis, G. N., and Merle Randall, "Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical
Substances," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1923.
Taylor, H. S., "Industrial Hydrogen," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1921.
Badger, W. L., and E. M. Baker, "Inorganic Chemical Technology," 2d ed., McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941.
Sherwood, Thomas K., and R. L. Pigford, "Absorption and Extraction," 2d ed.,
Bone, W. A., High Pressure Reactions, Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 8, 98-106 (1930).
Tongu!), Harold, "The Design and Construction of High Pressui:e Chemical Plant,"
Ullmann, Eritz, "Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 2d ed., Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1928-1932; 3d ed., 1950-.
Newitt, D. M., "The Design of High Pressure Plant and the Properties of Fluids at
High Pressure," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1940.
Bridgman, P. W., "The Physics of High Pressures," Oxford University Press, New
York, 1931.
/
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," 15 vola.,
I.
CHAPTER
21
HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND MISCELLANEOUS

INORGANIC CHEMICALS
The manufacture of many inorganic chemicals has been subjected to

much new study in the past few years, with the result_that new processes
are in use for old chemicals or that improvements hav'e been made in old
processes. An example of a new process is the recovery of bromine and
magnesium from sea water and of an improvement is the employment of
structural carbon as a material of construction in hydrochloric acid
plants.
HYDROCHLORIC OR MURIATIC ACID
Hydrochloric acid, although not manufactured in such large quantities

as sulfuric acid, is an important heavy chemical. Manufacturing techniques have changed and improved in recent years and new procedures
are employed such as the burning of chlorine in hydrogen.
Hydrogen chloride, Hel, is a gas at ordinary temperatures and pressures. Aqueous solutions of it are known as hydrochloric acid or, if the
hydrogen chloride in solution is of the commercial grade, as muriatic
acid. The common acids of commerce are lSoBe. (1.142 sp. gr.) or 27.9 per
o
cen~ HCI, 20 Be. (1.160 sp. gr.) or 32.0 per cent Hel, and 22Be. (1.179
sp. gr.) or 35.S per cent Hep Anhydrous hydrogen chloride is available
/ in steel cylinders at a very considerable increase in cost, owing to the
cylinder expense involved.
~
Historical. Hydrogen 'chloride was discovered in the' fifteenth century
by Basilius Valentinius. Commercial production of hydrochloric acid began in England when legislation was passed prohibiting the indiscriminate discharge of hydrogen chloride into the atmosphere. This legislation
forced manufacturers, using the LeBlanc process for soda ash, to absorb
the waste hydrogen chloride i'n water. As more uses for hydrochloric acid
were'discovered, plants were built solely for its production.
1 PERRY, op. cit., pp. :l8 and 179; "The Condensed Chemkal Dictionary," p. 348,
4th ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporat.ion, New York, 1950.
420
MANUFACTURE
421
Uses and Economics. The largest users of hydrochloric acid are the
petroleum, chemical, food, and metal industries.! Industry experts estimate that activation of oil wells consumes about 30 per cent of the acid
sold. A breakdown of the remaining uses is: chemical production, 23 per
cent; metal production, 13 per cent; food industry including the production of monosodium glutamate and starch hydrolysis, 12 per cent; metal
and general cleaning, 10 per cent; and miscellaneous uses, 13 per cent.
Since muriatic acid is a relatively cheap chemicai, the producing units
ar.e usually close to the consuming sources with the exception of by-product which often is transported longer distances.
Manufacture. Hydrochloric acid is obtained from four major sources:
as a by-product in the chlorination of both aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, from reacting salt and sulfuric acid, from the combustion of
hydrogen and chlorine, and from Hargreaves-type operations (4NaCI +
2S0 2 + O 2 + 2H 20 = 2Na 2S04 + 4HCI). As can be seen from Table 1,
by-product operations furnish most of the acid. The old salt-sulfuric acid
method and the newer combustion method each supply about 20 per cent.
The Hargreaves process is used by only one company, although a modified Hargreaves process is in operation. at another plant.
Reactions and Energy Requirements. The basic steps in the production
of by-product acid include the removal of any unchlorinated hydrocarbon followed by the absorption of the HCI in water. A typical chlorination for illustration follows:
CeHe
+ Ch ----> C eH CI + Hcl
Benzene
Chlorobenzene
Since the chlorination of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons evolves

large amounts of heat, special equipment is necessary for control of the
temperature of reaction. 2
The reactions of the salt-sulfuric acid process are endothermic.
NaCI + H 2S0 4----> HCI
NaCI + NaHSO( ----> HCI
I
+ NaHS04
+ Na S04
2
Summation:
t.H =
+ 15,800 cal.
The first reaction goes to completion at relath ely luw temperatures while
;'
1 WII,SON,
Now By-product Hydrochloric Hules the Roost, Chell1. Eng., 58 (7), 284
(Hl51).
20 W ERSHAW, et at., Absorption and Purification of Hydrogen Chloride (rom
Chlorination of Hydrocarbons, Chem. Enfl. Progr., 43, 371 (1947).
422
HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC CHEMICALS
the second approaches completion only at elevated temperatures. 1 The

reactions are forced to the right by the escape of the hydrogen chloride
from the reaction mass.
The reaction between hydrogen and chlorinel is highly exothermic and
goes spontaneously to completion as soon as it is initiated.
The absorption of the HCl, made by any process, liberates around
700 B.t.u. per lb. of HCl absorbed. This heat must be taken away in the
absorber or the efficiency will be low. Figure 1 illustrateS the design of
a hydrogen chloride absorber made from Karbate carbon.
Figure 2 illustrates the essential steps in the production of hydrochloric
acid using the salt process and the synthetic process. The by-product
process differs from these in the variable conditions employed for the
production and separation of the hydrogen chloride. The Balt proce.a may
TABLE 1. PRODUCTION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID(In short tons of 100 per cent acid)
Source
1947
1950
1951
1952
Salt ..........................
Chlorine . ..... . . ..............
By-product and other ..... . . ...
Total. .... .... ........ .. ...
173,541
87,112
181,905
442,558
165,053
111,539
342 , 192
618,784
174 ,994
123.063
397 ,534
695,591
162,411
140,595
380,763
683,742
Annual Survey of Manufactures, 1952. The production in 1953 was 773,500 tOIlS.
be divided into the following unit operations (Op.) and unit proce811e8 (Pr.):
Sulfuric acid (or niter cake if available) and salt are roasted in a furnace to
form hydrogen chloride and sodium sulfate (salt cake) (Pr.).
The hot hydrogen chloride, contaminated with droplets of sulfuric acid and
particles of salt cake, is cooled by passing it through a series of S-shaped Karbate
coolers, cooled externally by water (Op.) .
The cooled gas is then passed upward through a coke tower to remove IJU8pended foreign materials (Op.). (This equipment is omitted in some plants.)
Purified hydrogen chloride from the top of the coke tower is absorbed in water
in a tantalum or Karbate absorber (Op.).
Finished hydrochloric acid is withdrawn from the bottom of the absorber, and
any undissolved gas passing out the top of the absorber is scrubbed out with
water in a packed tower (Op.).
1 PIIUY, op. cit. , pp. 697~98; BADGER and BAKER, "Inorganic (''hemic&l Technology," 2d ed., Chap. V, pp. 111-117, with references on p. 133, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1941, is particularly good in presenting diagrama of furD&Ce8 and conditions for absorption.
I MAUDE, Synthetic Hydrogen Chloride, Chern. Eng. PTogr., ' " 179 (1948); B.tJJIBAUGH, et al., Synthesis and Recovery of Hydrogen Chloride Gas, 1M. B,.,.
61, 2165 (1949).
c...,
423
Riel/gos
Leon gos
;m Strong oCid
~~.:; Weok oCld
.....
Feed woter
Cooling woter
FIo. 1. Diagram of an aU-carbon hydrochloric acid cooler-absorber. (Courlatl 0/

Natiorwl Carbon COmpGftll.)
424
The most important of the salt furnaces in operation is the Mannheim

furnace. This consists of a cast-iron muffle, composed of a dish-shaped
top and bottom bolted together and equipped with plows to agitate the
reaction mixture. The rotary furnace is growing in usage. Here sulfuric
acid and salt are continuously mixed and heated.
Ii,
IXCOI&
Saff
To cooling tower etc.
like "salt process"
'--....1'11'--___. Cool
Solt Pro ss CcoI.,.
'11m HzSO~g acl4 ....Weakacld
Syntllotlc Proce ..
go
storage Chlorine
618 Ib}
,
s~ I,OSO III. Water. 1,900gal.
P!'O!Iuce I ton 20ee!acid
Hvd n
22.1 Itt:
II, (100"> 945 Ib. ElectricitY 901<w.-hr. and,~_I!.lb. salt cake (from IItso,,)
Cbo~"""" 5IlO-~DOO"" Per i<In of
or
aoIIU30 III. DII..ct lalfor 53...".hr. or ~,840 Ib. salt cake (t_ nif.... cab) Electri'cilv
U kw.=Iu: ZOO Be! acld
}TO
140 Ib.
Coal
Dim 1_ U man-}p;
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for hydrochloric acid.
The synthetic process generates hydrogen chloride by burning chlorine

in a few per cent excess of hydrogen. The purity of the ensuing acid is
dependent upon the purity of the hydrogen and chlorine. However, as
both of these gases are available in a very pure state as by-products of
the electrolytic process for caustic soda, this synthetic method produces
the purest hydrogen chloride of all the processes. The cooling and absorption are very similar to that employed in the salt process.
Over 250,000 tons per year of anhydrous hydrogen chloride are needed
for making methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, vinyl chloride, and other such
compounds. This is generally manufactured 1 by burning Cl 2 in excess of
H 2 , absorbing the HCI in water. The aqueous solution is stripped of HCI
under slight pressure, giving strong gaseous HCI which is dehydrated to
99.5 per cent HCI by cooling to lOoF.
t
Hydrochloric acid is extremely corrosive to most of the common metals
and great care _should be taken to choose the proper materials for the
plant construction. This acid is usualiy shipped by rail or barge and
s;ored in rubber-lined steel tanks. Although absorbers were made of silica, in recent years tantalum and structural carboh have_largely replaced
fused silica. Indeed, the installation of Karbate structural carbon heat
interchangers and condensers has characterized the recent hydrochl0ric
acid plants because of higher rates of heat transfer and greater strength
and resistance to corrosive attack. 2
HCl, Chern. Enp., 68 (10), ~08 (19~1), a pictured flow sheet.
Solvmg the Heat Exchange Problem rn Cooling Hot HCl, Chern. ,(: Met.
Eng., 62 '(3), 112 (1945); LIPPMAN, New HCl Rl'ctifier Can Make C.P. Acid, Dry
Gas, Solutions, Chern. Eng., 66 (11), 110 (1949).
I
ANON.,
Anhyd~ous
LIPPMAN,
MANUFACTURE
425
BROMINE
Bromine is a member of the halogen family and is a heavy dark-brown

liquid. It is much less common and more expensive than chlorine.
Historical. In 1826, 15 years after the discovery of iodine, bromine was
discovered by Balard, a French chemist, who obtained it from the mother
liquor left after separating the salt from evaporated sea water. Its manufacture from the Stassfurt deposits of carnallite was begun in 1865, from
the MgBr2 in the liquors left after working up MgC1 2 and KCI. The larger
Ethyl Dow plant at Freeport, Tex. (Fig. 3), was built during the Second
World War.
Uses and Economics. About 90 per cent of the domestic bromine output is used in the manufacture of ethylene "bromide" (dibromide) for
antiknock fluids.! Most of the remaining bromine is converted into organic or inorganic compounds. The demand for bromine in liquid form
is limited mostly to laboratory reagents and small specialty uses. Among
the major inorganic compounds are the alkali bromides which are widely
employed in photography and as comparatively safe sedatives in medicine. Hydrobromic acid resembles hydrochloric acid but is a more effective solvent for ore minerals, i.e., with higher boiling point and stronger
reducing action. Methyl bromide (insecticide, rodenticide, methylating
agent) and the bromoindigo dyes are important organic compounds.
Bromine is also employed in the preparation of dyes, disinfectants, war
gases, and other compounds.
Prior to the First World War, Germany supplied/approximately threequarters of the total world production (1,250 tons). By 1929 the total
United States production was 3,207 tons plus 8,Yz tons imported. Since
1938 no imports have been received. In 1952, 78,101 tons (value 30 million dollars) were produced in this country.
The price of bromine has varied greatly from 10 cents per pound in
1908 to $1.31 per pound in 1916. Since the First World War, however, it
has been somewhat stabilized, being 17 cents in 1923, 27 cents in 1929,
and 19 cents in 1954, The major part of the bromine is shipped as ethylene dibromide.
Manufacture. In the United States the chief raw material is sea water
in which bromine odcurs in concentrations of 60 to 70 p.p.m. It is also
manufactured from natural brines, where its concentration may be as
high as 1,300 p.p.m.! In Germany it is produced from waste liquors resulting from the extraction of potash salts from the carnallite deposits of
Stassfurt, which we~e formerly the chief source of bromine in the world.
Various other countries have the following sources of bromine: Italy extracts it from one o( the largest inland lakes of the country; Russia from
1
KIRK and OTHMER,'Op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 645-659.
426
the water of Saksky Lake in the Crimea district; France from deposits
in Alsace; Palestine from the Dead Sea, the richest source known.
Bromine from Sea Water. A process was worked out for the removal
of this small quantity of bromine by adding aniline to chlorinated sea
L:==~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f-C::-::-jjWci,;CI:;Sf~e:'.t:1c;cI refurn
Reoctions' B'2 +S02t2H20 .2HBr+H z S(4, 2H8r+C1z -2HCI + Br2
FIG. 3. Flow sheet for bromine from sea water.
water according to the equation:
The process was operated on board a floating chemical factory, the S.S.
Ethyl. The Dow Chemical Company ~ucceeded ih devising a more economical process, without the use of aniline. By this process, the bromidecontaining brine is (1) oxidized with chlorine, (2) blown with air to free
bromine, and (3) the bromine is reacted with sulfur dioxide and absorbed.
The process has been made a commercial success by the Ethyl-Dow Corporation. This "blowing-oqt" process functions according to the flow
sheet of Fig. 3 which can be broken down into the following coordinated
sequences! of unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
Sea water is allowed to flow into a settling basin, thence over a traveling
Screen and into a pond, from which it is pumped into the extraction plant (Op.).The water frqm the pond is sent'into a 42-in. rubber-lined pipe where acid
from the ,end of the process, supplemented by a dilute sulfuric acid, is added to
reduce the pH to 3 and to suppress subsequent reaction of the chlorine (Pr.).
The sea water is pumped to the top of the blowing-out tower after having had
chlorine added through a rubber-lined pipe (Op. and Pr.).
2NaBr
+ Cl 2 -+ 2NaCI + Br2
Air, Bucked up through the wood-packed tower 9Y powerful fans, blows out
the freed bromine from the sea water which is returned to the sea (Op.).
1 Sec also pictured flow sheet, Chern. &; Met. Eng., 46, 771 (1!J3!J). Old soda ash
absorption is described. KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 637-643.
4~i
MANUFACTURE
The moist hromine-containing air plus a small amount of remaining chlorine

is mixed with sulfur dioxide and conducted to an adjacent absorption tower
where fans draw it through downcoming water or circulating solution.
Br2
+ S02 + 2H20 -> 2HBr + H 2S0
The tower may be divided into multiple chambers connected in series. The water
or recirculated solution enters through nozzles at the top and flows down through
the chamber into a receiving tank, from which it is recirculated until a strong
bromine-hydrobromic acid solution is obtained (Op. and Pr.).
-Bromine dissolves in hydrobromic acid solution. This strong solution also containing a little HCI is pumped to storage (Op.).
After the bromine-hydrobromic acid-hydrochloric acid solution has been
collected, it is reacted with chlorine and the free bromine vapors are steamed
out of solution and collected in liquid form (Op. and Pr.).
It is then used to manufacture ethylene dibromide through reactions with
ethylene (Pr.).
HCI, solution is pumped to the start of the process
The residual acid, H.sO.
to reduce the pH of the entering sea water (Op. and Pr.). Over-all plant efficiency
is 90 per cent plus. l
Manufacture from Salt Brines. 2 In ocean water where bromine is relatively dilute, air has proved to be the most economical blowing-out agent.
However, in the treatment of relatively rich bromine sources such as
brines, steaming out the bromine vapor is the more satisfactory. The original steaming-out process was developed by the Germans for processing
the Stassfurt deposits and with modifications is still used there, as well
as in Palestine and this country. This process involves preheating the
brine to 90C. in a heat exchanger and passing down a chlorinator tower.
After partial chlorination, the brine flows into a steaming-out tower
where steam is inject~d at the bottom and the remaining chlorine is introduced. The halogen-containing vapor is condensed and gravity separated. The top water-halogen layer is returned to the steaming-out tower.
The crude halogen (predominantly bromine) bottom layer is separated
and purified.
i
Crude bromine from any of the foregoing processes can be purified by
redistillation--{)r by passing the vapors over iron filings which hold back
the chlorine impurity: 'The alkali bromides account for an important proportion of the bromine produced. They cannot be made by the action of
caustic soda on bromine, since hypobromites and bromates are produced
also. The approved method consists in allowing bromine to trickle into
a mixture of water and iron borings until a heavy sirup of ferrous bromide
has formed. This is siphoned off, treated with the desired alkali carbonate, filtered-to remove the precipitate of iron hydroxides, evaporated, and
recrystallized.
1 HEATH, U.S. Pat. 2143223 (1939); HOOKER, U.S. Pat. 2143224 (1939); HART, SO,
Control Problem Solved in Sea Water Bromine Plants, Chern. Eng., 64 (10), 102 (1947).
I For flow sheet see KIRK and OTHMERJ op. cit., Vol. 2, p. 639.
428
HYDROCHLORIC ACID AN D MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC CHEMICALS
IODINE
Historical and Raw Materials. It was in 1811 that M. Courtois, a saltpeter manufacturer of Paris, obtained a beautiful violet vapor from the
mother liquors left from the recrystallization of certain salts. This iodine
was later found to exist almost universally in nature. It is present as
iodates (0.05 to 0.15 per cent) in the Chilean nitrate deposits. It occurs
in sea water from which certain seaweeds extract and concentrate it
within their cells. The iodine has been made from these weeds by the
kelp-burning process! which has been practiced for years in Scotland,
Norway, Normandy, and Japan. The present sources of the element, as
far as the United States is concerned, however, are the nitrate fields of
Chile, the oil-well brines of California, and the seaweed process of
Japan.
Uses and Economics. Iodine is used as a catalyst for the chlorination
of organic compounds and in analytical chemistry for the determination
of so-called iodine numbers of oils. The iodine for medicinal, photographic,
and pharmaceutical purposes is usually in the form of alkali iodides, prepared through the agency of ferrous iodide. In addition to the above, the
element is also employed for the manufacture of certain dyes and as a
germicide. The simple iodine derivatives of the hydrocarbons, such as
iodoform, have antiseptic action. For years, Chilean-produced iodine
dominated the market and controlled the price, which was set at $4.65
per pound. World production was about 1,000 tons, 70 per cent from
Chile. Upon development of the iodine from the oil-well brines of the
Southwestern United States, the price of iodine was reduced to approximately $3.50 per pound in 1932. A year later domestic production had,
risen to 200 tons, a little over 22 per cent of the annual consumption
then. Since there 'are only two domestic producers, actual statistics are
not given. They supply an ever-increasing proportion of the iodine consumed domestically, which is about 500 tons annually. Import prices decli~ed slowly to a low of 81. cen.ts per po.und in 19:37" but in 1954 the price
per pound was $1.75. Iodme Imports III 1950 amounted to. 724,858 lb.
with a valuation of $1,055,946.
Manufacture. The major sources for the production of industrial iodine
are from Chilean nitrate mother liquor and from oil-well brines of California. The Chilean process is the more important from the standpoint _
of world production.
Chilean Iodine. Figure 4 shows 'the essential steps in the production
of Chilean iodine. The initial concentration of iodine, usually as iodate,
in the nitrate liquor is 6 to 12 grams per liter. The liquor runs down a
tower and, meets a stream of ascending sulfur dioxide which liberates the
1
DYSON, Chpmistry and Chemotherapy of Iodine and Its Derivatives, Chem. Age,
22,362 (1930).
429
MANUFACTURE
iodine according to the reaction: 1
The iodine is filtered in canvas bags, which are pressed to remove water.
The resulting cake, containing approximately 80 per cent iodine, is put
into cement-lined retorts and sublimed. The vapors are condensed in
earthenware pipe sections 2 ft. in diameter by 4 ft. long, jointed with
Hand
Pre<:ipifation I'<'C1Cfion: 2Jhl0 .,.4,",,0.,. 5S02
Mother liqlolor (8g. p.I.l 80% yield)

Su (fur
1.850 gal.
ao lb.
NazS~ +4H2 S04 +12
f ..__ _ _ _ _ _-J
Cool
Water
80 lb.
} To produce {OOlb. iodine
Variable
(99% I 0.07% ash.
Direct labor 2 man-hr. 0.93'70 H2 0)
FIG. 4. Iodine from Chilean nitrate mother liquor.

/
mud and jute. The water in the vapor condenses and runs down the
granules of iodine which collect on the sides. The iodine is packed in
kegs covered with fresh cowhide and is 99 to 99.5 per cent pure. The
average over-all yield from mother liquor is 70 per cent, which represents
an extraction of only 25 to 30 per cent of the iodine present in the original
raw 'material.
In addition to the foreg()ing process, iodine was also made (1) by reduction with sodium thiosuifate and sulfuric acid and (2) by the reaction
of sodium bisulfite either prepared at the plant by reacting soda ash with
sulfur dioxide or impor~ed.
American Iodine (from oil brines). Certain California oil wells are producing by-product brines cc:mtaining 10 to 135 p.p.m. iodide ion. The extraction of this iodine lias been attempted by various processes: (1) extraction with kerosene, (2) silver iodide process, (3) activated carbon
process, (4) Turrentine process, (5) precipitation by cuprous and mercurous salts, (6) blowing but by air after chlorinating and 80 2 ab~orption.
The first, second, and sixth are of present-day importance. 2 The brine is
first cleaned and freed pf oil and dirt in sand filters operating in series.
The iodine may then be recovered by the silver iodide process as depicted
I HOLSTEIN, Fortunes and Misfortunes in Iodine, Chem. & Met. Eng., 39, 422
(1932); FAUST, The Production of Iodine in Chile, Ind. Eng. Chem., 18, 808 (1926).
'SAWYER, et q(., Iodine from Oil Well Brines, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41, 1547 (1949).
430
in Fig. 5. The iodine is precipitated by treatment with a 2 per cent silver

nitrate solution, in the presence of ferric chloride solution as a coagulant.
A wooden tub is used. The mixed AgI-Fe(OHh precipitate settles and is
treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to dissolve the iron precipitate. Steel scrap is added, forming ferrous iodide and silver metal, the
Certa In detai Is of process are not available and cannot be shown on this flow sheet
t Air dried over Cael? vaporized Iodine recovered In tower irrigated with CJII<aIi solution
FIG. 5. Iodine from oil brines by the silver iodide process.
reaction being completed within about an hour. The silver .is filtered and
reoxidized to silver nitrate, while the ferrous iodide solution is treated
with an oxidant, Ch, HNO s or Na 2 Cr 207 and H 2S0 4 , to precipitate the
iodine. This iodine is melted under concentrated sulfuric acid and the
purified iodine taken off. The resulting cake is washed and dried in a
special drying chamber. It is not sublimed but is shipped in 200-1b. kegs
as a 99.8 per cent pure product.
In addition to the silver iodide process operated by Deepwater Chemical Company, Dow Chemical Companyl operates three plants using an
S02 process in southern California at Venice, Inglewood, and Seal Beach.
The first two plants do no iodine finishing, the finishing for all three
geing done at Seal Beach. The latter's operations will be described
(Fig. 6) in the following coordinated steps of unit processes and ~tnit
operations:
A composite brine (62 to 67 p.p.m. of 12) is passed through a series of skimming
tanks to remove the oil (Op.).
Ferric chloride solutions are used to flocculate remaining oil, silt, and other
impurities (Pr.),
Sulfuric acid is added to the clarified brine for pH control (under 3.5) and to
precipitate the barium (Pr.).
The clarified brine is filtered in wooden sand filters (Op.).
Chlorine gas, somewhat in excess of the theoretical ration of 0.28 lb. chlorine
per lb. iodine, is added to the filtered brine en route to the steel, acidproof brick1 SAWYER, op. cit.
431
FLUORINE AND FLUORO-CHEMTCALS
lined blowing-out tower where the hrine ig gtripped by a countercurrent flow of

air (Op. and Pr.).
The iodine-laden air stream enters the bottom of the packed absorption tower
where the absorbing liquor (HI and H 2S0 4 in a water solution) passes countercurrent. Water and sulfur dioxide are added continuously to this solution to
reduce the free iodine (Op. and Pr.).
The iodine is precipitated by chlorine from the HI-H 2SO. liquor. The precipitate is filtered, dried with strong H~O., and heated to melt the iodine which
is withdrawn and solidified (Op. and Pr.).
Kettle on
trunnions
)2 BLOWING-OUT
8 RECOYERY
Enome.Hined-l- o r
..
COOL~~~~~~~ ~
slop s I n k s '
HCI-/feSa.
liquor 10 brinl
acidification
12op I~. K~:s
10 :Sl_
....
Iodine
Crusher
Reoctlons: {'z(airl+ SOrt-2Ht0-2HI + HtSa2HI + Clz - lz +2HCI
FIG. ~. Iodine from oil wells (SO. process).
The approximately 200-lb. ingots are cooled, crushed,_and packaged in 200-1h.

wooden kegs for shipping (Op.).
FLUORINE AND FLUORO-CHEMICALS
Fluorine, a pale, greenish-yellow gas of the halogen family, is the most

chemically active non:netal element. It occurs in the combined form and
second only to chlonne in abundance among the halogens. The chief
fluorine-containing ~inerals of commercial significance are fluorspar,
fluorapatite (see superphosphates), and cryolite.
Historical. Fluorine was discovered by Scheele in 1771, but not isolated until 1886 by H. Moissan after a period of more than 75 years of
intensive effort by many experimenters. The Freon refrigerants devel-
432
oped in 1930 fostered the commercial development of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and stimulated the growth of this new industry which came
into its own at the beginning of the Second World War l largely because
of demands for UF 6 for isotope separation and for Freons.
Uses and Economics. Elemental fluorine is costly and has a comparatively limited usage. The element is employed in making sulfur hexafluoride, SF 6, for high-voltage insulation 2 and for uranium hexafluoride.
Fluorine is used directly or combined with higher metals (Co, Ag, Ce,
etc.) and halogens (CI and Br) for organic fluorinations and the production of fluorocarbons. 3
The largest production of fluorine compounds is of hydrofluoric acid
(anhydrous 4 and aqueous), used in making" alkylate" for gasoline manufacture and Freon for refrigerants and Aerosol bombs. It is also employed
in the preparation of inorganic fluorides, elemental fluorine, and many
organic fluorine- and non-fluorine-containing compounds. Aqueous HF is
used in the glass, metal, and petroleum industries, besides in the manufacture of many inorganic and acid fluorides. Three of the most unusual
plastics known (see Chap. 35) are Teflon, a polymerization product of
tetrafluorethylene, and Kel F and Fh,lOrothene, products by polymeriza,
tion of chloro.fluorethylenes.
In 1939, 7,421 tons of hydrofluoric acid were produced as compared
with 51,845 tons in 1953.
Manufacture. Fl,!!-orine gas is generated by electrolysis under varying
conditions of temperature and electrolyte composition. These variables
often require Cells constructed of different materials. 5 The process mentioned here is the one employed by the Pennsylvania Salt Company.6
this company now operates commer.cial cells of 1,500 to 2,000 amp. per
Icell at 105 to llOC. capable of producing 60 ~o 80 lb. fluorine per cell
per day.
I Symposium Fluorine Chemistry, Ind. Eng. Chern., 39, 236 (1949). This is a comprehensive compilation of 53 papers considering all phases of fluorine; its generation,
/handling, and disposal; industrial development of fluorocarbon processes; and the
chemistry of fluorine and fluorine compounds. See following years Ind. Eng. Chern.
for subsequent symposia; FINGER, Recent Advances ia Fluorine Chemistry, J. Chern.
Educ., 28, 49 (1951); KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 6, pp. 656-77l.
MILLER and GALL, Inorganic Compounds Containing Sulfur and Fluorine, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 42, 2223 (1950).
3 Symposium, op. cit., pp. 289-359, entitled Industrial Scale Development of Fluorocarbon Processes; SIMONS, The Fluorocarbons, Chern. Eng., 57 (7), 129 (1950).
FINGER and REED, Fluorine in Industry, Chern. Ind8., 64, 51 (1949).
SYIllPosium, Fluorine Chemistry, Ind. Eng. Chern., 39, 244-289 (1947). This section is entitled Fluorine Generation, Handling and Disposal and should be frtely
consulted.
a PORTER, Fluorine Production Paves Way for New Chemical Industry, Chem.
Eng., 53 (7), 106 (1946); Fluorine Progress, Chern. Eng., 55 (4), 102 (1948); ANON.,
Fluorochemicals Go Commercial, Chern. Eng., 58 (12), 215 (1951).
FLUOROSILTCATES OR SILTCOFLUORIDES
433
Both aqueous and anhydrous hydrofluoric acid are prepared in heated

kilns by the following reaction:
l
Aqueous acid is the older product and is formed hy ahsorhing the HF

gases in lead cooling and absorbing towers. By recycling absorption liquors, various strengths of acid are obtained, although the most common
strengths are 60 and 65 per cent. Since concentrations of 60 per cent and
above can be handled in steel compared with lead and hard rubber for
lower acid strengths, the shipping trend is more to the stronger or anhydrous acid.
For anhydrous HF, finely ground fluorite is mixed with a slight excess
of sulfuric acid in a hopper and fed into a heated kiln (300 to 800C.).
A large vent pipe conducts the HF and other gaseous products countercurrently into sulfuric acid absorption towers for dehydration. After distillation, the HF is condensed to a liquid by refrigeration. The corrosive
problem has been fairly well solved. 2 Carbon, lead, Durimet 20, Monel
metal, and coated and uncoated mild-carbon steel, depending upon concentration and tempcerature, are recommended.
\1,..
l
..
are trade names forImportant fuorme-contammg
F reons or Genetrons
refrigerants (33,000 tons consumed in 1945), made by the replacement of
chlorine in a suitable organic chloride with fluorine/supplied by means
of a metallic fluoride or HF. These flu oro-compounds are safe solvents
and pressure generators for the very widely used aerosol homhs. For
l,<'reon-12 (dichlorodifluoroqlCthane) the reactions are
Sheh
3CCI. + 2SbF 3 _____. 3CCl 2F 2 + 2SbCla

2SbCl a + 6HF _____. 2SbF 3 + BHCI
In this case HF is continuously added to the mixture to regenerate the
antimony trifluoride. ; .
Fluorosilicates or Silicofluorides. The wet process-for superphosphates
(Chap. 18) evolves a toxic gaseous mixture of fluorine compounds predominantly silicon tetrafluoride, hydrofluoric acid, and fluorosilicic acid.
(H 2SiFs). This mixture:is passed through water absorption towers yielding fluorosilicic acid and a silica precipitate. The H 2SiF 6 liquor is concelltrated to commercial s~rengths (generally 30 to 35 per cent) by recycling
or distillation. A large use for this acid is in the brewing industry as a
disinfectant for copper ,!and brass vessels. It iE; also employed as a preservI
New Pennsalt HF Plant, Chern. Inds., 66, 508 (1950); FINGER and REED,
op. cit.; for a pictured flow sheet on manufacturing acid-grade fluorspar, see Chem.
,(; Met. Eng., 62 (8), 130 (1945).
2 ANON., Hydrofluoric Acid, Chern. Eng., 67 (11), 124 (HJ50).
1
ZABEL,
434
ative, in electroplating, as a concrete hardener, and in the manufacture

of silicofluoride salts.
The most common salt, sodium silicofluoride (Na2SiF 6), is prepared by
the reaction of N aCI or soda ash on the acid. It is consumed to the extent
of 10,000 tons per year as an insecticide, laundry sour, fluxing and opacifying agent, and as a protective agent in the casting of light metals.
Other salts such as ammonium, magnesium, zinc, copper, and barium are
also prepared by neutralization and find many uses in industry_
ALUMINA
I
Alumina, Al 20 a, is an important chemical because it is the raw material for metallic aluminum (cf. Chap. 16).
Uses and Economics. Large quantities of alumina are produced yearly
for the manufacture of metallic aluminum. In 1954, 7,297,789 long tons
Rrd /f.W ~/
"
was/~ ()I' Four thickeners (filter preM)
""()YO?' s..ux;te(55-60%A4O,I
N<oOH ,""k<upi76~1
Woter
2,6OOlh
80 Ib.
6,300 9~1.
15.000 lb.
}
160 Kw,h<
Per ton dry hy.;r~te,AI,o, 3HzO
l6 M .,.h ..
FIG. 7. Alumina by Bayer process.
of bauxite (dried bauxite equivalent) were imported (73 per cent) or

mined. Most of this went for the production of about 2,600,000 short
tons of AbOa (as 100 per cent) for conversion to the metal. Of the total
bauxite consumption, the alumina industry used approximately 90 per
cent, the abrasive industry 4 per cent, the chemical industry 4 per cent,
the refractory industry 1 per cent, and all other industries 1 per cent.
Manufacture. Figure 7 shows the essential steps in the production of
/ alumina from bauxite by the Bayer process.! The steps involved may be
divided into the following unit operations (Op.) and "Unit processes (Pr.):
Bauxite, a mineral containing about 55 per cent aluminum oxide and less than
7 per cent silica, is crushed and wet ground to 100 mesh (Op.).
The finely divided bauxite is dissolved under pressure and heat in digesters
with concentrated spent caustic soda solution from a previous cycle and sufficient
lime and soda ash (Pr.). Sodium aluminate is formed and the dissolved silica is
precipitated' as sodium aluminu~ silicate.
Th'e undissolved residue (red mud) is separated from the alumina solution by
filtration and washing and sent to recovery (Op.). Thickeners and Kelly or Oliver
filters are used.
1
KIRK
and
OTHMER,
op.
cit., Vol. 1, pp. 600-603.
ALUMINUM SULFATE AND ALUMS
435.
The solution of sodium aluminate is hydrolyzed to aluminum hydroxide by'

cooling and by dilution with wash waters; the aluminum hydroxide is induced
to crystallize by seeding with the finest of the aluminum hydroxide from last
thickener (Op. and Pr.).
The precipitate is separated from the liquor and clarified in foul' thickeners
and washed with hot water. It is filtered in Dorrco or Vallez filters (Op.).
The aluminum hydroxide is calcined up to 1150C. to alumina in a rotary
kiln (Pr.).
The alumina is cooled and shipped to the reduction plants (Op.).
The dilute caustic-soda filtered from the aluminum hydroxide is concentrated
for reuse (Op.).
The red mud may be reworked for recovery of additional amounts of alumina
(Pr. and Op.).
While many other processes and raw materials have been investigated
none of these has proved to be commercially feasible except the red mud
process 1 for treating red mud or low-grade bauxites, i.e., those containing
up to about 15 per cent silica. In this process, the red mud from the
Bayer digestion is mixed with soda ash and limestone and sintered. This
sinter is reacted with water to form a sodium aluminate solution leaving
the silica combined as an insoluble dicalcium silicate. After separation
from the insoluble residue, the sodium aluminate solution is recycled to
the Bayer digester. 2
ALUMINUM SULFATE AND ALUMS
The manufacture of alums entails just one step additional to the aluminum sulfate process. This, along with the fact that the uses of aluminum sulfate and alums are similar and the compounds are largely interchangeable, justifies their concurrent discussion. The term alum has been
very loosely applied. A true alum is a double sulfate of aluminum or
chromium and a monovalent metal (or radical, such as ammonium). Aluminum sulfate is very important industrially and while it is not a double
sulfate it is often called either" alum" or papermakers' alum. Alum has
been known since ancient times. The writings of the Egyptians mention
its use as a mordant for madder and in certain medical preparations. The
Romans employed it to fireproof their siege machines and probably prepared it from alunite, K 2A1 6 (OH)12(S04)4, which is plentiful in Italy.
Uses and Economic~. Alums are used in water treatment and somewhat in dyeing. They 'have been replaced to a large extent in these applications by aluminum sulfate which has,a greater alumina equivalent
per unit weight. Pharmaceutically, aluminum sulfate is employed in diI Editors, Bayer Process Red Mud Treated for Alumina Recovery, Chern. & Mel. ,.
b'ny., 62 (1), 106 (1945); GOULD, Alumina from Low-grade Bauxite, Ind. Hny. Chem.,
37, 796 (1945).
, FRARY, Adventures with Alumina, Ind. Eng. Chem., 38, 129 (1946).
436
lute solution as a mild astringent and antiseptic for the skin. The most
important single application of it is in clarifying water, more than half
of the total amount manufactured being so consumed. Sodium aluminate,
which is basic, is sometimes used with aluminum sulfate, which is acid,
to produce the aluminum hydroxide floc.
6NaAI0 2
+ Ah(SO.h + 12H 0 -+ 8Al(OHh + 3Na SO.

2
Second in importance is the application of aluminum sulfate to the sizing

of paper. It reacts with sodium resinate to give the insoluble aluminum
resinate. For the sizing of paper, aluminum sulfate must be free from
ferric iron or the paper will be discolored. The ferrous' ions do no harm
since they form a soluble, practically colorless resinate whic.h, however,
Bauxite (55per~.ntAI20.)
H,SO. (6bdeg. a.) '. ,
Blcock a.h (70 per cent BaS)
~:'~(~:m}
Eleci ricity
Direct labor
1,140
lb.
610lb
d~ :~.
6~OIb.
~don o! 11 p!r cent

AI.O, alu",
29 Kw.-hr
lS man-hr.
FIG. 8. Manufacture of aluminum sulfate by the Dorr procedure.
would represent a loss of the resinate. A small amount of aluminum sulfate is consumed by the dye industry as a mordant. Soda alum or aluminum sulfate is used in some baking powders. In 1953, 731,039 tons of.aluminum sulfate and 38,229 tons of iron-free aluminum sulfate (both 17 per
cent Ah03) were produced in the United States. In addition, municipally
owned plants made about 13,600 tons of aluminum sulfate for their own
use.
I Manufacture. Practically all ~lums and aluminum sulfate are made
now from bauxite by reaction with 60 o Be. sulfuric acid. ,However, potash
alum was first prepared from alunite by the ancients. Other possible
sources of alums are shales and other alumina-bearing materials such as
clay. Figure 8 illustrates the manufacture of alumiilum sulfate. l The
bauxite is ground until 80 per cent passes 200 mesh; next it is conveyed
to storage bins. The reaction occurs in lead-lined steel tanks where the
reactants are thoroughly mix~d and heated with the aid of agitators and
live steam. These reactors are operated in series. Into the last reactor
1 Cj. Alum, Chern. Eng., 57 (12), 172 (1950), for a pictured flow sheet of American
Cyanamid plant at Mobile, Ala.
A LUl\lTKUl\[ CirLOHIDE
437
barium i'Hllfide is added in t.he form of black ash t.o reduce ferric sulfate
to the ferrous state and to precipit.ate the iron.
The mixture from the reactors is sent through a series of thickeners,
operated countercurrently, which remove undissolved matter and thoroughly wash the waste so that when discardpd it will contain practically
no "alum." The clarified aluminum sulfate solution is concentrated in
an open, steam-coil-heated evaporator from 35Be. to 59 or 62Be. The
concentrated liquor is poured into flat pans where it is cooled and completely solidified. The solid cake is broken and ground to size for shipping. Another slightly modified procedure uses, instead of reactors and
thickeners, combined reaction and settling tanks. The Dalecarlia rapidsand filter plant which supplies water to Washington, D.C., makes its
own filter alum. In this case concentration of liquor would be an unnecessary expense; therefore, the aluminum sulfate is made and used in water
solution.!
To make the various true alums, it is necessary only to add the sulfate
of the monovalent metal to the dilute aluminum sulfate solution in the
proper amount. Concentrat.ion of the mixed solution, followed by cooling, yields the' alum crystals.
ALUMINUM CHLORIDE
Aluminum chloride is a white solid when pure. In the presence of moisture, anhydrous aluminum chloride partly decompose~ with the evolution
of hydrogen chloride. This salt was first prepared in 1825 by H. C.
Oersted who passed chlorine over a mixture of alumina and carbon and
condensed the vapors of the aluminum chloride formed. Essentially the
same process is used today in the commercial preparation of aluminum
chloride. The price in 1913 was $1.50 per pound, while the present price
is below 8 cents per pound in carload lots.
Uses. Since modern methods of manufacture have reduced the price
of aluminum chloride, it has found increasing application in the petroieum industries and various phases of organic technology. It is used to a
considerable extent in c~rtain petroleum processes. Aluminum chloride is
a catalyst in alkylation pf paraffins and aromatic hyarocarbons by olefins
and also in the formation of complex ketones, aldehydes, and carboxylic
acid derivatives. In 1953, 48,434 tons of liquid, crystal and anhydrous,
were manufactured.
'
Manufacture. 2 There, are three important methods for the preparation
of anhydrous aluminum chloride. One of tl).ese is the direct reaction of
liquid or gaseous chlorine with metallic aluminum; the second consists of
I LAUTER, Manufacture of' Aluminum Sulfate at the Dalecarlia Filter Plant,
Washington, D.C., Ind. Eng. Chem., 26, 953 (1933).
, KIRK and OTHMEII, op. cii., Vol. I, p. 633.
438
HYDROCHI,ORIC ACID AND MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC CHEMICALS
the simultaneous reduction by carbon and chlorination by gaseous chlorine of alumina-bearing materials; and the third consists of the action of
hydrogen chloride on alumina. The reaction between aluminum and chlorine is exothermic. Enough heat is given off to vaporize the aluminum
chloride continuously as it is formed. The reaction between carbon, bauxite, and chlorine, however, is endothermic and heat must be supplied to
cause the reaction to take place. In the United States bauxite is calcined,
mixed with a carbonaceous residue, briquetted, and recalcined to drive
off all hydrocarbons that would form corrosive hydrogen chloride later
on. This material in a shaft kiln is heated up to 1600C. by a blast of air
and chlorinated, the aluminum chloride being volatilized and condensed.
The reaction of HCI on alumina produces Al 2Cls which sublimes off and
must be condensed. The product made from aluminum metal is of a very
high purity but may be resublimed for the highest-purity material
available.
FERROUS SULFATE
Ferrous sulfate (copperas) is the most abundant of the iron compounds

as it is the waste product of the pickling prqcesses in which steel surfaces
are cleaned preparatory to electroplating;tinning, galvanizing, or enameling operations. Between 500,000,000 and 800,000,000 gal. of waste liquor,
containing on the average 15 per cent ferrous sulfate, are produced annually.1 This can be evaporated to furnish the ferrous sulfate whenever
the market warrants. Unfortunately, no large-scale use has been found
for this salt though it has been employed for water clarification by certain cities like St. Louis, Mo. (see Fig. 6, Chap. 24).
COPPER SALTS
Copper sulfate 2 is the most important compound of copper and over

72,000 tons were produced in 1953. Commonly known as blue vitriol, it is
prepared by the action of sulfuric -acid on cupric oxide or sulfide ores.
Its poisonous nature is utilized in the insecticide, Bordeaux mixture,
which is formed upon the mixing of copper sulfate solution with milk of
lime. Copper sulfate is added to water reservoirs occasionally to kill
algae. It is employed in electroplating and finds minor applications as a
mordant, germicide, and agent in engraving. Certain copper compounds
are added to antifouling paints used on ship bottoms.
1 HODGE,. Waste Problems of \he Iron and Steel Industries, Ind. Eng. Chem., 31,
1364 (1939); VAN ANTWERPEN, Utilization of Pickle Liquor, Ind. Eng. Chem., 34,
1138 (1942); TREFFLER, Manufacture of Ferrous Sulfate, Chem. IndB., 64, 70 (1944)"
flow chart.
2 KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 5, pp. 474-478; a flow sheet is given in Chem.
Eng., 67 (ll), 119 (1950).
rI
BARIUM SALTS
439'
MOLYBDENUM COMPOUNDS
Molybdenum compounds are not consumed in large tonnage in the

process industries, but they are important in conjunction with hydroxyl,
compounds like pyrogallol in dyeing furs, feathers, hair, and skins; as
lake-forming substances with basic dyes; as pigments; aI\d to produce
adherence of porcelain enamels to steel. The compounds used for dyes
are sodium, potassium, or ammonium molybdates. With basic dyes phospho-molybdic acid is employed. The pigment known as molybdenum
orange is a mixed crystal of lead chromate and lead molybdate. The
compounds used to produce better adherence of enamels are molybdenum
trioxide, ammonium, sodium, calcium, barium, and lead molybdates. The I
mineral raw material is molybdenite, MoS 2 , which by roasting furnishes
a technical grade of molybdenum trioxide, Mo0 3, of 80 to 90 per cent'
purity.
BARIUM SALTS
The most common naturally occurring barium compounds are the min- '
eral carbonate or witherite, which is fairly abundant in England and the
sulfate or barite which is common in certain sections of the United States.
The greatest source of barite is Arkansas.
Uses. The applications of barium compounds are varied and important. In 1953, 97,508 tons of barium compounds and 52,439 tons of
lithopone were sold. Barium carbonate is sometimes employed as a neu- I
tralizing agent for sulfuric acid and, because both barium carbonate and
sulfate are insoluble, no contaminating barium ions are introduced. The >
foregoing application is found in the synthetic dyestuffs industry. Barium
carbonate is a component in some rat poisons and is a minor constituent I
in crown glass. Witherite is used chiefly to prepare other compounds.
Barium sUlfate is a useful white pigment (see Chap. 24) particularly in I
the precipitated form, blanc fixe. It is used as a filler for paper, rubber,
linoleum, and oilcloth. Because of its opacity to X rays, barium sulfate,
in a purified form, is important in contour photographs of the digestive
tract. The paint industry is the largest single consumer of barium compounds. Barium sulfide Itnd zinc sulfate solutions are-mixed to give a precipitate of barium sulf~te and zinc sulfide, which is given a heat-treatment to yield the chell:P but good pigment, lithopone, as described in
Chap. 24. Barium chlorate and nitrate are used in pyrotechnics to impart a green flame. Barium chloride is applied where a soluble barium
compound is needed. ~arium saccharate is used by a large beet-sugar
group for sugar recovery from discard molasses (Chap. 30).
Manufacture. The p~eparation of soluble barium salts is simple where
witherite is available. The only steps necessary are treatment with the
proper acid, filtration to remove insoluble impurities, and crystallization
440
HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND MISCELLANEOUS INORGANlC CHEMICALS
of the salt. Since there is little witherite in the United States, barium
salts are prepared from barite. The high-temperature reductio of parium
sulfate with coke yields the water-soluble barium sulfide which is subsequently leached out. The treatment of barium sulfide with the proper
chemical yields the desired barium salt. Purification of the product is
complicated by the impuritios introduced in the coke: Pure barium carbonate and barium sulfate are made by precipitation from solu~ions of
water-soluble barium salts. Much barite is ground,l acid-washed', lixiviated, and dried to produce a Gheap pigment or paper or rubber filler or
changed to blanc fixe by act.ion of CaCl z. z
STRONTIUM SALTS
Uses are small in tonnage but important; the~{) are in red-flame pyrotechnic compositions, such as truck signa) flares, and railroad "fusees,"
tracer bullets, and military signal :flares. Low-grade strontium deposits
are available in this country, but a high-grade celestite is imported from
the United Kingdom. This, ore (strontium sulfate) is finely ground and
converted to the carbonate by boiling with 10 PElr cent sodium carbonate
solution; giving almost a quantitative yield
SrS04
+ NazCO a ~ SrCO a + Na S04

Z
By reaction of the strontium carbonate with appropriate acids, the various salts result. 3
LITHIUM SALTS
Since the Second World War lithium compounds have become of some
importance. During the Second World War, lithium hydride, produced
from metallic lithium, when reacted with sea water provided a convenient lightweight source of hydrogen for the inflation of emergency' balld~ns used to raise antenna from aIrcraft disabled' at sea. By 1951 expans~on resulted in shipments of 12,897 tons of lithium-bearing ores and
compounds containing 956 tons of lithium oxide. Lithium is recovered
from the brine of Searles Lake in California as a concentrate of lithiumsodium phosphate (Liz"~aP04) (see Chap. 13). Three domestic ores are
mined for lithium: spodumene (Li 2 0Al zO a4Si0 2), lepidolite, and amblygonite. Over 50 per cent of the world's production of ores is centered in
this country.
Uses. Lithium-base greases, often the stearate, are the largest outlet
(about 4~ per cent). These, lubricants are efficient over the extremely
I See KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., VoL 2, pp. 307-323; WHITE, The Plant That
Barite Built, Chent. Eng., 56 (4), 90 (1949), with a pictured flow sheet on pp. 128-131.
'FARR, U.S. Pat. 1752244(1930); SUREVE, et ai" U.S. Pat. 2030659(1936).
3 ANON" Strontium Chemicals, Chem. Eng., 53 (1), 152 (1\)46), a pictured flow sheet.
441
BOHON COJ\1POUNDR
wide temperature range of - fiO to 320F. Lithium carhonate is the most

significant lithium compound currently produced, since it is widely used
per se in the ceramiC's industry. It is also the starting material for a wide
variety of other lithium chemicals, including metallic lithium. Both the
hollowware industry and the porcelain-enamel field consume amounts approaching that of the greases. Lithium hydroxide is a component of the
electrolyte in alkaline storage batteries. Welding fluxes and alloys are
also avenues of consumption. Lithium chloride is in demand for lowtemperature batteries and for aluminum brazing.
Manufacture. 1 Since spodumene is by far the most important ore, the
manufacture of lithium carbonate from it will be presented. Spodumene
ore (beneficiated to 3 to 5 per cent Li 20) is converted from the alpha
form to the beta form by heating to over lOOOC. The latter is treated
as follows:
The water-soluble lithium sulfate is leached out and reacted with sodium
carbonate to yield lithium carbonate. Various salts are derived from the
carbonate as follows:
LizC0 3 + Ca(OH)2
+ 2H 20
Li 2C0 3 + 2HCl---+..H 20
I
2LiCI(anhyd.)
electrolysis
<l
----?
CaC0 3 + 2LiOH'H 20 ---+ 2LiOH
+ CO 2 + 2LiCI(soln.) ---+<l 2LiCl(anhyd.)

2Li
+ Cl 2i
H,
2NH,
---+ 2LiH ----; 2LiNH2
+ 2H2 i
BORON COMPOUNDS
The important naturally occurring ores of boron have been colemanite,

Ca2BsO ll '5H20; tincal, Na 2B 40dOH 20; and boracite, 2Mg3Bs01sMgCI2'
However j boron-containing brines and kernite or rasorite, N a 2B 4 0 7 '4H 20,
are the present sources in the United States.
Uses. The most important compound for industrial use is borax,
Na 2 B 4 0 7 lOH 20. It is widely used as a flux, in the manufacture of
Pyrex glass, in the making of glazes and enamels, in the preparation of
soaps, and other miscellaneous processes. Boric acia, HaBO a, is a weak
acid that is applied me9icinally as a mild antiseptic and also finds some
consumption in the 9anufacture of glazes and enamels for pottery.
Boron carbide, B 4 C, is the hardest artificial abrasive known.
Manufacture. Most of the borax in the United States is prepared
either from the minerali,kernite found in th~ Mojave Desert of California
or from the saline brihes of Searlcs Lakc. As mined, kernite contains
I HADER, et al., Lithiull1 ami Its Compollnds, Ind. Eng. Chern., 43, 2636 (1951),
a most excellent article with flow slH'Pt.
442
considerable clay which is removed by dissolving in water, filtering, and

crystallizing. Borax is recovered along with potassium chloride from the
brines of Searles Lake.'
SILVER NITRATE
Silver nitrate (lunar caustic) is used in surgery, as a laboratory reagent,

in hair dyes, and in laundry marking inks. When it is allowed to come in
contact with skin, hair, or cloth, it is reduced to metallic silver, thus leaving a gray to black stain. The largest consumption is, however, in the
photographic industry where silver nitrate is the source of the various
sensitive silver halides of the emulsion. It is prepared by dissolving
metallic silver in dilute nitric acid in porcelain or stainless steel vessels,
evaporating, and crystallizing.
RADIUM AND URANIUM SALTS
Radium. The discovery of radium and its isolation by the Curies was
one of the greatest events of all time. Marie Curie noticed that certain
samples of uranium ore exhibited greater radioactivity than was to be
expected from the uranium content. After a long series of concentrating
operations based upon partial crystallization, the Curies discovered and
isolated polonium first and then, in 1898, radium.
Uses. The most important single application of radium has been medical. Its valuable curative properties on cancerous growths a.nd in certain
other morbid conditions are well known even to the layman. To a certain
extent other radiations have been substituted for radium. The discovery
of radium and its" properties completely transformed the fundamental
concepts of chemical elements and, hence, affected the philosophical view
of the universe.
Manufacture. Radium occurs with uranium of which it is a disintegration product. The Curies isolated radium from the mineral pitchblende,
where it is found in the proportion of 1 part of' radium to each 3,000,000
parts of uranium occurring as uraninite, U 30 8, Pure uraninite, therefore,
would yield 1 gram of radium for each 3.88 tons. The separation of radium
/ from uranium is usually by an acid sulfate treatment yielding a relatively
small precipitate of alkaline earth, lead, and radium sulfates. This is further processed to radium. 2
Uranium. s Until about 1940, uranium-bearing ores were processed for
their radium content; the uranium was considered a less useful by-prod1 See Chap. 13 for description and flow chart; c/. KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 2,
pp. 588-622, particularly pp. 611-614.
VIOL, Th~ Commercial Production and Uses of Radium, J. Chem. Educ., 3, 757
(1926); KIRK' and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 11, p. 446, flow sheet; c/. this book, 1st ed.,
p. 435, for flow sheet of radium from pitchblende.
KATZ, J. J., and E. RABINOWITCH, "The Chemistry of Uranium," McGraw-Hill
Book Company. Inc., New York. 1951; KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit.
h
443~
URANIUM
uct. However, with recent innovations in the field of nucleonics, the im..!'
portance of radium has been overshadowed by that of uranium.
"
Uses. Uranium gained increasing importance during the Second World,
War as a fissionable material for use in weapons (see Atomic Bombs,;
Chap. 22). Postwar interest, although still along those lines, has broad-'
ened in scope to include use of the heat produced by nuclear decomposi-: I
tion of uranium for raising steam to drive turbines for locomotion or'
production of electricity. This is called nuclear engineering.
Manufacture. The ores commonly processed for their uranium content
are pitchblende, carnotite, and autinite. Prior to final chemical separa-~
,Soluble sodium .
, uronyl corbonote
Digester
F'
CD
'R~.
~:u;.---'l.t/WeC~ ;::~tor
Filter
1 ~(Ij
FIller
Coke:
(NH4~~o;
-N~OH so/no
Reactor
Coke with
Pb, Cu compds.
FIG. 9. Schematic outline of a process for uranium recovery.
tion and purification of the uranium, initial concentrations are performed.

for removal of sands and clays, and such impurities as silver, gold, vana-I '
diuIp., and copper. The concentrates can then be treated by the scheme I
outlined in Figure 9, for recovery and final purification of the uranium. .
The process involves a preliminary double digestion of the concentrate
with hydrochloric, sulfuric, or nitric acid to solubilize the uranium. The,
leach filtrates from thIS slurry are treated with carbonate to form the I
soluble uranyl carbonate complex and to remove sUQ_h things as iron, alu- i
minum, and manganese by precipitation. Subsequent treatment of the
filtrate of the carbonate slurry with hydrochloric acid and hydrogen sulfide removes lead and copper. Final treatment includes alkaline precipi- i
tation of the uranium as either (NH.hU 20 7 or Na 2 U 2 0 7
I
Further processing of the metal can be accomplished by four general I
routes: (1) reduction of, uranium oxide with. carbon in a graphite crucible "
using a high-temperat\lre arc; (2) reduction of uranium oxides \vith cal- :)
cium, magnesium, or aiuminum at elevatEld temperatures in an evacuated ,I
steel crucible; (3) reduction of uranium halides by alkali or alkaline earth
444
HYDROCHLORIC ACID A:-\D :l1lt:;Ct:LI,A;\/EOUS INORGANIC CHEMICALS
metals in an iron crucible lined with a fused salt; and (4) cathodic reduction of uranium halides ill molten salt baths.
Most of the above procedures yield the metal powder; however, massive metal was first successfully prepared by reductiOli of uranium tetrachloride with sodium metal in a sealed iron crucible lined with fused
sodium chloride. In general, reduction of the halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals appears more promising than the reduction of uranium
oxides. The slags produced from the halide reductions are relatively low
melting, producing molten reaction mixtures in which slag and metal separation is more complete. Heats of reaction indicate that uranium tetrafluoride, tetrabromide, or tetrachloride' can be reduced by either sodium;
calcium, or magnesium. Small amounts of high-purity uranium can be
obtained by thermal decomposition of uranium tetraiodide. Although
metal purity of this product surpasses that of metal from other types of
reductions, the process would not be economically feasible on large scale.
Recently the following reactions have been puhlished1, as indicating
one way to obtain uranium:
J
Concerning these reactions more data were published 2, in 1954 and it

is "the story of the highest degree of purification ever achieved on a commercial scale by the chemical industry-i.e. by Mallinckrodt Chemical
Works (St. Louis), whose task this was."
For atomic bombs or other chain reactions uranium must be extremely
pure with" nearly all possible impurities-below 100 ppm," and with
boron which absorbs the split-off neutrons so ~eadily that" even 1 ppm
will seriously hamper the efficiency of an atomic pile."
The process described digests the 9re and, for the most part, dissolves
this in a hot nitric acid-sulfuric acid mixture.
\
The insolubl~ portion (including radium sulfate), is r~moved by a rotary

filter . . . . After treatment with BaC0 3 to precipitate sulfates, the filtrate is
essentially uranyl nitrate . . . . To obtain the high degree of purity required, the
uranium compound is then continuously extracted from the aqueous filtrate, with
ether. . . . Fortunately the uranyl nitrate dissolves more readily in ether than
do the impurities and so can be separated from contaminants. . . . From the
ether solution, the highly purified uranyl nitrate is reextraded with water .. ' ..
The uranyl hitrate is converted 'into uranium trioxide by thermal dCllitration,
then reduced to uranium dioxidc by hcating in hydrogen.
Magazine, January, 1\J54.
ANON., Assignment to Unknown, Chcm. Week, 76, 50 (Oct. 23, 1954).
1 Fortune
2
,
ISOTOPE SEPARATION
445
r
The dioxide is t.reated with HF and converted into UF . The UF.
product stream then takes one of two directions: either it is reduced to
uranium metal for pile slugs or to UF 6 for separation into the isotopes,
U23. and U238.
At Geneva, Switzerland, in the summer of 1955, very many important
t.echnical papers! were presented covering hithert.o unpublicized aspects
of the behavior of uranium, its reaction products, and nucleonics in
general. H. A. Wilhelm made the statement t,hat UF. in a steel crucible'
lined with hard-packed, sifted, electrothermally fused, and pure dolomitic
oxide can be reduced by finely divided magnesium, furnishing U reguli. The
reguli can be melted in a graphite crucible in an induction-heated vacuum
furnace, the molten uranium being cast into ingots in graphite molds.
The following reactions are of interest in connection with a method to
prepare uranium metal:
U308+8HN03(aq)~3U02(N03hCaq)+2N02+4H20; ~H = -41,400 cal)
U02(N03)2'6H20~U03+2N02+Yz02+()H20(g);
~H = + 134,600 cal;
U0 3 + H2 ~ U0 2 + H 20;
~H = -35,000 cal.
U0 2 + 4HF ~ UF. + 2H 20;
~H = -64,000 cal.
UF. + 2Mg ~ U + 2MgF 2;
~H = -83,000 cal.
Freshly polished uranium metal is silver-bright but quickly tarnishes

in air. There are three crystalline forms of the uranium: (1) the alpha ot
low-temperature form, which is considered semiplastic because of its poor
elasticity, (2) the beta or medium-temperature form, which is brittle;
and (3) the gamma or high-temperature form, whic9 is plastic. It can be
;
forged, drawn, or extruded at high temperatures.
Isotope Separation. 2 Separation of U235 (0.7 per cent) and U238 can be
realized by either the gaseous-diffusion or the electromagnetic method,'
both of which make use of the difference in mass of these isotopes.
"
The gaseous-diffusion method involves passage of vaporized UFs under
pressure through a series of separators consisting essentially of containeq
each divided in half by ,a permeable barrier. The U238, because of its
higher mass, lower velocity, and relatively lower incidence ot collision
with the barrier, passes through the barrier more slowly than um. A
cascade of separators~ is used, allowing stepwise purification of both the
U236 and U238 streams.
'
The electromagnetfc method employs a very large mass spectrograph'
which operates on the principle that high-speed charged particles of dif.
,
~
1 TOWNSEND, OLIVER and J. R. BARLOW, "World Development of Atomic Energy,' I
Atomic Industrial Foruni, Inc., 260 Madison Avenue, New York, 1955, with special
supplements on U.S. bihi.teral agreements and the U.N. Geneva Conference. Titles'
are given for the more than 1,000 technical jJape'rs presented in Geneva orally or by'
title; one of these was WILHELM, H. A., The Preparation of Uranium Metal by Reduc~
tion of Uranium Tetrafluoride with Mal!;nesillln.
,
'SMYTH, "Atomic Energy for Military Purposes," Official report, Princeton Uni'
versity Press, Princeton, N.J., 1945.
446
ferent mass travel in different paths in a uniform magnetic field. A uranium (VI) halide is vaporized in a furnace and is bombarded by a stream
of electrons from a heated filament. The ions formed are drawn by a
series of electrodes maintained at a potential negative with respect to
the ion source into an evacuated chamber pervaded by a magnetic field.
After traveling through a 180-deg. arc, the U m and U m can be collected separately.
Nuclear Properties of the Isotopes. U 238 undergoes thermal neutron
(n) capture with subsequent beta decay (here loss of negative electron)
to N p 239 and then to PU 239 :
92U238
{3-
{J-
min.
days
+ on'_, 92U239 ~ 93Np239 ~ 94PU 239
The plutonium isotope has a reasonably long half life (24,000 years) and
is quite important since it will undergo fast fission, a property essential
in military application. U236 undergoes fast fission and is separated {rom'
the more abundant U238 by gaseous diffusion for military and other reactor application. U234 is present in natural uranium in extremely small
proportions. This isotope is the daughter product of U238.
Nucleonic engineering' is important for military weapons and for industrial power. With the removal of many restrictions (summer, 1954) more
industrial efforts will supplement the splendid accomplishments of the
Atomic Energy Commission, and both \vill establish the conditions for
practical energy from nucleonic reactions. As this field is in a complicated state of development in 1954, information should be obtained from
the latest literature. One type of reactor design will absorb the heat of
nuclear fission by a molteIi liquid like sodium, '~sing this in a boiler 'to
~enerate steam ~pr heat or electricity~
RARE-EARTH COMPOUNDS
elem~nts so nearly identical

in properties that they are separated only with difficulty. Cerium and
thorium are the most important commercially. Although rare earths occur in certain minerals native to the Carolinas, these minerals have not
been able to compete with the richer monazite sands found in Brazil.
Preliminary separation is accomplished by the use of jigging, where the
valuable matl,lrial is denser thanrthe worthless fraction. The concentrates
I The rare earths comprise a series of 15
1 MURRAY, R. L., "Introduction to Nuclear Engineering," Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

New York, 1954; STEPHENSON, RrCHARD, "Introduction to Nuclear Engineering,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954; A,I.E.E. Nucleonics Committee,
"Eleml'nts of Nueleonics for Engineers," American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
New York, 1950.
SODIUM DICHROMATE
are leached with hot sulfuric acid of strength greater than (j(jBe. Th,e
rare-earth metal compounds are precipitated by dilution of the sulfuri:c
acid solution. The usual practice is to isolate thorium and cerium hY7
droxides, the latter containing all the other rare earths except thorium
unless careful and tedious purifications are carried out.
,I
Crude cerium hydroxide is employed in fiaming arc carbons, and th~
purified form imparts a yellow color to glass. A large use for thorium
and cerium is in gas mantles. Metallic cerium alloyed with iron giv~s, ,
pyrophoric alloys.! Thorium is of interest in nuclear reactions.
I
,
II
SODIUM DICHROMATE
The starting material_-for the manufacture of sodium dichromate anaI

-._
. 'other chromium compounds is chromite, a chromium iron oxide contain"
Chromit .. are
1.1 ton
limestone
1.5 ton
Soda ash
Ion
Sulfuric acid. 666e. .45 ton
8.8
Fuel oil
Stearn
ElectriCity
Direct labor
130jial.}
6,000 lb.
500 kw.-hr.
15 man-hr.
To produce 1 ton
"
sodium dichromate
L
and 0,6 ton
,
sodium sulfate anhydrous
FIG. 10. Flow chart for sodium dichromate from chromite ore.
,1
ing approximately 50 per cent Cr 2 03, the balance being principally FeOj
Ab03, Si0 2 , and MgO. There are no high-grade chromite deposits in th~
United States, and ~ost of the ore used in the chemical industry is imported from South Africa. In war years it was proposed that domesti~
ore 2 should be used. Much sodium dichromate is-consumed as the starting material for makIng, by glucose reduction, the solutions of chromium
salts employed in ch~ome leather tanning (Chap. 25) and in chrome mor~
dant dyeing of wool Cloth_ Certain pigments, as the yellow lead chromatJ,
are manufactured basically from sodium dichromate as are also the green
chromium oxides for,ceramic pigments. Over half of the chromium enter~
the metal field as stainless steel and other high-chromium alloys and for
I KUEBEL, Extraction' of Radium from Canadian Pitchblende, J. Chem. Educ., 17,
417 (1940).
~'
2 ANON., Producing Chromate Salts from Domestic Ores, Chem. & Met. Eng., 4~i
688 (1940), flow chart; McBERTY, F. H., and B. H. WILCOXON, Bichromate ManU'
facture, OTS report, PB-22627, Hobart Publishing Co.
I~
448
HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND MISCELLANEOUS INOIWANIC CHBMICALS
chromium plating of other metals, the balance being about equally divided between chrome refractories and chrome chemicals.
The ore is ground to 200 mesh, mixed with ground limestone and soda
ash, and roasted at approximately 2200F. in a strongly oxidizing atmosphere. The sintered mass is crushed and leached with hot water to separate the soluble sodium chromate. The solution is treated with enough
sulfuric acid to convert the chromate to dichromate with the resulting
formation of sodium sulfate. Most of the sodium sulfate crystallizes in
the anhydrous state from the boiling-hot solution during acidification,
and the remainder drops out in the evaporators on concentrating the dichromate solution. From the evaporator the hot saturated dichromate
solution is fed to the crystallizer, then to the centrifuge and drier (see
Fig. 10).
SELECTED REFERENCES
Ullmann, Fritz, "Enzyklopaedia der technischen Chemie," 3d ed., Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1952-.
Furnas, C. C., editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 2 vols., D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942
National Nuclear Energy Series, 60 vols. (projected) of the work of the U;S. Atomic
Energy Commission, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948-.
Yost, D. M., Horace Russell, Jr., and C. S. Garner, "The Rare-earth Elements and
Their Compounds," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1947.
CHAPTER
22
EXPLOSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHEMICAL WARFARE
INDUSTRIAL AND MILITARY EXPLOSIVES

I
Many professional chemist.s and chemical engineers tend t.o vie,... the
subject of explosives from a purely milit.ary standpoint. It should always
be remembered that, although explosives have contributed much to the:
destruction of man, they have also enabled him to perform many great.
engineering feats which would have been physically or economically im- :
possible without their use. The building of such large engineering projacts as Hoover Dam and the Holland Tunnel would have taken hundreds
of years ifperformed by hand labor alone. Explosives are among the most
powerful slaves that man has learned to employ. Mining of all kinds depends on blasting, as does such a prosaic but necessary act as the clearing,
of stumps and large boulders from land. Even the digging of holes for.
tree planting and ditches for drainage is quickly, efficiently, and cheaply
done by means of dynamite--and with less effor1lthan by any other
method. Even truck brakes are relined and airplanes are constructed with
rivets which have an explosive in the shank that is fired by heat with the
consequent saving of much time and effort.
Uses find Economics. In peacetime large quantities of explosives are
consumed for normal technical operations as listed in Table 1; in times
of war tremendous quantities are required.
Classification. An explQsive is a material which, under the influence
of thermal or mechanical shock, decomposes rapidly and spontaneously
with the evolution of great deal of heat and much gas. The hot gases
cause extremely high pressure if the explosive is-set off in a confined
space. Explosives diffe~ widely in their sensitivity and power. Only those
of a comparatively in,sensitive nature, capable of being controlled and
having a high energy I content, are of importance commercially or in a
military sense.
For purposes of cl!}ssification it is convenient to place explosives in .
three distinct di vision.$:
'
1. Initiating or primary explosives (detolllltors)-lead azide, mercury fulminate, diazodinitro-phenol, lead styphnate (lead trillitro-resorcillate).
449
450
EXPLOSIVES, PYROTBCHNICS, AND CHEMICAL WAR~'ARE
2. High explosives-trinitro-toluene (T.N.T.), amatols, pentaerythritoltetranitrate, cyclonite (hexogen or R.D.X.), tetryl,l dynamites, nitro-starch.
3. Low explosives or propellants-colloided cellulose nitrate (smokeless
powder), black powders.
TABLE 1. INDUSTRIAL EXPLOSIVES MANUFACTURED AND SOLD IN THE
UNI"l'ED STATES, 1953"
(In thousands of pounds)
Use
Coal mining .............

Metal mining ............
Quarrying and nonmetallic mining .............
Railway and other construction work .........
All other purposes .......
Total. ............. " .
Total
High exploPermisBlack
Liqllidsives, other
sible
blasting oxygen exthan perexplosives
powder
plosives
missibles
250,578
167,419
88,810
73
134,483
167,294
4,868
52
22,417
176,985
819
175,188
930
48
181,856
13,973
790,811
94
83
89,876
178,988
12,999
668,952
2,774
891
9,515
22,465
"U.S. Bureau of Mines, .Mineral Market Report MMS2273, 1954.
Initiating or primary explosives are quite sensitive materials which can

be made to explode by the application of fire or by means of a slight blow.
They are very dangerous to handle and are used in comparatively small
quantities to start the explosion of larger quantities of less sensitive explosives. Initiating explosives are generally used in primers, detonators,
and percussion caps.
High explosives are materials which are quite insensitive to both
mechanical shock and flame but which explode with great violence when
set off by an explosive shock such as that which would be obtained by
detonating a small amount of an initiating explosive in contact with the
high explosive. In the case of high and primary explosives, decomposition proceeds by means of a detonation, which is a rapid chemical deI struction progressing directly through the mass of the explosive. This
detonation is thought to be a chain reaction and proceeds at rates that
are frequently as high as 20,000 ft. per sec. for high-velocity dynamites.
It is this high rate of energy release rather than the total energy given
off that makes a product an explosive. Nitro-glycerine has only oneeighth the potential energy of gasoline. On the other hand, most high
explosives, when unconfined or unshocked, will merely burn if ignited.
Low explosives, or propellants, differ in their mode of decomposition
from' the two other types; they only burn. Burning is a phenomenon that
1 Because of higher brisance, tetryl also is used as a booster between the initiating
and high explosive.
PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVES
451
proceeds not through the body of the material but in layers parallel to
the surface. It is quite slow in its action, comparatively speaking, rarely
exceeding 0.25 m. per sec. The action of low explosives is, therefore, less
shattering. Low explosives evolve large volumes of gas on combustion in
a definite and controllable manner.
The industrial classification used in Table 1 is that of the U.S. Bureau
of Mines where black blasting powder refers to all black powder having
sodium or potassium nitrate as a constituent. Here permissible explosives
include ammonium nitrate explosives, hydrated explosives, organic nitrate explosives, and certain nitro-glycerine explosives that contain an
excess of free water ,or carbon. The permissible explosives must pass certain tests l to ensu.re a minimum of flame and temperature to reduce fires
in coal mines where 99 per cent of the permissibles are employed. Ammonium nitrate constitutes over 65 per cent of the weight of the permissibles. The high lfxplosives used in industries are the usual dynamites.
Properties of Explosives. In order to compare explosives, certain standard tests have been worked out to measure their properties. These tests
are empirical and are of value only for purposes of comparison. The results of some of these tests are shown in Table 2 and'include also military
explosives.
The power or brisance of an explosive may be measured by exploding
a small quantity of it in a sand bomb, which is a heavy-walled vessel
designed to resist the explosion without being ruptured. It contains
200 grams of Ottawa silica sand,2 all of which passes through a 20-mesh
sieve and all of which is retained on a 30-mesh sieve. The explosive
is immersed in the sand and the bomb closed. After the explosion, the
sand is sieved and the weight of sand passing through the 30-mesh screen
is taken as a measure of the power of the explosive being tested. Another
test of a somewhat similar nature is the Trauzl block test. This test measures the power of the explosive by measuring the ballooning of a soft
lead cylinder in which the explosive is inserted and exploded. The standard Trauz!. block is 200 mm. in diameter and 200 mm. high with a central
hole 25 mm. in diameter and 125 mm. deep. Ten grams of the explosive
is used in making the test and the results are reported in terms of the
cubic centimeters of increase in volume caused by detonation of the explosive. Both of these tests furnish an indication-of the brisance (from
French briser, to shatter) or shattering power of the high explosive being
tested. This brisance,; or shattering effect, is probably a combination of
the strength and the ~elocity.
1 U.S. Bureau of Miites, Explosives Division, Active List of Permissible Explosives
and Blasting Devices, U!S. Bur. Mines, Rept. Invest. 3910, 1946.
This sand is selected for its uniformity. It is mined at Ottawa, Ill. For details
of testing explosives, see references at end of this chapter, particularly the book by
Meyer for an over-all presentation.
452
The sensitivity of an explosive to impact is determined by finding the

height from which a standard weight must be allowed to fall in order to
detonate the explosive. This test is of greatest importance in the case of
initiating explosives.
The heat of explosion is given in Table 2 as Qv. This is the heat evolved
at constant volume. In comparison with heats of combustion of ordinary
fuels, this is comparatively small in the number of calories. An explosive,
TABLE
2.
SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES
Q"
Name
Formula
Products per
formula weight
Cal.
per
kg.
PotenI, kg. V, m. Trauzl tia)

Te,
expanDC. per sq. per sion, ce. X 10'
em.
sec.
per 109. , kg.-m.
- --- --- - -
Gunpowder ...... . 2KNO. + 3C + S N, + 3CO, + K,S

501 2090 2,970 .....
Nitro-cellulose .... . CuH2IO.(NOa)11
20.5CO + 3.5CO, 1,250 2800 10,000 6,100
+ 14.5H,0
+ 5.SN,
3CO, + 2. 5H,0
1,526 3360 9,835 8,500
Nitro-glycerine . ... C.H,(N?)a
+ 1.5N,
+ 0.250,
Ammonium nitrate NH.NO.
384 lIOO 5,100 4,100
2H,? + N,
+ 0.50,
6CO + C + 2.5H, 656 2200 8,386 6,800
T.N.T ............ C,H.(NO,)a
+ 1.5N.
847 2717 9,960 7,000
Picrio acid ..... ... C.H,(OH) (NO,\. 6CO + H,O
0.5H, + 1.5N,
622 1979 8,537 6,500
Ammonium picrate C.H,(NO.).ONH. 6CO + H,O
+2H,+2N,
7CO + H2O
908 2781 10,830 7,229
Tetryl. ........... C,H,N,O.
+ 1.5H.
+ 2.5N.
Hg + 2CO + N.
Mercury fulminate Hg(ONC).
420 4105 5,212 3,920
Lead azide ........ PbN.
Pb + 3N.
684 3180 8,070 5,000
G By permission, from p. 439 of
New York, 1943.
MEYER,
30
420
2.1
5.3
590
6.5
300
1.6
260
2.8
300
3.C
230
2.6
320
3.9
213
250
1.8
2.9
"The Science of Explosives," Thomas Y. Crowell Coml?any,
however, exerts all this energy extremely rapidly. In the same table, Te
is the explosion temperature. The specific pressure, designated in the table
! as j, signifies the pressure exerted by 1 kg. of explosive in volume of 1 1.
at the explosion temperature of Te. Potential. equals 425Qv kg.-m. where
425 is the mechanical equivalent of heat. This measures 'the total capacity for work in units of mechanical energy.
The velocity (V in the table) of the detonation wave in a column of explosive may be determined by threading wires across the column. These
wires are connected through an electrical circuit in such a manner that,
when they are broken by the .Illoving wave, they cause a spark to jump
onto the sutface of a sooted drum revolving at a high, constant speed.
The distance between the marks made by the sparks on the rotating
drum, the distance between the wires inserted in the column of explo-
453
MILITARY EXPLOSIVES
sive, the diameter and speed of rotation of the drum all being known, it
is a simple matter to calculate the velocity of detonation. Recently,
methods have been developed for determining the velocity of detonation
by means of high-speed photography. The velocity of detonation is dependent on many factors including the composition of the explosive, the
density at which it was loaded before firing, and the degree of confinement. It is, however, constant for a given explosive under fixed conditions.
Certain accelerated aging tests are frequently run to determine the
stability of explosives on storage. The time required for the evolution of
traces of oxides of nitrogen at a comparatively high temperature is most
frequently used for this purpose. Such tests are difficult to correlate with
storage life.
It is important that explosivee for use in mines, particularly coal mines,
be of such a type that they evolve no poisonous gases on explosion and
Ignifer\
Propel/anI
Bursting charge\
Fuze \
~=9\\====:~~~~~fi~~~~~~\~~~ \\
Corfridge
Pro./eciile
FIG. 1. Complete round of high explosive ammunition.
produee a, minimum of flame. This latter requirement is necessary in

order that the explosive be incapable of igniting mixtures of air and coal
dust, or air and methane (firedamp), which inevitably occur in coal
mines. Explosives for mine use are tested and their properties specified
by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and are commonly known as permissibles.
Permissibles differ from other explosives, particularly black powder; most
markedly in the fact that they produce a flame of small size and extremely
short duration. Permissibles contain coolants to regulate the temperatures
of their flames and hence further reduce the possihility of their ignition
of combustible mixtures . Permissihles are tested by explosion in a long
gallery filled with co~l dust, air, and methane. They should not explode
this mixture.'
MILITARY EXPLOSIVES
As the requirements for military explosives are extremely strict, only

a few of them have ~urvived the competitive testing. In this connection
it is fundamental tp understand the construction of a high-explosive
artillery shell as deRicted in Fig. 1. Such a shell consists of a thin brass
or steel cartridge case holding the primer, i!!;niter, and propellant charge.
454
EXPLOSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND <:HEMICAL WARFARE
This case is designed to fit smoothly into the gun and, on explosion, to
expand (obdurate), sealing the breech of the gun so that the escape of
gases from the burning of the propellant charge is prevented and thus
allowing the full effect of the propellant to be exerted on the projectile
or destructive half of the shell.
The primer contains a small amount of a primary explosive or sensitive mixture (e.g., lead azide or a mixture such as KCIO a + Pb(CNS)2
+ Sb 2S a + T.N.T. + ground glass). This mixture explodes under the
impact of the firing pin and produces a flame which ignites the black
powder l charge in the igniter, which in turn ignites the propellant charge
of smokeless powder. The burning of the smokeless powder causes the
rapid emission of heated gas which ejects the projectile from the gun.
On impact with the target, the mechanism of the fuze sets off a small
quantity of a primary explosive (detonator) which causes the explosion of
the booster-an explosive of intermediate sensitivity (between that of a
primary explosive and the bursting charge), which picks up the explosive
wave from the primary explosive, amplifies it, and ensures the complete
detonation of the bursting charge. The bursting charge or high explosive
is usually T.N.T. alone or in admixture with, for example, P.E.T.N.,
R.D.X., or tetryl.
Projectiles designed for armor piercing must have heavy w~lls and contain an explosive so insensitive to impact that it can withstand the passage of the shell through the armor plate and not explode until the shell
has penetrated it. Ammonium and guanidine picrates are the two explosives most suitable for this purpose. Special projectiles loaded with lead
balls embedded in a matrix of rosin or bakelite and equipped with a time
fuze causing them to explode in mid-air are known as shrapnel. 2 Some
projectiles contain toxic gas in place of the bursting charge. In this case
the special elongated and strengthened burster acts to break open the
shell case and scatter the chemical casualty-producing agent.
Nitro-cellulose. 3 The explosive properties of nitrated cotton were recognized at an early date and attempts were made to adapt this material
as a military propellant. These early attempts were abortive, for, be/cause of the large amount of surface of the nitrated cotton, the combustion was far too rapid and uncontrollable for'propellant use. Many lives
were lost during these early experiments. The discovery of methods of
1 Black powder is easy and smokeless powder difficult to ignite; therefore, black
powder is frequently used to ignite smokeless powder.
2 The original shrapnel is considered obsolete. Popular opinion now applies the
name shrapnel to any type of high-explosive shell fragmenting in mid-air, e.g., antiaircraft shell. ,
,
3 Although the word nitro-cellulQse is commonly used for nitrated cellulose fiber, it
should'be noted that the material is not a nitro compound but a true nitrate ester.
The name cellulose ?'titrate is therefore chemically more proper, but nitro-cellulose
is much more widely employed in technical spheres.
455
NITRO-CELLULOSE
colloiding the material into a dense uniform mass of resinous appearance

removed this difficulty and, with the discovery of suitable stabilization
methods to prolong its storage life, nitro-cellulose soon pushed black powder out of use as a military propellant.
The cellulose molecule is a highly complicated l one with a molecular
weight that is frequently as high as 300,000. Any given sample of cellulose will contain a wide distribution of molecular weights all having
the empirical formula [C SH 7 0 2 (OH)a] ... There are thus three hydroxyl
groups per fundamental (glucose) unit that may be esterified with nitric
acid, indicating a possible nitrogen content of 14.16 per cent which
is higher than any commercially used product. The reaction may be

formulated:
C 6H 7 0 2 (OH)a
+ 3HON0 + H SO r
2
-+
C 6H 70 2 (ON0 2)a
+ 3H 0
+ H S0
2
Celluloses that have not been nitrated completely to the trinitrate are
used for the various industrial cellulose nitrates as shown in Fig. 3. In
addition to the nitrate esters, some sulfate esters are formed by the
sulfuric acid which is added to tie up the water resulting from the nitrati'on reaction and to permit the reaction to progress to the right. These
sulfate esters are unstable, and their decomposition would give rise to a
dangerous acid condition in the stored powder if not removed. These
sulfate esters are decomposed in the poaching process. A recent proposal
used cold, dilute NH 4 0H solution to attain the same net effect of the
poaching step.
The finished nitrci-cellulose should not be allowed to become acid in
use or storage as thi~Jcatalyzes its further decomposition. A stabilizer is,
therefore, added which reacts with any trace of nitrous, nitric, or sulfuric
acid that may be released due to the decomposition of the nitro-cellulose
and thus stop further decomposition. For smokeless powder diphenylamine is used (diphenylurea in Great Britain) and for celluloid, urea.
I Cf. WHITMORE, "Organic Chemistry," 2d ed., p. 496, D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1951; KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 3, pp. 342.ff.
456
EXPLOSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHEMICAL WAHFARE
The diphenylamine forms a series of innocnom; compounds! with the

evolved gases of whirh the following are examples:
The commercial manufacture of rellulose nitrate is illust.rated in Fig. 3

where the following unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (1'1'.) are
involved:
Cotton linters, or specially prepared wood pulp,' are purified h~' hailing in Kiers
(vats) with dilute caustic solution (Pr.). See Fig. 2 for purification details.
Weak
nitric
9.J~
~~
Excess spent
Part of
spent acid
acid to
recovery plant
fort,fied
and
denitration
reused
concentration
for
ond
Wet Storoge
ltNitrogen
(drylXls~)
~
10.7 -11.2 Celluloid
11.8 - 12.3 locquers
12.6 - 13.5 [,plosivos
Conon Linters
HNQ, (I00'r.)
~sgO,<IOO%)
Oiorine
Water
Oi~ct labor
01'075 Ilbb'
0'5
Ib
} ner pound dry
. 0:002Ib.
Variable but small
5 .0 390
mIon-hr.
"
00
,..,
c8l1ulo.o nitrate
~u'~i~~ ::t,~u~otton
0.6Ib. of purified
coHon fibers)
Ni~rogM
Note,
content of ce/lulose nit"". controlled
hI/ compo.sition of nitration mixed acid.

c~'?u!~fVos.Oufsp_~a.cuncdt t:f2'_""'!;.".~n grrxfo
mE'cOn'".
.,,, ,
"'"
w,~ u. rvlPd to
facruring procedurPs.
SlepS shown ,",sed Ibr military product In usp

wpi prrxlUCf is dded blj alcohol displacement
FIG. 3. Flow shf'et for nitro-{'cllulose (cellulose nitrate).'

Bleaching is effected with CaCI'OCI or NaOel or Ca(OCI)2 (Pr.).
The cotton is dried, fluffed, and weighed (Op.).
Mixed acid is made up from fortifying 'acid and spent acid, brought to proper
temperature and run into the nitrator (Op,).
Nitration (esterification) is usually conducted under carefully controlled
,conditions in a "mechanical dipper" nitrator (Pr.). .
32 lb. of purified and dried cotton linters form one nitrator .charge. The cotton
I
SCHROEDER, et al., Chromatographic Investigations of Smokeless. Powder, I ad.

Eng. Chem., 41, 2818 (1949).
2 Cotton linters are considered to be the purest form of cellulose fiber available
and hence are most desirable for a starting material. Other cellulose material is
nitrated, including waste cotton and specially purified sulfite pulp or paper. A pic.tllred flow shee~ for linters producti9n is given by Chem. & Mel. Eng., 48 (4), 108
(1941), and a pictured flow sheet for smokeless powder by Chem. & :Mel. Eng., 49 (4),
1
76, 110 (1942).

3
For the materials of construction used in this particular flow sheet, sce Chern. Eng.,
67 (11), 119 (1950); cf. ANON., Progress in Solvent Recovery, Chem. Eng., 64 (1),98
(1947) with pictured flow sheet on p. 138.
NITRO-CELLULOSE
457
is agitated with approximately 1,500 lb. of mixed acid at 30C. for about 25 min.
The composition of the acid used averages: HNO a, 21 per cent; H 2SO., 63 per
cent; N 20., 0.5 per cent; H 20, 15.5 per cent.
.
The entire nitrator charge is dropped into a centrifugal where the spent acid
is centrifuged from the nitrated cellulose (Op.).
The spent acid is partly fortified for reuse and partly sold or otherwise disposed of as by denitration and concentration of the sulfuric acid (Op. and Pr.).
The nitrated cotton is drowned with water, washed by boiling and again washed
in a beater (Op.).
In order to produce a smokeless powder more stable on storage, the
following purification is employed in these two steps and the poaching,
to destroy unstable sulfate esters and completely to remove free acid:
(1) 40 hr. of boiling with at least four changes of water, (2) pUlping of
fiber by means of a beater or a Jordan engine followed by
Poaching of the washed nitrated cotton by boiling first with a dilute Na,CO a
solution (5 lb. soda ash per ton of the cellulose nitrate) and then with many
washes of boiling pure water (Pr.).
The poached nitro-cellulose is freed of most of its water by centrifugation.
This usually results in a water content of approximately 28 per cent (Op.).
At this point the nitro-cellulose is usually stored until desired and the complete laboratory examination can be made (Op.).
The water content of the nitrated cotton is reduced to a low figure by alcohol
percolation under pressure dehydration (Op.).
The nitrated cellulose is disintegrated, then "colloidized" by mixing with
alcohol, ether, diphenylamine, and other modifying agents (Op.).
Grains are formed by extrusion through dies and these are dried and blended
to form smokeless powder (Op.), see Fig. 4.
The nitro-cellulose produced in this manner contains about 12.6 per
cent nitrogen and is known as pyrocotion. By using a stronger acid, the
n~trogen content may be made as high as 13.6 per cent nitrogen. Cotton
nitrated to contain 13.2 per cent nitrogen or greater is known as guncotton. Mod'ern military smokeless powder contains about 13.15 per cent
nitrogen and is made from a blend of pyro- and guncotton.
Smokeless powder lis colloided nitro-cellulose containing about 1 per
cent of diphenylami~e to improve its storage life and a small amount of
a plasticizer (e.g., dihutyl phthalate). The mamifacturing sequences are
given by Fig. 4. Modifying agents such as dinitro-toluene and certain inorganic salts are sometimes added in order to reduce the flash of the gun
in which the powder is used and to minimize the hygroscopicity of the
powder. In the Uhited States the colloiding is usually accomplished by
pumping ethyl alcoHol through the wet nitro-cellulose in ahydraulic press
to remove the water (this makes a drying process unnecessary), adding
ether, and macerating 'in a dough mixer. This combination of alcohol and
ether reduces the nitro-cellulose to a pulpy mass which may be extruded
into rope and cut to a definite length to give powder grains. It should be
458
noted that neither alcohol nor ether alone will colloidize the nitro-cellulose, but the combination (1 part alcohol to 2 parts ether) is most effective, yielding a hard horny product that is very tough. The remaining
solvent is removed from the grains by heating in vats under water, and
the small amount of water remaining behind is removed by air drying.
Blending
~ower
For Q flow sheet for nitrocellulose monufac.ture see fig.3

Note: Asterisks .denote equipmentGonnected to solvent recovery system
FIG. 4. Flow sheet for smokeless powder.
The solvent should be removed slowly in order to avoid warping of the

grains. The British form their colloided double-base powder (Cordite)
by treating a high or 13 per cent nitrogen nitro-cellulose with a mixture
of acetone and nitro-glycerine with some petroleum jelly. The nitroglycerine increases the heat of burning of the powder a'nd keeps the
grains from becoming brittle.
Trinitro-toruene. In spite of other new explosives developed during
the Second World War, symmetrical trinitro-toluene
CRa
(T.N.T.) was still the most important military high ex02NON02 plosive used in this country. T.N.T. also has a peac'etime application as the basic raw material for phloroglucinol, an importap,t compound in photocopying
(black-on-white reproduction), and the dyeing of texN0 2
I
tiles.' Because of the low melting point of commercial
T.N.T. (80.3C.) it is loaded into shells in the molten state by mechanical devices. It is superior to picric acid from the standpoint of safety
by reason of its lower melting point and the fact that it has no tendency
to form sensitive salts with metals.
T.N.T. 'is made by the nitration of toluene with mixed acids in castiron or steel nitrators. Before the Second World War the preferred or
"indirect" method was the addition of the progressively stronger acid
in three steps at progressively higher temperatures to the" oil." A great
deal of difficulty was encountered especially in the tri-mix addition
1 KASTENS and KAPLAN, TNT into Phloroglucinol, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 402 (1950),
an excellent article with flow sheet and tables.
TETRYL
459
caused by heat evolution and vigorous foaming. Quite often uncontrollable temperatures necessitated the dumping of the entire mix to avoid
possible fire or explosion.
The major change for reducing the time cycle and improving safety
and yields was the introduction of the "direct" method, where the or
ganic material is added to each charge of mixed acid for each of the three
stages using strong downward agitation. At one time, therefore, only a
small amount of nitratable material is present in relation to the nitrating acid. The thorough mixing gives nearly complete nitration in the
mono- and bi-stages at the end of the" oil" additions. In the tri-stage it is
still necessary to heat the material, but dangerous foaming is eliminated. l
The crude T.N.T. or "tri-oil" may be purified by a water and soda
ash wash followed by a sellite (acidulated 16 per cent Na 2S03) wash.
The first two serve to neutralize the excess acid and the sellite reacts
preferentially with the unsymmetrical T.N.T. to produce water-soluble
sodium dinitrosulfonates. During the war an ammoniated sellite purification 2 method was developed, but although it is thought to be the cheapest method, several plants still use the old method because of existing
equipment. After purification the resulting slurry is filtered, rewashed,
remelted, dried, and either flaked or grained. Over-all yields are excellent.
Tetryl. (2,4,6-trinitro-phenyl)-methylnitramine, C 6H 2(N0 2) 3NCH 3N0 2
is generally used as the base charge in blasting caps, a as the booster explosive in high-explosive shell, and as the sole bursting charge in certain
aircraft cannon shell and antiaircraft shell. It is generally prepared by
the action of mixed sulfuric and nitric acid on dime'thylaniline in a multiple-stage nitration. The dimethylaniline may be first dissolved in sulfuric acid.
N(CHah
N(CH 3)2
HSO ON02
+ 2HN03 ~
+ 2H 0
2
N0 2
02N-N-CH:j
CHr-N-CHa
N02
O
N0 2
'
H 2SO. 02NON02
+ 8H:N03 ~
;
+ 6N0 + CO + 6H 0
2
N0 2
1 C/. KIRK and OTHMEI\, op. cit., Vol. 6, p. 45 for more exact conditions of time ana
composition of the three/nitrating acids.
I RAIFSNIDER, New Techniques Improve TNT Manufacture, Chern. IOOs., 67,
1054 (1945).
a Blasting caps are small metal capsules containing sufficient explosive to ensure
the detonation of dynamite. In earlier days they were loaded with mercury fulminate
or fulminate-KelO a mixtures. Many are now loaded with a small charge of azide or
dinol, designed to set off a larger charge of tetryl which in turn sets off the dynamite.
460
EXPJ,OSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHEMTCAL WARFARE
It may also be made by alkylating 2,4-dimtro-chloro-benzene with

methylamine, then nitrat,ing.' This method is calculated to be more economical of raw materials, but the extreme toxicity of the dinitro-chloro-
CI
H-N-CHa
N02
CH NH
a
ONO.
NaOH, 55-65C.
in EtOH solution
N0 2
C 6H a(N0 2)2-NHCHa +
N0 2
{~~g:}
tetryl
benzene weighs heavily against it. Tetryl is an extremely powerful high

explosive with great shattering power.
Picric Acid. Picric acid is not made directly by the nitration of phenol
because too many oxidation by-products are formed. It is manufactured
instead by the nitration of mixed phenol-sulfonates. The phenol-sulfonates result from heating 1 mole of phenol with 3.4 moles of BBQBe. sulfuric acid and holding the well-mixed mass at a temperature of 80C. for
about 4 hr. The phenol-sulfonates (mixed mono and di) are then run into
nitrators constructed of acidproof brick. The nitration is carried out with
mixed sulfuric and nitric acids. 2 After the addition of all the acid, the
temperature is held at 100C. for at least 1 hr.
Ammonium Picrate. Ammonium picrate 3 is made by the neutralization of a hot aqueous solution of picric acid with ammonia water. It is
employed for armor-piercing shell.
P.E.T.N. Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, C(CH 20N0 2)4, is the most brisant and sensitive of the bursting-charge explosives used in ammqnition
and is loaded as such only in detonators where small quantities are ip.volved. For use as a booster explosive, a bursting charge, or a plastic
demolition explosive, it is desensitized by admixture with T.N.T. (called
Pentolite) or by addition of wax. P.E.T.N. may be made by the nitration
of pentaerythritol with strong nitric acid, 94 per cent HNO a, at about
~oC. The polyhydric alcohol is made by treating acetaldehyde with
'formaldehyde in the presence of lime. The li;TIe leaves the reaction as
calcium formate. Three aldol condensations occur followed by a crossCannizzaro reaction yielding C(CH 2 0H)4. It should not be confused with
erythritol. The reactions follow:
'
1 HILL and KLIPSTEIN, Dinitromethylaniline as an. Intermediate in the Manufacture.
of Tetryl, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 42, 527 (1946).
2 Formerly strong nitric acid alone' was used. Mixed acids cut down the health
hazard caused by fuming, reduce the amount of acid required, and increase the yield
of dl'sired products. The use of mixed acid is now almost universal.
3 GERBER, Ammonium Picrate Production for Military Explosive Requirements,
Chem. & Met. Eng., 61 (3), 100 (1944), flow sheet from dinitro-chloro-benzene.
CYCLONITE
461
3CH 20 + CH 3CHO --> (CH 20HhCCHO

(CH 20HhCCHO + CH 20 + H 20 --> C(CH 20H)4 + HCOOH
C(CH 20H)4 + 4HN0 3 --> C(CH 20N0 2 )4 + 4H 20
(1)
(2)
(3)
It is probable that the reaction of decomposition may be expressed:
Cyc1onite.! Cyclonite or symmetrical cyclo-trimethylene-trinitramine
mostly called RD.X., is one of the most powerful explosives known at

the present time. R.D.X. was used in a mixture with T.N.T. and aluminum known as Torpex for ,mines, depth charges, and torpedo war heads.
It was also employed as an ingredient for explosive for shells and bombs.
It is desensitized by wax or oily materials.
/
The British developed the first practical or Woolwich process, which
involved the destructive nitration of hexamethylene-tetramine with concentrated nitric acid:
C 6H!2N 4 + 3HN0 3 --> CaH 60aN 6
+ 3HCHO + NHa
Although this method was used in this country during the Second World
War, it involved a large excess of HNO a and the loss of formaldehyde
by HNO a oxidation. The McGill University process reacted formaldehyde
with ammonium nitrate in the presence of a dehydrating agent:
3HCHO
+ 3NH4N9a + 6(CH aC0)20 ~ C aH 0aN6 + 12CHaCOOH

6
In order to obviate the large HNO a requirements of the Woolwich process

and to reduce the amount of dehydrating agent in the McGill process,
the combination proc~ss was developed by. Bachman at the University of
Michigan who utilized the by-products to get a second mole of R.D.X.
This method was developed on a continuous scale by Tennessee Eastman
1 BACHMAN,
J. Am. ChclIl. Soc., 71, 1842 (1949).
462
who were able to manufacture it the most cheaply and with the least
capital outlay of all.
C 6H12N4
+ 4HNO a + 2NH 4N0 3 + 6(CH3C0)20

--+
2C 3HsOsNs
+ 12CH 3COOH
Yields on the basis of this equation of 70 per cent are possible.
Lead Mide. Pb(
-N~1),
h., almoat entirely repl.oed m".uzy ful-
minate as the important initiating or primary explosive for blasting caps.

The fulminate had less than desirable stability, had to be manufactured
in small batches, and involved the strategic raw material, mercury. On
the other hand lead azide has remarkable stability, involves no strategic
materials, and can be manufactured in large batches by treating sodium
azide with lead acetate or nitrate. Sodium azide may be made from sodium amide and nitrous oxide:
NaNH 2
+ N 20 --+ NaN a + H 20; NaNH2 + H 20 ~ NaOH

2NaN 3 + Pb(C 2H 30 2)2 -+ Pb(N 3)2 + 2Na(C 2H 30 2)
+ NH3
Silver azide has also been used to a very limited extent.

Dinol. Diazodinitro-phenol or 4,6-dinitro-benzene-l,2-diazooxide, was
the first diazo compound ever discovered (Griess,
1858). Its valuable properties as a primary explosive
were not generally recogr..ized until recent years. It is
made by diazotizing picramic acid. An internal coupling yields the product desired. Although its rate of
detonation and brisance (approximately equal to
T.N.T.) are greater than lead azide or mercury fulminate, its density is so low that much less dinol can
be loaded in a standard equipment even un~er pressure.
/
INPUSTRIAL EXPLOSIVES
For blasting purposes large quantities of black powder are still used.
Black powder is an intimate mixture of KN0 3, charcoal', and sulfur, uSU.ally in the approximate proportions 75-15-10. For cheap blasting e~
plosives the less desirable NaN0 3 is frequently substituted for KN0 3
NaN0 3 is less desirable because of its tendency to absorb water from the
air. Thorough mixing is essential for good black powder; consequently,
it is customary to work the mixed raw materials under a wheel mill, as
is depicted in Fig. 5. Certain observers think that this operation colloids
NITRO-GLYCERINE AND DYNAMITE
463
the sulfur and produces a more homogeneous product than would be

otherwise obtainable.
Black powder is relatively undesirable for use in mines because of the
persistent flame produced on explosion and the ability of this flame to
ignite gas and coal-dust mixtures. The fact that considerable quantities
of carbon monoxide are evolved on its explosion is also a disadvantage.
It remains in use principally because of its cheapness and because of the
fact that it is not shattering in its action (very desirable in coal mining).
The fact that the properties of black powder can be varied over quite
wide ranges by altering the composition and the granulation has also been
a deterrent to its replacement by other explosives.
Black powder upon explosion liberates from each gram 718 cal. and
about 270 cc. of permanent gases, but about 50 per cent of the products
are solids. Among these products are CO 2, CO, N2, H 2S, H 2, K 2CO a,
K 2S0 4 , K 2S, and unreacted constituents.
Nitro-glycerine and Dynamite. l Nitro-glycerine was the first high explosive to be employed on a large scale. The nitration is effected by
slowly adding glycerine of high purity (99.9+ per cent) to mixed acid
hav,ing the approximate composition: H 2S0 4 , 50 per cent; HNO a, 50 per
cent. The nitration is accomplished in from 60 to 90 min. in agitated
nitrators equipped with cooling coils carrying brine 2 at 5C. to maintain
a temperature below lOoC. Above this temperature there is great danger
that the charge will begin to react very violently, ultimately resulting in
explosion. After nitration, the mixture of nitro-glycerine and spent acid
is allowed to flow through a trough (a trough is--easier to clean completely than a pipe) into separating and settling tanks at some distance
from the nitrator. Her the nitro-glycerine, being lighter than the spent
acid, rises to the top. The nitro-glycerine is carefully separated from the
1 C/. GROGGINS, "Unit frocesses in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., p'. 644, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc.,' New York, 1952; NAOUM (Symmes, translator), "Nitroglycerine and Nitroglycerine Explosives," The Williams & Wilkins Company,
Baltimore, 1928.
2 Brine can be a little cooler than 5C. but pure nitro-glycerine freezes at 12.8C.
Freezing would be hazardous as it might interfere with the temperature control.
464
EXPLOSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHEMICAl, WARFARE
acid and sent to the wash tank where it is washed twice with warm water.
After this, it is treated with a 1 per cent sodium carbonate solution to
ensure complete removal of any remaining acid. Additional washes with
warm water are continued until there remains no trace of alkalinity.
After this the material is well settled and sent to storage. The sequences
of the unit operations and the unit processes involved in manufacturing
nitro-glycerine and dynamite are shown in Fig. 6, where also the quantities of raw material are listed.! The product is really glyceryl trinitr~!e
,ierl~F-~
_=__ __- ..
ft--<f-'-,...;....,M....
~__:_t=~~~=== ~
Gelahne
dynamite
mixer
HNO,( 100"/0)
HZ 504 (100'10)
Glycerir'le
g",.
2,000 Ib.( 10,.recovered)

2.000 lb i
r,cov,red)
860 lb.
f:~~~e,r;b~~n
Water
t.5 tons ice. e.C\UiVOIlent} n_ t of

3.2 mOl" -hr:
'-!r' on
.
1400 9 G115
nttro9'YCt'nne
FIG. 6. Flow sheet for nitro-glycerine and dynamites. Usually an evaporator

between the ammonium nitrate reactor and the crystallizer.
i~
needed
and the reaction falls urider the (nitrate) este~ification classification. The
reaction may be formulated:
CH 20H
CH 20N0 2
I
CHOH + 3HN0 + (H S0
I
3
CH 20H
4)
I .
--> CHQN0 + 3H 0 + (H S0
I
2
4)
CH 20N0 2
Nitro-glycerine is a liquid very similar in appearljince to the original

glycerine. It is quite sensitive to blows and freezes at 5l)F.; when Ololid
it is less sensitive. As it has a strong tendency in this state to eXRlode
only partly, frozen nitro-glycerine must always be thawed before using.
T,o mak:e nitro-glycerine easier and safer to handle it is usually manufactured into dynamite. The original dynamite was made by absorbing
nitro-glycerine in kieselguhr. Modern dynamites generally use wood flour,
ammonium nitrate, or sodium nitrate as the agent employed to absorb the
nitro-glycerine. Such a mixture is easy to handle and can be made to conI Further details are available in Chap. 32 of "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.; New York, 1942.
CHEMICAL WARFARE
465
tain as much as 75 per cent nitro-glycerine and yet retain its solid form.
Nitro-glycerine in such mixtures, however, still freezes at comparatively
high temperatures, and dynamite when frozen is relatively insensitive
and may not detonate completely when set off. It is quite hazardous to
thaw out dynamite rapidly. Because of the demand for a nonfreezing
dynamite for work in cold weather, several dynamites containing other
material designed to lower the freezing point of the nitro-glycerine have
been put on the market. The material most widely used to lower the
freezing point of dynamite is ethylene glycol dinitrate. This material is
an excellent explosive in its own right. Such nonfreezing dynamites have
potentials almost as great as "straight" dynamite. Nitro-cellulose can
be gelatinized by nitro-glycerine, and the resulting firm jelly is an exceptionally powerful high explosive commonly known as gelatine dynamite.
A wide variety of other explosives have been suggested for both commercial and military use, but most of these have been abandoned because
of such properties as poor stability on storage, excessive cost of manufacture, tendency to form very sensitive materials on decomposition, and
toxicity. The following materials have been important iIi the past or
enjoy a limited use today: hexanitro-mannite, tetranitro-aniline, starch
nitrate, hexanitro-diphenylamine, trinitro-benzene, etc.
D.E.G.N. Diethylene glycol dinitrate was developed by the Germans
as a replacement for nitro-glycerine in double-base powders. After field
testing in the Spanish Civil War, the Germans concentrat~d on this explosive as it appeared to be superior to nitro-glycerine. Diethylene glycol
is nitrated to the dinitrate in practically the sa.me manner as glycerine
nitration (Fig. 6.).
Toxicity. Almost without exception the nitro compounds and nitric
acid esters used as explosives are toxic. The degree of toxicity varies
widely with the material in question, but most are capable of causing
acute distress if taken orally. Some materials used in the past have been
extremely toxic; hexanitro.,.diphenylamine, for example, is an active vesicant. Extremely toxic !properties would weigh heavily against any new
explosive that might b!3 introduced.
~HEMICAL
WARFARE
The field of chemical warfare is generally taken to include those substances which by their chemical action produce powerful physiological
effects, screening smo~es, or incendiary action. Although it is currently
assumed that the employment of such chemicals began with the First
World War, the fact is that incendiary and asphyxiating substances have
been used over the centuries in warfare, but they only reached a really
effective stage on Apr. 22, 1915, with the release by the Germans of
600,000 lb. of chlorine along a 2-mile front against an unprotected enemy.
466
Although vast preparations for offensive and defensive use of toxic gases
were made during the Second World War by all countries, gas warfare
was rejected by all for various reasons.l Mutual distrust and fear, however, made preparedness a matter of vital importance. In the Second
World War screening smokes and incendiaries proved to be extremely
valuable.
Toxic Materials. The use of the so-called poison gases in warfare 2 is a
widely misunderstood and much maligned subject, the major cause of the
misunderstanding being unreasoning fear and a lack of knowledge of the
physical difficulties incident to establishing high concentrations of casualty-producing3 agents over wide areas. The requirements which a satisfactory chemical-warfare agent must meet are so rigid that only a small
group of compounds possess the necessary properties. Among the more
important of these requirements are
1. Volatility should be high enough to allow ready dispersal at temperatures
met in both summer and winter warfare, and the material should be readily
liquefiable so that it may be loaded into shell and bombs in the liquid state.
2. Stability should be sufficient to withstand storage.
3. The chemical should not readily react with or be decomposed by water,
metals, or earth.
4. The chemical should not be decomposed by the shock of explosion.
5. The chemical should be very toxic 'in small concentrations and should
be difficult to protect against.
6. The chemical should be cheap and easy to manufacture from readily available raw materials in enormous quantities without the use of too highly specialized equipment. It is preferable that the toxic properties develop only in the
last stages of manufacture.
Contrary to popular opinion, from a military standpoint, it may he

undesirable to cause the death of the personnel of the enemy. Deceased
personnel may be disposed of in a very short time; incapacitated personnel require the attendance of approximately four persons during the
time of their hospitalization. The services of five persons are hence of no
/ military value during this time. In casualty-producing effect the chemical agents have no peer, but they produce a very low-percentage of fatalities, as shown by Fig. 7, wherein are charted the comparative disabilities and mortalities caused by gas and other weapons in various wars.
The ratio of the mortality percentages shows the relative chances for
1 For an especially interesting account of gas in the Second World War, see Chap,
XVII in BAfTER, "Scientists aga,inst Time," Little, Brown & Company, Boston,
1946.
KiRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 7, pp. 117-145, excellent article with many
references.
3 It should be clearly understood that, in a military sense, a casualty is a disahlf'd
person, one who cannot fig;ht. Casualties include both the wounded and the killed.
TOXIC MATERIALS
467
recovery of those wounded by gas or other weapons and demonstrates

that a man injured by gas had a 12 to 1 better chance for recovery than
one wounded by other means. A persistent rumor that aftereffects of
chemical warfare (tuberculosis, etc.) cause an exceptionally high mortality rate in later _years has been disproved. l It should never be forgotten
that to apply any warfare agent effectively there is always great wastage
Wars in
which gas
was not u~ed
1&60'1905
War in
which gas
was used
1914-1915
Wars
IForces
involved
oro
28.0
Civil War (Union Farces

1860-1865 I Confederates
30.0
Franco- (French
Pruss ian I Germans
30.0
28.0
Russian- J Russians
Japanese \ Japanese
Weapons
Country
[Non-qas
French
I Gas
(Non-qas
'English I Gas
36.9
34.0
United
States
f Non- qas
I Gas
J Non-gos
Germany \ Gas
Percentoaes shown qraphicolly

30
40
10
20
36.0
3.1 ~
36.6
3.3 ~
25.7
2.0 fa
43.0
2.9
fZl
FIG. 7. Mortality from gas wounds and wounds produced by other causes in the
First World War. (From Gilchrist, World War Casualties, Chemical Warfare School
Edgewood Arsenal, Md., 1928.)
of material. For example, Kibler 2 states for the First World War, "Casualty records show that for each casualty there were required 23 mustard shells or 60 lb. of mustard, 100 high-explosive shells or 500 lb. of
high' explosives, or 5,000 rounds of rifle ammunition."
Based on physiological action the chemical agents may be classified as
follows and as arranged, in Table 3:
,
1. Lachrymators or tear gases, which produce temporary inability to see.
2. Sternutators,3 which cause sneezing, nausea, and- temporary physical
disability.
3. Lung injurants, which, in case of severe contact, cause death from edema
of the lungs.
I
4. Vesieants or blister-producing agents, which act mostly on the skin but
also on any part of the boay contacted. The effect may be very serious.
I
War Gases and Tuberculosis, Arch. Internal Med., 39, 833 (HJ27).
2 From an address by A.
Kibler, Chief of the Information Division of the Chemical Warfare Service, U.S. iArmy, given Sept. 11, 1940, at the Amcriean Chemical
Society meeting at Detroit, Mich., before the Division of Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry.
3 JACKSON, Sternutators,_ Chem. Revs., 17,251 (1035).
1
KOONTZ,
t.
468
5. Nerve gases which are extremely toxic chemicals on nerves and are also
vesicants.
The sternutators listed in Table 3 are solids at ordinary temperatures
and are dispersed as fine smokes. A modern gas mask gives complete protection against the lethal effects of all of these. For protection against
TABLE
3.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANT CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS
Agent
Formula
Lachrymators or tear gases:

ChIaro-acetophenone ... C.H.COCH.CI
Bromo-benzyl cyanide .. C.H.CHBrCN
Symbol
Boiling
point.
C.
247
CN
CA,BBC 225
Odor
Persistency
Apple blossoms
Solid for days;

burning mixture 10 min.
Few days '-to
several weeu
Sour fruit
Sternutators or vomiting
gases:
Diphenylamine-chloroarsine or Adam8i~e ... NH(C.H.)tAsCI
DM
I
Diphenyl-cbloro-arsine . . (C.H.)tAsCI
Lung injurants or choking
gsses:
Chlorine ...............
Phosgene ............. .
Diphosgene . ...........
Chloropicrin b . . . . . . . .
Vesicants or blister gssese:
Mustard .............. .
Lewisite ...... ....... _..
Nitrogen mustards .....
Not pronounced 10 min.
383
(moldy hay)
_,
Not pronounced 5-'10 min.
(shoe polish)
-"
Ch
COCh
CICOOCCI.
CClaNO,
(ClCH.CH.)'S
ClCH'CHAsCI,
N(CH,CH,CI).
CH.N(CH,CH,CI),
C.H.N(CH,CH,Cl).
Nerve gases, diisopropyl (iso-C.H,O),POF
fiuorophosphate
DA
410 0 .
CL
CG
DP
PS
H
L
HN.
HN.
,HN,
DFP
-34.6
8.3
127
112
228
190
144
87
85
65
Pungent
Ensilage
Ensilage
Fly paper
1-5 min.
1-10 min.
30 min.
1 min. to 1 day
Mustard
Geranium
Slightly fishy
or none
1 day to weeks
1 day to 1 week
Less persistent
than H
Practically
odorless
Decomposes; meltmg pOInt 195C.

Also causes vomiting and has some lachrymatory action. For more extensive and detailed tabulation of these and other war chemicals See p. 262 of PRENTISS, .~. Chemicals in War," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1937; SARTORI, "The War Gases," Table 13, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
'
e The term (JaB used by Army Chemical Corps is a very broad one as many of the substances employed
are liquids or solids at ordinary temperatures but give oft' toxic or irritating vapors or gases.
a
the vesicants, however, somewhat uncomfortable ointments and protective clothing must be worn. Vesicants, therefore, have the highest nUisance value.
Mustard, bis(2-chloro-ethyl) sulfide, (CICH 2CH 2)2S, is a heavy, oily
liquid which freezes at 14.4C. It has very little odor in the pure state
hut the technical material smells strongly of mustard or horseradish. It
is generally made by the Levinstein process which consists of bubbling
469
TOXIC MATERIALS
dry ethylene into sulfur monochloride at approximately 35C., some mustard from a previous batch being present in the jacketed reactor. The
simplified reaction is
S2Cl 2 + 2CH2:CH 2 ~ (ClCH 2CH 2 )2S
+S
After the mustard is made, it is allowed to settle for a while to permit

some of the solid impurities to settle out. The resultant oil is a light
brownish material. Mustard gas can also be prepared from thiodiglycol.
The sulfur monochloride is made by passing dry chlorine gas into steel
tanks containing melted sulfur, 2S + Ch ~ S2Ch. Once started, the reaction evolves heat and the tanks must be cooled by a water spray. During the First W orId War the ethylene was prepared by dehydrating ethyl
alcohol, but now large amounts are available from the gas from cracking
stills in the petroleum industf'y or by dehydrogenating ethane. Thus enormous amounts of mustard gas were made during the Second World War
from these easily available raw materials.
As mustard is readily absorbed by rubber and leather, special protective clothing and ointments are required. Mustard acts in three ways: as
a lachrymator in lowest effective concentration, as a lung irritant at
slightly higher- concentration (0.007 mg. per 1.) and as a vesicant or burning agent at enhanced concentrations either as a vapor or as a liquid.
The nitrogen mustards are a series of chloroalkyl amines; the most
active being tris(2-chloroethyl)amine: N(C 2H 4 CI)a;/ and methyl-bis(2chloro-ethyl) amine, CHaN(C 2H 4 Clh. These nitrogen analogs of mustard gas are active vesicants. The nitrogen mustards' are prepared by
the action of thionyl chloride on the appropriate ethanolamine:
RN(CH 2CH 20H)2
+ 2S0Cb ~ RN(CH2CH2ClhHCI + 2S0 2 + HCI
The nerve gases are generally organic phosphates. Three discovered by

the Germans near the close of the Second W orId War are
CHa
"'-/
p
/
(CHa)aC(CHa)CHO
"'--F
Soman
I
Much of the information relating to these compounds is classified for

security reasons. These substances are among the most poisonous synthetical chemicals known and are concerned with the inhibition of vital
enzyme activity, specifIcally cholinesterase \vhich is essential to the proper
further deta.ils, see' KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 7, p. 130.
Nerve Gas Unveiled, Chern. Eng. News, 31, 4676 (HI53) i Arwt;.,
Physiologipal Effect of G-Gas, Chern. Eng. News, 32, 2000 (HI54); ANON., Muscle
Shoals Makes G-Gas Basjps, ehe",. Eng. News, 32, 2886 (1954).
1 For
HOLMSTEAD,
470
EXPLOSIVRS, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHRMICAL WARFARE
functioning of the nervous system. Diisopropyl fluorophosphate may be

regarded as a compound typical of this group. Nerve gases are nearly
colorless and odorless liquids, which yield toxic vapors upon evaporation.
They vary in specific gravity and are described as p'ersistent as well as
relatively nonpersistent types.
Phosgene,l carbonyl chloride, COCh, is made by the union of carbon
monoxide and chlorine in the presence of a catalyst, usually carbon
granules:
co + Ch~COCb
As much heat is evolved, the reaction is usually started in a reactor which

is water-cooled and completed in a similar reactor in which the temperature is allowed to rise slightly, This material is extremely toxic. but its
persistency is low. It reacts readily with sodium phenate or hexamethyl- ,
ene-tetramine which render it nonpoisonous. During peaceti~e phosgene
is used for organic synthesis of acetyl chloride and Michler's ketone.
Adamsite, diphenylamine-chloro-arsine, is a canacy,l
yellow crystalline solid named after Prof. Roger
CI
Adams. This agent is dispersed in the form of a smoke.
It has been used during peacetime for dispelling per- ~ .-/
sistent mobs. Adamsite causes acute nausea whic!J. p.er,;:: . - N sists for some time but leaves no ill effects. It-qs preI
pared by the reaction of diphenylamine with..arsenic
H
trichloride.
Chloro-acetophenone, phenyl-chloromethylke~one is a
very effective solid lachrymator, (m.p .. 54C.) produced
from benzene and chloro-acetyf) chloride. For military
use it is applied in sol.ution with other agents. One
solution is chloroacetophenone, 23.2 per cent; chloropicrin, CClaN0 2 , 38.4 per cent; and chloroform, 38.4
per cent. It is widely used for training in chemical-warfare work and in protection against prowlers, etc.
Biological Warfare. Biological and bacteriological warfare is being
! studied exhaustively. This may be the most humane method of reducing
the will of an enemy to fight without killing. I
Defense. Gas masks provide only respiratory and eye protection. They
conSIst essentially of facepieces, canisters, and carriers. It is in the canister that the poisonous gases are removed by adsorption and toxic particulates by filtration. For the latter, most modern military respirators
employ filters of fibers of finely subdivided asbestos supported on porous
filter paper for strength. The major constituent employed in gas masks
is activated charcoal. This material possesses the faculty of adsorbing
(tA-=O
Editors, Phosgenation Products, Resins to Grass Killers, Chern. 1nd8., 61, 805
(1947).
471
SCREENING SMOKES
and retaining high-molecular-weight vapors without regard to chemical

structure. Low-molecular-weight gases are taken care of by impregnants
(various reactants and catalysts) on the charcoal.
I
TABLE
Impregnant
4.
CHARCOAL IMPREGNANTS
Form in
granule
Function
Reactant: Cu.O + 2HCN ---> H.O + 2CuCN

Copper. . . . . . . . . . . .. Cu, CuO
CuO + COCI. ---> CO. + CuCI.
Cu.O, CuS
Zinc ............... ZnO, Na.ZnO. Catalyst: 2AsH. + 30. ---> As.O, + 3H.0
Reactant: ZnO + 2HCN ---> Zn(CN). + H 20
ZnO + COCI. ---> ZnCI. + CO.
Catalyst: 2AsH. + 30. ---> As.O. + 3H.0
Silver ............ " Ag, Ag.O
Reactant: C.H 5N + CNCI + H.O--->
Pyridine ........... C,H.N
CHOCH: CHCH: CHNHCN
+HCl
G
KiR~
and
OTHMER,
op.
cit., Vol. 7, p. 141.
......._
The activ'ated charcoal used in gas masks is basically the same as described in Chap. 9, but it must meet various special requirements sucl:J.
as either chemical or gas activation. Chemical activation of carbon for
military gas masks is practically confined to zinc chloride, potassium
thiocyanate, and potassium sulfide. Suitable carbonaceous materials include peat and certain hardwoods. The largest production of militaryrespirator charcoal. utilizes steam for the activating agent. Carbon diox,.
ide has also been successfully used for gas activation. Table 4 lists the
most commonly used impregnants. Formerly mixtures of soda lime coated
with sodium permanganate and activated charcoal were employed for the
highly volatile agents, but present practice mostly utilizes impregnated
charcoal.
To protect the body from vesicants the present means of defense are
special protective clothing designed to cover the entire body, special ointments, and the gas masks.
Screening Smokes. Various chemical materials have been employed to
produce smokes or fogs primarily designed to conceal the movements of
troops or installations;from enemy observation. Smoke screens l are basically of two compositions: (1) dispersions of solid particles in air which
correspond to a true smoke or (2) dispersions of minute liquid droplets
which resemble natural fogs or mists. One of the important innovations
of the Second World War was the use of smokes not dependent on water
but prepared by atomization of high-boiling fractions of petroleum. Much
I LEVEY,
Chemical Smokes and Smoke Screens, Chem. [nels., 68, 980 (1946).
472
of the hiding effect of all smokes is due to their ability to scatter light
rays by reflection. This is more effective than to obstruct. Smokes may
be dispersed by various methods, mechanical, thermal, and chemical.
even to screen a whole city.
White phosphorus is loaded in the molten state directly into shells,
bombs, and grenades. The material is dissipated by the force of the explosion and immediately burns to P 206 which absorbs water from the air.
In terms of pounds of smoke-producing agent this is the most efficient
obscuring smoke. The smoke will cause coughing but is harmless. These
particles also have some incendiary effect.
Hexachlorethane is employed in mix'tures with finely powdered aluminum and zinc oxide, which are started by a fuse.
2Al
3Zn
+ 3ZnO --> 3Zn + AhOa

+ C Cl --> 3ZnC1 + 2C
2
The obscuring power here is less than phosphorus. The ZnCl 2 which is
hygroscopic attracts moisture to form a fog, the finely divided AhOa deflects the light rays, and the carbon colors the cloud gray. These mixtures are used in shells, grenades, and floating smoke pots.
Sulfur trioxide-chloro8ulfonic acid hydrolyzes in air thus:
SOa
CIS0 3H
+ H 0 --> H S0
+ H 0 --> H S0 + HCI
2
This liquid, used mainly by low-flying airplanes in spray tanks, was developed to replace the more costly and scarce titanium tetrachloride. The
fumes are highly acid and cannot be used over defensive troops and
the screening power of the smoke due to hydroscopic action is not nearly
so effective as phosphorus.
Fog oils are high-boiling petroleum fractions which when heated ~nd
mixed with steam produce finely divided particles of steam and oil, resulting in a very dense white smoke. Fog oils are used in mechanical
smoke generators, which are gasoline-operated portable units, capable of
screening huge areas for days.
/ Colored smokes l are produced by burning a,py:rotechnic mixture of fuel
plus various colored organic dyes. Anthraquinone dyes l_I.re superior and
are dispersed into the afr where they act as aerosols of brilliant hue.
They are used for signaling purposes.
Incendiaries. 2 The largest single class of supplies in chemical warfare
during the Second WorId War and one of the vital factors in the victory
were the incendiaries. Table 5 gives some statistics on this program. .
Incendiaries can be divided'into two classes, metallic and petroleum,
Technical Command, Colored Signal Smokes, Chem. Eng. News, 22,1990 (1944).
"The Chemical Warfare Service in World War II," pp. 65,0'., Reinhold
1
2 ANON.,
473
INCENDIARIES
also known as the intensive and scatter types, respectively. Metallic in;cendiaries include those bombs with metallic cases, usually a combustible
magnesium alloy although a steel-cased bomb was used when Mg became'
critically short, filled with a mixture of barium nitrate and some aluminum with four-fifths thermite to ignite the case. Thermite is a mixture
of aluminum powder and iron oxide, which, when ignited, burns fiercely
at a high temperature and cannot be extinguished by means of water.
3Fe a04
+ 8AI-4 4AhOa + 9Fe;
!1H = -719,000 cal.
Some readily ignitible material, such as black powder, is employed t<;>

ignite the thermite. Sometimes white phosphorus or a small amount of
tetryl was added as a deterrent to fire fighters.
Petroleum incendiaries are gasoline bombs thickened with various ingredients. The first satisfactory thickener was rubber, but because of the
TABLE 5. ExPENDITU,RE OF INCENDIARIES (METALLIC AND PETROLEUM) FROM
DEC. 7, 1941, THROUGH AUG. 15, 1945'
Dropped on Germany
Type of bomb
M47
M76
M50
M69
M74
(s) ....... ..
(s) ..........
Dropped on Japan
Filling
1M
PT
Mg
(c) .. ........
(c) .......... Napalm
(c) ..........
PT
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
758,540
39,370
27,620,838
39,927
7,874
67,463
......... ,
. .....
......
601,600
37,755
9,649,928
8,472,880
351,000
30,080
7,151
25,171
49,700
2,317
..........
Compiled from "The Chemical Warfare Service in World War II," Reinhold Pub~
lishing Corporation, p. 74, New York, 1948. The small s denotes those bombs were
dropped singly; c denotes the bombs were dropped in clusters. As incendiary bombing
progressed, clusters of 100 and 500 lb. were developed of the quick-opening type.
Later 500-lb.-size bomb-shaped clusters which could be accurately aimed and caused
to open at predetermined heights were standardized.
critical rubber shortage, other thickeners were sought. One of these was
isobutyl methacrylate polymer which was dissolved in gasoline in combination with calcium, soap. This filling was knoIDl as 1M. A further
refinement was a mixt~re of isobutyl methacrylate and "goop" known
as pyrotechnic gell or ,PT. "Goop," an intermediate in one process for
the manufacture of magnesium, is a thick paste of ultrafine magnesium
particles, magnesia, magnesium carbide, and carbon. This was mixed with
naphtha and asphalt. Pyrogel is the most difficult of the gels to extin-,
guish because it is mixed with white phosphorus which keeps reigniting
the gel.
Perhaps the most important thickener was N apalm.l This is a granu1 FIESER, Napalm, Ind. Eng. Chem., 38,768 (1946); ANON., How the New Napalm
Process Works, Chern. Eng." 1i8 (11), 162 (1951); FIESER, U.S. Pat. 2606107(1952).
474
EXPLOSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHEMICAl, WARFARF,
lar aluminum soap prepared by precipitating aluminum sulfate in excess

alkali with two parts of acids from coconut oil, one part of naphthenic
acid, and one part of oleic acid. The soap is capable of withstanding
elevated temperatures and produces a gasoline jelly at ordinary temperatures by simple mixing. Napalm surpasses rubber gels in effectiveness
and is applicable in flame throwers where rubber gels are not. It was due
to Napalm that the flame thrower became such an important and formidable weapon.
Peacetime Use of Irritating Chemicals. To control mobs without resorting to firearms, the use of chemical-warfare agents is now standard
practice. The desired effect is attained by making the members of any
rioting group so uncomfortable that they lose their desire to fight. For
this purpose is used chloro-acetophenone, eN, a powerful and instantaneous tear gas, or a mixture of this with diphenylamine-chi oro-arsine
(Adamsite or D.M.), a sickening gas or sternutator. The latter alone
cannot be used effectively in riot work because it does not act at once,
but its slightly delayed nausea is a powerful deterrent to rioting. Such
lachrymators and sternutators are loaded] into short-range shells, grenades, or candles. They are generally dispersed by an explosion in the
device with the active agent. Many war items have peacetime 2 applications, too. The flame thrower is widely used for weed and water vegetation control, chemical smokes and fogs for improved crop protection
against frost, and modern gas masks for factories and mines.
_..
PYROTECHJ;'l"ICS
" \
Because many states have passed rigid antifireworks laws, the pyrotechnics industry holds rat prese~t only a fraction of its former importanee. Pyroteehnic mixtures, however, still have a number of fairly spectaeular uses in our modern civilization: parach~te flares enable airplanes
to land safely on strange terrain, marine signal roekets have been much
improved by attachment to parachutes, the old red signal flare (fusee)
has' become almost a requirement for a modern truek as well as for trains,
/ and many pounds of colored light mixtures aJ,"e being used for military
purposes (tracer bullets and Very lights). '
Pyrotechnic products,' in general, eonsist of mixtures of strong oxidizing agents, easily oxidizable materials, and various other materials to act,
as binders and to alter the character of the flame, together with the eolorproducing ehemical itself. A typical composition Ilsed in the manufac1 For example, the Federal Laboratories of Pittsburgh, Pa., sllpply a full line of
I'quip,ment, f~r such control, available to the police.
2 For further details see Chap. XI, Dy-products from the lmplempnts of War,
"The Chemical Warfare Service in World War II," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1948.
MATCHES
475
ture of parachute flares contains the following materials for the purposes
indicated: barium nitrate, oxidizing agent, 34 per cent; metallic magnesium, grained (to give heat) 36 per cent; aluminum powder (to give
strong light) 8 per cent; sodium oxalate (to give a yellow tint) 20 per
cent; calcium stearate, castor oil, and linseed oil (as binders) 2 per cent.
As this formula does not fire readily, an igniter consisting of a mixture of
75 per cent black powder and 25 per cent of the above formula is always
used to start the flame. The tug of the opening parachute actuates a
mechanical device which starts the combustion of the formula.
Signal flares contain a pyrotechnic charge and a parachute to float the
burning signal in the air. These flares are usually shot into the air from
a suitable pistol, using black powder. If a colored fire is desired at the
end of the flight, stars, usually chlorate compositions with certain salts
added to color the flames, may be added. Truck flares are required in
many states as warning lights in case of accidents or mechanical failures.
Such slow-burning (about 1 in. per min.) mixtures packed in paper tubes
are ignited by means of scratch compositions on the head. A typical mixture is the following: Sr(NO a)2, 68.3; sulfur, 13.0; wood flour, 0.5; KCI0 4,
7.8; and sawdust, lOA. Tracer bullets contain in their base a light-producing material which makes their path of, flight plainly visible to the
shooter. Tracer compositions are usually mixed with Sr(NO a)2 for red
color.
MATCHES
The manufacture of matches is an essential industry. In this country

it has become almost completely mechanized. At present, practically all
matches fall within two classes: strike-anywhere matches and safety
matches. Match-head compositions for strike-anywhere matches consist
essentially of a material with a low kindling point, usually phosphorus
sesquisulfide, P 4Sa, an oxidizing agent such as potassium or barium chlorate, ground glass, and glue. Although other oxidizing agents may be
used, they are employed in conjunction with a chlorate and never completely replace it. The P 4S a has completely displaced yellow phosphorus
as the igniting matenal; many countries even forbid the use of yellow
phosphorus. Because ;the use of yellow phosphorus has been eliminated
in matches, the terri~le bone disease, phossy jaw:Is now practically unknown in the industry.
Safety matches ow~ their ignition to the generation of heat on the
striking surface of the box, the coating of which consists mainly of red
phosphorus, ground glass, and glue. No phosphorus sesquisulfide is used
in safety matches, bat antimony sulfide is used in the heads as a flameproducing Itgent.
In making matches, the wood sticks are formed by forcing wooden
blocks through a steel die which carries t.he splints RO formed t.hrough the
476
next operations. They are punched out. The sticks are first coated with
paraffin, dipped in the match composition, and allowed to dry.
PROPELLANTS OF ROCKETS AND GUIDED MISSILES
These propellants! are related to explosives since they carry their own
uxidant ur other reactant necessary to cause the planned reaction to take
place. The thrust of the escaping hot products of the reaction pushes the
device forward under the principle that forces act equally in opposite
directions. However, these highly developed and extraordinarily engineered rockets are but an extension of the skyrocket of our fireworks
exhibitions.
TABLE 6. SOME ROCKETRY REACTIONS
Reaction
flH, cal.
Calories
per gram
product
C +0 2 -> CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C+7~02->CO ....................
H'+7~O,->H.0 ..................
-96,500
-28,900
-57,800
2.2
1.0
3.2
-64,000
-67,000
3.2
2.8
-23,000
0.7
Oxidation:
Fluorinati.on '.
HH2 + 7~F,-> HF .................

HN 2H, + HF,-> 7:J:N2 + HF .......
Decomposition:
H,O,-> H 20 +
7~02 ................
The propellant may be either a liquid or solid system chosen to give

the highest practical temperature together with the lowest molecular
weight. These factors are the most important ones in the equation 2 defining specific impulse or pounds of thrust per pound weight of propellant
burned per second, wherein the square root of the absolute temperature
(Te) divided by square root of the average molecular weight (M) of the
exhaust gases, most greatly influences the value of the specific impulse,
e.g., v'Te!v!M.
I
However, the reaction temperature may be so high that resistant engineering materials are not' available, and means must be taken to reduce
the temperature. In the V-2 rocket on which Germany spent 1 billion
marks in 5 years, the engine burned 123 lb. of fuel (alcohol 75 per cent;
water 25 per cent) with 152 lb. of liquid oxygen per second at 215 lb. per
sq. in., with the total fuel weight of 18,000 lb. consumed in about 1 min.
I TSCHINKEL, Propellants for Rockets, Chem. Eng. News, 32, 2582 (1954), excellent
article'with equations and tables; KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 11, p. 760, history
and details, bibliography, detailed equations.
'TSCHINKEL, op. cit.: KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit.
ATOMIC BOMBS
477
The water lowered the exhaust velocity 3.5 per cent in comparison with
pure alcohol but reduced the chamber temperature by 7 per \!ent, which
aided design. In Table 6 are some of the heat-releasing reactions that are
being used or studied in conjunction with rocketry.
Other oxidizers are HNO a (fuming), HNO a with 12 per Gent oleum,
N 204; NaNO a, NH 4NO a; KCI0 4, NH 4Cl0 4. For fuels: hydrides, N2H4
gasoline, alcohols, and aniline are used. Asphalt binder with KCl0 4, and
double-base powder both carry their own oxidizer. The latter embodies
the largest tonnage of a solid propellant for rockets. Jet-assisted" takeoffs" (JATO) for airplanes are analogous to rocket propellants.
ATOMIC BOMBS
The destructive sensation of the Second World War was the" atomic
bomb" which released tremendous energy by fission of the atom through
nucleonic 1 reactions. Here matter was transformed by a chain reaction
into energy according to Einstein's law: E = mc 2 where E is the energy
from the mass, m, that disappears multiplied by the square of the velocity of light, c. Uranium 235 (see Chap. 21) and plutonium were used for
these bombs which exerted initially the destructive force of 20,000 tons
of T.N.T. though converting only about 0.1 per cent of the mass of U235
or plutonium into energy. This energy released has been much increased
by recent developments.
The fission reaction is brought about through bombardment by neutrons of the nucleus of U m (or of plutonium) formi9-g about 25 different
radioactive elements of smaller atomic weight together with more neutrons, heat, and radiation. If the amount of the fissionable un. or plutonium is above a minimum critical mass, a chain reaction results from
the action of the released neutrons-and instantaneous fission occurs.
Th,is nucleonic reaction may be expressed:
U 236
+ neutron -> fission
products
+ energy + 272' neutrons
Natural occurring uranium contains 0.7 per cent un., the rest being
and a small trace of, U2S4. To sustain the chain reaction either for
the bomb or in a pil~ to get usable energy, the U23& content must be
raised by isotope sep:aration (cf. Uranium, Chap-: 21) because the U238
absorbs the emitted neutrons.
The "hydrogen" b;omb is still covered by restrictions' but published
releases indicate that ,this is much more powerful than the bombs wholly
dependent upon U 235 or plutonium. It is said to resemble the synthetic
reaction of the sun at1very high energy lev:els whereupon, as in the fission
um
1 KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 9, p. 515. Here under Nucleonics is a good over-all
presentation of the funda~entals of nucleonic reactions, nuclear power, radiation
protection, and references.
478
bomb, matter is converted to energy (Einstein's equation). The sun's

energy is derived from the matter lost when hydrogen is converted by
thermonuclear or "fusion" reactions at extremely high temperatures into
helium (assumed to be through complex reactions involving carbon and
nitrogen). Probably in the hydrogen bomb, the thermonuclear synthetic
reaction will be detonated by a U 235 fission reaction.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Explosives:
Davis, T. L., "Chemistry of Powder and Explosives," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1941.
Robinson, C. S., "Explosions, Their Anatomy and Destructiveness," McGraw-Hill
Munroe, C. E. and J. E. Tiffany, Physical Testing of Explosives, U.S. Bur. Mines Bull.
346, 1931.
Meyer, Martin, "The Science of Explosives," Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New
York, 1943. Bibliography.
"Military Explosives," U.S. War Dept., Tech. Manual, TM 9-2900,1940.
Hessel, F. A., W. J. Martin, and M. S. Hessel, "Chemistry in Warfare," Hastings
House, Publishers, Inc., New York, 1942.
Marshall, A., "Explosi~es," 3 vols., J. & A. Churchill, London, 1917, 1917, and 1932.
Beyling, C., and K. Drekopf, "Sprengstoffe and Zundmittel:mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der Sprengarbeit unter Tage," Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1936;
lithoprinted in United States by Edwards Bros., Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich., 1943.
This book- covers< particularly the underground use of explosives in the mining
',pdustry.
Olsen, A. L., and J. W. Greene, '.:Laboratory Manual of Explosive Chemistry,"
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New'York'11943.,
Bebie, Jules, "Manual of EX'piosives (Pyrotechnics and Chemical Warfare Agents)"
(information arranged like a dictionary), The Macmillan Company, New York,
1943.
Chemical Warfare:
Anon., "The Chemical Warfare Service in World War II," Reinhold Publishing Company, New York, 1948.
Gilchrist, H. L., "A Comparative Study of World War Casualties from Gas and Other
I
Weapons," Chemical Wa~fare School, Edgewood A~senal, Md., 1928.
"Military Chemistry & Chemical Agents," U.S. War Dept., Tech,. Manual,
3-215.
Prentiss, A. M., "Chemicals in War,'" McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1937.
- - - , "Civil Defense in Modern War," McGraw-Hill Book COmpany, Inc., New
York,1951.
Ressel, et ai., see Explosives .
Jacobs, M. B., "War Gases," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1942.
Fischer, G. J ..B., "Incendiary Warfare," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1946.
Sartori,' M., "The War Gases," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
Boyce, J. C., "New Weapons for Air Warfare," Little, Brown & Company, Boston,
1948.
Noyes, W. A., .Jr., "Chemistry," Little, Brown & Company, Boston, 1948.
479
SELECTED REFERENCES
Pyrotechnics:
Reilly, .1., "Explosives, Matches and Fireworks," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
New York, 1938.
Weingart, C. W., "Pyrotechnics," 2d ed., Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New
York, 1947.
Rockets:
Burchard, J. E., "Hockets, Guns and Targets," Little, Brown & Company, Boston,
1948.
I,
CHAPTER
23
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INDUSTRY
The importance of photography to our modern civilization is a fact

demanding no more proof than the simple statement that vision is the
most common method that man has at his disposal for receiving and
conveying impressions of the world in which he exists. There is no field
of human activity at the present time, whether it be industry, science,
recreation, news reporting, printing, or the mere recording of family
histories, which is not, in some phase or other, touched upon by the
photographic process. About two-thirds of the photographs taken have
some connection with the industry! or the health of the country.
History. The first recorded use of a lens for image formation occurred
in the latter part of the sixteenth century. The effect of light on silver
salts was known to the early alchemists, but it was Wedgwood, son of an
English potter, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, who first successfully reproduced images, as negatives, on paper or leather impregnated with these silver salts. In 1819, Herschel discovered the fixing
properties of sodium thiosulfate, thus paving the way for permanent
pictorial reproductions and making possible the first exhibit, in 1839,
of so-called photographs. The same year, the Frenchman, Daguerre,
released to the' public hIS formula for the manufacture of the familiar
daguerreotype and the American, Draper, made what was probably the
first photographic portrait.
The announcement of these processes created a demand for better
lenses, which was soon satisfied. In 1850, Archer improved and perI fected the" wet collodion" process, but in the hands of the public all the
collodion processes eventually bowed to the superior gelatine dry plate
discovered by Maddox. 'In 1889, George Eastman introduced transparent roll film and popularized the now familiar snapshot camera.
Soon after this, Edison and Lumiere invented practical methods for
producing motion pictures.
Color-sensitized emulsions were used as early as 1904 by the Hoeclist
Dye Works 'of Germany, and 'the famous Wratten panchromatic plates
were introduced in 1906. Velox developing-out paper was announced
1
MATHEWS,
Photography in Industry, Science, American Annual of Photography,
1950.
480
STATISTICS AND ECONOMICS
481
in America at about the same time, as the result of the discoveries of the
late Dr. Leo H. Baekeland. Portrait film was introduced about 1920
and projection printing came into general use about the same time:
Since the early twenties developments in all phases of the art have beell
fundamental and rapid, culminating with the introduction of natural
TABLE
1. VALUE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PRODUCTS: 1947 a
Items
7'otals
Motion-picture equipment, except film ................................ $ 90,102

Cameras: 35 mm.: $1,820; 16 mm.: $5,556; 8 mm.: $14,904
I
Projectors: 35 mm. standard: $4,035; sound equipment: $2,822; arc'
lamphouses: $1,965
Projectors: 16 mm. sound: $17,906; 16 mm. silent: $4,133; 8 mm. $15,437
Motion-picture projection screens: $5,599; developing and printing
equipment: $1,679; parts, attachments, accessories, etc.: $14,246
95,822
Still-picture equipment, except film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Still cameras (excluding photocopying and microfilming)
Hand-type cameras, variable-focus, roll film, 35 mm. or under: $1l,075;
over 35 mm. and sheet: $11,796
Hand-type cameras, fixed-focus, roll film, 35 mm.: $934; roll film, over
35 mm.: $15,450
View and studio cameras: $964; photoengraving and photolithography
cameras: $2,147; other still cameras: $1,940
Photocopying equipment: $3,529
Blueprinting, Van Dyke, and whiteprinting equipment: $5,773
Projectors: $5,584.;. enlargers: $4,482
Other still-picture equipment, etc.: $32,108
Film, total. .......................................... :. . . . . . . . . . .. 142,773
X-ray film: $31,525; photographic glass plates and slides: $2,479
Sheet film and pack film: $12,596; graphic arts film: $7,234
Other film, motion picture, black-white, color, amateur roll, still color,
aerofilm, .microfilm, etc.: ~88,939
Ph!)tographic paper and cloth, ............ " . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . ..
60,079
Blueprint type: $5,945; silver halide type: $41,575
Van Dyke type: $814; Diazo type: $9,276
Photographic (sensitized) paper and cloth, n.e.c.: $2,469
Prepared photographic chemicals (developers, fixers, and toners).. . . . . . . .
9,199
Other photographic equipment and supplies (largely film base, paper base,
and other raw materials) ......................................... .'
35,832
Entire industry photographic equipment and supplies .... -:-:-............. '$433,807
a
1947 Census of Manufactures. No details available for 1955.
color film about 1928 and practical amateur color prints in 1941. It is
this latter field, color photography, that now holds the most promise for
the future. The present advanced position of the photographic industry
was attained as the result of thorough research on the fundamentals in
this field and their application.
Statistics and Economics. The value of photographic equipment and
supplies manufactured ill the United States inereased from 126 million
482
dollars in 1939 to 434 million dollars in 1947 and to 638 million dollars for
1952. Table 1 gives the breakdown for the 1947 figure, which is the last
year for which any details are available.
Photographic Process. Cameras. The essential parts of a camera
include (1) a lightproof chamber, (2) a lens for forming the image, (3) a
device for supporting the film or plate, (4) a shutter for controlling the
quantity of light admitted, and (5) a view finder for determining the area
being photographed. Two additional accessories, not absolutely necessary but extremely useful, are a focusing device and a diaphragm. All
types of cameras have these parts and differ only in their degree of refinement and method of operation. They may be classified as box cameras,
folding cameras, reflex cameras, plate and film-pack cameras, view and
studio cameras, miniature cameras, and a group of special varieties which
include stereo cameras, panoramic cameras, and recording cameras. In
addition to the so-called still cameras, there are numerous varieties of
motion-picture cameras.
Photographic Materials. A review of materials used for recording
the photographic image resolves itself quite logically into three parts:
(1) a discussion of the various types of film or plate for"the negative image
-orthochromatic, panchromatic, infrared, and color, (2) a description
of the different papers for the positive image-chloride, bromide, and
chloro-bromide, and (3) a brief mention of ,so-called transparencies.
All films and plates consist essentially of an emulsion on a film support~
of cellulose acetate or a polyester (related to Dacron fiber), or on glass.
The emulsion is composed of a suspension of minute silver halide crystal::"
in gelatine, suitably sensitized by the addition of certain dyes or various
classes of sulfur compounds. lit addition, antifogging agents, hardening agents, and an antihalation backing are also used. The back of
the film is generally coated with a layer of hardened gelatine to prev~nt
curling.
.
Ordinary emulsions, to which no specially sensitizing material has been
added, are sensitive only to blue and-ultraviolet. Orthochromatic emulsions are sensitive to the above and also to green, while panchromatic
lemulsions are sensitive to all colors of the visible spectrum. The latter
type may be further subdivided into Type A, sensitive highly to blue and
with much lower sensitivity to green and red; Type B, or orthopanchromatic with a high green and blue sensitivity and a slightly lower red
sensitivity; and Type C, or hyperpanchromatic with a fairly high green
sensitivity and an extremely high red sensitivity. Infrared emulsions, as
their name implies, are sensitive beyond the visible spectrum and respond
to wave lengths as long as 13,000 A. Many organic dyes can be used as
sensiti~ing compounds,' but the sensitizers most commonly used today
1 KORNFELD, The Action of Optical Sensitizers on the Photographic Plate, general summary with !JO references, J. Phys. Chem., 42, 7!J5 (l!J38); KIRK and OTHMER,
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS
483
belong to the cyanines, merocyanines, xanthenes, styryls, or the flavine

series. These dyes are essentially transformers of energy, changing the
light that they absorb into wave lengths that affect the photographic
emulsion.
The support for most photographic papers! is made from high-grade
sulfite pulp, prepared in both single and double weights and coated with
a layer of precipitated barium sulfate in hardened gelatine to present a
smooth surface for the light-sensitive emulsion.
Lantern slides that have a glass support and motion-picture film, the
base of which is generally cellulose acetate, both constitute the transparencies of the photographic industry. Naturally these have an emulsion
coating.
Development and Fixing. 2 Modern developing solutions contain mainly
four functional constituents: an organic reducing agent, a preservative,
an accelerator, and a restrainer. The function of the reducing agent is to
reduce, chemically, the silver halide to metallic silver at the various points
where light has produced the latent image. As this reduction is a rate
process, the practical developers are those which reduce the silver halide
of the latent image to silver much faster than is the reduction of the silver
halide unaffected by light. Chemically they are polyhydroxy, aminohydroxy, or polyamine derivatives mostly of the aromatic series. Less
than a dozen different chemicals are in common use today. These include
pyrogallol or 1,2,3-trihydroxy-benzene, hydro quinone or p-dihydroxybenzene, Pictol, Elon or Metol or sulfate of N-methyl-p-aminophenol,
glycin or Eikonogen or sodium salt of l-amino-2-;naphthol-6-sulfonate,
Amidol or the mono-hydrochloride of the 2,4-diamino-phenol, Rodinol
or p-amino-phenol and p-phenylene-diamine.
The preservatives guard the developer against aerial oxidation. The
most common is sodium sulfite but the bisulfite and metabisulfite are
also employed. The accelerators increase the alkalinity of the developing
solution and hence increase the activity of most of the developing or
reducing agents. They include the carbonates of sodium and potassium,
sodium meta borate, and borax. In order to control the speed of. the
alkalized developer it is necessary to employ a restrainer, usually potassium bromide. Other ~gents added to the developing solution in a limited
way include various hardeners (formaldehyde o~ chrome alum), citric
op. cit., Vol. 10, p. 559. This article by T. H. James with 60 references should be consulted for further information on this entire chapter.
1 DUTl'ON, Types of 'Photographic. Papers, Am. Phot., 32, 872-883 (1938); WHEELER,
"Photographic PrintingIProcesses," Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1930.
RABINOWITSCH, The; Mechanism of Develop'ment, J. Phys., 6, 232 (1934); "The
Chemistry of Photography;" Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, St. Louis, 1935; O'HARA
and OSTERBERG, "Practical Photographic Chemistry," American Photographic Publishing Company, New York, 1952.
484
acid for clarification, methanol as a solvent, and various sugars to control

the rate of diffusion of the developer into the emulsion.
The theory! of the development of the photographic image is connected
with the properties of the emulsion. In the emulsion there are sensitive
spots where Ag 2S molecules are present (cf. Emulsions, page 485). When
a minute amount of light energy is absorbed by these supersensitive
molecules, a free atom of silver is liberated. These almost infinitesimal
nuclei of silver (within the silver halide grains) constitute the latent
image that is changed into the visible image by the developer depositing on these nuclei sufficient metallic silver from the silver haloids of
the emulsion. In the presence of sufficient sulfite a typical developer:
N-methyl-p-amino-phenol (Metol) probably reacts as follows:
CH 3N H - O - O H
+ 2AgBr + Na S03
2
S03Na
---7
CH3NH-O-OH
+ 2Ag + HBr + NaBr
Modern fixing agents 2 are of the nonhardening or acid-hardening type.

Their main purpose is to render the silver image permanent by dissolving
away the undeveloped silver halide. In ~ddition, the acid-hardening
baths neutralize the alkali of the occluded developer and harden the
emulsion. The latter type is most commonly employed and includes a
silver halide solvent (sodium or ammonium thiosulfate), an antistaining
agent (acetic or citric acid), a preservative (sodium sulfite), and a hardening agent (potassium chrome alum or formaldehyde).
The photographic process may be summarized by these steps: exposure of the negative film or plate in a camera followed by development of
the latent image, fixing of the image by remov,al of the unaffected but
still sensitive silver halides, and drying of the negative. The negative is
used to make a positive usually on paper, which is subjected to the same
sequences of development, fixation, and drying.
/ Manufacture of Films, Plates, and Papers. ~n the making of photographic films, plates, and papers three distinct steps are carried on: (1)
the preparation of the light-sensitive emulsion, (2) the manufacture of
the base or support for the emulsion, and (3) the coating of the emulsion
on the base. The flow sheet shown in Fig. 1 gives a general representation
of the manufacturing steps involved.
I JAMES and, KORNFELD, Reduction of Silver Halides and the Mechanism of Photographic; Development, Chern. Rev., 30, 1-32 (1942), 1.~3 references; MEEs, "The
Theory of the Photographic Process," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942;
KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 10, pp. 565jJ.
2 MEEs, op. cit., Chap. XIII.
MANUFACTURE OF FILMS, PLA'fES, AND PAPERS
485
Emulsions. The so-called photographic emulsion is in reality not a

true emulsion but rather a dispersion of tiny siber halide crystals in
gelatine which serves as a mechanical binder, a protective colloid, and
a sensitizer for the halide grains.
Many different types of silver halide emulsions are manufactured,
the characteristics of each being dependent upon the silver halide used
and the details of manufacture. In slow positive emulsions for photographic papers the bromide, chloride, and chloro-bromide are chosen.
ChI oro-bromide and pure bromide emulsions are also employed for lantern
slides and other very slow plates. All fast emulsions, usually for negatives,
contain silver bromide and small amounts of silver iodide. The iodide
is essential for high-speed types but seldom exceeds 5 per cent. The
finished emulsion generally consists of 35 to 40 per cent silver halide and
65 to 60 per cent gelatine.!
The manufacture 2 of the emulsion may be divided into four principal
steps: precipitation, first ripening, washing, and second or afterripening.
The following presentation will deal with AgBr-AgI emulsion and is
further illustrated by Fig. 1.
t. Precipitation. The gelatine after soaking in cold water for about
20 min. is dissolved in hot water. The requisite quantities of KBr and
KI are dissolved in this solution, which is then ready to receive the AgN0 3
solution. In the case of the ammonia process a 10 to 15 per cent excess
of KBr is used and the amount of gelatine is 20 to 60 per cent of the total
required in the finished emulsion. For neutral or "boiled." emulsions a
2 to 5 per cent excess of KBr is generally used and lQ to 20 per cent of the
total gelatine.
In the ammonia process a silver nitrate solution is mixed with concentrated ammonia unti: the initial precipitate of Ag 2 0 redissolves.
This solution is added slowly, with thorough mixing, to the halide-gelatine
solution. The mixing temperature is usually about 40C.; at 50C. and
higher, fog will appear.
For neutral emulsions no ammonia is used. A 10 per cent silver nitrate
solution is added to the halide-gelatine solution at 60 to 80 a C.
In this mixing operation an excess of KBr is necessary to produce
large grain size and tq prevent interaction of silver ions with the gelatine.
The KBr solution is prepared with a relatively Small part of the total
gelatine, as too muchrof the latter would interfere with grain growth during the ripening step.! Moreover, the principal part of the gelatine is protected from the harmful influence of heat and ammonia. However, care
should be taken that AgBr does not set,tle out owing to the smaller quan1
CARROLL,
L
The Preparation of Photographic 'Emulsions, J. Chem. Educ., 8, 2341-
2367 (1931).
ANON., Photographic Sensitizing, Chem. Eng., 60 (5), 274 (1953), pictured flow
sheets.
486
tity of gelatine. Careful control of the mixing process is essential, as the

concentrations of the solutions, the temperature, and the manner in
which the AgNO a solution is added all have a pronounced effect on the
character of the emulsion.
2. First Ripening. The ripening or digesting process is essentially a
continuation of grain growth under the influence of heat, the temperature
being about the same as that of the mixing step. The excess of KBr in
the emulsion increases the solvent capacity for i AgBr. The small crystals,
~~~~.~!~~i'~~'!:'_~~:"""EmUlslon............................ ~~~.~!+!~~'~~!:'~''''''fil!~.~~...-................j
Notes: Chrome olum. preservative, (phenol or thymol). SO?nin. KBr and sensitizing dyes added
here. If special popers are being coated, they enter here. (9 6elatine and solvent used for
substratum coating. @ Gelatine added at close of ripening period
Potassium bromide 22.5 lb.
Potassium iodide
0.6 Ib.
80.0 Ib.
Gelatine
Silver nitrite
20 Ib
Cellulose ocetote 450 lb.
Glycerine
50 lb.
~thY~ alcohol 1~
ce one
10,000 sq.ft.
qa:. } Per
of film: solvents
qa.
mostly recovered
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for making photographic film and paper. Extreme cleanliness
must be practiced and appropriate safety light provided after silver halide has been
formed.
being more soluble than the large ones, tend to dissolve and reprecipitate
upon the large crystals.! Since the sensitivity of the final product is
dependent 'upon the graiq size, the ripening step is an important one and
warrants careful regulation. If this process is carried too far, the finished
/ plate or fihl,l will be subject to fogging. After the first ripening, no more
crystal growth takes place.
3. Washing. At the close of the first ripening process, the balance of
the gelatine, previously soaked in water, is added slowly with thorough
stirring. The emulsion is then cooled to about "10C. ,to produce a firm
jelly. It is important to chill the emulsion as quickly as possible, so that
the ripening process is suddenly interrupted at the proper point, .In
order to a~tain maximum solidity, the emulsion may be permitted to
stanq oveniight in rcfrigerated rooms, or it may he chilled in silver-plated
1 HANSON,
(1941).
The Preparation of Photographic Emulsiuns, Am. Phot., 31i, 560-566
MANUFACTURE OF FIJ,MS, PLATES, AND PAPERS
487
metal pans cooled with brine. The lat.ter method allows the next step
to proceed after 2 to 3 hr.
The cold jellied emulsion is shredded into small" noodles," 2 to 5 mm.
in diameter. This is accomplished in the noodle press, where a piston
operating in a silver-plated cylinder of bronze or nickel forces the jelly
through a screen (see Fig. 1). The noodles are dumped into a wire basket
set in a wooden or stoneware tank, where they are washed for several
hours in cold running water (less than lOoC.) to remove free NHa, KNO a,
NH 4NO a, and excess KBr. A careful control of the washing process is
essential, as a certain amount of residual KBr is highly desirable in the
emulsion to inhibit fogging during development. Some hardness in the
wash water is desirable, as bivalent cations inhibit swelling of the gelatine. l
Consequently a solution of CaS04 is used frequently for the wash water.
4. Afterripening (Chemical Sensitizing). The emulsion noodles are freed
as much as possible from mechanically adhering water by drainage.
They are next melted at about 45C. Gelatine may be added to compensate for the water carried by the swollen noodles. The noodles are digested
for some time at 50C. in the afterripening or second ripening tank as
depicted in Fig. 1. No crystal growth takes place during this treatment,
the chief effect of which is an increased sensitivity due to the formation of
minute activated centers of Ag 2S by a reaction of the halide with sulfurcontaining substances occurring in the gelatine. 2 These are allyl isothiocyanate (mustard oil) and related compounds. In the case of the
ammonia process the after-ripening may be omitted, since most of the
Ag 2S centers are probably formed during the first ripe~ing, presumably by
t.he following reactions:
S
CaH5N=C=S
Allyl isothio-
II
+ NHa ~ C3H5-NH-C--XJl~
Allyl thiocarbamidl'
~yanate
If the afterripening[ process is carried too far, a decrease in sensitivity

begins to occur. Emulsions containing iodide can be ripened for a longer
time without fog formation than can pure bromide emulsions. For this
reason a much higher, sensitivity can be obtained with the former type.
Before coating th~, emulsion on the support, it is customary to add
chrome alum or forn~aldehyde as a hardening agent. Phenol or thymol
1 CARROLL,
2 HANSON,
op. cit.
op. cit.
488
may be introduced to prevent the growth of mold or bacterial attack.

The addition of KBr at this stage is an aid in the prevention of fog. The
introduction of amyl alcohol or saponin serves to depress the surface
tension of the liquid emulsion, facilitating uniform foam-free spreading
on the support. The sensitizing dyes for orthochromatic or panchromatic films are here added to the emulsion. The warm fluid emulsion is
filtered and is then ready to be coated on the support.
Preparation of the Support. The support for the photographic emulsion
can be of glass, paper, or cellulose acetate or polyester film. The use of
nitro-cellulose for photographic film was abandoned about 1951. Before
1888 glass was universally used. In that year George Eastman designed
his first roll-film camera. Glass plates are still employed for many scientific and commercial purposes, map making, and some copying and color
printing jobs. Glass has the advantages of fr~dom from distortion and
not deteriorating with age. Glass plates are made from high-quality,
thin sheet glass. Their preparation for the emulsion includes preliminary
inspection and automatic cleaning by revolving brushes in a strong soda
solution. They are coated with a thin substratum of gelatine containing
chrome alum, dried in ovens, inspected, packed in trays, and transferred
to the coating room.
The white flaky cellulose acetate for film has an acetyl content of 39.5
to 42.0 per cent. It is insoluble in chloroform but dissolves in acetone.
Chloroform-soluble acetate is not strong enough for photographic film.
To decrease the tendency of cellulose acetate to stretch in water and
shrink after drying, substances such as triphenyl phosphate are generally
added. This highly viscous solution is known as "dope." Filtration,
aeration, and temperature adjustment are necessary before sending the
"dope" to the film base-coating machines (Figs. 1 and 2). Each machine
has a heated, rotating drum 20 ft. in diameter by 4 to 6 ft. wide. It is
coated with silver. By the time the drum has made one revolution the
solvents have evaporated. T he film is stripped off, wound into rolls, and
transferred to the cooling rooms. The solvents may be recovered by
adsorption on activated carbon.
The acetate film is given a thin undercoat or substratum (the "subbing") of gelatine and chrome alum to increase the adhesiveness of the
light-sensitive emulsion. The base for photographic papers is coated with
gelatine containing blanc fixe (precipitated barium sulfate) to mask the
cellulose impurities from the halide salts. Sometimes china. clay or satin
white (a coprecipitate of calcium sulfate and aluminum hydroxide) is
used instead of blanc fixe.
Coating. Glass plates are coated on a traveling belt, the fluid emulsion
flowing onto the glass surface. The coated glass then proceeds onto a belt
or rollers which are kept wet with ice-cold water to set the emulsion. The
plates are removed, dried, cut into requisite sizes, and packed.
IlANUJ'ACTURil OJ' J'ILII8, PLATES, AND PAPERS
489
0GMiDc both fillD8 and papen,l the base moves on rollers into the
Vouch containing the liquid emulaion as represented in Figs. 1
_.11.
Tbe excess emulsion draining off as the support leaves the trough
uniform coat. The coated base pa88e8 over a chill roll or into a
ebamber to set the emulsion. After leaving the chill roll or
FlO.
2. Coatiq of film baee with licht-eelllitfve emulsion. (Courteay 01 EaaInum
KodM Co.)
chamber, the film or paper is automatically looped into festoons 5 to 20

ft. long, which are moved slowly through a drying tunnel supplied with
warm, filtered air.
The finished film is spooled for use. Naturally the preparation of the
emulaion and its ~iing onto the base must be conducted in air-conditioned rooms, illummated only with ligbte for the particular emulaion
being manufactured.
IUOII., PbcKopoapbic 8eoaitisiDc. C__ ..... ., (6), 274 (1953), pictured flow
__ for phoqraphic paper.
490
Color Photography.' Natural-color processes can be divided into two

classes: additive and subtractive processes. In the former the colored
light reflected or transmitted by each image is transferred directly to
the observer's eye, independent of the other images; in the subtractive
processes the light first passes through a number of the images in succession. Each image subtracts or removes certain of the light components,
until the final transmitted t otal contains only those components necessary
RED
PRIMARY THREE COLOR FILTERS _ _

CAMERA,LATENT IMAGE ~~~LSal.?s~: _ _
R"",,,uctlon 01 SubJ...
FIG. 3. Schematic diagram of t hree-color photography. (Courteay 01 Baatman Kodak

Co.)
to reproduce the original colors. Figure 3 presents a schematic outline of

three-color photography.
The additive processes of modern importance are the mosaic-screen
ones, known as Agfa color, Autochrome, Dufay color, and the Finlay
process. In these processes the image plane contains tiny differential areas,
each of which acts as a color filter. The sum total of light from all these
areas produces, to the eye, a colored image.
In the subtractive processes, the final positive is the composite sum of
the effects produced by t hree (or more) transparencies superimposed one
upon the other on the same film. In the reversal subtractive processes
(Kodachrome 2 ) the color transparency is produced directly. The Ansco
I HENNEY, "Color Photography for the Amateur," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1948; HARRISON, Theory of Additive Three-color Photography,
Photo J ., December, 1939, p. 706 ; SPENCER, Colour Phoqraphy in Practice, 3d ed.,
Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1948; "Kodak Color Handbook," Eastman
Kodak Co., Rochester, N.Y., 1950; EvANS, et al., "Principles of Color Photography,"
For detailed description of Kodachrome film and ita historical development Bee
"Encyclopaedia Britannica," Vol. 17, p. 816, 1952.
PHOTOMECH.\NICAL II.EPBODUCl'10N
491
61m is also a multilayer subtractive or complementary type conof a "pack" of three color-sensitized emulsion layers and a filter
on acetate film. The total thickness of the pack is only
_ _ IY more than that of most black-and-white negative emulsions.
layen are in the following order, top to bottom: blue-sensitive
.....iabes yellow dye record) ; yellow filter (screens blue light from lower
1Ifen) ; green-eensitive (furnishes magenta dye record) ; red-sensitive
cyan dye record); base; antihalation backcoating. Not e that the
..... of the dye records are complementary to the subject colors. When
.... a negative is printed on color-positive film, a positive print results
JIIJIIOducing the color and range of light values of the subject.
Kodacolor (Eastman color) film and prints are similar t o Ansco color,
first a color negative from which any number of color positives can
made. In the remaining prooesses, separation negatives are made which
~ be printed by one of the color-printing processes, all of which are
..wuactive. These latter processes include (1) imbibition dye printing,
man Dye transfer and Curtis Orthotone; (2) imbibition ink printing.
ltJomoil Transfer; (3) tricolor pigment printing, Carbro process; and
metal toning, Chromatone process.
In addition, there are certain processes in which the reversal emulsion
"lIltiOllted above is used for printing. These are Kodachrome prints and
which are Kodachrome emulsions on a white opaque
eeUulose acetate base.
Pictures in color are extensively employed by the public, especially for
. . 8- and 16-mm. motion-picture film. This is remarkable in view of the
oomplexity of the manufacturing sequences for color photographs and
for their processing. In these color films, the coupler method is used to
JUke the dyes, whereby the reduced developer combines to form the
color, either with constituents in each layer or brought in during
.... processing.
Alt hough three-color separation negatives can be made in a standard
,ibn-pack camera by means of a specially constructed so-called tripook,
b is much more satisfactory to employ a special single-mirror or doublemirror camera, in which three or more selectively sensitized films are
uposed singly, but simultaneously, to record each its special color, the
eomposite of which is the true color reproduction.
Photomechanica1 Reproduction.1 Photography finds one of its most
important modem applications in the reproduction of photographs on the
printed page by means of printing inks. These processes may be classi&ad as (1) relief printing (photoengraving), (2) intaglio printing (photo-
.-m
1 GBOIIBBIIIClt, "The Process and Practice

~, Ioc., New York, 1924; IlACltLIIIlAN,
of Photoengraving," Doubleday &: Com"Commercial Engraving and Printing,"

Cammercia1 Engraving Publishing Co., Indianapolis, 1924; MUTLE, et al., " Photolithopaphy and Off8l't Printinp;," Graphic Arts Publishing Co., Chicago, 1937.
492
gravure, rotogravure, and metal engraving), and (3) planographic printing (lithography, photolithography).
In relief printing the raised portion of a plate receives the ink for
transference to the paper. So-called line plates and halftone plates are
used. The line plates are prepared by exposing a negative against a zinc
plate coated with sensitive albumen and ammonium dichromate. The
exposed zinc positive plate is coated with greasy ink and washed with
warm water to remove the unexposed light-sensitive coating. Topping
powder (dragon's blood) is next dusted on the remaining inked areas
and burned in to form an acid-resistant layer, after which the plate is
immersed in nitric acid to dissolve out the exposed areas, leaving the
image in relief upon the plate, to which the ink adheres in printing.
Halftone plates are made by copying the picture on standard photographic film through a halftone screen, which produces a dot pattern of
different intensity and then engraving in the manner described above,
using, instead of zinc, a copper plate. The halftone screen is made by
ruling a series of fine straight lines on a plate of high-grade optical glass
and filling the grooves with opaque pigment. The lines are ruled at an
angle of 45 deg. with the vertical. Two such plates, with their lines
crossing at right angles, are cemented together to produce the" screen."
Fidelity of reproduction is controlled by the fineness of the screen used,
the coarsest being 55 lines per inch and the finest 400 lines per inch.
With intaglio printing, the procedure is reversed from relief printing,
the hollow regions of the plate holding the ink. In photogravure intaglio
printing, a positive transparency is made and brought in contact with a
sheet of dichromated gelatine and exposed to light, insolubilizing the gelatine in the light areas of the photograph. Meanwhile, a copper plate has
been coated with finely p()wdered resin, which is burned onto the plate.
The gelatine sheet is softened in water and placed in contact with the
copper plate. It is immersed in water to remove the backing and finally
further washed in warm water to dissolve the gelatine that composed the
dark portions of the original picture. The plate is now etched with iron
perchloride, the insoluble gelatine retarding selectively the rate of etching
/ on the vll:rious portions to which it has adhered. The resultant copper
image is iron-faced by ele.ctroplating.
Rotogravure is similar to photogravure, except that.a metal cylinder
instead of a plate is used, and a "screen" similar to the halftone screen
is employed for the gelatine image described above.
Planographic printing, or lithography,! makes use of the inability o( a
water-wet s~rface to take ink. ,A zinc or aluminum plate is roughened in
order to make it capable of retaining water and coated with dichromated
albu~en. A line negative, or halftone negative prepared as described
1 Originally lithography meant engraving on stone and printing therefrom. The
employment of stone is not favored now except for small jobs.
BLUEPRINTING
493
above, is exposed in contact with the plate, after which the insolubilized
image is coated with a greasy ink and the whole soaked in warm water to
remove the soluble albumen. Subsequent etching with acid gum arabic
renders the exposed surface repellent to ink but does not attack the metal.
A water solution of gum arabic, next added, protects the bare portions of
the lithographic plate, which is printed by the so-called offset printing
process. Lithographic plates are particularly adaptable to illustrative work
in color, the usual separation negatives being used in their preparation.
Blueprinting. This widely used reproductive process is dependent on
the fact that ferric ions are reduced to ferrous ions in the presence of
organic matter and under the influence of strong light. Paper is coated
with a solution of ferric ammonium citrate and potassium ferricyanide.
If a line drawing is placed over such a prepared paper, exposed to strong
light, and treated with water (as both a developing and fixing agent), the
blue image appears wherever the light reduced the ferric ion. The image
is the insoluble blue ferrous ferricyanide, Fe3[Fe(CN)&]2.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Mees, C. E. K., "The Theory of the Photographic Process," The Macmillan Company,
New York, 1942. Comprehensive volume of 1,124 pp.
Neblette, C. B., "Photography, Its Material and Processes," 5th ed., D. Van Nostrand
Dunn, C. E., "l'Tatural Color Processes," 4th ed., American Photographic Publishing
Company, Boston, 1945.
Ullmann, Fritz, "Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 2 iiuf., Vol. 8, pp. 392-468,
Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1928-1932.
Meidinger, W., "Handbuch der wissenschaftlichen und angewandten Photographie,"
Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1932.
"Encyclopaedia Britannica," 1952 ed., Vol. 17, pp. 800ff.
Henney, Keith, "Color Photography for the Amateur," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Quarles, G. G., "Elementary Photography," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Friedman, J. S., "HistorY of Color Photography," 3d printing, American Photographic Publishing Company, Boston, 1947.
Evans, R. M., et ai., "Principles of Color Photography," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1953.
Baker, T. T., "Photographic Emulsion Technique," 2d ed., American Photographic
Publishing Company, Boston, 1948.
James, T. H., and G. C.IHiggins, "Fundamentals of Photographic Theory," John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1948.
CHAPTER
24
PAINT, VARNISH, LACQUER, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES
The use of organic surface-protecting coatings is of the utmost importance in preserving the country's homes, churches, buildings, and factories from the ordinary attacks of the weather. Uncoated, or as we say
"unpainted," wood and steel are particularly susceptible to deterioration
especially in the cities where soot and sulfur dioxide accelerate such
action. The" paint-up" campaign should be supported by everyone, for
it protects the capital of the nation invested in structures.
TABLE
1.
VALUE OF SHIPMENTS OF PAINTS, VARNISHES, LACQUERS, AND ALLIED

PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES
Paints and varnishes, total.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Oil and water paints and stains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other paint products, n.e.c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Paints not specified by kind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Varnishes, lacquers, enamels, thinners, and dopes....
Inorganic color pigments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Whiting, putty, and wood fillers .................... , .
1952
1947
SI ,377,374
613,280
. ........ .
. ........ .
681,074
337,403
, .. , ...... .
$1,204,540
570,336
43,397
24,647
566,160
279,957
29,007
Annual Survey of Manufactures, 1952. Total sales for 1953 were $1,402,733,000.
Apart from their purely protective action, paints, varnishes, and

by their decorative effect, greatly "increase the attractiveness
and aesthetic appeal of a community of homes or the interior of a room.
Here is a calle where art and utility proceed hand in hand. Indeed some
of the research toward obtaining longer-lasting out-of-door paint has
enabled the manufacturers of artists' colors to produce more permanent
colors for purely artistic purposes.
Historical. The surface-coating industry is indeed an ancient one~
The origin of paints dates back to prehistoric times when the inhabitants
of the earth recorded some of their activities in colors on the walls of their
caves. These crude paints consisted probably of colored earths or clays
suspended in water. The Egyptians, starting very early, developed the
art of painting and by 1500 B.C. had a wide number and variety of colors.
494
~cquers,
CONSTITUENTS
495
Arounu 1000 D.C. they discovered the forerunner of our present-day

varnishes, using naturally occurring resins or beeswax for their filmformiJtl ingredient. Pliny outlined the manufacture of white lead from
lead and vinegar, and it is probable that this ancient procedure resembles
the old Dutch process. It is in more recent years, however, that the
surface-coating industry has made its greatest strides owing to the results
of scientific research and application of modern engineering.
Uses and Economics. The manufacture of paints, pigments, lacquers,
and varnishes is an industry which has an annual production value of
well over 1 billion dollars and whose products are of vital importance in
our everyday life. Table 1 gives a comprehensive economic picture of the
industry. Tn 1948 latex emulsion paints were developed commercially and
now account for over half of the sales of interior paints' with a reduction
in the oil- and alkyd-based interior flat paints.
PAINTSt
A paint is a mixture of usually opaque solids, dispersed in a liquid medium

which is used as a protective and/or decorative coating for suitable surfaces,
which dries by the oxidation, polymerization, and evaporation of portions of its
components, and which contains only a small proportion, if any, of resins. 2
Constituents. The constituents of paints are outlined in Tables 2 and 3.

The pigment, while usually an inorganic substance,/may also be a pure
insoluble organic dye known as a toner or an organic dye precipitated
on an inorganic carrier such as aluminum hydroxide, barium sulfate, or
clay, thus constituting a lake. -Pigment extenders or fillers act to reduce
the cost of the paint and frequently to increase the l durability. The
function of the pigments and the fillers is not to provide simply a colored
surface pleasing for its aesthetic appeal, important as that may be. The
solid particles in the paint reflect much of the destructive light rays and
thus help to prolong the ,life of the entire paint. In general, pigments
should be opaque to ensur,e good covering power and be chemically inert
to secure stability and hence long life. The pigments now acceptable
should be nontoxic or at least,of very low toxicity to-both the painter and
the inhabitants. Final~y the pigments must have mixing ability toward
the film-forming constituents and be of low cost. Different pigments
possess different covering power per pound. Table 4 evaluates some white
pigments in terms of cost; however, weathering ability is not considered.
Without film-forming materials, the pigrpents would not be held onto
1 Ct. the five volumes under the editorship of the late Joseph MattieIIo, entitled
"Protective and Decorative Coatings, Paints, Varnishes, Lacquers, and Inks," John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1941. These should be consulted by anyone wanting
detailed knowledge of any phase of this field.
2 GOLDING, BRAGE, LiIIy Varnish Company.
496
PAINT, VARNISH, LACQUER, AND ALUEn INDUS'l'RlF.S
tne surface. These paint films are formed by the" drying" of various
unsaturated oils such as are listed in Table 2 and further described in
Chap. 28. The drying is a chemical change representing oxidation and
polymerization; it. is hastened by pretreatment of the oil and by adding
driers, predominantly heavy-metallic soaps,l which are oxygen carriers
usually soluble in oil. These driers need Qe used in only small amounts
(1 to 2 per cent by weight) yet about 35,000,000 lb. are manufactured
annually. In emulsion-base paints, the film-forming materials are the
various latices with or without other additions. The film formation takes
place largely by coalescence of dispersed resin particles to form a strong
continuous film.
As paints are mechanical mixtures, the pigments and exten<;lers are
carried or suspended in a vehicle. This vehicle is the film-forming oil to
which other liquids are added in varying amounts not only in the factory
but by the painter on the job. The diluent or thinner used for this purpose
is a volatile liquid like turpentine or turpentine substitute, the latter
usually being a ~~troleum naphtha of the approximate evaporating rate
of turpentine. To reduce certain aspects of cracking in paints, plasticizers
are being introduced into the formulas, Jargely by proper choice of the oils.
Proper paint formulation' ,centers around the specific requirements in
the particular application. These requirements may be listed as hiding,
color, weather resistance, washability, gloss, metal anticorrosive properties and consistency as related to type of ;tpplication (brushing, dipping,
spraying, or roller coating). The individual requirements are met by
proper choice of pigments, extenders, and vehicles by the paint formulator. Since the techniqu~s of paint formulation are still largely empirical,
it is difficult to predict the properties of a specific formulation and this
means a considerable number of trials have to be run before the desired
properties are obtained.
For the modern paint formulator, some authorities believe the most,
important concept is that of pigment volume concentration, or P.V.C.
It is defined simply as
/
P.V.C.
volume of pigment in paint

volume of pigment in the paint + volume of nonvolatile vehicle constituents in the paint,
The P.V.C. largely controls such factors as gloss, rheological properties,

washability, and durability. The inherent oil refJuirements of the pigmentextender Gombination being ,used does, however, affect the P.V.C. used
in III given formulation.
1 ELLIOTT, "The Alkaline Earth and Heavy-metal Soaps," Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1946; KASTENS and HANSEN, Drier Soap Manufacture, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 41, 2080 (1949).
497
As a consequence there is usually a range of P.V.C. for a given paint,

as indicated in the following:
Flat paints ................. .

Semigloss paints ............. .
Gloss paints ................ .
P.V.C.,
P.V.C.,
per cent
per cent
50-75
35-45
25-35
Exterior house paints ........ .

Metal primers .............. .
Wood primers .............. .
28-36
25-40
35-40
The P.V.C. of a given formulation serves as the guide for reformulation

work using different pigment or vehicle combinations, and as such is
extremely useful to the paint formulator.
Manufacturing Procedures. The various operations needed to mix
paints are wholly 'physical. These unit operations are shown in proper
NOTe' lkcaus~ a complm pt?inf f'adrJry consumes upward Dt' ;;000 t:/il'1itl'.mf raw imrtWial..
and prOdVCBS trn rimes as Ifl<7I1Y Finish"d
products, if is not passihl. give yields, efe.
*'
*Severol types of grinding mills may be used

in the some plant either in series or in parallel
The types now used include ball and pl'bble
m/~/s and roller mills.
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for mixing of paint.
sequence in the flow sheet! of Fig. 1. Chemical changes or unit processes

are 'involved in the manufacture of the constituents of paints ;tS well as
in the drying of the film.
A modern paint factory may consume 2,000 raw materials and produce
ten times that number'of finished products, so great is the variety of surface coatings needed for public demands. The manufacturing procedures
illustrated in Fig. 1 and described here are for a mass-production paint.
The first operations are housed on the top floor so that, as manufacturing
continues, the materials can be transferred easily and economically from
floor to floor by gravity. The weighing, assembling, and mixing of the
pigments and vehicles are done on the top floor. The mixer may be similar to a large dough kneader, with sigma blades.
The batch masses ate conveyed to the fl~or below, where grinding and
further mixing take pl'ace. A variety of grinding mills may be used. One
of the oldest methods is grinding or dispersion between two buhrstones;
1
A pictured flow sheet is given in Chem. &: Met. Eng., 46, 157 (1939).
498
however, steel roller mills using as many as five rolls or ball and pebble
mills are generally used now. It is very important to have correct proportions of pigments and vehicles in grinding.
This mixing and grinding of pigments in oil requires much skill and
experience to secure a smooth product without too high a cost. Perry!
TABLE 2. PAINT CONSTITUENTS, ExCEPT FOR PIGMENTS (TABLE 3)
Ingredient
1. Film-forming materials:
Linseed oil, Soybean-oil
Tung oil, Dehydrated castor oil
Tall oil, Fish oils
Oiticica oil, Perilla oil
Casein, Latex emulsions
Varnishes
Function
To form the protective film through oxidation and polymerization of the unsaturated constituents of the drying oil
2. Thinners:
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, as mineral To suspend pigments, dissolve filmforming material and to thin concenspirits, naphtha, other petroleum
fractions
trated paints for better handling
"'--_
Turpentine, dipentenes
Aromatic hydrocarbons, as toluol, xylol,
methylated naphthalene
3. Driers:
Co, Mn, Pb, Zn naphthenates, resi- To accelerate the drying of the 'film
nates, octoates, linoleates, tallates
" ~hrough oxidation and polymerizatioir
4. Antiskinning agents:
To prevent gelling and skinning of the
Poly hydroxy phenols
finished product before application
5. Plasticizers
-.. __ ..................
To give elasticity to film, thus min!mizing
Some oils
or preventing cracking
ot:
presents these unit operations in a very useful manner with pictures

various mills and tabulations of the engineering factors concerned.
The paint is transferred to the next lower floor, where it is thinned
and tinted in large 600-gal. tanks, each equipped with an agitator. The
I liquid paint is strained into a transfer tank or the hopper of the filling
machine on the floor below. To remove nondispersed pigments centrifuges are used. The paint is filled into cans, labeled, packed, and moved
to storage, each step being completely automatic. 2
1 PERRY, op. cit. See following pages for the items noted: p.1197 for physical factors,in
mixing with explanation of viscosity and its opposite, fluidity-as well as of plasticity
and its opposite, mobility; pp. 1199-1202 for apparent viscosity or consistency with
consistency muves for classification of paints; p. 1218 for mixing liquids and solids
with v;arious consistencies as measured in centipoises; p. 1206 for pony mixer; p. 1205
for mixers with stationary fingers; p. 1207 for kneaders; pp. 1145 and 1137 for roller
mill; pp. 1123 and 1130 for ball and pebble mills; p. 1157 for pigment grinding.
For a somewhat more detailed account of paint manufacture as well as numerous
pictures of equipment, see ANON., Modern Equipment-Better Paint, Chem. & Met:
499
PAINT FAILURE
Paint Failure. The failure of paints to stand up under wear may be

due to several causes and in each case there is a special term used to
describe the failure. Chalking is a progressive powdering of the paint
TABLE
3.
PIGMENTS AND ExTENDERS FOR SURFACE COATINGS
Ingredients
Function
1. Pigments
To protect the film by
White hiding pigments:
Yellow pigments:
White lead
Litharge
reflecting the destructive
ultraviolet light, to
'l'itanium dioxide
Ocher
strengthen the film and
Zinc oxide
Lead or zinc chromate
to impart an aesthetic
Lithopone
Hansa yellows
appeal. Pigments should
Zinc sulfide
Ferrite yellows
possess the following
Cadmium lithopone
Basic lead sulfate
properties: opacity and
Black pigments:
Orange pigments:
Carbon black
good covering power,
Basic lead chromate
Lampblack
mixing ability with oil,
Cadmium orange
Graphite
chemical inertness, nonMolybdenum orange
Magnetite black
or low toxicity, reasonGreen pigments:
able cost
Blue pigments:'
Chromium oxide
Ultramarine
Chrome green
Cobalt blues
Hydrated chromium oxide
Phthalocyanine green
Copper phthalocyanine
,Perm'ansa gr,eens (phthalIron blues
Red pigments:
ocyaninll blue plus
Red lead
zinc chromate)
Iron oxides
Brown pigments:
/
Cadmium reds
,Burnt sienna
Toners and lakes
Burnt umber
Metallics:
Vandyke brown
Aluminum
'Metal protective pigments:
Red lead
Zinc dust
C9pper powder
Blue lead
Zinc, basic lead, and
barium potassium chromates
2. Extenders or inerts
To reduce the pigment cost,
China clay
Gypsum
and, in many cases, to
Talc
Mica
increase the covering and
Asbestos (short fibers)
Barytes
weathering power of pigBlanc fixe
Silica
ments by complementing
Whiting
pigment particle size
film from the surface i~ward and is caused by continued and destructive
oxidation of the oil after the original drying of the paint. Very rapid
Eng., 46, 157 (1939). For a description of modern paint equipment, see also SHEARON,
et al., Paint and Varnish Manufacture, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41, 1088 (1949). For a very
excellent short (47 pp.) presentation of Organic Protective Coatings, sec Chap. 19
under this title in LEIGHOU, edited by Warner, "Chemistry of Engineering Materials,"
4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
500
chalking is termed erosion. Flaking, sometimes called peeling, is due to

poor attachment of the paint to the surface being covered and is usually
attributed to dirt or grease on the surface or to water entering from behind the paint. Alligatoring is a form of peeling in which the center portion of the section starting to peel remains attached to the surface.
Checking denotes a very fine type of surface cracking. As opposed to
these methods of paint failure, normal wear is the gradual removal of
paint from the surface by the elements, leaving a smooth surface behind.
TABLE 4. COMPARISON OF WHITE PlGMENTS4
Titanium dioxide (anatase) .......

Titanium dioxide (rutile) .........
Zinc sulfide .....................
Lithopone (regular) ..............
Lithopone (titanated) ............
Zinc oxide (American process) ....
White lead .....................
Refractive
index
Covering
power,
sq. ft. per lb.
Vehicle
reaction
Prices
per lb.,
1954
2.52
2.71
2.37
1.86
1.96
2.03
2.09
115
163
58
27
44
20
15
Inert
Inert
Inert
Inert
Inert
Reactive
Reactive
$0.225
0.245
0.25
0.075
0.10
0.135"
0.165
4 O'BRIEN, Titanium Pigment Industry, Chem. Eng. Progr., 44, 811 (1948); prices,
Chem. Eng. News, June 28, 1954.
Paint Application. Much application of paint is still 'done by hand

brushes, but dipping and spray painting are gaining favor with some because of the ease and rapidity of spread, thus saving labor though it may
waste a little material. A wide variety of types of atomizers for spraying
is available, including internal mixing and the more common external
mixing. Spray guns are operated frequently at a pressure of 40 to 60 lb.
per sq. in. Four to eight cubic feet of free air per minute are required at
40 lb. per sq. in.l A revolutionary development is spray painting by replacing the air pressure with an electrostatic field. A surface that is effi;ciently painted, varnished, or lacquered generally requires the application of a number of different coats of composition varied to suit the
condition. For example, most surfaces require the use of a primer or
filler coat to smooth over inequalities and to secure better adherence.
This may then be covered with the paint proper in several applications.
Emulsion .Paints. 2 Although water-thinned paints date back to antiquity, commercially they were not important until the development of the
casein-based paints around 1925. Resin-emulsion paints have been widely
used since the Second World War, but the latex or "rubber-base" paints,
op. cit., 1173.
Symposium, Emulsion Paints, Ind. Eng. Chern., 46, 710 (1953).
1 PERRY,
El\{UI,SION PAINTS
501
introduced commercially only in 1948, have had a spectacular growth.

In 1953 latex paint sales amounted to ..J.O,OOO,OOO gal. compared with
70,000,000 gal. for oil-based paints and more than half of interior paint
sales were latex-based paints. This type of paint has been developed to
meet demands for greater ease of applieat.ion, quick drying, low odor,
easy cleaning, great durability, and absence of dirt penetration.
Latex paints have as their major film-forming constituent a synthetic
resin latex, with or without other film-forming constituents added, in an
oil-water emulsion type of system. The continuous phase consists of an
alkali-dispersed hydrophilic colloid in water and contains two or more
different phases or different types of particles suspended therein. The
latex most widely employed is a butadiene-styrene copolymer type, essentially GR-S modified by raising the styrene content and lowering the
odor. A typical latex paint may be manufactured as follows:'
1. Protein Dispersion. The protein (casein or unhydrolyzed soybean
proteins are most commonly used) is stirred into water and mixed for
5 mins. An alkali is added (ammonia, triethanolamine, borax) and the
mixture is stirred for an hour at room temperature. The protective colloids (protein) furnish body, improve brushing, stabilize the emulsion,
and act as a thickener. The alkalies disperse the protein and maintain
the pH (about 9.0).
2. Pigment Dispersion. The dispersant and ammonia are added to wa. ter in a pony mixer followed by pigments and premixed. This is ground
in a ball mill. The pigments and extenders most used
are water-dispers/
ible grades of titanium dioxide, zinc sulfide, and lithopone and regular
grades of barium sulfate, mica, diatomaceous silica, clay, and magnesium
silicate. A combination of four or five inerts is generally employed. The
usual colored pigments may be used for tinting with certain exceptions
such as Prussian blue, chrome yellow, chrome green, and carbon black.
The first three are sensitive to alkalies and the last tends to break the
emulsion. Also sodium-free alkalies and pigments are preferred as they
minimize efflorescence, caused by sodium sulfate on the paint surface.
3. Paint M anufaeture. The protein dispersion is added to the pigment
dispersion followed by 'the;preservative solution (usually chlorinated phenols) and the antifoam (sulfonated tallow or pine-oil). The latex emulsion is stirred in slowly, followed by water. The entire paint is mixed,
screened, and mixed a~ain before packaging. A typical white-paint formula by weight is: Ti0 2 , 270; clay, 76.8; tetrasodium pyrophosphate, 1.8;
deionized H 2 0, 165; 15 per cent casein solution (NH 40H solubilized),
76.4; 15 per cent sodium pentachlorophenate solution, 17.4; pine, oil, 4.2;
tributyl phosphate, 13.2; and copolymer'latex (45 per cent nonvolatile), 466.
1 Partly based upon
46, 740 (1953).
BIXLER,
Viscosity Stability of Latex Paints, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
502
It has been shown I that, in the preparation of the emulsion polymers,

copolymer composition, the emulsifying system, and the particle size
have a profound effect on such ultimate paint properties as adhesion,
gloss, scrub resistance, chemical and mechanical stability, and viscosity.
Most butadiene-styrene copolymerizations are made batch wise by charging the ingredients to a jacketed and agitated reactor heating to reaction temperature and cooling after the desired conversion. Acrylic ester
polymerizations are carried out in the same manner except under reflux
conditions. The pigments must be pure and dispersed compatibly with
the latex. The manufacture of these paints presents an excellent example
of applied colloid chemistry.
.
PIGMENTS
Pigments 2 (Table 3) are used very widely in surface coatings but are
also employed in the ink, plastic, rubber, ceramic, paper, and linoleum
industries. A large number of pigments and dyes are consumed because
different products require a particular choice of material to give maximum coverage, economy, opacity, color, and durability. Twenty years
ago white lead, zinc oxide, and lithopone were the principal white pigments; colored pigments consisted of Prussian blue, lead chromates, various iron oxides, and a few lake colors. Today we find among the new
pigments titanium oxide in many varieties, chromium oxides and hydrates, and a host. of organic colors. Table 5 exhibits recent figures on the
production of pigments.
WHITE PIGMENTS
White Lead. The oldest and one of the most important of the white
pigments is white lead,3 which has the appro?,imate formula 2PbC0 3
Pb(OH)2. Paints made from white lead are very easily applied and have
a high covering power. They have the disadvantages of reacting with
sulfur-containing gases and of becoming chalky and wearing off. These
I disadvantages have been largely overcome by using white lead in balanced formulations with titanium dioxide, mag~esium silicate, and leaded
zinc oxide.
In the Dutch process 4 of manufacture (Fig. 2), lead is melted and cast
in the form of 6-in. perforated disks or "buckles," which are placed on
a shelf in small earthenware pots containing 3 per cent acetic acid (vineI
Emulsion Polymers for Paints, Ind. Eng. Chem., 45, 712 (1953).
cit., Vol. 2, l!)42, gives a very full account of pigments in all
phase~, with full references to the literature. See this reference for further data on any
individual pigment.
, Ibid., p. 337.
4 Pictured flow chart, Chem. & Met. Eng., 50 (3), 130 (1943).
I
NAIDUS,
2 MATTIELio, op.
503
WHITE LEAD
gar strength) in reservoirs underneath and not in contact with the lead
buckles. The pots are then stacked in tiers, covered with boards, and
arranged 10 tiers high. Spent tanbark is placed all around the pots and
the rooms are closed off. During a period of about 100 days, the acetic
TABLE
5.
PRODUCTION OR SHIPMENT OF SELECTED PIGMENTS IN THE UNITED

STATES,
1951, 1953
Tons
White opaque pigments:

White lead .......................................
Zinc oxide pigments:
Lead-free ZnO ..................................
Leaded ZnO ....................................
Titanium dioxide (100 per cent) .....................
Lithopone ................... ,.....................
White extender pigments:
Barium carbonate, precipitate .......................
Barium sulfate ....................................
Color pigments (except lakes and toners):
Chrome colors:
Chrome green ..................................
Chromium oxide green ...........................
Chrome yellow and orange .......................
Molybdate chrome orange ........................
Zinc yellow' ....................................
Iron oxide pigments (sales) .........................
Lead oxide pigments:
Red lead .......................................
Litharge ........................................
1953
1951
26,217
35,415
.
.
.
.
148,627
39,712
314,442&
52,439
147,716
44,341
319,13\}
102,837
.
.
74,122
14,390
60,181
14,237
.
.
.
.
.
.
7,147
9,688
25,518
4,138
6,909
108,350
7,766
11 ,599
31,046
4,021
8,143
126,432
31,333
154,518
35,352
154,753
.
.
.' Chemical Statistics Handbook, Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Washington, 1955.

&1952.
, Zinc chromate.
acid vapors, moisture, and the carbon dioxide gas from the warm fermenting tanbark act :on the lead to give the flaky white lead or basic
lead carbonate. This ~s broken away from any unreacted lead, ground,
floated in water, and dried to give the product which contains about
70 per cent carbonat~ and 30 per cent hydroxide.
In the Carter! or "quick" process (Fig. 2), the melted lead is atomized
by spraying from noZzles by means of a.ir or superheated steam. This
finely divided lead is,periodically treated or "corroded" with a spray of
1 U.S. Pat. 2250756 (1\)41); Chern.
chart.
(;
Met. Eng., 50 (3), 130 (1943), pictured flow
504
acetic acid, purified carbon dioxide gas from coke, and air in a large
slowly revolving wooden cylinder to give the white lead after some 5 to
12 days. This material is whiter, finer, and more uniform than the old
Dutch lead.
The reactions for the old Dutch and the Carter processes are as
follows:
Pb +H 02~ PbO
PbO + 2CH aCOOH ~ Pb(C 2H a02)2 + H 20
Pb(C 2H a0 2)2 + 2PbO + 2H 20 ~ Pb(C 2H a02)22Pb(OH)2
3[Pb(C 2H a0 2)2-2Pb(OHh]
4C0 2 ~
2[2PbCO aPb(OH)2] + 3Pb(C 2H a0 2h + 4H 20
A third method of manufacture is the electrolytic process wherein the

reaction is carried out by means of a concrete electrolytic diaphragm cell
FIG. 2. Flow charts for white lead-Dutch and Carter processes.
made up of lead plates as anodes, suspended in ~ sodium acetate solution

(containing a trace of sodium carbol!ate), and iron plates as cathodes,
suspended in a sodium carbonate solution. The two divisions of the cell
fare separated by a fabric diaphragm. Upon the application of current,
the lead anodes dissolve as lead acetate which almost_immediately precipitates as the basic lead carbonate upon meeting carbonate and hydroxide ions migrating toward the anode from the cathode compartment. '
The white lead is carried out of the cell with the anolyte and is settled,
filtered, washed, and dried to give the final product. As the carbonate
ions in the catholyte diffuse through the diaphragm and are precipitated,
circulation of the catholyte thrbugh a carbonating tower is necessary.
Sublimed White Lead (Basic Sulfate). A pigment closely related to
ordinary white lead is sublimed white lead or basic sulfate as it is sometimes called. It is made by the sublimation of galena ores which are es-
ZINC OXIDE
505
senti ally lead sulfide, PbS, together with a small amount of zinc sulfide.
The product, mainly basic lead sulfate with a small percentage of zinc
oxide, is much more resistant to the action of sulfur than ordinary white
lead. The composition is approximately 75 per cent PbS0 4 , 20 per cent
PbO, and 5 per cent ZnO. Basic lead sulfate is used in the form of leaded
zinc oxides which are cheap.
Zinc Oxide. Another important white pigment is zinc oxide,l ZnO,
which has been in use for over a century. Zinc oxide has a higher opacity
or covering power than most grades of white lead. It is the truest white
that can be obtained and its color is unaffected by gases in the atmosphere. Zinc oxide prevents premature chalking through the formation of
zinc soaps and through its high opacity toward ultraviolet rays. Zinc
oxide also reacts with the linseed oil to harden the film.2 The methods
employed to produce this pigment are the American or Wetherill process,
the older French process, and the electrothermal process. The three processes may be broken down into the following sequences of unit operations
(Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
A merican, Process
Reducing of ZnO by CO
and C (Pr.)
Vaporization of zinc (Op.)
Oxidation to ZnO (Pr.)
Settling, separating, and
collecting (Op.)
Bolting, packing (Op.)
French Process
Electrothermal Process
Vaporizatio n of zinc
Roasting to ZnO (Pr.)
(Op.)
Sintering (Pr. and Op.)
Oxidation to ZnO (Pr.)
Sizing (Op.)
Separating and collecting Preheating and electro(Op.)
thermal volatilizing of
Revolatilization of coarse
Zn (Pr. and Op.)
oxide (Op.)
Oxidizing to ZnO (Pr.)
Separating and collecting
(Op.)
The American or Wetherill process, used where whiteness is not an important factor, produces the zinc oxide directly from the ore, franklinite,
which is a zinc oxide with oxides of iron and manganese. This ore is mixed
with coal and delivered to a specially designed furnace. Here carbon and
carbon monoxide reduce the zinc oxide of the ore to metallic zinc which
is vaporized and reoxidized to ZnO upon contact with the air from the
furnace, as shown in Fig. 3. The product is collected, the coarse in cy,
clones and the fines in bag filters. The larger particles are returned to the
process. The residue from the furnace contains manganese and iron from
the original franklinite, as well as carbon from the coal, and is sometimes
used to make spiegeleisen, a manganese alloy. Through the addition of
1 MATrIELLO, op. cit.,'Vol. 2, p. 369; NELSON, Zinc Oxide, Chern. Inds., 47, 508
(1940); see Chap. 25 by S~ARD in "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," t!th
ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
JOACHIM, "Applied Paint and Varnish Chemistry," Vol. I, American Paint
Journal Co., St. Louis, Mo., 1934.
506
galena, PbS, during the process, a content of lead sulfate can be secured,
producing the so-called leaded zinc oxides, containing up to 35 per cent
lead sulfate. This product would have the analysis l ; ZnO, 65 per cent;
PbO, 9 per cent; PbS0 4 , 26 per cent.
The French process, as may be seen from the accompanying flow sheet
(Fig. 3), consists in vaporizing zinc (spelter) in a retort with indirect heat
and carbon monoxide gas, and then oxidizing both the zinc vapor and
the carbon monoxide by meeting a current of p~eheated air in a combustion chamber. The reducing gas, CO, aids in the volatilization of the zinc.
When it burns, it forms carbon dioxide simultaneously with the change
~:r:::t:~--l
i
:
..
ShIpping
1 C/inke>:rfo c{vmp
~_~r_Sf,!!:!.!~S!~.1 To !ifh0l!~n.f. or.
",urnecCl< Ivfflfxer
AmericQn(Wetherill) Process
French Process
Franklinite Ore (16% Zn) 5.25 tons T

cI
{
Co~1
3-5 tons ttProZ e
Elect6city
360 kw-hr (tota'\n II gnrod'
Drrect labor
8 mon-hr.
,0
PSI
u8
Soelter
Cool
ElectriCity
Direct labor
1)40 lb.
1390 lb.
,5 kw.-hr.
5 man:hr
FIG. 3. Flow sheets for zinc oxide by the American (Wetherill) and French processes.
of zinc vapor to zinc oxide. Under these conditions the lead that frequently accompanies the zinc forms white lead. Otherwise yellow PbO
would be produced and cause the zinc oxide to possess a yellowish tinge.
The larger particles of the oxide are removed in a settling chamber, while
the fines are collected in bag filters. After revolatilizing the coarse oxide
in the reheat furnace, both products are ready for bolting, packaging, and
shipping.
The electrothermal process,2 a modification of the American process, uses
sphalerite, a zinc sulfide ore, and produces sulfuric acid as a by-product
IFig. 4). The concentrated ore is first roas~e~ and the sulfur con.tent reduced from 32 to about 1 per cent, sulfur dIOXide 'gas produced bemg sent
to the acid plant. The prod}lct from the roaster is mixed-with coke, fluxes,
and various residues from previous runs and is then fed to a sintering
machine. Here the material reaches temperatures as high as 1600C., following which it is crushed and screened. Carefully sized coke is mixed in
and the mass sent through a gas-fired preheater into the electric resistance furnace., These furnaces ar~ around 36 ft. high and 57 in. in internal
EIDE and DEPEW, Leaded Zinc Oxide, Drugs, Oils & Paints, 64, 119 (1939).
For a description of this process complete with pictures, see Chern. (~Met. Eng., 48
(2), 142 (1941); NAJARIAN, et aI., The Josephtown Electro-thermic Zinc Smelter,
Mining & Met., 28, 398 (1947).
I
507
LITHOPONE
diameter and hold 55 tons. Electrodes are inserted in the charge, the
charge acting as the resistance and the temperature rising to 1200C.
The gases leaving the furnaces are zinc vapor and carbon monoxide which
are oxidized by the air entering at several points up the side of the furnace exit. The product is collected, screened, packed, and shipped.
Lithopone. Lithopone, as originally prepared in 1874, had an incorrect
particle size and possessed a tendency to turn temporarily gray on exposure to sunlight. However, it was discovered in 1880 that heating the
FlG.. ~~ Flow sheet for zinc oxide by electrothermal process.
E~ec:tricity
\. _.. Bonum cir-cuit
- - - - Zinc: circuit
- - lithopone circuit
Oll"'ed
'aDor
IOOk:w.-hr
13.5man-hr
I Per ton of Lrt'hopone- ". iBCllrytes
Zinc ore (6010 Zn)
0.85 ton
Q4 ton
Coc:d(l"u:wlfforsteQm) 1.1 ton
H, SO. (50 BeJ
Q5 ton
! FIG. 5. Flow sheet for lithopone.
product to a red he~t a~d plunging it into water remedied the physical
defect. This original light-sensitiveness has beenovercome by raw-material purification and py such addition agents as polythionates and cobalt
sulfate. Lithopone is:a brilliantly white, extremely fine, cheap white pigment. It is particulafly well adapted to interior coatings.
The manufacture is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 5, wher~ the barium, zinc, and litho,Pone circuits are represented by different types of
lines. The barium I!ulfide solution is prepared by reducing barite ore,
BaS04, with carbon 'and leaching the resulting mass. The equation is
I
BaS04
+ 4C -
BaS
+ '4CO
508
PAINT, VARNISH, LACQUEH, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES
Scrap zinc or concentrated zinc ores are dissolved in sulfuric acid and the
solution purified as shown in Fig. 5. The two solutions are reacted and
a heavy mixed precipitate results which is 28 to 30 per cent zinc sulfide
and 72 to 70 per cent barium sulfate.
ZnS04
+ BaS -> ZnS + BaS04
This precipitate is not suitable for a pigment until it is filtered, dried,

crushed, heated to a high temperature, and quenched in cold water. This
second heating in a muffle furnace at 725C. produces crystals of the
right optical size. Subsequent treatments, as indicated, give the finished
product.
Some of the variations of the original lithopone are calcium lithopone
in which calcium sulfide replaces the barium sulfide in the precipitation;
high-strength lithopone which contains from 50 to 60 per cent zinc sulfide
due to the addition of zinc chloride to the sulfate solution; and titanated
lithopone which has about 15 per cent titanium dioxide added.
Titanium Dioxide. The most recently introduced and the largest seller
of white pigments is titanium dioxide' because of its low cost:pe\:~u!lit of
hiding power. It is marketed in the rutile and anatase crystal forms and
as a coprecipitated mixture with either 70 per cent calcium sulfate or
75 per cent barium sulfate. Titanium dioxide is widely employed m exterior paints and also for enamels and lacquers. A typical exterirr white
paint may contain 15 per cent Ti0 2 , 25 per cent ZnO, 50 per cent white
lead, and 10 per cent extender. Such a formulation has long life through'
controlled chalking (self-cleaning), and presents a good surface for subsequent repaintings. Approximately 75 per cent of the Ti0 2 consumed is
in paints, varnishes, and lacquers, while the second important consumer
(ab0ut 10 per cent) is the paper industry. Other large users of this pigment are the rubber, linoleum, leather, and textile industries. The excellent hiding power of Ti0 2 is ascribed to its high index of refraction (2.-52
for anatase, 2.71 for rutile) with relation to that' of the film-forming oil.
Although the more recently developed, more stable rutile form has less
chalking tendencies and greater hiding power, it has a yellowish cast
)Vhich limits its use in certain items.
Domestic ore deposits are worked, but the best grade is imported
chiefly from India. Recently the largest deposits in th~ world were discovered in Quebec and electric smelting furnaces are in operation at
Sorel, Quebec, yielding a high-grade melting steel and a titanium-rich
slag with low iron content.
The flow sheet depicted ill Fig. 6 may be broken down into the fol~
lowing coordipated series of unit operations and unit processes:
1 MATrIELLO, op. cit., Vol. 2, p. 389; O'BRIEN, Titanium Pigment Industry, ehem.
Eng. Progr., 44, 809 (1948); BURKSDALE, "Titanium-Its Occurrence, Chemistry and
Technology," The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1949.
TITANIUM DIOXIDE
509
The ground ilmenite ore is digested hot in large conical concrete or heavy steel
tanks with (l6Be.H 2S0 4 The mixture is agitated and steam heated to 110C.
The reaction is exothermic, the heat evaporating the water (Pr. and Op.).
The solid reaction mass is dissolved in water giving a solution of the soluble
titanium, ferrous and ferric sulfates (Op.).
The ferric sulfate is reduced by scrap iron (Pr.).
The solution is clarified in thickeners (Op.).
Fifty per cent of the iron is removed from the solution as crystallized ferrous
sulfate by cooling, crystallization, and centrifugation (Op.).
A second clarification removes the last traces of residues (Op.).
Filtmte to
settling fi>r
77 Oz ret:DI't!(}'
Air sel"'rQtiort~pulverizer
FIG. 6. Flow sheet for titanium dioxide: for reducing, add scrap iron; for hydrolyzing,
add seeds of anatase or rutile and water (small amount). /
The solution is concentrated in a continuous lead-lined evaporator to equivalent of about 200 grams Ti0 2 (Op.) as soluble sulfate.
This strong acid-soluble titanyl sulfate (probable TiOSO,) is hydrolyzed. The
hydrolysis reaction is dependent upon many factors, i.e., the quantity and quality
of seed (colloidal suspension ,Ti0 2 ), concentration, rate of heating, and pH. Using
anatase seeds, 6 hr. of boiling are practiced, while with rutile seeds, 3 hr. are
needed (Pr.).
The precipitate is vacuum filtered, repulped, and refiltered (Op.). This operation removes the rest of the iron sulfate.
The filter cake is repulped, treated with a conditioning agent, and calcined to
Ti0 2 for 24 hr. For a~atase production, 0.75 per cerit-K 2CO a (based on Ti0 2
equivalent pulp content) is used as a conditioning agent (nonfritting) and to
develop highest tinting strength and good color. In rutile production certain
carbonates such as Na, K, and Li may be used as well as Zn and Mg carbonates to
promote rutilization (Pr.)
The hot Ti0 2 is pulv,erized, quenched in water (dispersed), wet ground, hydroseparated, thickened, filtered, dried, and reground (Op.).
In case it is desired to make a pigment containing an extender like barium sulfate or calcium sulfate, the exact amount of a solution of either
510
barium or calcium chloride is added to the hydrolyzing tank. Barium sulfate or calcium sulfate precipitates at once and, in the course of the several hours of the hot hydrolysis, the titanium hydrate precipitates onto
the carrier.!
Barium Sulfate. Barium sulfate is occasionally used as a pigment because of its great stability. It has, however, very poor covering power.
On the other hand, it is widely employed as a filler in rubber, or as a
coating material on certain fine papers. It is opaque to X rays and consequently finds application in the form of the so-called barium meal for
X-ray visualization of the intestinal tract.
For some of its cruder applications it is made by fine grinding and
washing of the ore, barite. A better product results by precipitation,
known as blanc fixe. Blanc fixe made by precipitation 2 of a soluble barium compound, such as barium sulfide or barium chloride, by a sulfate.
Barium sulfate, when intended for internal administration for X-ray diagnosis, in addition to being in the form of a very fine powder capable of
giving good aqueous suspensions, must also be free from objectionable
impurities such as lead, arsenic, sulfide, soluble barium salts, and the like.
Since ordinary blanc fixe of commerce is not of a purity suitable for this
latter use, this X-ray barium sulfate must be especially manufactured.
BLACK PIGMENTS
The chief black pigments employed are carbon black, graphite, and lampblack. Their manufacture is discussed under Industrial Carbon, Chap. 9.
They retard the oxidation of linseed oil and cause a slow-drying film
which under many conditions prolongs the life of paint. Carbon and
graphite pigments should not be used in direct contact with iron and
steel in primer coatings, for example, as they stimulate metal corrosion.
Black dyes are also used as coloring agents; f,or example, spirit-soluble
nigrosine finds extensive use in the formulation of black lacquers.
BLUE PIGMENTS
The most widely used blue pigment today IS synthetic ultramarine blue.
Formerly this was available only to artists as powdered lapis lazuli, an
expensive mineral. Ultramarine is a complex sodium aluminum silicate
and sulfide, made by heating together sodium carbonate, kaolin, charcoal, quartz, sulfur, sodium sulfate, and resin. It is absolutely essential
that iron be absent in all the raw materials, as it appreciably dulls the
color. The ~elt is cooled, ground, washed free of water-soluble salts, and
I
BARTON, U.S. Pat. 1236655, 1155462(1914).

FARR, U.S .. Pat. 1752244 (1930); SHREVE, et al., U.S. Pat. 2030659(1936); SHREVE
and PRITCHARD, New Method for Barium Chloride, Ind. Eng. Chern., 27, 1488 (1935) ..
1
!tED PIGMENTS
511
heated with more sulfur at 500C. until a blue color develops. A darker
blue may be produced by sUbstituting sodium sulfate for sodium carbonate. These pigments are stable to light and alkali but are affected by
acids owing to the liberation of hydrogen sulfide. Ultramarine because of
its sulfide composition should not be employed on iron or mixed with
lead pigments. Ultramarine is widely used as bluing in laundering to neutralize the yellowish tone in cotton and linen fabrics. It is also applied
for whitening paper and other products.
Cobalt blues are very expensive and not used in paints for ordinary
purposes. One is a compound oxide of cobalt (30 to 35 per cent C0 304)
and alumina (70 to 65 per cent AhOa); another is a powdered glass
colored by cobalt oxide. Another product, erroneously called cobalt blue,
is made by the reaction of ammonium chloride on ultramarine at 200C.
The substitution of potash salts for sodium salts in the making. of ultramarine gives a blue color somewhat analogous to cobalt. A newcomer in
this field with a real future, particularly as a pigment in printing inks, is
copper phthalocyanine, which is described in Chap. 38.
The various ferric ferrocyanide blues' are known as Prussian blue, Chinese blu~, milori blue, bronze blue, Antwerp blue, and Turnbull's blue.
As these names have lost much of their original differentiation, the more
general term of iron blues is preferred. These are made in essentially the
same manner by the precipitation of ferrous sulfate solutions (sometimes
in the presence of ammonium sulfate) with. sodium ferrocyanide giving a
white ferrous ferrocyanide which is then oxidized to ferric ferrocyanide,
Fe4[Fe(CN)6]a, or to Fe(NH4)[Fe(CN)6J by different reagents such as
potassium chlorate, bleaching powder, and potassium dichromate. The
pigment is washed and allowed to settle since filtration is extremely
difficult because of its colloidal nature. The coloring power of Prussian
blue is very great; this pigment is also permanent to light and air. It is
decomposed by whiting and basic pigments such as white lead, ferric
hydroxide being formed. '
RED PIGMENTS
Red lead, Pb 30 4, h~s a brilliant red-orange colQI, is quite resistant to

light, and finds extel).sive use as a priming coat for structural steel, particularly as it possesses corrosion-inhibition properties against iron and
steel. The red lead, i or minium, is manufactured by oxidizing lead to
litharge, PbO, in air, and further oxidizing the litharge to the red lead by
heating to around 700F.
Ferric oxide, Fe20~~ is another red pigment that is employed in paints

and primers as well :as in rubber formulation. It is made by heating the
1 CALLAHAM, Modernizing Chemical Color Manufacture, Chem. & Met. Eng., 60 (6),
106 (1943), flow charts.
512
iron sulfate obtained from the pickling vats of steel mills. Venetian red
is a mixture of ferric oxide with up to an equal amount of the pigment
extender, calcium sulfate. This pigment is manufactured by heating ferrous sulfate with quicklime in a furnace. Venetian red is a very permanent and inert pigment particularly on wood. The calcium sulfate content, because of furnishing corrosion-stimulating sulfate ions, militates
against the application of this pigment on iron. Indian red is a naturally
occurring mineral whose ferric oxide content may vary from 80 to 95 per
cent, the remainder being clay and silica. It is made by grinding hematite and floating off the fines for use. The basic lead chromate, PbCr04Pb(OHh, may also be used as an orange-red pigment; it is also a most
excellent corrosion inhibitor. It is manufactured by boiling white lead
with a solution of sodium dichromate. Cadmium reds are made by roasting the precipitate obtained through mixing cadmium sulfate, sodium
sulfite, and sodium selenide. Red pigments include a large variety of insoluble organic dyes, either in the pure state as toners or precipitated on
inorganic bases as lakes.
YELLOW PIGMENTS
Ocher is a naturally occurring pigment consisting of clay colored with

10 to 30 per cent ferric hydroxide. It must have been ground and levigated. At best the ochers are very weak tinting colors and are being replaced by synthetic hydrated yellow iron oxides.
Yellow pigments with a wide variety of shades fall in the class known
as chrome yellows;l they are the most popular yellow pigments because
of exceptional brilliance, great opacity, and excellent light-fastness. They
are produced by mixing a solution of lead nitrate or acetate with a solution of sodium dichromate. Extenders may be present up to an equal
weight of gypsum, clay, or barite. The pigment is of high specific gravity
and settles out. Zinc yellow or chromate, while of poor tinting power, is
used because of its excellent inhibiting effect both in mixed paints and
:is a priming coat for steel and aluminum. Zinc..yellow is a complex of the
approximate composition 4~nOK204Cr033H20.
Litharge, PbO, is made by heating melted lead in a current of air. It
is used to some extent in anticorrosion paints.
GREEN PIGMENTS
I
One of the oldest green pigments is chromium oxide, Cr 203. It has many
disadvantages such as high cost and lack of brilliancy and opacity. It is
1 WILLIAMS,
Continuous Chrome Yellow Process, Chem. Eng., 66 (3), 121 (1949).
513
TONERS AND LAKES
made by fusing a chromate or dichromate with sulfur in a reverberatory

furnace.
Na 2Cr 207 + S ----> Cr 20a + Na 2S04
Guignet's green (emerald green) is a hydrated chromic oxide, Cr 2 0(OR)4,
possessing a much more brilliant green color than the oxide and yet with
good permanency. It is prepared by furnacing a mixture of potassium
dichromate and boric acid at a dull red heat for several hours. In addition green of good permanency for use in outside-trim paints may be
obtained in the intimate mixtures of copper phthalocyanine with zinc
chromate or Ransa yellow. The brightest permanent green available,
chlorinated copper phthalocyanine, is expensive.
Chrome green, sold under various names, is a mixture or a coprecipitation of chrome yellow with Prussian blue. Inert fillers are used with
this pigment in making paints. Unless carefully ground or coprecipitated,
the two colors may separate when mixed in a paint.
BROWN PIGMENTS
The carefully controlled heating of various naturally occurring ironcontaining clays furnishes the brown pigments known as burnt sienna,
burnt umber and burnt ocher. The iron hydroxides are more or less converted to,tre oxides. The umbers contain the brown manganic oxide as
well as the fron oxides. These are all very permanen,t pigments and very
suitable for both wood and iron. Van Dyke brown is a native earth of indefinite composition, containing oxide of iron and organic matter.
TONERS AND LAKES
Toners! are insoluble organic dyes that may be used directly as pigments because of their: durability and coloring power. Lakes result from
the precipitation of organic colors usually of synthetic origin upon some
inorganic base.
Toners, or organic 4yes, are employed in many colors. Some typical
examples are given here. Para red is formed by dlazotizing p-nitro-aniline and coupling it with (3-naphthol. Toluidine toner, a better and more
expensive red pigment, is made by diazotizing m-nitro-p-toluidine and
coupling it with (3-naphthol. Ransa yellow G (lemon yellow) is manufactured by diazotizing m-nitro-p-toluidine and coupling it with acetoacetanilide. Ransa yellow !10 G (primrose yello~) is made by coupling orthochloroacetanilide with! diazotized 4-chloro-2-nitroaniline.
The lakes are really dyed inorganic pigments. The inorganic part or
base consists of such
extender as clay, barite, or blanc fixe and alumi-
an
1 MA'l'TIELLO,
op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 3-286;
CALLAHAM,
op. cit.
514
num hydroxide. The organic dye may be either precipitated onto an already existing base, such as clay or barite suspended in solution, or both
the dye and the hase may be coprecipitated as onto blanc fixe or aluminum hydroxide. Both toners and lakes are ground in oil or applied like
any other pigment. Both should be insoluble not only in water to resist
washing away, but in oil to prevent" bleeding." As the latter property
is not so easy to attain, an old color frequently will run or bleed into a
new coat of another color. This can be prevented by painting over the
old color a paint containing as a pigment an absorptive black or a metallic pigment like flake aluminum. However, the toners and lakes are very
useful and beautiful pigments for paints and inks.
METALLIC POWDERS
In surface coatings, flaked or finely powdered metals' and alloys have

come into wide application. This is not only for their appearance as pigments but in many cases for their chemical or anticorrosion effect. Among
such metallic substances, bronze and aluminum powders have been employed for years in lacquers. In recent years aluminum flake, or powder
in suspension in various media, has given excellent results ~s a light-reflecting pigment as well as a primer coat. On iron and steel to retard corrosion, pigments containing zinc dust or powdered zinc dust and zinc oxide have been demonstrated to possess real value. This latter is also true
of powders of lead and lead alloys.
PIGMENT EXTENDERS
There are a number of different substances that may be added to

paints as fillers or extenders2 for the purpose of giving a thicker paint
film, providing better weathering properties, fu~nishing a base for the real
pigment, or reducing the cost of the pigment (see Tables 2 and 5). These
extenders should not be viewed as adulterants. Quoting from Lewis,
I Squires, and Broughton, a.
The properties of such a ~paint) film can be still further improved by incorporating a certain percentage of far coarser pigments, which by themselves are
practically worthless-the so-called extenders. This calls to mind the well recognized principle of mixing in the case of materials such as concrete, where a mixture
containing coarse, skeletal particles has the voids between these filled with
MATTIEL~O, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp.,555-612.
Ibid., pp. 427-479; HARNESS, Natural Mineral Paint Extenders, u.s. Bur. Mines,
Infor";". Cire. 7264, Washington, 1943.
3 LEWIS, SQUIRES, and BROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and
Amorphous Materbls," p. 326, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942. By
permission.
1
OILS
515
progressively finer particles and the whole mass ultimately bonded together by
a suitable matrix. The presence of 10 to 20 per cent of extenders in a paint,
rather than being an indication of adulteration, may add materially to quality.
Barium sulfate, in the natural crystalline form of barite but finely

ground or in the precipitated form of blanc fixe, is one of the most important of the extenders. Finely ground calcium carbonate, sometimes
called whiting, is another. Ordinary silicon dioxide, when finely divided,
makes a good filler. Magnesium silicate is also widely used-the trade
names being asbestine and talc, the latter heing finely ground soapstone.
OILS
Although, in the organic surface-protective industries, oils do serve as

part of the vehicle for the carrying of the pigments, their chief" function
is to form or to help form the protective film. For this, reactive oils l are
necessary, such as those which are drying or semidrying. The drying or
the hardening of these oils involves chemical reactions, rather complex
but including oxidation as the initiating step. Some polymerization also
occurs and much cross linkage. Those oils which exhibit this phenomenon of drying to a film possess olefinic unsaturation. For example, the
acids of linseed oil contain about 9 per cent saturated acids (palmitic
and stearic), 19 per cent of oleic acid, 24 per cent of linoleic ,acid, and
48 per cent of linolenic acid. In drying, these oils at the first stage absorb
oxygen from the air forming peroxides or hydro-peroxides at t~e olefinic
bonds. These still liquid products partly decompose, giving the volatile
oxidation products, but mainly change in the next stage of the reactions,
by cross linkages into the ,solid though still elastic films through colloidal
aggregation. In case of linseed oil, the solid, insoluble, but elastic film is
called linoxyn. Such films are not permanent as the chemical reactions
continue though at a much slower rate until, after the course of years,
the film is entirely destroyed. Light, particularly ultraviolet, catalyzes
these reactions and one of the functions of the pigment in surface coatings is to reflect the light and thus to help preserve the film. 2
Drying oils are seldom used unmodified. 3 They _may be improved in a
number of different ways by (1) the action of driers, (21 oil bodying,
(3) fractionation and i segregation, (4) isomerization or conjugation, (5)
dehydration, and (6) 6ther carbon double-bond reactions. Thel'{~ are also
1 MATTIELI_O, op. cit., Vol. '1, pp. 57-174; KILLEFFER, Drying Oils, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
29, 1365 (1937).
I,
A fuller summary of: researches in this matter is presented in LEIGHOlT, op. cit.,
pp. 545, 560-564; LEWIS, et ai., op. cit., pp. 323-326.
3 Symposium, Drying 'Oils, Ind. Eng. Chern., 41, 280 (1949); BURRELl" ,Polypentaerythritol Drying Oils, fnd, Eng. Chem., 37, 86 (1945); SUTIIEIM, Drying Oils, Chern.
Inds., 62, 65, 241 (1948).
516
the copolymer oils, the polyalcohols such as polypentaerythritol, oilmodified alkyds, and synthetic oils. Bodied oils vary with the oil, but
generally have better drying, wetting, and color retention. Bodying may
be achieved either by heating in kettles or by blowing air in fine bubbles
through oils at 100 to 200C. for several hours. Solvent or liquid-liquid
extraction separates the drying constituents of an oil from the nondrying. Isomerization of paint oils, especially popular for linseed and soyhean oils, involves the partial rearrangement of the isolated double bonds
(nonconjugated) into the more reactive conjugated position upon heattreatment with catalysts, such as certain metal oxides, activated nickel,
or S02. Dehydration, at present, is applicable only for castor oil and is
achieved by heating castor oil in a vacuum in the presence of dehydrating catalysts, as alumina, fuller's earth, silica gel, H aP0 4, or H 2S0 4 Only
16,000,000 lb. were so made in 1952, marking a sharp decline from a peak
of 49,000,000 lb. in 1950. The reaction is probably as follows:
CH a(CH 2).CH(OH)CH 2CH: CH(CH 2)7COOH Ricinoleic acid
H 20
+ CH a(CH )4CH:CHCH CH:CH(CH )7COOH

9,12-Linoleic acid, 59-64 per cent
+ CH a(CH 2)oCH:CHCH:CH(CH 2)7COOH
2
9,ll-Linoleic acid, 17-26 per cent
It was earlier thought that the 9,1l-linoleic acid, with its conjugated
double bonds, was formed in the larger amount, but recent investigations show the other isomer to exist in the larger quantity. The composition of the fatty acids in the thoroughly dehydrated castor oil analyzes
as follows:
Per cent
Saturated acids ............ .
Hydroxyl acids ............ .
Oleic acid ................. .
0.5-2.5
3-8
Per cent
9,12-Linoleic acid .......... .
9,1l-Linoleic acid .......... .
59-64
17-26
7.5-10c5
VARNISHES
A varnish is a colloidal dispersion or solution of synthetic' and/or natural

resins in oils and/or thinners used as a protective and/or decorative coating for
various surfaces and which dries by evaporation, oxidation and polymerization
of portions of its constituents. l
Varnishes fall into two general classes: oleoresinous varnishes and

spirit varnish.es. To these is sometimes added a third class, the japans.
Oleoresinous varnishes are solutions of one or more natural or synthetic
resins in a drying oil and a volatile solvent. The oil reduces the natural
1 GOLDING, BRAGE,
Lilly Varnish Company.
VARNISHES
517
hrittleness of the pure resin film. Spirit varnishes are likewise solutions of
resins, but the solvent is completely volatile and non-film-forming.
Oleoresinous varnishes are much the more important of the oil varnishes. They may be classified according to oil length as short, medium,
or long: the number of gallons of oil used per 100 lb. of resin. The properties of the varnish are largely controlled by this factor. In general, a
short varnish will possess faster drying properties to a harder and more
brittle film, while the long varnishes possess more weather-resistant, pliable films. Some oil lengths of typical varnishes are as follows:
Short type (6-15 gal.) ................ , Floor and furniture varnishes
Medium type (20-30 gal.). '" ......... General-purpose varnishes
Long type (35-60 gal.) ................ Spar varnishes
Also the properties of the varnish will vary greatly, depending upon the
cooking procedure, the type or types of drying oil used, and the types of
resins employed. Table 6 gives a summary of varnish constituents.
Manufacturing Procedures. 1 The oleoresinous varnishes may be considered solutions of a resin, natural or synthetic, in a drying oil to which
has been added driers and thinners. The procedure used in manufacturing varies widely, depending upon the types of oil or resin used. With
some natural resins, as, for example, kauri gum, the resin is insoluble in
oil and must be depolymerized by heating, a process called "running."
This is accomplished by heating with stirring at temperatures of from
300 to 350C~ until the foaming ceases. The preheated drying oii is then
added, and the heating continued to the correct viscosity. The mixture
is cooled to 200C. and the thinner and drier added.
In the case of synthetic resins the preheating is not necessary. The oils
and resins are heated together until a homogeneous solution of the correct viscosity is obtained. The solution of resin in oils is frequently chilled
back with a small amount of oil, cooled, and the thinner and driers added.
In either procedure the varnish is clarified by filtration or centrifuging,
followed by aging in large tanks to precipitate fine gel particles not removed in the previous,operations.
The spirit varnishes, are solutions of resins in volatile solvents only,
usually either methanol or alcohol. Spirit varnishes-dry the most rapidly
but are likely to be brittle and eventually crack and peel off unless suitable plasticizers are added. The preparation of these products ~nvolves
active stirring and sonletimes heating to bring about the desired solution.
The most important example of a spirit varnish is shellac or a solution
of the resin shellac in methanol or alcohol. Not being pigment!ld, varnishes are less resistan~" to light than are paints, enamels, and pigmented
I
ANON.,
sheets.
Varnish and p,aint, Chem. & Met. Eng., 62 (3), 130 (1!J45), pictured flow
518
lacquers. They furnish, however, a transparent film which exhibits the

texture of the surface coated.
Japans are of two types: painter's japans and decorative japans. The
former, added to paints to give more luster, consist of a resin dissolved
in a drying oil to which are added driers and thinners. The latter are
TABLE
6. VARNISH CONSTITUENTS
(Enamel if pigmented)
Ingredient
Function
1. Film-forming Materials
Oils:
Linseed oil
Tung oil
Dehydrated castor oil
Castor oil
Fish oils
Tall oils
Soya oil
Cottonseed oil
Coconut oil
Natural resins:
Shellac, insect secretion
Rosin
East India
Manila
Kauri, old fossil resin
Copal, fossil resin
Dammar, recent fossil resin
To form a protective film

Synthetic resins:
Phenol-ald~hyde (oiland to serve as a binder
soluble)
for pigments upon
Alkyd resins
evaporation of solvent
Mannitol esters
or drying of the varnish
Pentaerythritol esters
oil used
and interesters
Limed rosin
Ester gum
Cumarone-indene
Melamine_ and I ure!t~
formaldehyde
Chlorinated rubber
and diphenyl
Acrylates
Vinyl resins
Silicones
2. Solvents and Thinners

Turpentine
Naphthas (aromatic)
Kerosene
Xylol
Dipentene
Toluol
Naphthas (aliphatic)
Alcohols
3. Driers
Co, Mn, Pb, Zn naphthenates, resinates, linolcates, tallates, or 2-ethylhexoatcs (octoates)
-
/
Guaiacol
To dissolve and control

viscosity of film-forming
material
To increase rate of drying

or hardening of varnish
film
4. Antiskinning Agents
,
Tertiary-amyl-phenol
opaque varnishes to which asphaltum or some similar material has been

added for color and luster. They may be subdivided into baking, semibaking, and air-drying japans according to their method of application.
Resins. The original resins l used were the copals which consisted .of
fossil gums from various parts of the world. Another natural but present-dllY resin widely employed is that from the pine tree, or rosin as it is
called.~ When a plant exudes these products, they are called balsams and,
1 MATTIELLO, op.
cit.,
Vol.
1, pp. 175-498.
RRSINS
519
upon evaporation of the volatile constituents, yield the resin. Thus the
long-leaf, yellow, or hard pine of the Southern states upon proper incision yields a balsam which after distillation gives turpentine and a residue called rosin. This latter product is essentially abietic acid (see Chap.
32). Most of the natural resins that have been employed are fossil resins
that have been buried and gradually changed by the centuries. From the
rosin of present days, these resins' reach back through dam mar, copal,
and kauri resins to the oldest of the fossil resins, amber. Some resins like
kauri and copal are so ancient that they have changed to insoluble products and must be partly depolymerized by heat before they can be dissolved or blended with the hot oils and other constituents in the varnish
kettle. An important resin of the present day is shellac or lac resin. This,
unlike the others, is the product of animal life, from a parasitic female
insect (coccus lacca) which, feeding upon certain trees in India, secretes
a protective exudate that eventually coats the twigs, furnishing the stick
lac. This is collected and purified to the shellac of commerce by rolling,
crushing, separating, washing, and bleaching.
Overshadowing these natural products are the more recently introdu'ced synthetic resins (see Chap. 35). The phenolic resins (phenol-formaldehyde) were the first of these to be supplied and are still in wide use
as they are very resistant to water and many chemicals. In order to
make these materials soluble in the oils and solvents in common use in
the varnish industry, it is necessary to modify them. This may be done
either by fluxing them with softer materials such as ester gum, or by
controlling the reaction by choosing a para-substituted phenol and thus
stopping the reaction before a final insoluble, infusible product is obtained. The alkyd resins 2 are the most important in the industry today.
These are formed by condensing dicarboxylic acids with polyhydric alcohols. When a constituent of varnishes or enamels, they have the distinctive properties of beauty and flexibility which show marked retention
upon prolonged weathering exposure. The phthalic alkyds are classified
in a manner similar to oleoresinous varnishes as long-, medium-, or short-oil products based, however, on phthalic anhydride content or equivalent. The properties of tlie alkyd formulation may be varied by use of
different fatty acids o'r oils of both drying and nondrying types, by the
use of pentaerythritol for the glycerol, by the use of maleic and other
dibasic anhydrides fori all or part of the phthalic anhydride, and by modifying with other resin~ (phenolics, rosin), and the like. As such they find
extremely diversified application in various paint formulations. They
have largely replaced varnishes of the oleoresinous type for use as paint
vehicles. Ester gum, ~he product of the esterification of the abietic acid
of rosin with glycerol!, is another one of the important raw materials for
For a fuller account, 'see LEIGHOU, op. cit.

'Symposium, Alkyd Resins, Ind. Eng. Chern., 41, 716 (1949).
520
making varnish. Some of the newer resins that may be mentioned in this
connection are the coumarone-indene type, the urea-formaldehyde types,
and the melamine-formaldehyde resins. The synthetic resins have numerous advantages over the naturally occurring types such as superior resistance on exposure to weather and chemicals and ability to be baked
more rapidly at higher temperatures.
ENAMELS AND JAPANS
Enamels are pigmented varnishes or lacquers and are consequently

more resistant to sunlight. Some enamels can be brushed 'or sprayed on
the surface while others are finally hardened by baking, the latter being
very durable.
Japans are very closely related to enamels, being pigmented with
asphaltum or stearin pitch. For the desirable deep-blaek japans some
carbon black is added. These japans are based on a heavily lead-bodied
oil, made by cooking linseed oil and litharge for about 5 hr. at around
230C. The product is almost a solid mass and is called lead oil. To
this are added the asphaltum and any necessary thinners (kerosene).
These japansl are applied and baked at 200C. for a few hours. The
japans are very useful for such products as bicycles, bedsteads, and
electrical devices.
LACQUERS
A lacquer is It colloidal dispersion or solution of nitro-cellulose, or similar filmforming compound, resins and plasticizers in solvents and c1iluents, which is
used as a protective and/or deeorative coating for \"ariolls surfH('es and which
dries prineipally by evaporation of its \"olatilc eonstituents. 2
Table 7 summarizes the constituents of lacquers. Clear lacquer"

upon the addition of a pigment he come lacquer enamels or simply
pigmented lacquers. Naturally the latter, heeause of the light-reflecting
pigment, are more permanent to ,,'eather. Lacquer is a fairly recent
/ addition to the organic surfaee-protecting industries, bU,t it has had a
phenomenal growth owing to a number of factors such as the enormOUR
quantity of nitrated eellulose reeovcred from the breakdown of shells of
the First World War and the commcreial production of a number of new
and suitable sol\"ents, both coupled wit,h the development of the automobile industry.
The nitrated cellulose of the variety used as a propellant explosive_in
shell is not, the ideal film-forming material. However, untreated nitrocellulpse of any variety upon solution in suitable solvents is too viscous
1 Many formulas are given by BENNETT, "Chemical Formulary," Vol. I, p. 241,
Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1\)33; see also Yol. 5, p. 430, 1!l41.
2 GOLDING, BRAGE, Lilly Varnish Company.
521
LACQUERS
TABLE
7.
LACQUER CONSTITUENTS
Ingredicn ts
Class
Function
1. Film-forming or basic Cellulose derivatives:

Nitro-cellulose
materials
Cellulose acetate
Ethyl cellulose
Resins and gums:
Ester gum
Dammar
Copal
Synthetic resins:
Phenol-aldehyde
Alkyd
Cellulose derivative's to furnish waterproofness, hardness, and durability
2. Pigments-omitted in Sec Table :3

clear lacquers
To impart pleasing color and

to improve resistance to
light
3. ,Solvents
Esters:
Ethyl acctatc (rapid)
Butyl acetate (slow)
Amyl acetate (slow)
Ethyl lactate (slow)
Ketones:
Methyl-ethyl ketone
(rapid)
Cyclohexanone (slow)
Ether~:
Cellosolve (slow)
Alcohols:
Ethyl alcohol (rapid)
Butanol (slow)
Amyl alcohols (slow)
4. Diluents
5. Plasticizers
Coal-tar products:
Toluol
Benzol
Solvent naphtha
Petroleum products:
Petroleum naphtha
V.M, & P. naphtha
Resins, natural and synthetic, to improve retention

of original gloss, adhesion,
and water resistance
To dissolve the film-forming

substances and to suspend
the pigments. Rate of evaporation and solvency is
governed by choice of the
various solvents. "Rapid"
and "slow" refer to rate of
evaporation. Ethyl alcohol
is a,latent solvent becoming
an actual solvent in presence
of esters and kctones. Usually mixtures give best
results
To reduce viscosity and cost
Castor oil, raw and blown To reduce film brittleness

Dibutyl phthalate
and to improve adherence
Tricresyl phosphate
Certain alkyds
522
to allow sufficient to be dissolved to furnish a lacquer of requisite filrr,

thickness and yet be limpid enough for spraying or brushing. The early
films were also too brittle and did not adhere well.
The invention of means to reduce viscosity laid the foundation for the
rapid development of lacquer. This is now carried out by heating nitrocellulose, of the nitrogen content to ensure desired solubility, with water
in the liquid phase. This is done at about 130C. by pumping the aqueous
suspension of nitro-cellulose through a steel pipe against the pressure of
a standpipe at the exit. Such a procedure is safer than the old method of
1<---- Non-volatile
I
--~-------------------
'"~
-""
~-;-
"2rfi
l:~
\':!
~
c
;;:
Volatile fraction '75"7o------.-------.-----.-~
fraction 25"10
~
tI1
'"...
.l?
il:
0
V)
...'"
'"E
>
FIG. 7. Approximate composition of lacquers. [Ind. Bull. 17, No.7, New York State
(1938).]
heating a large amount of water and nitro-cellulose in a. steel tank .autoclave. Chemically, in all probability, the long-chain cellulose ester molecules are degraded by hydrolysis to produce this lowering of viscosity.
The choice of the solvents also has an .effect on. the viscosity, this being
reduced if a solvent is selected which in itself does not dissolve the nitrocellulose but yet mixes with the other organic liquids. This is called
desolvation. 1
Lacquer formulation is very complex. By reason of the large number
of constituents available now numbered in the hundreds, lacquers eminently and specifically suitable to a wide variety of different objects
whether of metal or of wood are available. These lacquers have greatly
decreased the cost of finishing automobiles and given a longer-lasting job.
/ This saving has been passed on to the consumer.
Figure 7 indicates roughly the composition of a typical nitro-cellulose
lacquer. There exist considerable variations for individual lacquers.
No one can effil.-iently fit a lacquer formula to a specific application without wide training, deep knowledge, and years of exper~ence in this field. 2
The ordinary lacquer ingredients are tabulated in Table 7, each of
which has a definite function and also augments the properties of _the
others, thereby giving a finislJ.ed product of desired characteristics. The
class~s of ingredients and their functions are as follows:
1 LEWIS,
et al., op. cit., p. 318.

op. cit.; see all volumes.
2 MATTIELLO,
523
LACQUERS
1. Among film-forming bases, nitro-cellulose or cellulose acetate gives

waterproofness, hardness, and durability to the coating. The nitrocellulose or, as it should be called, the cellulose nitrate, is an ester of cellulose made by the reaction of mixed nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton linters
as is described in Chap. 22. The degree of nitration is closely controlled
to give a product with the desired range of solubility. Cellulose acetate,
the acetate ester, is made in a similar manner, with acetic anhydride
replacing the nitric acid (cf. Chap. 34). The acetate has an advantage
over the nitrate in that the film formed is nonflammable. The nitrocellulose comes to the lacquer manufacturer in the form of a white solid
moistened with about 30 per cent ethyl alcohol. The solvents, plasticizers,
and diluents are blended in using mechanical agitation. The lacquer
solution is clarified either by filtration or centrifuging. In case the lacquer
is to be colored, the pigments are generally ground in a steel ball mill
using a synthetic resin, usually an alkyd, as the vehicle. Another popular
method is to mix a very high viscosity nitro-cellulose solution and the
pigments in a sigma-blade dough mixer, or to mill a mixture of nitrocellulose pigment and chemical plasticizer on a two-roll rubber mill.l
Other film-forming materials are the resins, both natural and synthetic.
These are added to supplement the cellulose derivatives and to improve
the over-all properties 2 of the film.
2. Pigments have been presented in the earlier part of this chapter.
3. Solvent formulation 3 is a very complex subject. Bogin lists the following factors to be considered:
I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.:
6.
7.
8.
Rate of evaporation.
Solvency relations.
Effect on the viscosity of solution.
Compatibility with resins and other ingredients.
Blushing behavior.
Flow and orange peel.
Stability.
Odor, purity, availapility, etc.
As Table 7 points out; mixtures are the rule, the choice of constituents
being governed by the film-forming materials and the rate of evaporation
desired. It should be npted that the drying of lacquers is not an oxidation
but an evaporation, with the properties of the film dependent not only on
the nature of the film ,'but upon the conditions of the evaporation. Thus
1 Ct. ANON., mtra-fi~ei Pigment Particles Basis of New I-acquer, Chem. IM8.,
69, 57 ( 1 9 4 6 ) . ,
,
See the various chapte~s devoted to particular resins in MATTIELLO, op. cit., Vol. 1.
BOGIN, Lacquer Solv,ents and Formulation of Solvent Mixtures, Chap. Z7, in
MATTIELLO, op. cit., Vol. L Extensive tables and curves are inrluded, giving evaporation rates, tolerances, and other pertinent chemical and physical properties.
524
blushing may result in an improperly formulated lacquer; this is a whitish

or milky appearance in the film caused by the too rapid evaporation
of the solvents and diluents with consequent cooling of the film 30 to
40F. below the temperature of the atmosphere. This causes a condensation of moisture upon the lacquer and results in a milky aqueous
emulsion. Upon drying, the water phase is occupied by air, resulting in
the same milky! appearance.
4. The diluents are of great importance in reducing cost. Tolerance
of the various solvents for these diluents is an important property in the
choice of the original solvents. The diluents have a real dissolving effect
on any gums used.
5. The original nitro-cellulose film was far too brittle for practical
application. The plasticizers remedy this and also improve adhesion.
Dozens of plasticizers are available to the lacquer formulator. Some are
really very-high-boiling solvents of great chemical stability; oth~rs are
"soft" resins (alkyds).
PRINTING INKS
Printing inks consist of a fine dispersion of pigments or dyes in a

vehicle which may be drying oils with or without natural or synthetic
resins and added driers or thinners. Drying oils or pelroleum oils and
resins are employed, although the newer types based on synthetic resins
are finding great favor because they are quick-drying and their working
properties are excellent. Printing inks have a wide variety of compositions and a large variation in properties. 2 This is because of the great
number of different printing processes and types of papers employed. A
very general classification of printing processes would include typographic, lithographic, and intaglio.
I
The usual paint pigments are also employed in printing ink, although
some of the metallic oxides are too coarse and gritty for this use. The
/ driers described under Paints are the ones used in inks as well. Antioxidants are used to counteract pigments which are_ natural oxidation
catalysts. Guaiacol is a typical example.
The actual manufacture of printing inks consists in grinding the pigment in a small amount of vehicle and then mixing in the remainder of the
constituents. Details of manufacture will vary greatly with the type of
ink being produced.
.
!
BOj:JlN, op. cit., pp. 686-694.

2 For a complete description of inks see ELLIS, "Printing Inks," Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1940; HESTER and ALLEN, Peacock Blue, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
46, 1610 (1953).
1
.j
COATED FABRICS
525
COATED FABRICS
An industry closely allied to the lacquer industry is the manufacture

of coated fabrics.! Coated fabrics consist of multiple layers of pigmented
nitro-cellulose lacquer or of a vinyl or other dispersion or solution
deposited upon a cloth backing, dyed, and embossed.
The basis of this coated fabric is usually cotton cloth which varies in
grade according to the product being made. The first step is to remove any
loose threads and knots that might cause bumps in the finish. The cloth
then runs into a series of dye vats where it is colored the shade desired.
Reed. solveqts--
Dope consists of 60 percent solvenfs, 40 percent pyroxylin. Solvent fraction may consist, for example,
of 30 percent ethyl acetate, 40 percent ethyl alcohol and 30 percent naphtha. 'Solids fraction may
contain. for example, 25 percent pigment, 25 percent cellulose nitrate and 50 percent ~stor oil.
FIG. 8.
The drying of the dyed fabric is carried out on a series of steam-heated

rolls, followed by a tunnel drier (see Fig. 8).
/
At the same time the cloth is being dyed, the coating solution or
"dope" is being prepared in another part of the plant. For pyroxylincoated fabrics the ingredients of this substance are nitro-cellulose, castor
oil" pigment, and solvents. The castor oil and pigment receive a preliminary mix and are fed to the dispersion mills, which consist of two
circular plates, set close together and rotated in opposite directions. This
dispersion, plus the nitro.:cellulose, more castor oil, and the solvents (a
mixture of ethyl acetate, naphtha, and ethyl alcohol) are all mixed in
large tanks to give th~ dope. Care must be taken in these operations to
avoid fires and explol:?ions due to the flammability of the nitro-cotton
and solvents.
The fabric is coated with the dope in large automatic machines, the
thickness of the layer 'being regulated by doctor knives. These machines
are completely enclosed for solvent recovery, steam-heated cylinders
causing the evapora~ion. From 3 to 20, layers of the nitro-cellulose
(pyroxylin) material 'are added before the product is finished. Large
1 For details of manufacture see CLARK, Leather Cloth from Chemicals, Chem.
& Met. Eng., 47, 544 (1940); KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 4, pp. 134-189.
526
embossing roll presses or bed presses put on designs such as resemble

buckskin or pigskin.
The vapors being drawn off the coating machines contain from 0.7
to 0.9 per cent solvents. These are cooled and the solvents removed
by passing through activated carbon adsorbers.! When the carbon is
75 to 80 per cent saturated, the solvents are driven off with steam, the
vapors condensed, separated, and rectified.
While pyroxylin-coated fabric (artificial leather) embodied the first
large production in this field, now other coating agents are employed
more extensively, such as acetyl cellulose, vinyl polymers and copolymers,
rubber latex and various synthetic rubbers, as neoprene, butyl, butadienestyrene (GR-S), and others.
LINOLEUM
Linoleum, widely used for floor covering,. wa's introduced in England

in 1860. It costs from $1.30 to $3.00 per square yard, and the annual
volume is placed around 70,000,000 sq. yd .. Vinyl tile and sheet, felt-base
flooring, asphalt tile, and rubber tile. are the major competitors. In the
manufacture of linoleum, linseed oil is oxidized at 50C. by a stream of air
for 4 to 6 days to form linoxyn (oxidized linseed oil), cooled until solid,
cut into pieces, and cured at 35 to 40C. for several days. Then the
linoxyn is heated with rosin or other resin until a thermoplastic cement
is formed to which fillers and pigments are added. The coating is spread
in a uniform layer on canvas or burlap backing, the surface of which
may be printed in patterns of different colors. The entire surface is
afterward coated or waterproofed with an oil paint. With inlaid linoleum,
the pattern goes right through the fabric, the different sections being
pieced together and then passed between h~ated rolls.
SELECTED REFERENCES
~lom,
A. V., "Organic Coatings in Theory and Practice," Elsevier Press, Inc., Houston,
Tex., 1949.
.
Mattiello, J. J., editor, "Protective and Decorative Coatings, Paints, Varnishes,
Lacquers and Inks," 5 vols'., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1941. This is a
comprehensive treatise with excellent bibliographies.
Krumbhaar, W., "Coating and Ink Resins," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
Yprk,1947.
Barry, T. H., "Natural Varnish Resins," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York,
1932.
Gardner, H. A'I and G. G. Sward, "'Physical and Chemical Examination of Paints,
Varnishes, Lacqucrs and Colors," 11th cd., Institute of Paint and Varnish Research, Washington, 1950.
1
See Chap. 9.
527
SELECTED REFERENCES
Lewi~,
\Varrcn Ie, Lombard Rquires, and Geoffrey Brollghton, "Industrial Chemistry

of Colloidal and Amorpholls Materials," The Macmillan Company, New York,
1942.
Barry, T. H., and G. W. Dunstpr, "Varnish Making," Leonard Hill, Ltd., London,
1934.
Durrans, T. H., "Solvents," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 6th I'd., New York,
1950.
Heaton, N., "Outlines of Paint Tpchnology," 2d ed., J. R Lippin('ott Company,
Philadelphia, 1940.
Morrell, R. S., "Varnishes and Their Components," Henry Frowde, and Hodder &
Stoughton, Ltd., London, 1923.
Morrell, R. S., and A. De \Vaele, "Rubber, Resins, Paints and Varnishes," D. Van
Parry, E. J., "Shellac," Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1935.
Martin, R. C., "Lacquer and Synthetic Enamel Finishes," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
Furnas, C. C., editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrinl Chemistry," 6th ed., Chaps.
25 and 26, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.'
Von Fischer, W., editor, "Paint and Varnish Technology," Reinhold Publishing
Pratt, L. S., "The Chemistry and Physics of Organic Pigments," John Wiley & Sons,
Stewart, J. R., '''National Paint Dictionary," 3d ed., Stewart Laboratory, Washington, 1948.
.
Symposium, Paint, Varnish and Plastics, 25th Anniversary Program, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
41, 252 (1949).
Mellan, Ibert, "Industrial Solvents," 2d ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1950.
Bidlack, V. C., and E. W. Fasig, "Paint and Varnish Production Manual," .John
/
CHAPTER
25
LEATHER, GELATINE, AND GLUE
The chemistry and engineering behind the leather and leather-tanning

industry are so complex that scientific control in this industry has
developed comparatively slowly. The skins and bones of animals and
their products-leather, gelatine, and glue-are mostly colloidal materials
and have almost indefinable properties, about which too little is known.
The raw skin consists of a number of different complex proteins which
vary in structure in different animals and even vary in different parts of
the same hide. It has been said by Claflin, "Tanning will ever be an art
so long as one animal differs from his fellow and one hide from another."
The complexity of the art of leather manufacturing is enhanced by the
large number of active substances that affect the skins'-enzymes, bacteria, alkalies, acids, tannins, tannin substitutes, oils, fats, and salts.
The leather industry is constantly searching for new chemicals with
which to make better leathers at a cheaper price. It is already a large
ehemical eonsumer (see Table 2) ranking twelfth among industrial
markets for chemieals.
LEATHER
Historical. Leather is one of the oldest of the commodities on -the

present-day world market. It has been called "the most historic of useful materials." The art of leather m~nufacturing from hides and skins
antedates, by centuries, any of man's scientific knowledge of chemistry.
;Specimens of ancient Egyptian leather have been, found whIch are claimed
to be at least 3,000 years old. The color and strength, of this leather
are remarkably unimpaired. Judging from these well-preserved leather
products, the origin of the technique must have antedated this time by
many centuries. The original primitive methods for preservation of skins
probably consisted of simply drying them in air and sunlight. Later the
preservative effects of different oils were noted. Still later probably, the
accidental discovery of the tan'ning effects of leaves, twigs, and barks of
certain trees soaked in water were observed. It is believed that until
around 1900 the development of the leather industry was chiefly the
result of rule-of-thumb discoveries, since it is only within recent times
528
ANIMAl, SKINS
529
that any of the theory of leather tanning and dressing has been given in
chemical terms.
Probably the greatest modern advancement in the leather industry has
been the discovery and application of the chrome process of tanning
which was first used approximately 45 years ago. Because of the results
of this process, more than 90 per cent of the world's output of upper
shoe leather is now chrome-tanned. The chrome process has greatly
speeded up the tanning operation and gives increased strength. Vegetable
tanning takes 2 to 4 months while the chrome process has reduced this
interval to 1 to 3 weeks. The chief use of vegetable tanning at present is
in the tanning of heavy leathers such as sole leather or leather belting;
consequently, this old historical process is still widely employed.
Economics and Uses. According to the 1952 Survey of Manufactures
there were 5,012 establishments with 361,873 workers (Table 1) producing
an estimated 3Yz billion dollars worth of products. Around 85 per cent of
all the leather tanned in this country is consumed in footwear. Of the
remainder, industrial leather constitutes a large part.
Artificial leather and coated fabrics are making heavy inroads on
traditional leather markets. Also nearly 40 per cent of the shoe soling is
no longer ieather but synthetics. For example, nuclear soles (a combination of synthetic rubber and a special high styrene-butadien,e resin)
outwear leather by a wide margin but have a cost only about threequarters that of good leather. Patent leather has mostly been replaced
by the superior vinyl plastic and many other examples could be cited
where plastics are supplanting leather because of m6re plentiful supply
and superior uniformity at lower cost. l
ANIMAL SKINS
The United States is able to produce most of its own hides and skins
for leather production. South America is the chief source of hides imported; the Argentine hides, are usually of very good quality. Technically,
the term hide is applied to the skins of larger animals such as bulls,
horses, cows, and oxel1; the terrn skin refers to skins of goats, sheep,
calves, and the smaller animals. Very often the term kip is used for the
skins of animals smaller than a full-grown calf. The quantities of the
various types of raw mhterials have varied but little in the past decade.
In 1949, 23,413 cattle hides, 10,169 calfskins and kips, 34,674 goat and
kidskins, and 28,855 sheep and lambskins were consumed. In 1952, the
value shipped of leath~r tanned and finished was 708 million dollars; of
cattle hide and kip side 'leathers 424 million'dollars; of calf and whole kip
leathers 82 million dollars; and of other leathers tanned and finished 134
million dollars.
1
HOOVER,
Synthetics Invade I,eather Markets, Chem. Eng., 56 (0), 138 (1949).
530
TABLE 1. LEATHERS AND LEATHER PRODUCTS, 1947 AND 19520

No. of
establishments
No. of
employees
1947
1947
Value added by
manufacture ($1,000)
1952
1947
1952
Value
products
shipped
($1,000)
1952
-----Leather tanning and

finishing ............
561 53,205 44,028 $ 156,540 $ 285,515 $ 796,112
Footwear cut stock ....
606 22,077 18,926
47,793
77,154
267,249
Footwear (except rub516,879
931,995 1,789,871
ber) ............ ' .. 1,500 240,315 231,185
Leather gloves and
341 11,544 6,414
mittens ............
20,710
26,724
592 16,099 17,004
41,293
82,848
173,065
Luggage ..............
Handbags and small
leather goods .......
980 25,907 31,131
57,011
110,501
Miscellaneous leather
545
19,899
goods ..............
9,029 7,617
37,114
Leather goods, n.e.c ...
405
6,168
13,605
-----Totals for industry .. 5,308' 383,175 361,373 $1.,532,803 $1,597,375
1
Annual Survey of Manufacturers, 1952.

Number of establishments in 1952 had decreased to 5,012.
TABLE 2. CHEMICALS IN LEATHER MANUFACTURE a

No. of
products
Heavy chemicals ................

Vegetable tanning agents .... , ...
Other tanning agents ............
Oils, soaps, fat liquors ...........
~'inishes, pigments, solvents ......
Enzymes, syntans, moldicides ....
Dyes ...........................
Total. .......................
,
Chemicals used in
leather industry,
million lb. per year
31
16
6
14
15
6
n.a.
...
354
586
123
69
46
80
n.a.
..,
Cost estimate
1946-1948,
million dollars
7.4
41.0
8.4
8.8
13.0
6.2
8.7
94.0
a BELL and FLINN, Leather Industry Is Big Chemical Consumer, Chern. Eng., 66
(6), 131 (1949). The heavy chemicals consist of such items as, sodium sulfide, lactic
acid, sulfuric acid, sodium thiosulfate, borax, and salt (largest).
Animal skins as received by the tanner! may be divided in three

layers: the'epidermis, the derma or corium, and the flesh. The epidermis,
comprising about 1 per cent of the total skin, is the outer layer and conI McLAUGHLIN and THEIS, "The Chemistry of Leather Manu.facture," Reinhold
531
LEATHER MANUFACTURE
sists chiefly of the protein keratin. The hair, which grows through both
the derma and the epidermis, is also largely keratin. The derma is the
leather-forming part of the skin and consists mainly of the proteins
collagen and elastin. This layer is dense and chemically resistant, thus
allowing the epidermis to be readily removed by chemical means. Hot
water, however, causes a slow solubilization by hydrolysis of the collagen
to produce gelatine. The elastin is not affected by this treatment. The
flesh is a thin layer, mostly adipose tissue, which must be removed to
ensure tannin penetration on both sides of the corium.
MANUFACTURE
Unit Processes and Unit Operations. Figure 1 shows the necessary

steps in the manufacture of leather.' These steps may be broken down
into the following unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
The skins are opened, examined and, if of foreign origin, disinfected. The hoofs,
ears, tails, etc., are trimmed off (Op.) .
Hides
Lime.
~IeSr
100 lb.
10 lb.
lib.
209(11.
..--Vegetable Tcrn---.
lcretic ocid
1.2 lb.
TQn bOlrk
20 lb.
WOlter
1759,,1.
.---Chrome
Hel (30"1.)
Nael
Na,Cr,O,2H,o
~~~~',,03
Water
TQn~
2.5 lb.
20 lb.
5 lb.
I~
"blTvegetable
~rodU(e
11SIb.
Dye Sole
Oil:
21b.
Belting
61b.
Horness
201b.
Electricity
Ikw.hr.
400901. Direct labor 2monhr.
Ig:
ton or 60 lb.
ch:-ome tan
I<other
FIG. 1.
The skins are water-sbaked for 12 to 24 hr. and the flesh is removed by a
machine equipped with a: spiral-bladed cylinder (beaming) (Op.).
The skins are partIy d~haired and treated with a saturated lime solution plus
certain accelerators, such as sodium sulfide or sulfahydrate and dimethylamine,
for 3 to 7 days (Op. and Ipr.).
Any hair remaining js removed by machine and hand scraping (Op.).
The clean, dehaired hides are treated with certain enzymatic preparations
for 2 days to soften the ~kin and remove the lime (bating) (Pr.).
After rinsing, the hid~s are ready for tanning (Op.).
The two principal methods of tanning are shown in Fig. 1.
I
Pictured flow sheet with more details, Chem. & Met. Eng., 60 (1), 112 (1943).
532
The vegetable tanning process consists of the following procedures:

The prepared skins are treated with organic acids to neutralize any residual
lime (Pr.).
The tanning is carried out in several tanning baths starting very weak to
prevent "casehardening" and becoming progressively stronger. This requires
about 1 month (Pr.).
The skins are then allowed to rest in a vat containing tanbark for 60 days (Pr.).
The chrome-tanning process is somewhat different from the tanning process
as indicated in Fig. 1. The following pertains to the two bath processes.
The prepared skins are pickled in a bath of salt and sulfuric acid (Pr.).
The pickled hides are soaked with a solution of sodium dichromate (Op. and
Pr.).
The dichromate saturated skins are treated with sodium thiosulfate in the
reduction drum (Pr.).
TABLE
3.
COMPARISON OF SKINS AND LEATHER
Skins or hides
Leather
Pliability. . . . . . . . . . . . .. Soon lose pliability and be- Retains pliability

come hard and brittle
Permanence ........... Putresce very quickly
Extremely permanent, not
\ attacked by bacteria
Water resistance ...... . Absorb water and are per- Possesses great resistance .to
,meated easily by it
water
Boiling water ..... " . '... Are converted to gelatine by Attacked with great difhydration
ficulty
Mechanical strength .. " . Fairly good
Very good
The chrome salt is set on the fibers by adding borax to the skins in the settling
drum (Pr.).
After washing, the leather is ready for the finishing operations (Op.). Finishing
operations are somewhat similar for both methods of tanning.
The tanned hides may'be dyed (Pr.).
The leather is stuffed with oil (Op.).
The leather is split to produce a thinner, more supple p'roduct (Op.).
Gloss is developed on the surface of this leather by ironing and jacking the
leather with a glass cylinder (Op.).
The jacked leather is dried, (Op.), embossed (Op.), and measured COp:).
in industrial application these unit processes and operations are complicated and require experienced men to carry them out. Each important
operation or process is given more detailed presentation on the next few
pages. The results are tabulated in general in Table 3. However, leather
has an outstanding, extremely valuable property that is not duplicated
by many of its substitutes, namely, its great permeability to water
vapor and therefore its ventilating property.
LEATHER MANUFACTURE
533
Preservation and Disinfection of Skins. As the raw skins decay rapidly

after flaying, some method of preservation must be used to arrest the
bacterial action and subsequent hide disintegration. Standard United
States practice piles the hides flesh side up in alternate layers with salt.
These packs are arranged for proper drainage of the brine. This method
of curing requires a minimum of 3 or 4 weeks at about 13C., during
which the hide loses part of its moisture by dehydration and gains
weight through salt absorption. The loss is the greater and the over-all
difference is termed the "shrink." Great care must be taken in this
operation as many irregularities in the leather may be traced to the
curing and storing. Preservation methods predominantly used by foreign
countries include air drying, a combination of salting anrl air drying, and
salting with sodium sulfate and other substitutes in those countries where
the chloride is not available. l
Preparation of Hides for Tanning. The first step in the tanning process
is the inspection of the hides for defects as they come into the tannery,
cutting off of ears and ends, the cleansing of the hides from dirt, manure,
and salt, and restoring the hide to a natural soft hydrated state by
paddle washing, drum washing, or soaking in vats.
In the pa,ddle method, the washing is done in a cylindrical wooden
vessel, usually about 9 ft. wide and 5 ft. deep, cbntaining a rotor or
paddle 5 ft. in diameter. This paddle operates at approximately 15 r.p.m.
The equipment is cheap and easy to construct, uses little power, and is
not so liable to injure the hides as is the drum method. The chief disadvantages are the necessary high ratio of water to hide (about 3 lb. of
water per pound of hide) and the required hand removal of the hides from
the paddle.
In the drum method, a cylindrical wooden drum (cypress or fir), about
8 ft. in diameter and internally fitted with wooden pegs or shelves, is used.
The drum is rotated and gives the hides a tumbling effect during washing.
The chief disadvantage of this method is the danger of damage or rub
marks on the hides.
The soaking and washing of the hides are quite important because if
the hide is not properly" wet back," it will not respond properly to the
different tanning operations. Small amounts of sodium polysulfide and
surface-active agents are added which greatly accelerate the .soaking.
l
Bactericides in the soak, except sodium bifluoride for pathogenic. diseases,
are no longer necessary because of the completeness of preservation. If
the hide is oversoaked, it will be soft and below par. A properly soaked
hide contains about 65 per cent of water.
Liming. Liming is a means of loosening and removing the epidermis
and hair from the hide and is usually done in wooden or concrete vats.
1
McLAUGHLIN
and
THEIS,
op. cit.
534
The hides are tied or hooked together and placed in the vats containing
water with 10 per cent of the weight. of the hides in lime, and 2 per cent
of the lime weight in sodium sulfide which acts as an accelerating agent.
Dimethylamine and sodium sulfahydrate are also used as accelerating or
"sharpening agents." The hides are moved ahead daily in a series consisting of three to seven vats, remain in each one a day, and then enter
a fresher lime vat. These vats are drained and the lime charge renewed
about every 2 weeks in the summer and every 4 to 5 weeks in the winter.
The epidermis and hair are chiefly composed of keratin. Keratin is a
protein containing a cystine residue which is easily attacked by alkali.
Lime attacks the disulfide link in the keratin and thus softens the hair and
removes the epidermis. This action may be represented 1 as
R-S-S-CHzR + H 20 ~ RSH + RCHzSOH
RCH 2SOH ~ RCHO + H 2S
After the hides have passed tt~,JUgh this series of lime vats, they are
usually placed in a vat of warm water which tends to shrink them and
permits the easier removal of the hair. The hair and epidermis are
removed in a dehairing machine. The skins are brought in contact with
a roller set with dull knife blades which, rub off the loose hair and epidermis, as represented in Fig. 1.
The great bulk of all skins are depilated by the above practice, although
unhairing may also be accomplished by trea,ting the soaked skin with
certain enzymes or by "sweating." Here the skin is hung in a warm
humid room until the epidermis is digested by the ever-present prot.eolytic
bacteria.
Bating. For centuries bating was one of the most mysterious processes
carried out in the tannery and by far the most unpleasant. The old
method consisted of placing the :limed skins in a warm infusion of the
dung of dogs or fowls until the plumpness of the .skins disappeared.
When pigeon or hen, manure was used, the process was called bating,
and when dog dung was used, it was called puering. z Later the investigation of the important organic constituents of the dung led to the use of
artificial materials and the process became known as bating.
Just before immersion of the hides into the tanning liquor, they
undergQ the bating or deliqling process which now uses ammonium sulfate
or chloride as the deliming agent, and enzymes derived from bacteria,
fungi, or extraction of pancreatic glands for the removal of certain
proteins, mainly elastin, and for the improvement of the color of the
grain. The ammonium salts dissolve the lime and thus regulate the pH
1 LEWIS, SQUIRES, and BROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and Amorphous Materials," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942.
2 WILSON, "The Chemistry of Leather Manu~acture," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1928.
TANNING
535
of the solution so that the enzymes are activated.' Another important

reaction in bating is that called falling or the reduction in the degree of
swelling of the protein constituents of the limed skin previously swollen
during the liming process.
.
Vegetable Tanning. As has been mentioned previously, chrome tanning
is for light le~thers, and the chief use of vegetable tanning is for heavy
leathers used for soles and belting. The active ingredients in vegetable
tanning reagents consist of 2, class of complex organic compounds known
as tannins, which are found quite abundantly in the vegetable kindgom.
The chief sources that have attained commercial importance for supplying tannin for leather manufacture are barks, leaves, twigs, fruits, pods,
and roots of various trees, shrubs, and plants.
Chestnut and quebracho account for approximately 80 per cent of the
natural tannin consumption in this country, with about a third of
domestic origin and the rest from imports. Quebracho from Argentina
and Uruguay is the most important while wattle bark from South Africa
is second. In smaller quantities, but essential for providing certain leather
qualities are valonia from Turkey, myrobalan nuts from India', and
mangrove bark from Borneo. Approximately 90 per cent of the domestic
tannin supply is obtained from the uncut stand of dead chestnut trees
in. the southeastern Appalachian forest. Since this source will be depleted
i~ 10 to 15 y!;lars, the tanning industry is vigorously exploring other
natural sources of tannins or true synthetic replacement materials. Many
attempts 2 have been made to classify natural tannins because they do not
behave similarly in their action on the skin or in their response to various
reagents. Perhaps the earliest classification was to divide them, into
catechol or pyrogallol tannins. This was based upon the fact that when the
natural tannins were heated to 200C. they yielded one or the other.
Unfortunately some commercial tannins of today yield both groups, but
the classification is still: popular. Oak, hemlock, chestnut, and quebracho
are commonly known as catechol tannins, while tanning reagents from
wattle trees, myrobalan nuts, and gambier trees are often called pyrogallol tannins. Although some tanneries extract their own tannin from
raw materials, the maimfacture of tanning extracts has now become a
separate industry of co~siderable size.
The open-vat leaching method of natural tannins is one of the o~dest
but perhaps still the most commonly used., The tannin-containing bark,
wood, or other material is chopped into small pieces, shredded in a bark
mill, and placed in leacl).ing tanks equipped with false bottoms and heating
coils and usually arranged in batteries of eight. The bottom of each tank
is fitted with a pipe through which the liquor may be pumped from on~
tank to another. Leaching of the bark is accomplished by countercurrent
I
BELL,
Leather, J. Chent. Educ., 19, 340 (1942).

and THEIS, op. cit., pp. 515,ff.
a McLAUGHLIN
536
extraction with water. The bark is then dumped and discarded. The
fresh water enters at its boiling point and, by means of heating coils in
the vats, the temperature can be controlled so that it cools slowly and is
about 16C. for the last leach. Usually the extract is muddy and contains
suspended insoluble matter. The extract is then clarified by filter pressing,
settling, and decanting or centrifuging. The liquid is concentrated in
vacuum evaporators or specially constructed vacuum driers.
Tannins are complex mixtures of glucosides of various polyphenols.
Their action on skin is to combine with the protein. The tannins act as
negatively charged colloids. The proteins in the skins are positively
charged if in acid media. Thus the tahnins neutralize the charge on the
proteins and coprecipitation or combination of the tannins and proteins
occurs. Other complex processes also take place. As the proteins have a
negative charge when in alkaline media, it is necessary to neutralize all
of the lime from the liming process before tanning. During the tanning
process the tannins liberate sugars which are oxidized to acids and thus
keep the liquor acidic. These changes may be represented schematically
as follows:
sugar
Skin + tannin ~ leather
Sugar
oxidation
acid
After complete precipitation of the protein the aggregate has the

capacity to absorb large quantities of the tannin. Skins may increase in
weight as much as 300 per cent during the tanning operation. This combined and absorbed material fills up the holes and stiffens the leather.!
Synthetic tanning agents, or syntans, are gaining in use as evidenced by
present production of nearly 20,000,000 lb., although vegetable tanning
extracts are still widely employed. Syntans are condensation products of
sulfonated phenols (or higher homQlogs) and formaldehyde capable of
converting animal skin into leather.2 Comparatively few syntans exist
which do not possess a sulfonic acid' group. Syntans may be classified
according to use as auxiliary, complimentary, or replacement tannins.
! Until 1945 and the introduction of the first replacement tannin in America
(Orotan TV by Rohm & Haas Co.), all syntans belonged to the first two
classes. There they functioned as adjuncts and dye mordants and for
bleaching chrome leather, for solubilization of vegetable tans, and for
increasing the speed of penetration of the natural tannins into the leather.
The first successful replacement tannin was prepared by the Germans i::Jy
partially sul,fonating a phenoli,c resin of the Novolak type, neutralizing
the p~oduct, and diluting to proper strength. Replacement syntans 3 are
et al., op. cit.
CHEN, "Syntans and Newer Methods of Tanning," The Chemical Elements,
South ,Lancaster, Mass., 1950; Staff Report, New Tanning Agents Based on German
Technology, Ghem. Eng. News, 26, 1980 (1948).
a KENNEDY, Leather and National Defense, Ghem. Eng., 66 (6), 141 (1949).
1
2
LEWIS,
TANNING
537
very promising because quality can be standardized and synthetics can

be tailor-made for a specific task.
Vegetable tanning is usually done in wooden (red pine) vats 8 by 7 by
5 or 6 ft. deep which contain the tan liquors and hides. Since the hides
remain in the liquor for 1 or more months, many vats are required, and
they must therefore be cheap and durable. Hides first enter the oldest,
weakest tanning liquors in order to prevent complete plugging of the
surface pores and subsequent poor penetration of the tannins through the
skins by a strong liquor. They pass successively through liquors of
increasing strength until they leave the freshest and strongE!st liquor as
fully tanned leather. The ratio of liquor to hide is kept as low as possible
and is usually 6 to 4 lb. of liquor to 1 lb. of hide. The art in tanning lies
in the careful selection and blending in the proper proportions of the
various tannins so as to give the desired type and color of leather. Sometimes the hides are placed on rockers or paddles for the first 15 to 20 days
to give them a gentle movement in the liquid, which tends to accelerate
the tanning and make a more uniform leather.
Many attempts have recently been made to speed up the tanning time
and to shorten the expensive and tedious aging and mellowing in tan
liquors. Such schemes as immediate introduction of the hide ihto a strong
tanning reagent, use of formaldehyde, use of different solvents, use of
alternations of pressure and vacuum, and use of higher temperatures have
all been tried, but it is claimed that a poorer fiber,/grain, and yield are
obtained by these means. The methods seem to have attain,ed no great
success.
Since approximately 250 gal. of iron-free water are required for each
hide produced, water supply and disposal are very important factors in
tannery location. As in most other fields of industrial endeavor, there
is no standard treatment in the tanning industry of waste disposal because
of wide differences in local antipollution regulations as well as in type of
processes. Because of the relatively high solids found in tannery wastes,
some form of precipitation and sedimentation is usually ifleluded. In
order to segregate those wastes which did require further treatment from
those which did not, one company which produced 7.'>0,000 to 1,000,000
gal. effluent per day found the following distribution percentagewise: 1
Per
cent
Soak wash .............., .....

Soak .................. ',"""
Lime .................. , .. '...
Lime wash ............. , .. ,...
Bate ........................
1
SUTHERLAND,
628 (1947);
10.0
12.5
,
.
.
li.5
5.5
9.5
Per
cent
Pickle-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chrome tan .............. , " .
Vegetable tan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wash, color, fat liquors....... .
9 .5
2.0
2.0
31.5
Industrial Waste . . . Tanning Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 39,

Tanneries, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 520 (1952).
l!ARNLY,
538
Chrome Tanning. The uppers of a pair of chrome-t.anned leather shoes

will outwear two or three pairs of a vegetable-t.anned product. For this
reason over 90 per cent of the world's production of light leather is
chrome-tanned by the one-bath process. To condition hides and skins for
subsequent mineral tannage, they undergo a process called pickling. This
involves treating bated hides and skins with mixed solutions of acid,
usually sulfuric, and salt.
In the chrome process, the combination of the chromium salts and
hide fibers is much more rapid and takes place without the degree of
swelling that occurs in vegetable tanning. Therefore, the chrome leather
is more pliable and looser in structure. Fillers are usually added to give
water-resistant properties. The chrome leather is characterized by high
content of original hide proteins and mineral matter, and by low content
of water-soluble materials. The mechanism of chrome tanning has not
been well established. The tanning liquor has the same electrical charge
as the hide. Therefore, the mechanism of coprecipitation, as given under
vegetable tanning, is not applicable. It is possible that the COllagen forms
a coordination compound with the ehromium salts. l
Chrome tanning is usually subdivided into two processes: the one-bath
process using basic chromic sulfate and the two-bath process using sodium
dichromate. However, in each case, chromium salt is used in place of the
vegetahle tanning agent. The chrome liquor for the one-bath process is
usually made by reducing an acidified solution of sodium dichromate by
slowly adding a solution of glucose to it or by bubbling sulfur dioxide
through the di('hromate until the reduction is complete.
Na 2Cr 2 07
+ 3S0 + H 0 2
2Cr(OH)S04
+ Na SO.
2
There are numerous other methods for reduction, but all involve the
change of the chromium ion from the hexavalent to the trivalent state.
I The preferred one-bath process from the stan9.point of quality and control
is to add the chrome liq~or to the wooden drum containing the pickled
skins and the exhausted pickle liquor. Usually mold and mildew inhibitors
such as pentachlorophenol are added here. The drum is rotated 5 to
6 hr. until the tanning operation is complete.
'
Various modifications of the two-bath process are in use, but the
process used in Fig. 1 serves as an illustration. After pickling, the hides
are placed,' successively, in t,yo drums or paddle vats containing about
5 per cent of the weight of the hides in sodium dichromate solution with
some hydrochloric acid and salt. The skins are allowed to remain in
each liquor overnight and are then pulled out and allowed to drain.
After an hour or two, the hides are placed in another paddle vat containing
approximately 15 per cent of the weight of the hides in sodium thiosulfate.
The hides are left in this liquor overnight, pulled out in the morning,
1
LEWIS,
et al., op. cit.
FINISHING OPERA'l'IONS
539
and washed in a drum containing water. Borax is added to reduce the

acidity of the leather to the desired extent.
In the chrome process, the properties and composition of the finished
leather are greatly influenced by many factors that can be controlled
during tanning. Such factors as salt concentration, temperature, agitation, time, and proportion of protein to liquor are very important in the
effects on the leather produced. In fact it seems that the number of
possibilities of operation and final results in chrome tanning is infinite.
Finishing Operations. After the tanning operation is completed, the
leather, if dried rapidly, is quite stiff, will usually break if bent sharply,
and is not yet fit for use. The fibers must be lubricated to give them
pliability and softness. Actually more work is required in the operations
following the actual tannage than in all the preceding operations and
processes put together. As each of the numerous kinds of leather requires
a special series of operations, details will be impossible here.
If the tanned leather is not smooth, it is shaved by means of a machine
with sharp blades. Very often it is split by means of a bandlike knife
to obtain the desired thickness. (This may be done later, as shown in
Fig. 1.) Vegetable-tanned leathers are sometimes washed, bleached, or
scoured. The bleaching or washing is usually done in a revolving drum
containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, /or sulfuric acid and
water. Other bleaching agents such as sodium bisulfite, sulfurous acid,
sulfite cellulose solutions, and various syntans are used.
The next operation involves the incorporation of oils and greases and
is called stuffing or fat liquoring. Sulfonated oils blended with raw oils
are the most important fat liquors and have mostly replaced raw oils,
natural greases, emulsions of raw oils and soaps, waxes, and resins. The
leather, either dry or wet, may be stuffed by hand or in a rotating drum.
A more uniform job can 'be obtained by hand. Sole leathers are usually
"loaded" with some ,material as magnesium sulfate and c~llulose to give
them desired propert~es.
The color and shade of the finished leather are produced by a combination of dyeing a~d finishing operations. Dyeing may be united with
the fat-liquoring process, or it may be done before or after it. Most of
the dyestuffs used at present are now synthetic coal-tar derivatives. The
most common method of dyeing is in revolving drums or vats equipped
with rotating paddles.
The finishing seriefl of operations in the production of leather includes
both mechanical treatments and applications of finishing materials to the
leather. The following classes represent the more common materials used
in leather finishing: (1) cellulose ethers, (2) waxes, (3) resins, (4) dyes,
(5) pigments, (6) lacquer materials, (7) antiseptics, (8) miscellaneous
materials s.uch as solvents, perfumes, soaps, sulfonated oils, metal salts,
plasticizers, acids, and alkalies. Mechanical operations carried out in the
540
finishing of leathers include staking (flexing the leather over an edge to

loosen fibers and soften it), glazing, buffing, graining, trimming, rolling,
brushing, and plating. The finishing operations alone embrace a technique
requiring great skill, wide experience, and close attention ..
Oil Tanning.t From very early times skins have been tanned or preserved by the use of certain drying oils which have been worked into
the skins and allowed to oxidize and react, thus becoming fixed. An
example of this type of leather is that known as chamois. The sheepor lambskins are subjected to the usual rinsing, liming, trimming, fleshing,
and bating. 'rhey are then swollen preparatory to splitting, frequently
with the aid of an acid such as sulfuric at a pH of around 2.0. The pickled
skins in the plumped condition can be split easily, separating the grain
from the flesh layer. The former is the skiver while the flesh layer is
processed to make chamois leather. After this the depickling is carried
out with an alkali such as borax or even soda ash or ordinary chalk with
the pH around 7.0. The skins are now in condition to be processed with
the oil to make chamois. The damp skins are treated with about 10 per
cent of their weight of a suitable oiL The oils generally used are cod oil
or linseed although the latest development employs aliphatic hydrocarbon sulfonyl chlorides. The treatment with oil is often carried out in a
drum where the revolving action extends over 4 hr. so that the oil can
distribute itself and penetrate the skin. The skins are removed and piled
in layers during which fermentation and oxidation proceed, evolving a
number of reactions that are not now well understood. The skins are
hung or hooked for the reactions to proceed. The temperature rises some
20F. during this maturing process. The oiling and hooking are repeated
until 40 to 50 per cent of the oil on the weight of the moist skin has been
incorporated. After the oil-tanning process is completed, the chamois
leather is washed with warm alkalized water and hydraulically pressed
to remove excess oiL Further washing, buffing, 'and drying complete the
operations.
GELATINE
Gelatine 2 is an organic nitrogenous colloidal protein substance whose

principal value depends ,on its coagUlative, protective', and adhesive
powers. Water containing only 1 per cent high-test gelatine by weight
will form a jelly when cold. Glue and gelatine are closely related; indeed,
glue may be looked upon as an, impure gelatine. Both are derived by
hydrolysis from collagen-the white fibers of the connective tissues of the
anim~l bodYI particularly in the skin (corium), bones (ossein), and tent BARRETT, 1ianufacture of Chamois Leather, Leather Trades' Rev., 75, 1125 (Hi42).
The spelling gelatine is adopted here because of its very wide usage in the industry
although it is recognized that the spelling gelatin is used by Chemical Abstract8 and
the United States Pharmacopeia.
541
GELATINE
dons. These reactions have been formulated. l However, these are only
indications of the complex changes that take place, proceeding from quite
variable raw materials to almost as variable products.
+ H 20 =
Water
C 102H l5lN 31 0 39 + 2H 20 =
C102H 149N
310 38
Collagen
Gelatine
Water
0 39
C102H151N 31
Gelatine
C 5sH8sN
170 22
Semiglutin
+ C 47 H 70N 140 19
Hemicollin
Uses and Economics. The industry recognizes three different kinds of

gelatine: (1) edible, (2) photographic, and (3) inedible. In 1952, the
United States total production of gelatine was 37,523,000 lb., of which the
production of inedible and photographic gelatine was approximately
8,000,000 lb. Gelatine has recently become a widely consumed food. It
is a very popular dessert which is easily assimilated and even helps in
the digestion of other foods by forming an emulsion with fats and proteins.
Gelatine is also used by pharmaceutical houses for making capsules and
as an emulsifier. Gelatine has played an important part in the rapid
development of the motion-picture and photographic industries. The
gelatine is coated on the film base as the sensitized emulsion of the lightsensitive silver salts. Inedible gelatine is quite an arbitrary nanie and is
applied to small amounts of gelatine used for miscellaneous purposes such
as for sizing paper, textiles, and straw hats.
The prices of the different gelatines vary considerably. The average
price of photographic gelatine is about $1.15 per pound while the average
price of edible gelatine is only about half this figure. In 1949 there were
11 producers of gelatine in the United States. It should be noted that a
distinction is to be made between producers of gelatine and processors.
The producer manufactures the plain clear gelatine which he sells to the
processor who makes it up into gelatine-dessert powders and other
products.
Manufacture. All three types of gelatine produced are made from
calfskin, pigskin, or animal bones. These materials contain approximately one-third coll l1geq by weight. A large amount of the bones is
imported chiefly from Argentina, while most of the_pig- and calfskins are
domestically produced. Approximately 89 per cent of the raw materials
consumed are calfskiIi and pigskin, the remaining 11 per cent bones.
Although producers d6 not agree on which raw material yields the greatest
quantity of gelatine, it is known that only the best-grade raw materials,
such as calfskins, are, used for the production of photographic gelatine.
Sheppard found that the presence of traces of mustard oil (allyl isothiocyanate) in gelatine Iprepared from the skins of calves that had eaten
J
1 ALEXANDER, in "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., p. 1588, D.

Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
542
LEATHER, GELATINE, AND GLU}]
wild carrots was very effective in increasing photographic sensitivity.'

The skins used for gelatine are usually imperfect ones, not suitable for
making leather. It should be noted that strict government regulations
and inspections govern the choice of raw materials used for the preparation of edible gelatine.
The bones and skins frequently undergo a pretreatment which makes
the 'gelatine preparation easier. They are usually heated in lime and
water to a temperature of about 70C. for a short time. If higher temperatures and long heating are used, the gelatine hydrolyzes and loses
part of its jellying properties.
Nolll;- Mcm.ufacfure of glue and gelatine difFers forgery in fhaf poorer 9rad~s of raw maferials and higher
extracting fe.mp~r~f(Jres. are usef/ for the forme;_ Glu~ is more compleTely hydrolyz.ed fh,an gelatine.lnsfead
be UST,.tn which case after wQshing,
to 7S deg.C. are u/ed. The kIst I
~oF bones, sktns.h/des, smet'Vs, hide-scrups, f/(!shmgs, fish sfoc/(,etc.,.mOlY
they are infr.oduced af X. USlJo11y three extractions at femperatures fromO

extract requires concentration beFore molding
~
Bones
Hydrochloric ocid
LIme
3.03 tons
1.14 tons
0.76 tons
Ste(lm
Electricity
Direct '''Dar
. .
400 lb. ' } To produce

SS"kw.-hr.
GelaTone, I ton
6 man-hr. C(l,{ P041,1.67ton
. Greo$O. o.oaton
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for glue and gelatine.
When bones are used as a raw material, they should be degreased. This
is done by heating tp_e bones under steam pressure and then running off
the grease layer, or by extracting with a low-boiling petroleum naphtha.
Figure 2 shows the essential steps in the preparation of gelatine and glue
from bones. The bones are then crushed. and eIiter a battery of four or
more wooden tanks in series. Cold 5Be. (7.15 per cent) hydrochloric
acid is passed countercurrent to the bones so as to flow into the most
nearly exhausted ones first. The calcium phosphate, carbonate, and other
fuineral matter of the bon'es are dissolved, leaving the organic matter,
collagen, with the residue from the bones. This is now called ossein.
It is unnecessary to treat skins used in the manufacture of gelatine
with hydrochloric acid because the collagen of skins is not shielded by
mineral matter such as the calcium salts. The ossein is soaked in concrete
vats containing milk of lime for a period of a month or more. This same
treatment is 3:1so given to hides used for gelatine production. The purpose
of this soaking is for plumping and to remove and eliminate soluble
I
1 SHEPPARD,
Photographic Gelatine, Photo J., 66, 380 (1925).
GELATINE
543
proteins (mucin, albumin).! When the soaking in the lime is complete,

the ossein or hides are washed in a rotary drum or conical-shaped washer,
once with fresh water then with slightly acidified water to adjust the
pH for optimum hydration of the collagen.
The next step is a series of extractions, which are usually performed in
wooden tanks equipped with steam coils. The first extraction is made
with water kept at 60 to 65C. by the steam coils. The pH of the hydrolyzing liquid is of importance. The optimum range is 3.0 to 4.0. 2 The water
is in contact with the ossein for approximately 8 hr. An 8 to 10 per cent
solution of gelatine is obtained which is filtered hot and cooled. Then
another extraction.is made at a slightly higher temperature. The filtered
liquors are run into long steel trays 6 in. wide and 6 in. deep, which
are placed in refrigerated rooms to jell the contents. A third extraction
of the ossein or hides is carried out at about 75C. This is darker in color
and so dilute that it will not set or jell on cooling. It is, therefore, necessary to evaporate this liquor under vacuum before it is cooled. Very often
peroxides of hydrogen or sulfurous acid are used as a bleaching agent."
These extractions, usually four or five in number, are run at continually
higher temperatures until 100C. is reached. The extract made at the
lowest temperature is of the best quality and usually is used for gelatine
for food or photographi~ purposes. The last extracts yield material
suitable only for glue.
The cooled solid gelatine is removed from the mold, cut into slabs 7~ ill.
by 2 in. by' 6 ft. These slabs are spread on nets which are stacked Oil
small mobile trucks and pushed into a drying tunnel through which
filtered air at about 40C. is pulled by exhauster fans. On drying, the slabs
shrink to a thin strip which may be ground to a powder for further usage.
Although gelatine itself is a by-product of the packing and tanning
industries, its manufacture produces several more by-products, as shown
in' Fig. 3. By-products of gelatine made from pigskin or calfskin are
tankage and grease. Gelatine made from degreased bones gives by-products of steamed bone meal which is a valuable stock-feed additive,
calcium phosphate for the pottery industry (bone china) and suitable as
a fertilizer, and also l;lOne black which is a good decolorizing agent.
The production of edible gelatine must meet the requirements of the
Food and Drug Ad~inistration and the manufacture of photographic
gelatine must undergo very rigid and specialized technical control. The
process of making phbtographic gelatine is much more complicated than
1 LEWIS, et al., op. cit.; PEARSON and SMITH, Gelatine, Food Manuf., 2, 232, 287; 3,
427 (1928).
TUPHOLM, The Imp6rtance of pH Control in the Manufacture of Gelatine and
Glue, Food Manuf., 13, i16 (1938); cf. FRIEDEN, Protein Adhesives, Chem. Inds., 69,
835 (1946).
3 RADLEY, Clarification and llleaching of Gelatine and Glue, Food Manuf., 11, 242
(1936).
544
that used for producing other gelatines. It is for this reason that the
price of photographic gelatine is nearly twice that of the edible variety.
The reagents used must be very pure. For example, lime used in the
process must be free from Fe and Mg salts, or else the gelatine cannot be
used in photography.1
GLUES AND ADHESIVES
Though glues and adhesives 2 are often considered as insignificant

materials, they are indispensable and necessary in the production of
many of the commonly accepted necessities of life. Strictly interpreted,
glue is derived from connective tissues of animals. However, many
adhesives, not glues, are commonly called glues where they are used as
substitutes for glue.
Historical. Animal glue is the oldest type of glue, having been known
for at least 3,300 years. It has been an important article of commerce
for more than a century, while commercial production of other" glues"
is chiefly a recent development. Casein adhesive and starch adhesives
became of commercial importance about a generation ago; soybeanprotein adhesive in the last 20 years; and synthetic-resin adhesive has
been developed only within the last decade. In 19.5l, 293,000,000 lb. of
protein-base adhesives, 369,000,000 lb. of vegetahle adh~sives, and
290,000,000 lb. of synthetic-resin adhesive:;; were produced (see Table 4).
Protein Adhesives. Because of their stronger, more flexible films, the
most popular adhesives of a.ll are animal, glues. These are made chiefly
from waste products. of the meat-packing and tanning industries such as
fleshings, bones, trimmings, and materials too low in purity for the manufacture of gelatine. Although animal glue is traditionally associated with
the woodworking industry, millions of pounds are used annually for
rayon sizing and for protective coatings applied t9 paper, floor coverings,
and packaging materials. Sizing paper with animal glue enables it to
withstand wear, resist water and ink, and facilitate erasure. Fish glues,
liquid glues made from waste materials- of cod, haddock, cusk, hake, and
I,?ollock, have practically the same applications as animal glues. Casein,
the milk-derived protein, is the basis of another large dass of adhesives
and can be made both water- and non-water-resistant. Casein adhesives
are widely employed in the woodworking industry and in the manufacture
of drinking cups, straws, and ice-cream containers. Soya-protein adhesives
although similar in properties to casein adhesives, are cheaper but not
1 CHARRlOU and VALETTE, Manufacture of Photographic Gelatine, 15me. Congr.
chim. ind., 60 (1936); SHEPPARD, op. cit.
FRIEDEN, Modern Methods and Materials for Adhesive Manufacture, Chern.
Ind8., 69, 641, 835, 1002 (1946). This excellent article is divided into three partsstarch, protein, and synthetic-resin adhesives.
545
STARCH ADHESIVES
so good. The two are generally employed in combination, particularly in

the veneer field, thus permitting a reduction in glue costs. Albumin
adhesives, both egg and blood, find specialized uses where low film
strength is not of importance yet water resistance is. To adhere the cork
pads to crown bottle caps is one of these applications. Zein, the
protein, is used to a small extent as an adhesive particularly in combination with other bases. Peanut protein hydrates are the newest of
protein-based adhesives and are suitable for making gummed tape and
flexible glues for boxes and books.
Animal byproducts
I
Cattle,
rabbit
or
other
Degreased
Calf
or
pig
Green
@"l
,..-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
r-----l
I
J
I l _____ J I
r-I
Tankage h
L ___ ~
r-----'
.. J
I
I
L-j Grease ~J
l ____ - '
Legend:
t:::J Raw materials

c::::J Finished products
r=J
Byproducts
FIG. 3. Animal glue and gelatines. (After U.S. Tariff Commission Report 135, 1940.)
Starch Adhesives. Starch adhesives or glues were first found in largescale industrial application approximately in the 1910's. The chief kinds
on the market todayi are made from corn starch, tapioca flour, wheat
flour, cassava starch, ~nd potato starch. Starch adhesives may be applied
cold and do not have 'the undesirable characteristic odors of some animal
glues. This is one of the chief advantages of these adhesives over animal
glues, although most of them have the disadvantage of less strength and
water resistance than animal glues. Starch adhesives are less costly than
synt.het.ic-resin adhesives. Native starch is widely employed as an adhesive
for veneer, plywood,' and corrugated and laminated boards where water
resistance is not important. Incorporated with 5 to 15 per cent resins such
546
as urea- or melamine-formaldehyde, it is used for cartons where water

resistance is important. Through enzyme conversions it is a base for
many liquid adhesives. Native starch is the raw material for hydration to
dextrins and British gums. Dextrins and British gums are modified
starches important for envelope gums, gummed paper, labeling glues for
glass, metal, and wood, cartons, laminated boards, and padding glues.
'Tapioca dextrin is the adhesive used lOT postage stamps.
Synthetic Resin Adhesives. These adhesives are desired where water
resistance is required and special conditions are to be met. Urea-melamine
resin adhesives consist of urea- or melamine-formaldehyde alone or
combined usually with starch-based adhesives where some water resistance is desirable. The chief outlet of these resins is in the woodworking
industry where high water resistance is not essentiaL Phenolic-resin l
adhesives are based on phenol or derivatives such as resorcinol which are
condensed with aldehydes or ketones. They are thermosetting and need
catalysts and curing for complete polymerization. Their chief outlet is
in wood gluing where high water resistance is required. Vinyls are a large
and important class of adhesives which contain water-soluble and insoluble members, polymers, copolymers, emulsions, and dispersions.
Polyvinyl alcohol polymers are used along and in combination with
starch products, caseins, rubbers, urea-formaldehyde resins, and other
vinyl compounds for a variety of applications. Polyvinyl acetate resins,
polyvinyl butyral (glass laminations), vinylidene chloride polymer
(rubber surfaces), and vinyl chloride polymer (rubber surfaces) complete
the picture. Cellulose adhesives of particular interest are cellulose acetate,
nitrate, and butyrate and ethyl cellulose for solvent-soluble adhesives.
Methyl and carboxymethyl cellulose are important for aqueous adhesives.
Alkyds, acrylates, methacrylates, ally Is, hydrocarbon polymers such af!
indene, coumarone, styrene polymers, silicone resins, and natural .and
synthetic rubbers all find application as additives or bases. Because of
the limitless variations possible, the manufacture of synthetic-resin
adhesives will not be discussed here. 2.
Other Adhesives: There are many more adhesives on the market,
I such as sodium silicate solutions, mucilage ..which is a solution of gum
arabic or acacia in water, asphalts, waxes, rosin, and shellacs. Except for
sodium silicate (see Ch~p. 14, page 280), the others are more or less
specialty adhesives and additives. 3
1 SAWYER, et al., Phenolic Resin Glues for Plywood, Ind. Eng. Chern., 40, 1011
(1948).
2 See Chap. 35 for the manufacture of the specific resins; ci. FRIEDEN, Modern
Methods and: Materials for Adhesive Manufacture, Chern. Inds., 69, 1002 (1946);
KIRK I1nd OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 191-205; DELMONTE, "The Technology of
Adhesives," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1947.
3 ('f. :\IA~TELL, "The Water-soluble Gurus," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1\).17.
547
ANIMAL GLUES
MANUFACTURE
Animal Glues. The manufacture of glue is almost identical with the

manufacture of gelatine. The procedures include grinding bones, cutting
hides and scraps into small pieces, degreasing the material by percolating
1
TABLE
4. GLUES AND ADHESIVES CONSUMED IN THE UNITED STATES, 1947

AND LATER"
(All figures in thousands)
Quantity,
Ib.b
Glues, total. ......... .' ......... -...................... .

Animal glue:
Hide ............................................ .
Extracted bone .................................. .
Green bone ...................................... .
Vegetable glue ....... " ............................ .
Flexible glue ....................................... .
Casein glue ........................................ .
Other gIlles, including liquid and fish ................. .
Adhesives and cements, other than glue, total ............ .
Collodion-type adhesives ............................ .
Dextrin-type adhesive.s .............................. .
Fish-glue adhesives ................................. .
Casein adhesives ...... -. ............................ .
Synthetic-resin adhesives ............................ .
Furnace cement .................................... .
Gum-arabic pastes .................................. .
Mucilage .......................................... .
Plastic-wood preparations ........................... .
Starch pastes ..... _................................ .
Other adhesives and cements ........................ .
Rubber cements, gal. ................................. .
Value
$59,519
67,386
18,114
69,128
55,844
22,316
4,267
3,302
76,543
287
26,481
35,275
12,457
254
2,672
63,116
17,650
18,467
4,638
15,244
4,706
4,453
1,167
10,844
59,184
1,986
9,314
101
4,515
6,074
730
69
1,090
1,290
5,323
28,692
20,982
" 1947 Census of Manufactures. Details are not available for later years, but animal
and vegetable glues had a total value of $53,764,000 in 1952 or a decrease from the
corresponding figure of $59,519,000 for 1947. Other data, by SKEEN, Chem. Eng. News,
30, 4133 (1952), present! an estimate of an annual output for organic adhesives of
200 million dollars per year, but this figure includes about 290,000,000 lb. of synthetic
resins not in above tablet
b All quantities listed ~re in thousands of pounds, except for rubber cements, which
are thousands of gallonsj
a grease solvent throughiit, liming and plumping, washing, making several

extractions by hot water, filtering liquors, evaporating, chilling, and drying the jelly slabs in""8, tunnel. When dry~ the slabs of glue are flaked or
1 Cf. HULL and BANGERT, Animal Glue, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 2275 (1952), for an
excellent description accompanied by excellent pictures, tables, and a flow sheet.
548
T.EATHER, GEI.ATTNE, AND aI.UE
ground, blended, graded, and barreled or hagged for shipment (see Figs.
2 and 3).
Variations of this process have been developed which do away with
the tunnel drying and considerable hand labor. These consist of forcing
the evaporated chilled extraction liquors containing 50 per cent glue
through a wire grill or colander instead of placing slabs in a tunnel drier.
The glue when forced through the wire grill is cut off into small pellets
by knifelike blades. The pellets are dried in a three-stage drying system
using bins and rakes to stir the pellets. In some processes the pellets are
dropped from the colander or grill into a chilling bath, such as benzene,
where they solidify. The adhering benzene evaporates and the pellets
are dried. This pellet form of glue is known as pearl glue. However, more
than three-fourths of the glue produced in the United States is sold in the
ground form and the remaining fourth is sold in the flake and pellet form,
most of which is mainly flake.
Starch Adhesives. Native starches are prepared from grains or roots.
Dextrins are made by heating a dry starch with dilute acid causing partial
hydration. British gums result from heating native starch with small
amounts of catalysts. British gums are gummier and more adhesive than
dextrins. In the manufacture of starch adhesives, rarely are the,dextrins,
British gums, or starches used alone. Many chemicals may be admixed
as indicated. Borax increases viscosity, gumminess, rate of tack, and
speed of production. A 50 per cent dextrin solution equals a 25 per cent
dextrin solution plus 10 to 15 per cent borax. Sodium hydroxide accentuates borax action and also improves penetration for rosin-sized materials.
Other chemicals which function in a like manner but to a lesser degree are
Na 2C03, KOH, and K 2CO a Urea works the opposite of borax, thus
enabling manufacturers to use gummy products which would otherwise
be unworkable. Other materials use~ in the manufacture of starch
adhesives are plasticizers, defoaming agents, preservatives, "fluidifying
agents" (delay viscosity increase upon aging), coloring, flavoring, and
e'mulsifying agents. The latter are used where. the surface to be glued is
sized with wax or other organic-soluble agents.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Glues, Gclatincs and Related Products, U.S. TaT1Jf Comm. Rept. 135, 1940.
Lewis, Warren K., Lomhard Squir<>s, and Geoffrey Broughton, "Industrial Chemistry
of Colloid~l and Amorphous Mltterials," The Macmillan Company, New York,
1114,2.
Wilson, J. A., "The Chemistry of Leather Manufacture," Vols. 1 and 2, Reinhold

Puhlishing Corporation, New York, 1928, 1929.
- - , "Modern Practice in I.eatli!'f Manufacture," Rpinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1941.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Smith, P. I., "Glue and Gelatine," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New Y k
1943.
or ,
McLaughlin, G. 0., and Eo R. Theis, "The Chemistry of Leather Manufacture"
'
Chen, P. S., "Syntans and New Methods of Tanning," The Chemical Elempnls
South Lancaster, Mass., Hl50.
'
Delmonte, John, "The Technology of Adhesives," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1947.
Woodroffe, David, editor, "Standard Handhook of Industrial Leathers," The National Trade Press, London, 1\)4!l.
Alexander, Jerome, "Glues and Gdatines," Hcinhold Puhlishing Corporation, New
York, 1923.
National Association of Glue Manufacturers, Inc., "Animul Glue in Industry," New
York, 1951.
De Bruyne, N. A., and R. Houwink, "Adhesion and Adhesiv<'s," ElseviC'r Press, Inc.,
Houston, Tex., 1951.
HerfeId, Hans, "Grundiagen der Lcderhcrstellung," T. Stcinkopf, Dn'sden, Germany,
1950.
I,
CHAPTER
26
PESTICIDES
This chapter covers the importan~ utilization of chemicals to control

either plant or animal life disadvantageous to man and his domestic
animals. Reliable authorities have carefully estimated l the annual loss
TABLE 1. PESTICIDES AND OTHER ORGANIC AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS'
1953
1954b
ProducPrice
tion
per lb.
1,000 lb.
ProducPrice
tion
per lb.
1,000 lb.
Grand total. .............................. 355,953

Fungicides and seed disinfectants, cyclic total
44,832
Naphthenic acid, copper salt ..............
3,268
Phenyl mercuric oleate ...................
47
Herbicides and plant hormones, total. ....... 64,349
2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) ..... 49,590
2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
10,667
Phenyl mercuric acetate ..................
154
Insecticides, total. ......................... 187,873
B.H.C. (benzene-hexachloride) ............ 57,363
Parathion ..............................
2,999
D.D.T. (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane). 84,36,6
Fumigants, fungicides, seed disinfectants, herbicides, and insecticides, acyclic total .... 58,899
Dimethyldithiocarbamic acid, sodium salt ..
538
Dimethyldithiocarbamic acid, zinc salt
(Ziram) ...............................
i,152
'229
Tetraethyl pyrophosphate (T.E.P.P.) ......
$0.35
0.33
0.22
3.95
0.64
0.48
1.45
3.73
0.28
0.11
.... ,
0.25
418,723
57,993
'3,557
142
63,462
52,719
6,574
598
235,527
76,934
3,889
97,198
$0.37
0.44
0.22
0.40
0.63
61,741
471
0.25
0.40
0.59
0.85
1,117
0.53
0.89
361
0.71
0.47
1.22
5.48
0.29
0.11
1.32
0.24
a "Synthetic Organic Chemicals," U.S. Tariff Commission, Washington, D.C.,

printed annually; see preceding for statistics for less important items.
& Preliminary.
.
by agricultural pests to be more than 13 billion dollars. Of this, about 4

billion dollt:trs is caused by insects, the same amount by fungi and plant
1 Editors, Agricultural Chemicals, Chem. Eng. News, 30, 3078 (1953); WELLMAN,
Synthetic Chemicals for Agriculture, Chem. Ind., 62, \)14 (1948); 63, 22a (11).18); cj.
Symposium on Insecticides in Food Production, Ind. Eng. Chem., 40, un (1948).
550
551
INSECTICIDES
diseases, and 5 billion dollars hy wecds. Thc farmer now spends some
300 million dollars annually for pest-control materials; approximately 1
per cent of the cash value of all farm sales (see Table 1). It cannot he
stated too strongly that this large loss would be still larger were not these
pests kept under some measure of control by the use of chemicals,
accompanied by other means, such as the proper cultivation of the soil
and the appropriate construction of homes and barns.
Every citizen is concerned with this tremendous loss and should be
interested in the chemical warfare directed against man's normal enemies.
It is a most important step in the conservation of our resources and in
increasing the productivity of our soil. The chemical engineer is called
upon to manufacture these domestic chemical warfare agents and in
special conditions to assist in their application. This chapter will present,
in general, the use of these compounds and, in particular, the means for
the manufacture of products for pest control, whether the pests be plants
or animals, macro or micro in size, or whether the pests be disturbing
our food, our bodies, our clothing, or our habitations.
INSECTICIDES
Insecticides are agents or preparations for destroying insects and are

usually classified according to their method of action. Stomach poisons
are lethal only to insects that ingest them; contact insecticides kill following
TABLE
2.
INSECTICIDES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO METHOD OF ACTION
Stomach poisons
Contact insecticides
Fumigants
RHC, DDT, methoxychlor, BHC, DDT, toxaphene,

BHC, hydrogen cyanide,
Systox, lead arsenate, chlordan, dieldrin, aldrin, carbon disulfide, nicotine,
calcium arsenate, paris methoxychlor, nicotine
sulfur dioxide, p-dichlorogreen, sodium fluoride, preparations, lime-sulfur, benzene, naphthalene,
oil emulsions, pyrethrins, chloropicrin, ethylene
cryolite, fluosilicates,
compounds of borax, I
rotenone, synthetic thio- oxide and dichloride,
cyanates, and organic
thallium, phosphorus, '
methyl bromide and forand mercury
phosphates such as hexa- mate
ethyl tetraphosphate,
parathion, and Systox
external bodily cont~ct; and fumigants act on the insect through the
respiratory system., Table 2 lists some of the principal insecticides in each
class. They may be applied as a spray if liquid or in solution, as a dust,
or as a gas. The sysl~mics are a group oNnsecticides which, unlike conventional insecticide$, are absorbed right into the sap stream and translocated throughout the plant. Thus they render plants toxic to aphids,
red spider mites, and other sucking insects that are notoriously hard to
552
PESTICIDES
kill. This concept of insecticides is very new, hut the possibilities could
be limitless through proper selectivity, i.e., lethal to harmful insects but
harmless to beneficial ones.
History. Records show that insecticides were used as long ago as
1000 B.C. However, they were more often useless than useful as they were
based on legend and superstition rather than on scientific knowledge.
The essential property of early insecticides was a disagreeable odor
rather t.han a poisonous nature. Although the toxic properties of arsenic
were known as early as A.D. 40, it was not employed in the Western
world until 1u(i!). About the middle of the last century the use of paris
green, lead arsenate, and other reaily poisonous chemicals was started as
a general method of insect control. I
Inorganic Insecticides. In recent years inorganic compounds for insecticides have been displaeed by organic compounds in many applications. However, they are still the mainst.ays of the agricultural chemicals industry. Arsenicals, fiuorine,2 and phosphorus compounds are
among the sufficiently toxic practical insectiGides. Their major disadvantage is t.heir comparable toxicity to man and other warm-blooded
animal.. by handling and residues on food products.
The arsenates, because of their greater safety and versatility, have
almost completely displaced the more insect-toxic arsenites. Paris gref'n,
Cu(C 2 H 30 2)2.3Cu(As0 2h was the first commercially prepared arsenical
to come into UBe. It is made by treating eopper arsenite with dilute
acetic acid. 3 It is not so widely used as some of the other arsenicals
because of its burning effect on plant. foliage and because certain organics
are more effective. Its principal uses are for the potato beetle and as a
sulfur-combined dust agaiJist cotton insects.
The lead arsenate commonly used as an insecticide is an acid lead
arsenate, PbHAs0 4. Many other lead arsenates, Pb 2 As 20 7 , PbH 2 As 20 7 ,
etc., are known and occasionally employed for this purpose. Acid lead
arsenate may be prepared by the following series of reactiohs: 4
3PhO + 2CH aC0 2H --> (CH:I C0 2 )2Pb2PhO + H 2 0

(CH aC02)2Ph2PbO + 2H3As04 --> J;>b:I (As04)2 + 2CH3(~02H + 2H 2 0
Pb a(As0 4)2 + 2HNO a --> 2PbHAs0 4 + Pb(N0 3)2
Pb(NO a)2 + H3As04 --> PbHAs0 4 + 2HNO a
The actual manufacture of acid lead arsenate is much simpler than the
equations indicate. Litharge is dissolved in the calculated quantities of
I
"The Chemistry and Action of Insf'etirides," l\1eOraw-Hili Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1\)51.
2 NOItTO:'1, Inorganic Inserticides, Ind. Eng. Chem., 40, 619 (1948).
3 For further dct.:tilg, g('P the 1st ed. of this book.
4 ALLEN, U.S. Pat. 1427049(1922).
I
SHEPARIl,
INORGANIC INSECTICIDES
553
acetic: acid and nitric acid. The theoretical quantity of arsenic acid is
added, the precipitated lead arsenate removed by filtration, and the mixture of acetic and nitric acids in the filtrate used over again. Three
precipitations of lead arsenate can be made before the spent acid has to
be strengthened or discarded. The yields range from 95 to 97 per cent.
The commercial product contains 31 to 33 per cent arsenic trioxide and
is colored pink to safeguard against confusion with foods such as flour
and baking powder. Lead arsenate is widely used, chiefly for the potato
beetle and for the codling moth in apple orchards.
Calcium arsenate is cheaper than lead arsenate but does not adhere so
well to leaves, thus rendering it less effective. Three calcium arsellates
are known, CaH 4 (As0 4)2, CaHAs0 4 , and Ca a(As0 4)2. Both the monocalcium arsenate and dicalcium arsenate are too soluble in water to be
used as insecticides. The commercial insecticidal product is usually a
mixture of tricalcium arsenate, Ca a(As0 4)2, and lime, called basic calcium
arsenate. The manufacture of basic calcium arsenate may be carried out
by adding a dilute solution ,of arsenic acid to a saturated solution of
hydrated lime.! To prevent the formation of crystals of soluble dicalcillm
arsenate coated with insoluble tricalcium arsenat.e, the arsenic acid
solution is atomized into the lime solution and the mixture vigorously
agitated. The chief use of calcium arsenate is to control the cotton boll
weevil, although it is being displaced by other organic compounds.
Fluorine compounds are important stomach-poiso~ insecticides as substitutes for the arsenicals. As they are also extremely poisonous to man,
caution should be observed in their application and handling.
The fluorides are too water-soluble to be used on plants, but sodium
fluoride is widely employed to control roaches and poultry lice. Some of
the fluosilicates and fluoaluminates may be applied to crops because of
their decreased solubility. The principal compounds that are suitable are
barium fluosilicate and sodium fluoaluminate (cryolite). Cryolite is a
natural mineral although ,synthetic cryolites are available. Its use as an
insecticide is very mijlOr compared with its consumption in the manufacture of aluminum, (see Chap. 16). Sodium aluminum fluosilicate is
extensively sold today as a mothproofing compound.
Sulfur and sulfur compounds are employed to some extent as contact
insecticides for the c~ntrol of mites, spiders, and other insects of that
type, but their chief ~se is as fllngieides. 2 In 1951 sulfur (see Chap. 19)
alone accounted for over one-third of the to,tal production of all pesticides.
Suitable forms, i.e., degrees of fineness, of the element are obtained by
milling to 325 mesh 0,1' finer, emulsifying molten sulfur, heating mixtures
of sulfur with Bentonite, and using flotation sulfur obtained from the
1 NELSON, Preparation of Calcium Arsenates of Low Solubility, J. Econ. Entomol.,
32, 370 (Hl39).
2 BALDWIN, Sulfur in Fungicides, Ind. Ena. Chem., 42, 2227 (1950).
554
PESTICIDES
recovery of the element from hydrogen sulfide from petroleum and coul
gases. Finely ground sulfur may be employed for dusting without any
additives, but wetting agents are needed for the preparation of suspensions for spray purposes.
The lime-sulfurs are widely applied for the control of scale insects.
These may be prepared by adding water to a dry mixture of lime and
sulfur and using the heat of reaction from slaking the lime, to accelerate
the reaction between calcium hydroxide and sulfur to give a self-boiled
lime-sulfur; by boiling a mixture of lime, sulfur, and water with external
heat; or by evaporating the water from the boiled mixture to furnish a
dry mix. Although the reaction is complex it is believed that the pentasulfide is the most active fungicidally.
Sulfur dioxide is the oldest known fumigant. It is usually'made in situ
by burning candles of molded sulfur. Although it is injurious to living
plants and so cannot be applied on trees, it is effective for the fumigation
of homes and granaries.
Hydrocyanic acid is an efficient fumigant for many pests, especially
insects. Large quantities are used in the citrus fruit industry and smaller
amounts for greenhouse and household fumigation. When applied on a
small scale, the gas is generated as needed by adding sulfuric acid to
"eggs" of sodium cyanide. The citrus fruitgrowers, however, use a
commercially manufactured liquid product that contains up to 98 per
cent hydrocyanic acid, the rest being water. To fumigate a citrus grove,
each tree is covered with an airtight cotton tent. The liquid hydrocyanic
acid is vaporized or sprayed inside the cover to produce an effective
concentration. Care must be taken in handling this material as it is not
. only a powerful insecticide but also an extreme poison to men and
animals.
The steps in the manufacture! are as follows, as shown in Fig. 1. An
aqueous solution of sodium cyanide (Chap. 14) is mixed with concentrated sulfuric acid and allowed to react. Most of the hydrocyanic acid
is expelled by the heat of the reaction. The remainder is removed by
! heating the residual solution of sodium sulf~te ,with live steam to 103 to
104C. The mixture of hydrocyanic acid and steam- is. passed through
a cooler where some of the steam condenses and the vapors are sent to a
still. Water, almost free of hydrocyanic acid, is collected at the bottom
of the still and the vapor is fairly pure hydrocyanic acid. The vapors are
conducted through two condensers. The first is cooled with water and
about 30 per cent of the acid is liquefied. The second condenser is cooled
with brine to liquefy the remainder of the acid. The liquid hydrocyanic
acid is degassed to remove carbon dioxide impurity and is adjusted to
1 C~RLISLE, The Manufacture, Handling and Use of Hydrocyanic Acid, Trans. Am.
Inst. Chem. Engrs., 29, 113 (1!)33). See ANON., Hydroeyanic Acid, Chem. En!!., 57 (11),
127 (1950); the materials of construction are listed for flC)w sheet.
.
555
PJ,ANT DERIVATIVES
standard concentration (97 per cent), stabilized with 0.005 per cent by
weight of sulfuric acid and packed into tinned steel drums.
Hydrogen cyanide is employed in the production of chemical intermediates for acrylic resins and other products. This has stimulated direct
synthesis.! When ammonia, air, and natural gas are passed over a redhot platinum catalyst, they react, probably, as follows:
NHa
+ CH. + 172' O
Pt
~
HCN
+ 3H 0
2
The product gases are scrubbed free from the unconverted ammonia and
passed to an absorber where the HCN is removed. The HCN is distilled,
;;L=====r-'-'3Sfeam
Soolium cyaniole
Sodium bisulfite
H2 S04, 66 Be.
5,000 lb.} To produce

4 lb. 2,700 lb. 97%
5,500 lb. Hydrocyanic OIcid
FIG. 1. Manufacture of liquid hydrocyanic/acid. l
condensed, and handled by refrigeration to avoid losses by evaporation.

In one plant the HCN is combined with acetone or ethylene glycol for the
plastics intermediates: acetone cyanhydrin or ethylene cyanhydrin, respE(ctively (see Chap. 35). Hydrogen cyanide is also obtained from cokeoven gas on a commercial scale. 2
Plant Derivatives. Many of the plant derivatives used as insecticides
depend for toxicity upon :the alkaloids that they contain. These insecticides constitute only it sIl,lall amount, around 3 per cent for 1944, of the
total tonnage consum~d annually. a As is true of the inorganic insecticide
industry, many of th~ plant-derived insecticides are being supplanted by
the synthetic organics.
Pyrethrum. Flowers; of the pyrethrum plant (a type of chrysanthemum)
contain toxic, nonnitrogenous organic esters (pyrethrins). The principal
sources are Kenya, 'Japan, Belgian Congo, and Brazil. The bales of comI,
LEE, Hydrogen Cyanide Production, Chem. Eng., 66 (2), 134 (1949). A flow sheet
is included.
;
KASTENS and BARRACLOUGH, Cyanides from the Coke Oven, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43,
1882 (1951); cf. Chap. 7.
3 SEIFERLE and FItEAR, Insecticides Derived from Plants, Ind. Eng. Chem., 40, 683
(1948).
1
556
PESTICIDES
pressed flowers are broken up, ground to a fine powder, and extracted
several times with kerosene or other organic solvent. The extract is concentrated by removing the solvent in a vacuum still below 60a C., and
the resulting oleoresin is employed to prepare the finished insecticide. l
Pyrethrum is important because of its quick" knockdown" power against
flies and nontoxicity to man and warm-blooded animals. The widespread
use of pyrethrins in aerosol bombs for household use has led to the preparation of highly concentrated extracts free from precipitated metals to
avoid clogging the nozzle. Nitromethane is a satisfactory solvent for this
use. Synergists or activators (substances which i~ncrease the insecticidal
efficiency) are employed with pyrethrum. The most important are sesame
oil, isobutylundecyleneamide, ethylene glycol ether of pinene.J...and certain
synthetic piperony12 derivatives with methylene dioxyphenyl'groupings.
Allethrin is the name given to the allyl homolog of cinerin I, a component of pyrethrum, with almost identical insecticidal properties. It was
discovered in 1949 by the U.S. Department of Agricultur~ and within ~
year was in commercial production. Chemically, allethrin is dl-2-allyl3-methyl-cyclopentene-l-one ester of dl-cis-trans-2,2-dimethyl-3-(2-methylpropenyl)cyclo-propanecarboxylic acid. 3 The commercial process is
very complicated requiring 12 steps, 11 different intermediates, and approximately 200 lb. of chemicals to produce lib. of allethrin. It has about
the same applications as pyrethrum. Ailethrin production in 1952 was
60,000 lb. which was about half of the pyrethrum imports.
Nicotine is a volatile alkaloid obtained by treating by-products of the
tobacco-processing industry, i.e., stems and damaged h~aves, with an
aqueous solution of alkall, followed by steam distillation. Because of its
volatile nature, most of the nicotine is converted to the sulfate and sold
as a 40 per cent nicotine solution. Nicotine sulfate solutions are employed
against aphids, leafhoppers, and thrips. Nicotine preparations are us~d
as fumigants.
Rotenone is the poisonous principle of the roots of several tropical and
subtropical plants, chief among whic4 is derris. It is a non nitrogenous
complex organic heterocyclic compound, C23Hz206. The rotenone is objained by extracting the ground derris roots with chloroform or carbon
tetrachloride. Other compounds related to rotenone, but npt so toxic, are
also present in the extract.'However, no attempt is usually made to separate the rotenone from these materials. The solvent is removed and the
residue is dissolved in water-soluble solvents such as acetone.
Rotenoid compounds are effective stomach and contact poisons. They
I GNADINGER ,and CORL, Manufacture of Concentrated Pyrethmm Extract, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 24, ',988 (1932).
2 FREAR, "Chemistry of Insecticides and Fungicides," 2d ed., D. Van Nostrand
ANO",., Carbide Makes Allethrin, Chern. Eng., 67 (6), 11 (1950).
SYNTHETIC ORGANICS
557
have long been used as fish poisons by natives of the East Indies and ,lapan, but their chief applications in the United States are as insecticides.
Synthetic Organics. The phenomenal increase in synthetic organic compounds for insecticides since the Second World War has revolutionized
this industry. In 1940 the combined output of synthetic organic insecticides was but a few million pounds per year, yet in 1953 the annual production capacity was over 261,000,000 lb.
D.D.T., or Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane. This was first made by
Zeidler in Germany in 1874, but its insecticidal properties were not discovered until 1937. It was extensively used during the Second World
War to control body lice and as a mosquito larvicide. It was the first
chemical to have great enough residual contact action to be useful, i.e., an
insect can be killed by simply walking over a dried, sprayed surface. It
is widely employed as a household insecticide, against leafhoppers on
potatoes, in combination with benzene hexachloride and sulfur in cotton
insect control, and for the codling moth in apple orchards (see Table 1
for statistics). However, D.D.T. has shortcomings which naturally accelerated the development of other insecticides. Although not so toxic as
some insecticides to man and warm-blooded a~imals, it can be stored in
harmful concentration in animal fatty tissues. It can be transmitted
through cow's milk, and D.D.T. residues are not readily removed from
fruits by washing. Two other major difficulties are the development of
D.D.T.-resistant strains of pests, and the appearance of new pests when
one is controlled. For example, in the apple industry, the codling moth
has been a problem for years. Now D.D.T. gives excellent control, but
the European mite and the red-banded leaf roller are increasing. This is
probably due to the killing of the natural predators by D.D.T. which is
ineffective on the new pests. The problems discussed here are much the
same with all the synthetic organics and have led to the development of
many new types.
There are several commercial methods of manufacture for D.D.T. The
usual method 1 is the exothermic condensation of chloral and chlorobenzene in the presence of'oleum:
2C aH sCI
+ ?CHCCh ----> (C sH.CI)2CHCCb + H20
The process as depicted in Fig. 2 can be broken down into the following coordinated unit pri;Jcesses (Pr.) and unit operations (Op.).
Alcohol is chlorinated to chloral-alcoholate in a 750-gal. glass-lined chlorinator,
first at below 30C., but erentually up to 75C. and 90C. (Pr.). This takes place
I ANON., DDT, Chern. E7i g., 67 (11), 204 (1950); with pictured flow sheet; COOK,
ct al., Synthesis of DDT with Chlorosulfonic Acid as a Condensation Agent, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 39, 868 (1947); ANON., DDT Eyes Fluosulfonic Process, Chem. Eng., 69 (2).
247 (1952); LEE, "Materials of Construction for Chemical Proc:ess Industries," p. 114,
McGraw-Hill Book Compan?" Inc., New York, 1950.
558
PESTICIDES
over the course of 60 to 70 hr. with the temperature controlled through water in
either coils or a jacket (Op.).
The overhead (excess alcohol and HCI) is conducted to a partial condenser
(dephlegmator or scavengar) which condenses the alcohol, from the HCI which
is absorbed and the small amount of ethyl chloride which is vented (Op.).
The chloral-alcoholate is decomposed by H 2S0 4 into chloral and alcohol (Pr.)
and purified by distillation (Op.).
The chloral and chlorobenzene are condensed using strong H~O. (100 per
cent) or oleum in a glass-lined 1,000-gal. reactor (Pr.). Reaction takes 5 to 6 hr.
and is controlled at 15 to 30C. by the brine or steam coils (Pr.).
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for manufacture of D.D.T. [Modified from Chem. Eng., 57 (11),
204 (1950).]
The spent acid is withdrawn (Op.) and the D.D.T. is water-washed several
times (Op.) and neutralized' with soda ash (Pr.). The D.D.T. and chlorobenzene
mixture is dropped to a 500-gal. drier where steam melts the D.D.T. and distills
any unreacted chlorobenzene overhead '(Op.).
The molten D.D.T. is run to casting pans to solidify and to be ground (Op.).
D.D.T. can exist in a number of isomers. The p,p' isomer is the most
! potent, and manufacturing procedures are cQnducted to give a maximum

of this isomer. However, technical grades contain considerable amounts
of the o,p' isomer as ar{ impurity. For use in aerosol bombs, D.D.T. is
purified.
B.H.C., or Benzene Hexachloride. This compound exists in a number of
stereoisomers, the gamma being by far the most toxic. Because of this
remarkable, specificity, the iz}secticidal value was not discovered until
1942,in England although the compound was first prepared by Faraday
in 1825. B.H.C., or correctly, 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane is made
by the chlorination of benzene in the presence of actinic light:
C 6H6
+ 3Cl 2 --> C6H 6Cl6
55!)
SYNTHETIC ORGANICS
Widely llsed to cont.rol boll weevil in cotton, B.H.C., unless purified, is

generally unsuit.able for food crops because of its strong musty odor.
Lindane, a refined material containing at least 99 per cent of the gamma
isomer of B.H.C., has largely overcome the odor. It may be used on food
cro_ps and is increasingly employed to combat insects that have developed
immunity to D.D.T.
Methoxychlor or bis(methoxyphenyl)trichloroethane. This compound has
-OCHa groups substituted for the -CI groups of D.D.T. Methoxychlor
has high insecticidal efficiency, low toxicity to warm-blooded animals,
and safety to plants. It also has greater knockdown power than D.D.T.
It is used safely on cattle, vegetable and forage crops, and household
pests. Methoxychlor can be made by reacting methyl chloride or dimethyl
sulfate with sodium phenate to produce anisole which is then reacted with
chloral:
CHaCI + NaOC 6H; --'> CH aOC 6H;
2CH aOC 6 H; + OCHCCl a --'> (CH aOC 6 H.)2CHCCla + H 2 0
Chlordan is 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-4, 7-methano-3a,4, 7,7a-tetrahydroindane. This insecticide is very successful against cricket and locust plagues, cockCI
roaches, and ants. It is employed with D.D.T.
against bedbugs. Heptachlor, or specifically
1,4,5,6.,7 ,8,8-heptachloro-3a,4, 7,7 a-tet.rahydro-4,7-methanoindene was first isolated
CI
from chlordane for study. Because of its simi/ CI
Cl
lar applications and efficacy against cotton
pests, heptachlor is now made by a commercial process based on the Diels-Alder reaction of hexachloro-cyclo-pentadiene and cyclopentadiene.
Toxaphene, an important chlorinated camphene insecticide, kills all
common cotton pests and is officially recommended by Federal and many
state authorities for 74 destructive insects. It is made by chlorinating
camphene to 67 to 6~ per cent chlorine. Camphene is produced by isomerizing a-pinene, a major constituent of turpentine. The conditions of
manufacture are both corrosive and toxic. Toxaphene has the approximate empirical formula C 1oH 6 Cl g It is it yellow waxy solid (m.p. 65 to
90C.) with a mild piriy odor. It is sold in large amounts.
Tetraethyl pyrophosphate or T.E.P.P. has been found to be the principal
active ingredient l of the hexaethyl tetraphosphate mixtures which replace
nicotine for the control of aphids, thrips, and mites. The commercial
product is an amber hygroscopic
liquid that can be prepared by:
'.
CI(c]~
CI\""C)V
5(C 2H;)3P0 4 + POCh ---+
3C2H~CI
+ 3(C2H;)4P 07
Z
and JACOBSON, Hexaethyi Tetraphosphate and Tetrapthyl Pyrophosphate,

Ind. Eng. Chent., 40, 694 (1948).
1 HALl.
560
PESTICIDES
Manufacturing processes are now so conducted to obtain a maximum

yield of T.E.P.P. The above reaction does not yield the pure chemical,
but a mixture.
Parathion is another organic phosphate that is five to twenty times as
toxic to insects as D.D.T. Chemically it is O,O-diethyl-p-nitrophenyl thiophosphate. It is made as follows:
2C 2H 50Na
Sodium
ethylate
+ PSCl a
--t
(C 2H 50)2PSCI
+ 2NaCl
Thiophosphoryl Diethyoxy
chloride
thiophosphoryl
monochloride
(C 2Hi;O)2PSCI
+ NaOCaH4N02
--t
(C2H50)2PS-O-CaH4N02
+ NaCI
Parathion is highly toxic to a very wide range of insects at concentrations

that are almost fantastically low. It is also a systemic, but the most prominent systemics are O,O-diethyl-O-2-(ethylmercapto)-ethyl thiophosphate
(Systox) and octamethyl pyrophosphoramide (schradan, OMPA, or
Pestox 3). The former is the only systemic approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture for the control of aphids and mites on cotton as of
1952. The use of the latter is being confined to greenhouse aerosols.
Dichloro-diphenyl-dichlorethane is less injurious to corn than D.D.T.
and is used for control of the corn borer. It may be prepar~d by passing
chlorine into ethanol, forming a mixture which is directly condensed with
chlorobenzene. Aliphatic thiocyanates are employed particularly for greenhouse pests or flies. Phenothiazine, C 12H 9NS, is a heterocyclic compound
prepared by the fusion of sulfur and diphenylamine, extremely effective
as an antihelmintic for worms in livestock. Diphenylamine and diphenyl
are the active ingredients in smears for livestock screwworms. For this
use alone, they have saved the farmers millions of dollars. Naphthalene
is one of the principal hydrocarbons from coal tar (Chap. 6). It has been
consumed for many years as a repellent for clothes moths, althougli it is
not usually employed in concentrations strong enough to be fully effective. An ordinary trunk requires a~out 2 lb. of naphthalene to protect ,.
the contents. Ortho- and p-dichloro-benzene, by-products in the making of
I monochloro-benzene, have limited insecticidal application. However, the
para compound is used in large volume for moth pro_tection.
Fumigants and Miticides. For the protection of grains, tobacco, and
other farm products during storage and for the control of soil-infesting
insects, a number of compounds are employed. These'include carbon disulfide, hydrogen cyanide, methyl bromide, ethylene dibromide, chloropicrin, and others. The manufacture of all these chemicals is described
elsewhere in this book. Chemicals for mite control are enjoying a major
boom since insecticides have eradicated the natural enemies of mites
while leaving the mites themselves unharmed. A broad range of miticides are available including parathion, 2-(p-tert-butylphenoxy)isopropyl
FUNGICIDES
561
2-chloro-ethyl sulfite, bis(p-chlorophenoxy)methane, di(p-chlorophenyl)methylcarbinol, and O-ethyl-O-p-nitrophenyl henzenethiophosphonate.

RODENTICIDES
Certain pest animals such as mice, rats, squirrels, ground hogs, and
field rodents must be controlled because of their ability to do extensive
property damage and to spread diseases. Rodents alone caused property
damage in the United States of 500 million dollars annually. The most
prominent rodenticides for rats and mice are the following new synthetic
organic chemical compounds: warfarin,' 3-(a-acetonyl-benzyl)-4-hydroxycoumarin; ANTU, a-naphthylthiourea; and Compound 1080, sodium
fluoracetate. The last is deadly to everything including man and should
be handled only by experts. It is made by reacting ethyl chloroacetate 1
and potassium fluoride in an autoclave at 200C. The resulting ethyl
fluoroacetate is saponified with a methanol solution of NaOH, and the
sodium fluoroacetate crystallizes out. Because of the high toxicity of
ethyl fluoroacetate, extreme caution must be observed in this process.
For field-rodent control, the old compounds such as thallium sulfate, zinc
phosphide, and strychnine are still favored.
FUNGICIDES
Fungi are parasitic plants comprising the molds, mildews, rusts, smuts,
mushrooms, and allied forms that are capable of destl'oying higher plants,
fabrics, even glass, thus depriving man of valuable food or materials.
They may attack seeds, the growing plant, plant material or, under
proper conditions, finished products such as adhesives, leather, paints,
and fahrics. Fungicides fall into two general classifications: 2 agricultural
and industrial. Fungicides for plants act by direct contact and often injure the host as well as the fungus. 3
History. The use of, an effective fungicide was probably discovered by
accident. It was common practice in the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries to cover grapevines along the road with a poisonous powder
such as copper sulfat~ and lime, to discourage thievery. In 1883 it was
noticed that this sub~taIice controlled the downy mildew of the vines.
Until the 1930's elem~ntal sulfur and compounds of heavy meta,ls such
as copper and mercu~y dominated the field. However, in the 1940's organics were tried and now, although very large dollarwise, constitut.e
I
and KOEHLER, Making 1080 Safe, Chern. Inds., 62, 232 (1948).
For further details on industrial fungicides, see KIRK and OTHMER, op. dt., Vol. 6,
pp. 991ff.; BLOCK, Chemicals for Fungus Control, Chern. Week, 70 (4), 21 (1952).
a HORS~'ALJ" Fungicides in Food Production, Ind. Eng. Chern., 40, 681 (1948).
1 JENKINS
562
PESTICIDES
only about 2 per cent of the fungicide production which in 1952 was
about 600,000,000 lb., mainly sulfur.
Inorganic Fungicides. The greater part of all inorganic fungicides used
at present are compounds of copper and sulfur while other heavy metals,
partieularly mercury and zinc, still play an important part.
Bordeaux mixture, an important fungicide, is simple to make at home
and is employed in several formulations. The 4-4-50 formula! consists of
4 lb. of copper sulfate, 4 lb. of hydrated lime, and 50 gal. of water. The
copper sulfate is dissolved in one vessel, the lime in another. Each is diluted to 25 gal. and poured simultaneously through a strainer into a
third container. Properly made, Bordeaux mixture consists of a light
blue, gelatinous precipitate suspended in water. It is effective for most
of the common molds and mildews and most common fruits and vegetables can be safely treated with it.
.
Mercury Chlorides. Both mercurous and mercuric chlorides are effective fungicides. Mercurous chloride (Hg 2 Ch, calomel) is prepared by
heating 4 parts of mercuric chloride with 3 parts of metallic mercury in
an iron pot until a white mass is formed. The temperature is raised to
sublime off the mercurous chloride which is further purified by washing.
Mercuric chloride (HgCh, corrosive sublimate, bichloride of mercury) is
made by heating mercury in the presence of chlorine gas or by heating
equal parts of mercuric sulfate with common salt. The ~ercuric compound is still extensively used for fungicidal treatment of seeds. In general, these compounds are too injurious to plants to be applied similarly
to Bordeaux mixture.
Organic Fungicides. The organic fungicides vary in composition, but
most of the new fungicides fall into these chemical classifications: dithiocarbamates, chlorinated quinones, chlorinated phenols, glyoxalidine derivatives, and organic mercury compounds. While chlorination is very important in insecticides, it is much less so in fungicides. Next to sulfur,
nitrogen appears to be the most effective con~tituent element of an organic fungicide other than carbon and hydrogen. The first successful organic fungicide formaldehyde is sold as a 40 per cent solution in water
! called Formalin. Because of its volatility it is still an extensively employed fumigant for seeds, soil, and greenhouses.
_
Coal-tar creosote has lbng been the standard substance for wood preservation. It is effective, permanent, and inexpensive, but it is sticky and
has a penetrating odor. Because of the dark stain it imparts, wood so
treat.ed cannot. be painted. However, for many purposes, such as creoBoted fence posts and railroad ties, these disadvantages are not of importance. Other developments iIi wood preservation are the chlorinated phenols: tetra and pentachlorophenol, chloro-o-phenylphenol and ,a-naphthol.
These are applied in 5 per cent solutions in organic solvents. Generally,
1
FREAR,
op. cit., p. 212.
563
HERBICIDES
these phenols are not so powerful as creosote but they do not possess its
disadvantages. '
The dithiocarbamates are the most used of the new fungicides. They
are made by reacting carbon disulfide with an amine to form a dithiocarbamic acid. The acid is reacted with a metal hydroxide to give a
stable salt:
H 2 NCH 2 CH 2 NH 2 + 2CS 2 --4 HSCSNH(CH 2)2NHCSSH

HSCSNH(CH 2)2NHCSSH + 2NaOH--4
NaSCSNH(CH 2)2NHCSSNa
+ 2H 0
2
This sodium salt of ethylene bisdithiocarbamate is employed with zinc

sulfate and lime and probably reacts to form the zinc salt. These salts
are used to combat vegetable blights, particularly potato. Ferric dimethylthiocarbamate is the oldest of these compounds and particularly effective for apple rust. Zinc dimethylthiocarbamate is important for anthracnose diseases on vegetables, i.e., bitter rot.
The only two commercial compounds of the chlorinated quinones ' are
tetrachlorobenzoquinone, called chloranil, and 2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphthoquinone. The former is applied to leguminous seeds; the latter has a
wide range of fungitoxicity, but there is a narrow safety margin without resulting plant injury. Zinc trichlorophenate and 2,4,5-trichlorophenyl acetate are the two significant chlorinated phenols findi'ng extensive employment for seed treatment, especially cotton. The important
glyoxalidine 'derivative so far is 2-heptadecylglyoxalidine which is used for
cherry leaf spot and apple scab. It is prepared by reacting the acid with
ethylenediamine.
.
The organic mercury compounds were among the first organic fungicides to be developed. Their main use is in the treatment of seeds: Ethyl
mercuric chloride and phosphate and phenyl mercuric oleate seem to be
the best anti mildewing agents for paints. Ethyl mercuric chloride is prepared by treating tetraethyllead with mercuric chloride:
These compounds are) sold as dusts or solutions under various trade

names and are used ~o treat seeds, to prevent the" formation of lumber
sap stain, and as general garden sprays.
HERBICIDES
Although it has been estimated 2 that the 1951 eonsumption of weed

killers was 122,000,000 lb., weeds still cause all allllual loss of 5 billion
I KIRK
and
'FRISSEI,U;
OTHMER,
and
op. cit., Vol. 6, p. U88.

Herbicides, Chcm.'EnU. ,Vcu:s, 31, 1175 (1953).
STILLMAN,
564
PESTICIDES
dollars in the United States. Yet the introduction of hormone-type weed

killers in the early 1940's stimulated this whole field. Until then only soil
sterilants and nonselective contact sprays such as sodium chlorate, sodium arsenite, various borate compounds, industrial waste products, and
oil sprays were used mostly for the clearance of utility, railroad, and highway rights of way. Sodium chlorate (see Chap. 16) still plays a major role
for this, and another inorganic, ammonium sulfamate, has grown from
nothing in the early 1940's to a current consumption of several million
pounds per year. The latter is a foliage spray which eliminates woody
growths but does not prevent a regrowth of grass. The two most important selective weed killers are 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)
and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). For statistics on these
two compounds, see Table 1. These hormone-type weed killers act by disrupting the normal growth cycle of certain plants without harming grasses
and are effective at such low concentrations that the cost of treatment is
small.
The manufacture of 2,4-D begins by chlorinating phenol (from benzene) to 2,4-dichlorophenol. The reaction product is distilled to procure
pure 2,4-dichlorophenol. After chlorinating acetic acid to monochloroacetic, it is converted to the sodium salt. This is reacted with the 2,4dichlorophenol and aqueous caustic to give the sodium salt of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and sodium chloride. Hydrochloric acid is
employed to liberate the acid from solution. 2,4,5-T is made by hydrolyzing 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorob~hzene with caustic, because phenol cannot be
chlorinated~to: the 2,4;5 position. Hydrolysis yields 2,4,5-trichlorophenol
directly. This is purified and converted to 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic
acid by a process similar to that for 2,4-D. Both acids are usually marketed in herbicide formulations as amine salts or as alkyl esters as they
are more effective as herbicides than either the straight acid or the various salts. The alkyl esters of the above acid are manufactured by reacting the appropriate alcohol with the acid following the classical method.
For the manufacture of alkanolamine salt formulations, the acid is dissolved in an aqueous solution of an alkanolamine.
! Other organic compounds of herbicidal )n~erest include isopropyl
N-phenyl carbamate (LP.C.), sodium trichloroacetate (sodium T.C.A.),
3-p-chlorophenyl 1, I-dimethylurea (C.M. U.), isopropyl-N-(3-chlorophenyl)-carbamate (C.I.P.C.), sodium 2,4-dichlorophenoxyethyl sulfate
(S.E.S.), and 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (M.C.P.). Some of
these compounds, such as 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, are able t<;> act as both
plant-growth regulators and weed killers, depending upon the concentration used. Other compounds such as maleic hydrazide and phenoxy
compounds are primarily growth regulators otherwise known as plant
hormones or auxins and are capable of producing in a great variety of
ways profound changes in the basic life processes of plants. Clearly,
565
GERMWTDES, ANTISEPTICS, DISINFECTANTS
growth regulators, now only just beginning to be explored, represent one

of the most challenging fields for agricultural chemicals today.
GERMICIDES, ANTISEPTICS, DISINFECTANTS
A germicide is anything that destroys germs (pathogenic microorganisms); an antiseptic is a substance that prevents or arrests the growth
or action of microorganisms; a disinfectant is an agent that frees from
inf.ection. 1 These terms are often used interchangeably. Strictly speaking,
the use of antiseptic should be restricted to living tissue and disinfectant
to inanimate objects. The effectiveness of these types of materials is usually expressed in terms of the phenol coefficient. The killing power of pure
phenol on pure cultures of Eberthella typhosa and Staphylococcus aureus
is arbitrarily set as unity, and the unknown material is rated in comparison. Table 3 lists the phenol coefficients of some of the common germicides, antiseptics, and disinfectants.
TABLE 3. PHENOL COEFFICIENTS'
Compound
Phenol. .......................... .
Chloramine ....................... .
Dakin's solution ....... ; ........... .
Lysol. ........... , ... , ... , ....... .
Hexylresorcinol. .................. .
Mercurochrome ................... .
Merthiolate ........... , ........... .
Metaphen ............ ; ........... .
Tincture of iodine, U.S.P ........... .
Staphylococcus
aureus
1
133
Eberthella
typhosa
1
100
0.78
3.2
150
1.7
40-50
1500
38
5.0
72
40-50
LANGE, "Handbook of Chemistry," 7th ed., p. 1720, Handbook

Sandusky, Ohio, 1949.
Publishe~s,
Inc.,
The use of germicides began with the discovery of the effectiveness of

phenol (carbolic acid) :by Lister in 1867. While efficient, it caused serious
injury to body tissues'whim applied in too strong concentration.s. It also
was a powerful poison to man. Consequently the less toxic germicides
are being favored. Most of the important germicides are organic compounds, the well-kno~n tincture of iodine being the chief exception.
Nonmetallic Compounds. Nonmetallic germicides can be highly efficient (see Table 3). They differ widely in chemical structure.
Tincture of Iodine.~'Tincture (meaning' alcoholic solution) of iodine
(Chap. 21) has been the standard household germicide. However, more
1 PATTERSON, Meaning' of "Antiseptic," "Disinfectant" and Related Words, Am.
J. Public Health, 22, 465 (1932).
566
PESTICIDES
effective compounds have been made available that eliminate some of

the disadvantages of this solution. Unless the containers are kept tightly
capped, part of the alcohol evaporates leaving a more concentrated iodine
solution from which serious burns have resulted.
Phenol and cresols (Chap. 6 and 38) are effective germicides. Care
should be taken in the use of phenol because of its caustic nature. Cresols
(especially m-cresol) are not soluhle in water and are usually sold in the
form of emulsions. The emulsions are less caustic and less toxic than
phenol.
Dakin's Solution and Chloramine. Dakin's solution is a 0.45 per cent
solution of sodium hypochlorite prepared by the action of chlorine on sodium carbonate. It is effective as a surgical germicide and was used extensively in the First World War. Chloramine (chloramine T, Chlorazene)
is sodium p-toluene-chlorosulfonamide.
Hexylresorcinol is a powerful germicide With a high phenol coefficient
(Table 3). It is made by the condensation of resorcinol and caproic acid
and subsequent reduction. 1
OR
OR
OR
+ CR3(CR2)4C02R~O
ZnCl..
OR
~O' OR
OR
CO(CR 2)4CR 3
CR 2(CR 2)4CR 3
Sulfa Comp01{nds. The group of sulfur compounds familiarly known as

sulfa drugs possess unique properties that make them especially valuable.
The sulfa .drugs may be administered internally. The more important
members of this group are sulfonamide derivatives of aniline, pyridine,
and thiazole and are prepared by a variety of methods.
!
Sulfathiazole
Sulfapyridine
Quaternary ammonium compounds are cationic surface-active agents

with marked antibacterial effectiveness. 2 The nitrogen in these amines
has a valence of 5 and the hydrogen atoms of the ammonium radical are
replaced by other groups. The more important members are cetylpyri1 GttOGGlNS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., p. 839, McGraw-Hill
LA WRENCE, "Surface-active Quaternary Ammonium Germicides," Academic
567
GERMICIDES, AN'l'ISEP1'lCS, DISINFEC'l'AN'1'1::i
dinium chloride, p-tertiaryoctyl-phclloxy-ethoxyethyldimcthylbcllzylammOlliuIll chloride and mixtures of alkyl dimethylbenzylammollium

chlorides in which the alkyl groups vary from C g to ClS' Cetyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride may be prepared:
HCl
C,6H 3aOH
NH(CH 3 ).
C,6H 33 CI
C16Ha3N(CHa)2
+H 20
+HCl
CH.
-
C.H.CH,Cl
c>
C16H3aY(CI)CH2
CHa
Metallic Compounds. Only a few of the metals find use in germicidal

compounds. Mercury and silver are the most widely employed. Arsenic
compounds which were important for syphilis have been replaced mostly
by penicillin.
Mercury Compounds. Two of the more important mercurials are Merthiolate and Metaphen,' both of which are excellent germicides. Merthiolate is sodium ethyl-mercurithiosalicylate and is made 2 as follows:
Silver Compounds. Silver compounds are often employed as germicides.

The application of a dilute solution of silver nitrate in the eyes of newborn babies is required by law in most states. Argyrol, a silver protein
preparation, is used extensively for eye, ear, nose, and throat infections.
, SELECTED REFERENCES
Frear, D. E. H., "Chemistry of Insecticides, Fungicides and Herbicides," 2d ed.,
D. Van Nostrand CO,mpany, Inc., New York, 1948.
de Ong, E. R., "Chemistry aJ?d Uses of Insecticides," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1948.
Symposium, Insecticides in Food Production, Ind. Eng. Chern., 40, 673-717 (1948).
Shepard, H. H., "The Chemistry and Action of Insecticides," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New' York, 1951.
Brown, A. W. A., "Insect Control by Chemicals," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1951.
I,
I RAIZISS, U.S. Pat. (r~issue) 17563; Can. Pat. 264444(1926).
KHARA:SCH, U.S. Pat. 1589599(1926); 1672615(1928); for more details, see
GROGGINS, op. cit., p. 842.
568
l'E~TIClDES
Skoog, Folke, editor, "Plant Growth Substances," Univer~ity of Wisconsin Pres~,

Madison, Wis., 1951.
West, T. F., and G. A. Campbell, "DDT and Newer Persistent Insecticides," 2d cd.,
Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1950.
Ahlgren, G. H., D. K Wolf, and G. C. Klingman, "Principles of Weed Control,"
Metcalf, C. I.., R. L. Metcalf, and W. P. Flint, "Destructive and Useful Insects,"
3d cd., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, H151.
Lawrence, C. A., "Surface-active Quaternary Ammonium Germicides," Academic
1\1itter, M. N., "Manufacture of Di~infectants and Antiseptics," Chemical Publishing
CHAPTER
27
PERFUME AND FLAVORING INDUSTRmS
The particular cells that perceive odors are located near the top of the
nasal cavity, quite close to the septum. As the ordinary process o(breathing does not draw air over these regions, only strong odors are perceived.
By flaring the nostrils and sniffing, however, the inspired air is passed
directly over the olfactory region where the conditions are ciptimum for
discriminatory smelling. Since smell is a chemical sense, a contact is necessary for perception; and the substance, either gaseous or particulate, to
be smelled must impinge on the moist surface of the region and dissolve.
Since olfactory nerves are quickly fatigued, protracted smelling: of any
one substance will exhaust the power to recognize it, but the :nerve endings may be easily rehabilitated by the breathing of fresh air again. Each
odor has a threshold value depending on its intensity and volatility. Because of this, civet, when strong, has the disagreeable fecal odor of'skatole
but, upon dilution, the skatole passes below its threshold intensity and
the warm flowery note of the civet one becomes a~parent. Some odors
that may appear intense are not so at all, as ammonia and formic acid;
these compounds produce a sensation that may be likened to a mild pain
and not to it true odor.
Perfume gains its name from the fact that in its original form: it was
incense in the Egyptian temples (perfumare-to fill with smoke). The
early incenses were merely mixtures of finely ground spices held together
by myrrh or storax. The next advance was the discovery that, if certain
spices ~nd flowers were steeped in fat or oil, the fat or oil would retain
a portion of the odoriferous principle. Thus were manufactured the ointments and fragrant unguents of Biblical fame. To A:vicenna, the Arabian
physician, must go th~ honor of discovering steam distillation of volatile
oils. During his search for medical potions, he found that flowers. boiled
in an alembic with water gave up some of their essence to the distillate.
Historical. The returning Crusaders brought to Europe all the art and
skill of the Orient in, ,perfumery as well ~s information relating to the
sources of gums, oils, and spices. Rene, perfumer to Catherine de'Medici,
invented many new (Jonfections to delight the queenly nose and, in his
spare time, was one of the cleverest and deadliest of the famous de'Medici
poisoners. The two main changes that have taken place in the perfume
569
570
PRRFUME AND FI,AVORING INDUSTRJF.R
and flavoring industries since de'Medici's time are the introduction of

synthetics and the improved methods of obtaining the true oils.
Uses and Economics. The perfume and flavoring industries, although
seemingly small, are vital because they are necessary components of
countless goods whose annual turnover involves billions of dollars. The
use of these materials for masking agents of disagreeable odors in manufactured goods is an ever-growing field ranging from adhesives to rubber
articles. Synthetic flavoring and perfume materials had an annual sales
value in 1953 of -16.5 million dollars. No figures are available on the
natural products, but their sales probably involve millions of dollars also.
THE PERFUME INDUSTRY
A perfume may he defined as any mixture of pleasantly odorous substances incorporated in a suitable vehicle. 'Formerly, practically all the
products used in perfumery were of natural origin. Even when man first
started imitating Nature and synthesizing materials for use in this field,
he endeavored to duplicate the finest in Nature. There has been a marked
tendency in recent years, however, to put on the market perfumes which
have no exact counterpart in the floral kingdom but which are merely
pleasing to the senses. These are the "fantasy" perfume!! and have received wide acceptance, The finest modern perfumes are neither wholly
synthetic nor yet completely natural. The best product .of the art is a
judicious blend of the two in order to enhance the natural perfume, to
reduce the price, and to introduce new notes of fragrance into the enchanting gamut at present available. A product made solely of synthetics
tends to be coarse and unna~ural because of the absence of impurities in
minute amounts which finish and round out the bouquet of the natural
odors. The chemist has also succeeded in creating floral essences of flowers
which yielded no natural essence or whose essJnce was too expensive or
too fugitive to make its extraction profitable. Lily of the valley, lilac, and
violet are examples.
!
The constituents of perfumes are threefold: the vehicle or solvent, the
fixative, and the odoriferous elements.
.
VEHICLE
The modern solvent for blending and holding perfume materials is a

highly refined ethyl alcohol mixed with more or less water according to
the solubilities of the oils employed. This solvent, with its volatile nature,
heipil to project the scent it carries, is fairly inert to the solutes, and is
not too irritating to the human skin, The slight natural odor of the alcohol is removed by deodorizing or "prefixation" of the alcohol. This is
accomplished by adding a small amount of gum benzoin or other resinous
ANIMAL }'IXATlv!::ti
571
fixatives to the alcohol and allowing it to mature for a week or two. The
result is an almost odorless alcohol, the natural rawness having been
neutralized by the resins.
FIXATIVE
In an ordinary solution of perfume substances in alcohol\ the more

volatile materials will evaporate first, and the odor of the perfume will
consist of a series of impressions rather than the desired ensemble. To
obviate this difficulty, a fixative is added. Fixatives may be defined as
substances which are of lower volatility than the perfume oIls and which
retard and even up the rate of evaporation of the various odorous constituents. The types of fixative to be considered are animal secretions,
resinous products, essential oils, and synthetic chemicals. Any of these
fixatives mayor may not contribute to the odor of the finished product
but, if they do, they must blend with and complement the m*in fragrance.
Animal Fixatives. Of all animal products castor or castoreum, a brownish orange exudate of the perineal glands of the beaver, is employed in
the greatest quantity. Most castor is obtained as a by-product from the
Canadian, beaver. Among the odoriferous components of the volatile oil
of castor are benzyl alcohol, acetophenone, i-borneol, and 'castorln (the
volatile resinous component of unknown structure).
Civet is the soft fatty secretion of the perineal glands of the civet cats
which are indigenous to many countries, but developed by Ethiopia.
These cats are kept in captivity in pens in which the temperature is
higher than normal because of covering and exposure to the hot sun. The
heat and also the teasing of the cat increase the yield of the civet. The
secretions are collected about every 4 days by spooning and are packed
for export in hollowed horns. The crude civet is disagreeable in odor because of the skatole present. On dilution and aging, however, the skatole
ouor disappears, and the sweet and somewhat floral odor of civetone, a
cyclic ketone, appears. The civet is employed as a fixative either in a
tincture or as an absolute~ Its use along with musk is quite: common.
Musk is the dried secretion of the preputial glands of the. mal.e musk
deer, found in the Himalayas. The deer are killed and the musk is excised in pods the size' of a crab apple and dried. The product in the natural cover is called pod, musk, while that which has been remoyed and dried
is known as grain musk. The odor is due to a cyclic ketone called muskone,
which is prcscnt to thc extent of from Y2 to 2 per cent. Musk, the most
572
PERFUME AND }'LAVORING INDUSTRIES
useful of the animal fixatives, will impart body and smoothness to a perfume composition even when diluted so far that its own odor is completely effaced. Musk is used for its own sake in heavy Oriental perfumes.
Ambergris is the least used, but probably best known of the animal
fixatives. It is a calculus or secretion developed by certain whales.
Ambergris is obtained by cutting open the captured whale, or it is found
floating in the ocean or stranded on a beach. It is waxy in consistency,
softening at about 60C., with a color which may be white, yellow, brown,
black, or variegated like marble. It is composed of 80 to 85 per cent
ambrein, I resembling cholesterol and acting merely as a binder, and 12
to 15 per cent of ambergris oil, which is the active ingredient. It is employed as an alcoholic tincture which must be matured before it is used.
The odor of the tincture is decidedly musty, and it has great fixative
powers.
Musc Zibata is the newest animal fixative. It is derived from _glands of
the muskrat which is trapped in the United States, especiallyTn Louisiana.
It was only during the Second World War that the Muse Zibata was commercialized. About 90 per cent of the unsaponifiable material in muskrat
glands consist of large, odorless cyclic aicohols which are converted to
the ketones, increasing the characteristic musk odor nearly fifty times.
The product is called Muse Zibata, and is a replacement or an addition
product to the Asiatic musk.
Resinous Fixatives. The resinous fixatives are normal or pathological
exudates from certain plant!l. which are more important historically than
commercially. The resins are, classified rather arbitrarily as follows:
Resins: hard resins, e.g., benzoin.
Gums: soft resins, e.g., myrrh and labdanum.
Balsams: moderatel:y soft resins, e.g., Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, copiaba, and
storax.
OIeoresins: oily materials, e.g., terpenes.
Resinoids: extracts from resins, less viscous, e.g., ambrein.
All these substances, when being prepared for perfume compounding, are
! dissolved and aged by me'thods passed down, by word of mouth. If solution is brought about in the cold, the mixture is callela tincture. If heat
is required to give solution, the mixture is an infusion. Alcohol is the
solvent, sometimes being aided by benzyl benzoate or diethyl phthalate.
The most important of the soft gums is labdanum. The leaves of a
plant growing in the Mediterranean area exude this sticky substance. In
Spain, the qranches are boiled, ill water to remove the gum. In France,
the le~ves are treated with volatile solvents. An extract from this gum
1 This is a triterpcnie tricyclic alcohol, C,.H.10H, which tlplits upon oxidation; c/.
and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 10, p. !J.
KIRK
F.RFlF.NTI.U, OTLR
573
has an odor suggestive of ambergris and is marketed as ambrein, having

extremely good fixative value.
Of the harder plant resins used in perfumes, benzoin is the most important. The history of chemistry was influenced by this substance. The
early source of benzoin was .Java, where it was called Luban Jawi.
Through various contractions and linguistic modifications, it became
"banjawi," "benjui," "benzoi," "benzoin," and "benjamin." In early
organic chemical history, an acid isolated from this gum became known
as benzoic acid, from which compound the names of all "benz-" compounds of today are derived.
Essential Oil Fixatives. A few essential oils are used for their fixative
properties as well as their odor. The more important of these are clary
sage, vetiver, patchouly, orris, and sandalwood. These oils have boiling
points higher than normal (285 to 290C.).
Synthetic Fixatives. Certain high-boiling comparatively odorless esters
are used as fixatives, to replace some of the imported animal fixatives.
Among them may be mentioned glyceryl diacctate (259C.), ethyl phthalate (295C), and benzyl benzoate (323C.). Other synthetics are used as
fixatives although they have a definite odor of their own that contributes
to the ensemble in which they are used. A few of these are listed:
Amyl benzoate
Phenylethyl phenyl acetate
Cinnamic alcohol esters
Cinnamic acid esters
Acetophenone 2
Musk ketone
Musk ambrette
Benzophenone 1
Vanillin
Coumarin
Heliotropin
Hydroxycitron~llal
Indole 3
Skatole
ODOROUS SUBSTANCES
Most odorous sub!}tances used in perfumery come under three headings: (1) essential oils, (2) isolates, and (3) synthetic or semisynthetic
!
chemicals.
1. Essential Oils. iAn essential oil may be defined as a volatile, odoriferous oil of vegeta~le origin (see Table 1). The distinction should be
made, however, between the natural flower oils which are obtained by
enfleurage or solvent extraction and the essential oil recovered by distillation. The distilled 'oils may lack some component which is not volatile
enough or which is lost during the distillation. Two notable examples of
this are rose oil in w~ich the phenylethyl ~lcohol is lost to the watery porI VANDERHOEF, Benzophenone, Chern. Eng., 67 (12), 288 (1950).
Acetophenone should ,be used with great caution because 'of its powerful odor
which tends to protrude above all others.
3 TREFFLER, The Synthesis of Indoles, Chern. Ind8., 66, 67 (1943).
'0
'0
"E
~
,Z
ESSENTIAL OILS
575
tion of the distillate, and orange-flower oil in which the distilled oii contains but a very small proportion of methyl anthranilate while the extracted flower oil may contain as much as one-sixth of this constituent.
The essential oils are in the main insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents, although enough of the oil may dissolve in wat.er to give
an intense odor to the solution as in rose water and orange-flower water.
The oils are flammable liquids which are volatile enough to distill unchanged in most instances. They are also volatile with steam. They vary
from colorless to yellow or brown in color. An essential oil is usually a
mixture of compounds, although oil of wintergreen is almost pure methyl
salicylate. The refractive indexes of the oils are high, averaging around
1.5. The oils show a wide range of optical activity, rotating in both
directions.
The compounds occurring in essential oils may be classified as follows:
1. Esters: Mainly of benzoic, acetic, salicylic, and cinnamic acids.
2. Alcohols: Linalool, geraniol, citronellol, terpinol, menthol, borneol.
3. Aldehydes: Citral, citronellal, benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, c~rn:inic
aldehyde, vanillin.
4. Acids: Benzoic, cinnamic, myristic, isovaleric acids in the free state.
5. Phenols: Eugenol, thymol, carvacrol.
6. Ketones: Carvone, menthone, pulegone, irone, fenchone, thujone, camphor,
methyl nonyl ketone, methyl heptenone.
7. Esters: Cineole1 (eucalyptole), anethole, safrole.
8. Lactones: Coumarin.
9. Terpenes: Camphene, pinene, limonene, phellandrene, cedrene.
10. Hydrocarbons: Cymene, styrene (phenylethylene). /
Although the part played by essential oils in the life of plants i~ somewhat obscure, they are probably connected with metabolism, fertilization, or protection from enemies. The oils may occur in intercellular
spa'ces or in oil sacs. Any or all parts of the plant may contain .an oil.
Essential oils are found in the buds, flowers, leaves, bark, stems, fruits,
seeds, wood, roots, and rhizomes, and in some trees in the oleoresinous
exudates.
The volatile oils may be recovered from the plants by a variety of
methods: 2 (1) expression, (2) distillation, (3) elillaction with volatile
solvents, (4) enfleurage, and (5) maceration. The majority of oils are
obtained by distillation, usually steam, but certain oils are adversely
affected by the temperature. Distilled citrus oils are of inferior quality;
therefore, they are derived by expression. For certain flowers which yield
no oil upon distillatiqn or else a deteriorated oil, the last three methods
are used. However, extraction with volatile solvents, a comparatively
This is an internal et.her.
"The Essential Oils," Vol. 1, Chap. 3, Reinhold Publishingl Corporation. 1948; for expression, see Vol. 3, pp. 6tJ.
I
GUENTHER,
576
PERFUME AND FLAVORING INDUSTRIES
recent process, has superseded maceration (extraction with hot fat) for
all practical purposes and is replacing enfleurage. Solvent extraction i::;
the most technically advanced process and yields truly representative
odors, but is more expensive than distillation. Enfleurage is practiced
only in the Grasse region of France and on a much smaller scale than
before because it is a delicate and lengthy process, requiring much experience and labor. Yields depend on both the oil and the method. Based on
5 tons of crude material, yields will vary from 5 oz. of violet oil to 1,800
lb. of clove oil.
Distillation, Usually with Steam. In order that the oil may be more
easily removed, some treatment of the material may be required. Flowers
and grasses are normally charged into the still. without preparation.
Leaves and succulent roots and twigs are cut into small pieces. Dried
materials are powdered. Woods and tough roots are sawed into small
pieces or mechanically chipped. Seeds and nuts are fed through c'rushing
rolls which are spaced so as to crack them. Berries are charged in the
natural state, as the heat of distillation soon develops enough pressure
to burst their integument. The charge should not be too finely comminuted, or it will pack down solidly in the still and the steam applied
will channel rather than reach the whole mass evenly.
The stills employed in factories .are of copper, tin-lined copper, or
stainless steel and of about ,600 gal. capacity. They are provid'ed with condensers of various sorts, the tubular ones being the more efficient and with
a separator for dividing the oily layer from the aqueous one. Although
removable baskets for holding the material to be distilled are used, the
better procedure seems to be to construct the still with a perforated
false plate, lying just above the bottom. Underneath this false bottom
are the steam coils, both closed and perforated. Manholes should be
provided at the top and just above the false bottom for an inlet -and
outlet of the material to be distilled, Such a still will handle from 250 to
800 lb. of material. If the charge is finely ground or easily packed material, the still should be provided with a powerful stirrer, in which case
the lower manhole may be omitted and the spent material blown out
/ through a bottom valve. In operating these stills, the charge is heated by
steam in both the closed and the open pipes, thus effeCting an economical
steam distillation. The aqueous layer in the condensat~ frequently carries, in solution, valuable constituents as from rose and orange-flower oil
and is consequently pumped back into the still to supply some of the
necessary water. Steam distillation is carried out for the most part _at
atmospheric, pressure. If the c~mstituents of the oil are easily subject to
hydro,lysis, however, the process may be run in a vacuum.
Much distillation for essential oils is done at the harvest site in extremely crude stills. These stills are converted oil drums or copper pots
equipped with pipe condensers running through water tubs. The material
ESSENTIAL OILS
577
and water are charged into the still and a direct fire is built underneath
of dried material exhausted in previous distillations. The efficiency is
low and the oil is contaminated with pyrolYSIS products such as acrolein,
trimethylamine, and creosotelike substances.
The crude oils pbtained from the stills are sometimes further treated
hefore use by rectification under vacuum, fractional freeziJlg (menthol
from Japanese peppermint oil), by washing with potassium hydroxide
to remove free acids and phenolic compounds, by removal of wanted or
unwanted aldehydes and ketones through formation of the bisulfite addi'tion compounds, or by formation of specific insoluble products as in the
reaction of calcium chloride with geraniol.!
Expression. Only in the last few years has expression by machine made.
an almost identical oil from the hand-pressed product. Formerly, the
hand-pressed oil was superior in quality but more expensive, eyen though
produced in the low-cost labor markets. Of these processes, the" sponge"
process is the most important as it produces the highest-quality oil. Here,
the fruit is halved, the peel trimmed and soaked in water for several. hours.
Each peel is pressed against a sponge, ejecting the oil in,to the sponge
which is periodically sq"!leezed dry. One man can prepare only 24 oz. of
lemon oil day by this method, but it is still practiced, especially in Sicily.
Even there machine pressing is replacing hand pressing. Many machines have been invented but only the modern, large-scalI,) process of
the American industry will be described here. The expression of citrus oils
in this country is a by-product of the canning industry and .is centered
in California and Florida. The fruit is thoroughly washed and inspected
by government inspectors to ensure that no inferior fruit is used. The
juice is pressed from the fruit in automatic machines. This juice contains
minute quantities of oil which must be eliminated so that the juice will
possess a natural flavor and not spoil when canned. This "deoiling" is
by "continuous vacuum distillation and produces an oil of good quality.
The largest quantity of oil is derived from the peel which is crushed in a
special machine. After expression, the peel still contains a substantial
quantity of oil in the ~lbedo, or white portion of the rind, which is recovered by steam distillation. As is true of all distilled citrus oils, it is of
poor quality. The peel is then soaked in hot lime water to recover pectin,
much of which enters the jelly industry. The exhausted peel is submitted
to high pressure, expelling a watery liquid and, after dehydration, the
peel is sold as cattle fdod. The watery liquid, containing about .6 per cent
sugar, is concentrat~d for molasses production. During this concentration
more oil, called" stripper oil," is recovered. Because of its harsh odor and
off flavof, it may be used only in technical products such as insect sprays.
Enfleurage. The enfteurage process is a cold-fat extraction process used
on a few types of delicate flowers (jasmine, tuberose, violet, etc.) which
1 JONES
and
WOOD,
Preparation of Pure Geraniol, Ind. Eng. Chem., 34, 488 (1942).
578
yield no direct oil at all on distillation. Especially in the case of jasmine

and tuberose, the picked flowers continue to produce perfume as long
as they are alive (about 24 hr.) which is utilized by this process. The
fat or base consists of a highly purified mixture of 1 part of tallow to 2
parts of lard with 0.6 per cent benzoin added as a preservative. The
process is carried out on the chassis which is a rectangular wooden frame
2 in. high, 20 in. long, and 16 in. wide supporting a glass plate coated on
both sides with the fat mixture. The chassis is spread with fresh flowers
abow....t every 24 hr., the old ones being removed by hand. The frames are
stacked vertically forming airtight compartments. At the end of the
8- to lO-week harvest, the fat, which is not renewed during the process,
has become saturated with flower oil. This saturated fat is called a
pomade. The fat is removed from the frames and extracted with alcohol
to recover the perfume. This alcoholic solution is cooled and filtered to
remove the slight amount of fat that has dissolved. The alcohol solution
is the extract and the residue after evaporation of the solvent is the
enjleurage absolute similar to the products in the old maceration process.
Extraction with Volatile Solvents. The most important factor in the
success of this practice is the selection of the solvent. The solvent must:
(1) be selective, i.e., quickly and completely dissolve the odoriferous components but only a minimum of inert matter, (2) have a low boiling
point, (3) be chemically inert to the oil, (4) evaporate completely without leaving any odorous residue, and (5) be low-priced and, if possible,
nonflammable. Many solvents have been used, but highly purified petroleum ether is the most successful, with benzene ranking next. The former
is specially prepared by repeated rectification and consists of saturated
paraffins, mainly pentane and hexane, with a boiling point not higher
than 75C. When benzene is employed, it is specially purified by repeated crystallization.
The extraction equipment is complicated and relatively expensive
and consists of stills for fractionatiI_lg the solvent, a few batteries for
extracting the flowers, and stills for concentrating the flower-oil solu! tions. A battery consists of three or four extractors, four or five metal
tanks for solvents and solutions, and an evaporitor for concentrating the
oil solutions. The two types of extractors employed are the stationary
and rotary types. Although the rotary type is more popular because of
higher yields and less solvent loss, the stationary type is still important.
For example, voluminous plant material such as lavender cannot be
easily charged and discharged in a rotating drum. Most batteries provide for solvent recovery, usually by adsorption on activated carbon. All
extractors and stills are now constructed of heavily tinned sheet iron
because copper is too expensive.
The stationary extractors are vertical cylinders of 1,200 liter capacity
provided with several perforated metal grids. The flowers are charged
ESSENTIAL OILS
579
directly upon these grids, and the ext.ractor is closed. Each batch is
extracted three times with solvent, the t.hird washing serving as the
second washing for the next batch, then as the first washing, after which
it is concentrated in evaporators. The recovered solvent from the evaporators serves as the third washing, and so on. After the third washing,
the solvent is recovered by blowing live steam through the discharged,
exhausted flowers. Water-solvent separation is effected automatically in
specially constructed Florence flasks.
In the rotary process the oil is also extracted on the countercurrent
principle. These 350-gal. steam-jacketed drums revolve around a horizontal axis and are divided into compartments by perforated plates at
right angles to the axis. About 300 lb. of flowers are charged into the
first drum along with 150 gal. of petroleum ether which has already come
through the other two drums. The drum and its contents ar~ :rotated for:
an hour cold and for an additional half hour with steam in the jacket.
The saturated solvent is pumped to the recovery still, the flowers in
the drum are treated twice more, the second time with once-used solvent
and the last time with fresh solvent from the recovery still. The exhausted
flowers are blown with steam to recover the adhering solvent, About 90
per cent of the solvent is boiled off at atmospheric pressure and. the rest
is removed under vacuum.
After the solvent is removed in either process, the semisolid residue contains the essential oil along with a quantity of waxes, resins, and coloring
material from the blossoms. This pasty mass is known as the concrete. It,
in turn, is treated with cold alcohol in which most of the wax and resin
is insoluble. The small amount of unwanted material that does dissolve
is removed by cooling the solution to -20C. and filtering it. The resulting
liquid contains the essential oil and some of the ether-soluble color of
the flower and is known as an extract. When the alcohol has been removed, an absolute remains. As might be expected, there is considerable
difference among the absolutes prepared from the same flower by either
enfleurage or extraction with a volatile solvent. For each flower, there
is an optimum methqd that produces the best absolute for any given
purpose.
In some oils there is a large quantity of terpe!!~s. This is especially
true in the case of lemon and orange oils with as much as 90' per cent
d-limonene in their ~ormal composition. Not only are terpenes and
sesquiterpenes of exceedingly little value to the strength and character
of the oils, but they oxidize and polymerize rapidly on standing to form
compounds of a strorig turpentinelike flavor. Furthermore the terpenes
are insoluble in the lo)ver strengths of alcohol used as a solvent and make
cloudy solutions which are cleared up only with difficulty. For these
reasons it is desirable to remove terpenes and sesquiterpenes from many
oils. Such an oil, in the case of orange, for example, is forty t,imes as
580
PERFUME AND FI,AVORING INDUSTRIES
strong as the original and makes a dear solution in dilute alcohol. The
oil has now very little tendency to rancidify, although it has not quite
the freshness of the original. These treated oils are labeled" t.sJ." (terpene and sesquiterpene free).
Because each oil has a different composition, deterpenation requires a
special process. Generally speaking only two methods are involved,
either the removal of the terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and paraffins by
fractional distillation under a vacuum, 'or extraction of the more soluble
oxygenated compounds (principal odor carriers) with dilute alcohol or
other solvents. In many cases, especially true for citrus oils, both methods
are employed.
Because of the complex nature and the high price commanded by so
many of the essential oils, there is a great deal of adulteration or sophistication practiced. These additions are extremely hard to detect in inost
cases as, whenever possible, a mixture of adulterants is used that does
not change the physical constants of the oil. Common agents used are
alcohol, cedar oil, turpentine, terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and the lowspecific-gravity liquid petroleums. The advent of so many esters of glycol
and glycerol on the market has increas~d the difficulty of detection as
these are colorless, practically odorless, and' in the right combination
can be made to simulate almost any specific-gravity and refractive-index
specifications set up for the oil they are intended to adulterate. Rose oil
is sophisticated with geraniol or a mixture of geraniol and citronellol;
wintergreen and sweet birch oil are mixed with large amounts of synthetic methyl salicylate; and lemon oil is often" stretched" considerably
with citral from lemon-grass oil.
2. Isolates. An isolate is a pure chemical compound whose source is
an essential oil or other natural perfume material. Notable examples are
eugenol from clove oil, pinene from turpentine, anethole from anise oil,
and linalool from linaloa oil (bois de rose).
I
~
3. Synthetics and Semisynthetics Used in Perfumes and Flavors. 1
More and more important constituents of perfumes and flavors are being
made by the usual chemical synthetic procedures. Some ~onstituents are
! being chemically synthesized from an isolate, or other natural starting
materials and are classed as semisynthetic& Examples,are vanillin prepared from eugenol from clove oil, ionone prepared 'from citral from
lemon-grass oil, and terpineols from turpentine and pine oil. The following
embrace some of the significant synthetics of this field. The better to
correlate the manufact.uring methods and apparatus with other like processes, the examples here presented are grouped under the most important
unit process.
I
For a most excellent book on this topic, see BEDOUKIAN, "Perfumery Synthetics
and Isolates!' D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc" New York, 1951.
581
CON])ENSATION PHOCES8ES
CONDENSATION PROCESSES
Coumarin occurs in tonka beans and 65 other plants, but the eC(.)!lomical source is the synthetic. It is employed to amplify the flavor of vanillin,
as a fixative and enhancing agent for essential oils and tobacco products,
and as a masking agent for disagreeable odors in industrial products.
The synthetic product may be prepared ' in a number of different ways.
One method utilizes the Perkin reaction:
eRO
CH3COO~OeR=eReOONa
OR
(CH,CO).O
OR
--?(X
eR
~eH
I
~ /C-=O
o
Salicyaldehyde, acetic anhydride, and sodium acetate are refluxed at 135
to 155e. The reaction mixture is cooled and washed. The coumarin is
recovered by solvent extraction or distillation. Other important methods
of coumarin preparation utilize o-cresol as the starting material or the
Raasmann-Reimer synthesis where coumarin-3-carboxylic is produced as
an intermediate.
Diphenyl oxide or ether .is very important in the soap and perfume
industries, because of its great stability and strong geranium odor. Very
large amoun~s of this compound are made annually and, although no
breakdown is available, most of the diphenyl oxide is used with diphenyl
for Dowtherm. Diphenyl oxide is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of phenol from chlorobenzene and caustic soda.
Ionone and its homologs possess the so-called violet type of odor, thus
constituting the base of violet perfumes. However, these compounds
are indispensable tG fine perfumes and there are but few which do not
contain at least a small percentage of ionones. In 1953, 10,000 lb. of
a-ionone, 77,000 lb. of methyl ionone, and 111,000 lb. of ,B-ionone were sold.
The sales value of Cl- ltnd .B-ionone mixtures and other ion ones was over
$500,000. Because of the high price of the natural oil of violet, this was
one of the first essenti~l oils synthesized, although it has since been found
in certain obscure pl~nts. The olfactory properties of ionone are due to
the presence of dl-a-ionone and ,B-ionone. Although the economical commercial methods forl,the production of these compounds are closely
guarded trade secrets, their manufacture'involves two steps. First the
pseudo-ionone is prep!l.red by the condensation of citral obtained from
1 ,({UtK
and
OTHMER,
op. cit., Vol. 4, p. 5!J0.
582
lemon-grass oil. This is followed by an acid ring closure and the commercial ionone is purified by distillation. Commercial ionones are generally mixtures with one form predominating, although separations are
sometimes made through bisulfite compounds.
HaC
CHa
H.C
CHI
"'- /
CH,
"'- /_
C ,
C ~~
/'
C=O
"G
/'
HC
CH-CHO
I
72 hr. at 35C. HC
C,HCH=CHCOCH,
I
+ CHa
-->
I
II
H 2C
C-CH.
10 per cent NaOH H 2 C
O-CH.
"'-/
"'-/
CH 2
Citral
CH,
Pseudo-ionone
H.C
CH.
HaC
"'-C/
H 2SO.
--->
H 2C
"'CHCH=CHCOCH.
H,C
CH,
"'-C/
I'
C-CHa
H,C
"'CCH=CHCOCH.
I
~-CH.
+ H,C
"'-/'
CH
a-Ionone
"'-/
CH~
p-Ionone
Cinnamic aldehyde has a cinnamon odor. As it oxidizes in air to cinnamic acid, it should be protected from oxidation. Although this aldehyde
is obtained from Ceylon and Chinese cinnamon oils, it is synthesized by action of alkali upon a mixture of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde.
ESTERIFICATION PROCESSES
Benzy~ benzoate has a faint aromatic odor, boils at 323 to 324C., and
is a fixative and a flavoring material. During the Second World War,
I this ester was used in large quantities I as an insecticide to eradicate
ticks and mites bearing a typhuslike disease in the S,outh Pacific. It
occurs naturally in balsams (Peru, Tolu), but is prepared commercially
by the esterification of benzoic acid with benzyl alcohol or by the Cannizzaro reaction with benzaldehyde.
Two esters of salicylic acid are very important commercially in the
perfume an!i flavoring industrjes. Over 300,000 lb. of amyl salicylate are
used annually in a variety of perfumes because of its lasting quality and
low price. Over 3,200,000 lb. of the methyl salicylate (synthetic wintergreen oil) are eonsumed annually as a flavoring ingredient. These are prepared as follows: Carbon dioxide and sudium phenatc are reacted under
pressure tu ubtain the salt of phenyl-carbonic acid. This salt is isomerized
I
In 1952, 1,076,000 lbs. were produced.
,1)83
NITRATION PROCBSSER
to sodium salicylate by heating to 120 to 140C. The esters are 'made from
the acid and the proper alcohol (see Fig. 8, Chap. 39).
Benzyl acetate, C 6 R 5CR 2 0COCR a, is another widely used ester in the
perfume industry because of its low cost and floral odor. Over 550,000 lb.
are sold annually especially for soap and industrial perfumes. It is prepared by esterification of benzyl alcohol, by heating with either an excess
of acetic anhydride or acetic acid with mineral acids. The product is
purified by treatment with boric acid and distilled giving a purity of
over 98 per cent. Benzyl alcohol has annual sales of around 700,000 lb.
Large amounts are employed in pharmaceuticals, lacquers, etc. This
alcohol has a much weaker odor than its esters. It is made by hydrolyzing
benzyl chloride.
GRIGNARD PROCESSES
Phenylethyl alcohol has a roselike odor and occurs in the volatile oils
of ro~e, orange flowers, and others. It is an oily liquid and is much used
in perfume formulation, over 700,000 lb. being sold annually. Phenylethyl alcohol can be made by a number of procedures; that employing
the Grignard 1 reaction is the most economical and a rare industrial application of this reaction.
NITRATION PROCESSES
Artificial musks comprise a number of products that are not 'identical

with the natural musk which derives its odor from macrocylic compounds. Nitro musks are practical and economical substitutes for this
expensive natural fixati~e and over 170,000 lb. of musk xylene alone are
manufactured annually: Thtl reactions for the three important commercial
artificial musks follow: I.
Musk A mbrette:
OR
0
O
OCRa
(CH.).sO,
CRa
KOH
__
U
OCRa
(CH.).CCI (CRah
CRa
m-Cresol
AICI.
H_N_O.~
CRa (CH,CO),O
OCH a
(CIiahc(l"l'W"
VCIla
N0 2
1 BEDOUK1AN,
op. cit., pp'. 359,0".
584
Musk Xylene and AIusk Ketone:

CRa
CRa
(}H. (C:~~Cl (CH.).DCH'~
:0
III-Xylene
70 per cent H 2SO,
30 per cent HNO,
eRa
02N
N0 2
(CRa)a
33-35C.
1~~ hr.
CRa
N0 2
Musk xylene
CRa
('jCOCH;a
CHaCOCI
AlCr.
CRa
(CHa)aciJCHa
02N("lCOCRa
HNO,
-----+ (CHa)aciJCHa
N0 2
Musk ketone
OXIDATION PROCESSES
Vanillin is one of the m~st widely used flavors, being ma~ufactured to

the extent of more than 1,000,000 lb. per year. Its characteristic flavor is
known to all. It is also used in perfumery and for deodorizing manufactured goods. For its manufacture many processes have been employed
of which the following are the most important:
1. From eugenol from oil of doves, through isoeugenol followed by oxidation
to vanillin IIsing nitro-benzene as the oxidizing agent.
OR
'
OR
OR
OOCH, -""". O'CII'

CH 2CR=CH 2
Eugenol
C:II,NO,
CK=CRCH a
Isocugenol
-~
OOCH.
CHO
Vanillin
2. From lignin! through an alkaline pressure cook at 130 to 200 lb. for H to
1 hr. of the calcium" ligninsulfonic" acid. The vanillin is purified through the
sodium hi sulfite compound and extrartion with henzene. This process will prohahly become the most important for making vanillin, although at present more
than half is made through guaiacol.
3. From ~henoF or o-chloro-nitro-benzene through guaiacol following the
SA'NDBORN, U.S. Pat. 2104701 (19~8); DEvRn" U.S. Pat, 2399607(1946).
SGHWYZER, "Die Fahrikation pharmazputischer und chemischtechnischer Prodllkte," pp. 205-209, 279-288, Springer-Verlag OlIG, Berlin, 1931; ULLMANN,
"Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 2 ed., Vol. 8, pp. 815-820, Urban & Schwarz1
585
OXIDATION PROCESSES
procedures and the reactions given in the flow sheet of Fig. 1. This is the usual
synthetic procedure. The actual manu!acturing steps are quite coinplicat"d and
are carefully controlled with regard to conditions and apparatus. For these
details consult the references, Schwyzer in particular.
Heliotropin or piperonal has a pleasant aromatic odor resembling heliotrope. It is produced from safrole by the following reactions: '
/ OX)
CH 2
"0
"
Ii
Heated
i with
n :/ : G
autoclave
'
---~ CH 2
CH 2CH=CH 2 60 per cent"
CH=-C,HCH a
KOH in
"
alcohol;
Isosafrole, '
Safrole
15-20 hr.
yield DO per c~nt
"'0
Na.Cr.O, hr. CH
/
'
H.SO,-14
2
Benzene
CHO
extraction
""0/::
Heliotropin,
yield 85 per cent
I
Anisaldehyde is a colorless oily liquid with an agreeable qdor rese~bling
coumarin which is developed only after dilution and in' mixtures. It is
made by the oxidation of anethole (the chief constituent of anise, star
anise, and fennel oils). Anethole has been obtained recently in this1country
at very low cost from higher-boiling fractions of pine oil.
I
o
OCHa
CH=CHCH a
OCHa
Na 2Cr 2 0,
H 2 SO,
CHO
Benzaldehyde is used as a flavoring agent, as an ingredient i~l ~harma

ceuticals, and as an iritermediate in chemical syntheses. Commercially,
it is produced by sevebl methods and in two grades, technical and refined. The technical gAde is largely used as an intermediate in the synthesis of other chemicals such as benzyl benzoate (page 582), cinnamic
aldehyde (page 582), and dyes. Most of the technical grade is made by
direct vapor phase oxi4ation of toluene, although some is made by chlorinating toluene to benzal chloride followed by alkaline or acid hydrolysis.
enberg, Berlin and Vienn~; 1928-1932; GROGGINS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., pp. 431, ~29, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952;
BEDOUKIAN, op. cit., pp. 401-426; PEARL, Vanillin-Perfumery's First Synthetic, Am.
Perfumer, 60 (4), 403 (1947).
~~
!!l
'2,
"'0'"r::,9
N !:2-_:.~.S
0..ci00Q>
~Z
. ~
&'"g
,/
_ ~
oOE:':
Q>o- C
~-~9s
~cQ.Q.>=e.ti~
~~=2 E
,",Of!:!:> ~'6
.ti..ci..ci'"'..ci
---~-
~l1l~E.
I'N '0
'"
Q>
'oS
].
I-
'OJ
~'~g~
...<:
E1'4-E ~ f
I:lII
I:lII
8
15~~._jI
1.:
O) ..=
..c..ci.ti..ci
gi::2~
NN
Q>
8.$!
~.n:,
~'8~~
v>:r. Q.
,9S,9,9!
0001<)<1)
t<)O~CON
~...".
<E-
'0
>..
:r.
586
...
...0en
>
Oi
.i::t:~.-
j]
oS
<:>
'';:
'"
..<::
.2 c. '8
ii E~.
2:!o:t
'C
'2
'c
~
~
._
1J
...
>.
-...
'".,'"
..<::
:::
i'i:
,...;
0
If:
587
MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES
For perfume and flavoring use the refined, chlorine free grade is required, which is most economically produced by the direct oxidation of
toluene in the vapor phase. This oxidation is sometimes done in the
liquid phase.
Vapor phase:
I,
tJ.H = -91,200 cal.

It is claimed that a catalyst mixture of 93 per cent uranium oxide and 7
per cent molybdenum oxide gives relative high yields with a,low percentage of complete combustion.
Liquid phase:
MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES
About 1,000,000 lb. of terpineols are manufactured every year., They

are one of the cheapest synthetics and are widely used in soap because of
their woodsy' and floral odors. Formerly all terpineols were made from
turpentine oil which consists largely of a-pinene, but recently pine oil
has become an important source. Terpineols may be manufactured
directly in a one-step process l from pinene by reacting with sulfuric acid
and acetone for 6 hr. at 35 to 40C. The product is purified by fractional
distillation. The two-step method has an advantage in that the purification' of the intermediate, terpin hydrate, is easier than that o~ terpineol.
Terpin hydrate is formed by reacting pinene with dilute sulfuric acid
plus an emulsifying agent. 2 The purified hydrate is then carefully dehydrated to terpineol by using oxygenated carboxylic acids. Terp'ineols
are separated from pin~ oil by fractional distillation or by the above:treatment to the terpin hydrate through 25 per cent sulfuric acid.
Saccharin is a powefful sweetening agent, particularly useful when a
sweet flavor is desired ~vithout using a carbohydrate. It is manufactured
by a series of reactions 'starting with toluene. 3 This is treated with chloro1
Pat. 2178349(1939).
p~t. 2330579(1943);
op. cit., pp: 245-249.
SHEFFIEI.D, U.S.
2 HASSET.STROM, U.S.
3 SCHWYZER,
SHEFFIELn, U.S.
Pat. 2336575(1943).
588
sulfonic acid at 0 to i)C. in cast-iron vessels, the following reactions'

occurring:
CH3
H a
+ ClS0 3H ~ a H a + H CCIS0
l-)
3
03H
H3
02Cl
+ H 2S0
An over-all yield of 90 per cent is obtained in these reactions, the product

consisting of about 60 per cent of the ortho isomer and 40 per cent of the
para isomer. By pouring the products into water and freezing, the undesired para isomer is removed. The o-toluene sulfonyl chloride is treated
with concentrated aqueous ammonia solution in enamel-lined autoclaves
to give the corresponding sulfonamide in 90 per cent yield:
H
C 3
80 2Cl
+ 2NH3 ~ O~H3
+ NH Cl
4
80 2NH 2
O
. --- ---This product is dissolved in sodium hydroxide and oxidized, with sodium
dichromate and sulfuric acid. The solution is then acidified with HCI,
giving the saccharin (benzo-sulfamide) as a precipitate .
CO
COONa
O
80 2NH 2
0/ " -
+ HCl~,
""-
NH
'
+ NaCl + H 20
80 2
Menthol has long been extracted as the levo- form from oil of Japanese
peppermint and used in cigarettes aQ.d many other products as an antiseptic cooling flavor. The manufacture of the pure optically inactive form
by the hydrogenation of thymol is now being undertaken. 2
_
The acetals of the aldehydes have an odor only sli'ghtly modified from
that of the aldehy~es but have gre'at alkali resistance. Hence these acetals
are being used in soaps, which are very difficult to perfume with any
lasting .odor because the alkaline nature of the soap itself destroys any
! alkali-sensitive product.
PERFUME FORMULATION
An actual example of a ~ompound perfume, similar to a widely sold

product, is given here to indicate the various components that have been
1 Some au~horities give this reaction with water splitting off and reacting with the
secol1d mole bf chloro-sulfonic acid: C.H.CH, + CISO,H -> C.H.(CH 3)S02CI + H 20;
H 20 + CISO,H -> HCI + H 2SO . ULMANN, op. cit., Vol. 2, p. 247.
BARNEY and HASS, Racemic Menthol, New Synthesis from Thymol, Ind. Eng.
Chern., 36, 85 (1944).
589
INDUSTRIAL API'LICA'l'IONS OF PERFUMERY
discussed and to show their use in a blended product. The foundation

odors are from the eugenols, methyl ionone, and the bergamot oil.
Component
Essential oils:
Sandalwood oil. ............
Bergamot oil. ..............
Ylang-ylang oil. ...........
Petitgrain oil. .............
Orange-flower oil. ..........
Rose otto .............. " .
Jasmine absolute ........ " .
Isolates:
Eugenol (from clove oil) ....
Santalol (from sandalwood)
Semisynthetics:
Isoeugenol (from eugenol) ...
Heliotropin (from safrole) ...
Methyl ionone (froIIl citral)
Grams
1(1
117.5
40
10
10
15
20
90
15
110
15
237.5
Component
Synthetics:
COumarin .................
Vanillin (from guaiacol) ....
Benzyl acetate .............
Oleoresins:
Opopanax .................
Balsams (resinoids):
Tolu .....................
Peru .....................
Benzoin ..................
Animal fixatives:
Castor tincture 1: 10 .......
Synthetic fixatives:
Musk ketone ........... '...
Musk ambrette ............
Vehicle:
Ethyl alcohol. .............
Grams
27.5
20
30
2.5
5
7
70
12.5
32.5
12.5
450 kg.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF PERFUMERY
Perfumes are used industrially in masking, nel!tr~lizing, anet altering

the odor of various products as well as in creating a distinctive, aroma for
normally odorless objects. "Cashmere" shawls are manufactured in Scotland and given the genuine Hindu touch by a trace of patchouli oil applied
to them. Aromatics are added to fabric sizing to disguise the glue or
casein smell and leave the finished product with a fine fresh smell. The
corr~ct essential oils and fixatives introduced in small quantities to paint
will completely mask the usual paint odor during drying. Leather goods
and. paper are scented, delicately to cover up the raw natural smell. A
minute amount of bornyl acetate evaporated in an air-conditioning system will impart an ou~door tang to the air. The odor of kerosene in fly
sprays is masked and artificial cedarwood is made by coating other woods
with cedar oil reclaimed in pencil manufacturing.
The psychological effect of odors is successfully used to increase cus~
tomer appeal. Perfumed merchandise outsells its odorless counterpart
by a large margin. An :insurance company boomed its sales of fire insurance overnight by sending out advertising blotters treated to simulate the
acrid odor of a fire-gutted building. Newspapers have lately: printed advertisements in ink specially mixed with a perfumed oil in order to call
attention to a perfumer's product.
590
THE FLAVORING INDUSTRY
There are only foul' basic flavors which the nerve endings in the taste
buds on the tongue can detect: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. The popular
conception of flavor, however, involves the combination of these four
basic stimuli with the concurrent odor sensations. Apple, for instance,
tastes merely sour with a trace of bitterness from the tannins present.
The main concept received of an apple is due to the odor of acetaldehyde,
amyl formate, amyl acetate, and other esters present in the volatile portion.
The principles of perfume blending also hold good for flavor manufacturing. The best flavoring essences are natural products altered and
reinforced whereo necessary by synthetics. In addition to alcohol as a
vehicle, glycerine and isopropyl alcohol are used for the liquid preparations with emulsions of bland gums such as tragacanth and acacia (gum
arabic) for pastes. The same fixatives are employed, although the animal
types are used more sparingly. Vanillin, coumarin, and heliotropin are
used more liberally for this purpose.
Many of the essential oils find application in the flavor industry, the
more common being the spice oils, the citrus oils, peppermint, and spearmint. Almost all the perfume synthetics find acceptance plus a number
made especially for flavors. The esters of ethyl, methyl, amyl, propyl,
butyl, and benzyl alcohols with acetic, propionic, butyric, salicylic,
caproic, formic, valeric, and anthranilic acids are widely .used to characterize the fruit flavors. As with the flower perfumes, many chemical
specialties keynote individual fruit aromas. The gamma lactone of undecylenic acid is a very true representation of the fresh odor of a cut
peach. A strawberry base is the ethyl ester of methylRhenylglycidic acid,
although it is not a true effect and partakes of a somewhat unnatural
tone. Propyl succinate and ethyl butyrate are part of the make-qp of
many pineapple compositions .
. NATURAL FRUIT CONCENTRATES
Although the essential oils used in flavoring are of the same grade and
source as those used for perfumes, the fruit flavors are handled in a somewhat different manner. Owing to the large percentage of water in most
of the common fruits (from 75 per cent in the banana to 90 per cent
in the strawberry) and the presence of considerable amounts of sugar and
other easily fermented materials, special processes must frequently be
employed, such as the following:
.
Distillation and Extractio'; of the ]I'ruit. The ripe fruit is stoned and
com:ninuted. It is then subjected to steam distillation and rectification
until all the aroma is concentrated in a small portion of the aqueous
distillate. This portion is then extracted with low-boiling petroleum
VANILLA
591
ether and the ether removed under vacuum to leave an essence or quintessence of the fruit used. Cherry, apple, strawberry, and raspberry are
treated by this method.
Extraction of the Juice. In this system the expressed and filtered juice
is extracted directly without previous distillation. Occasionally the juice
is allowed to ferment slightly before extraction. This is !)upposed to
result in a fuller flavor.
Concentration of the Juice. The expressed and filtered juice is concen,.
trated in vacuum evaporators with a low degree of heat until the water is
largely driven off and the sugar concentration is high enough to inhibit
bacterial growth (60 per cent). This type of concentrate often has a
"jam" or cooked flavor, especially in the case of the strawbe.rries. An
alternate method of concentration is by freezing. After reducing the
temperature sufficiently, the mush of practically pure water ice is filtered
off, and the partly concentrated juice is refrozen and refiltered until the
requisite strength is obtained. This is the optimum method of producing
concentrates, as there is little injury from heat and the slight off flavors
from oxidation can be avoided by running the process in an atmosphere of
carbon dioxide.
Vanilla. The vanilla bean is grown principally in Madagasc~r, Bourbon,
and Mexico. It is the immature fruit of the orchid, Vanilla planifolia
and is cultivated as a vine on trees which support it. The pods are picked
when they are just starting to turn from a uniform green to yellow at the
tip and have rather a disagreeable odor. The green pods undergo a curing
treatment of from 3 to 5 months' duration. In Mexico, the beans are
spread out on mats in the heat of day for an hour, after which they are
packed into an insulated sweatbox to ferment for 2 days. After drying
on open frames for several days, the process is repeated until the bean
is cured. Variations of this method include the use of ovens in the initial
step and a preliminary dipping into almost boiling water. The cured bean
is pliant, shiny, and dark-colored. The odor has become full and rich,
and the sweating may have left white aromatic crystals on the outside
of the bean. What has happened in substance is that the glucoside, glucovanillin, present in the bean has been acted upon by a ferment and
split into glucose, vanillin, and other aromatics. Substances identified in
the vanilla bean are anisic acid, alcohol, and aldehyde; vanillic acid and
alcohol; cinnamic acid and its esters; vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and possibly
other homologs of vanillin.
Preparation of Vanilla Extract. One hundred pounds of a blend of Mexican and Bourbon beans are finely cut up and macerated cold with, three
successive portions ofl '35 per cent ethyl alcohol of 100 lb. each. These
extracts are combined/to make a fine vanilla extract. Other solvents may
be used and the extraction carried further, but the product is coarscr and
less desirable as a fine flavor.
592
Chocolate and Cocoa.! The cacao bean, the seed of Theobroma cacao L.,
grows on the tree in pods of from 30 to 60 beans. The tree, which when
mature is about 20 ft. tall, is grown in Ecuador, West Indies, Brazil,
Venezuela, Central America, the African Gold Coast, and other equatorial areas of lesser importance. The pods are gathered twice a year and
are split open, and the watery pulp containing the seeds is allowed to
ferment in boxes. This fermentation takes from 2 to 7 days and, in
addition to liquefying the pulp, kills the embryo (115F.), reduces the
toughness of the bean, frees theobromine from the glucoside, and reduces
the astringent tannin content. This fermentation is necessary for flavor
in the final product. The moisture in the fermented beans, which is about
30 per cent, is reduced to 5 to 6 per cent by sun or oven drying. The bean
is shipped in this condition to manufacturing centers.
The beans are heated in rotary roasters between 220 and 250F., which
develops the true chocolate flavor and aroma, removes unpleasant tannins and volatile matter (butyric and acetic acid, organic bases, and
amines), dextrinizes the starch, and embrittles the husk. The roasted
beans are quickly cooled to prevent overroasting, cracked in a conical
mill, dehusked by a winnowing air stream, and degerminated. This product is known as cacao nibs.
Two common methods are used to work the cacao product into chocolate. In the first and older way, the nibs are ground on two or three buhrstone mills, sugar is added, and the mixture is transferred to a melangeur,
which is a mill consisting of a revolving stone on a horizontal revolving
heated bed. It merely serves to blend the coarsely ground cacao and the
sugar. The paste from the melangeur is fed to a water-cooled grinder
with five differentially speeded polished hard cast-iron rollers. This. is a
refiner and turns out a paste fine enough for conching. The newer method
is to grind the sugar in a closed-circuit disin'tegrator and the nibs in a
separate water-cooled two-stage disk mill with closed-circuit removal of
fines. The two are then mixed. This method takes much less power than
the older one and pro~uce'3 a finer and more uniform product in less
time. In either method, the paste is run through a_concher, which is a
granite bed with reciprocally acting granite rollers. It reduces the particle
size to an average of less than 1 micron. It is steam-heated to run at
135F. or can be allowed to heat itself by friction (122F.). Milk chocolates are prepared by adding condensed fresh milk or milk powder to the
melangeur. The finished product has a cocoa butter content of 30 to 35
per cent and not less than 12 per cent of milk solids. Conching heattreats, aer~tes, and kneads the mass, producing mellow flavor, extreme
smoothness, and lower viscosity in the finished chocolate.
For cocoa, the roasted and ground beans are subjected to pressure ill
hydraulic presses to remove some of the fat content. Whereas originally
1
KIRK
and
OTHMER, op.
cit., Vol. 3, pp. 889ff.
MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE
593
roasted beans contain 55 per cent of fat, the product remaining after
this treatment has the fat reduced to 20 per cent and is known as cocoa.
The removal of fat makes a beverage that is not too rich and one in
which the fat does not separate on top. Some cocoa is treated in between
the first and second pressings with alkali solutions. This darkens the
cocoa and is supposed to make a more soluble product. Cocoa so treated
is known as Dutch-process cocoa.
Monosodium Glutamate.' Although known in the Orient for many
centuries, the growth of monosodium glutamate (M.S.G.) in this country
since the Second World War has been spectacular. In 1953, 14,738,000 lb.
were sold for $24,419,100. This compound is an important flavoring agent
yet has no flavor of its own. It accentuates the hidden and little known.
flavors of the food where it is used.
Glutamic acid exists in three forms, but only the monosodium salt of
l-glutamic acid has the flavor-accentuating capacity. Although glutamic
aciq. is a constituent of all common proteins, the economic sources are:
wheat gluten, corn gluten, and Steffens filtrate resulting from the desugaring of beet-sugar molasses (Chap. 30). Where the wheat or corn
gluten is involved, generally two types of processes are employed, depending on whether the glutamic acid is obtained first as 'the hydrochloride or as the acid itself. The gluten is hydrolyzed in glass-lined,
steam-jacketed autoclaves with 34 per cent HCI. This reaction is completed in several hours at 130C. This hydrolysis breaks down the protein
and produces a considerable amount of humin, the name givep to the
interaction and degradation products of the amino acids and carbohydrates. If the glutamic acid is to be removed as the hydrochloride, the
hydrolysate is cooled slightly, filtered for humin removal, and the glutamic acid hydrochloride is crystallized out and separated by filtration.
The hydrochloride is converted to glutamic acid. Where the glutamic acid
itself is recovered, the hydrolysate is partially neutralized, cooled, and
filtered. The filtrate is acidified to a pH of 3.2 (isoelectric point of glutamic acid) and the solution is placed in rubber-lined crystallizers for
5 to 6 days for the glutamic acid to crystallize. The crystals are remov'ed
by filtration and repulped with water to remove the inorganic salts,
mainly NaCl. The M.S.G. is made by dissolviIi.g glutamic acid in a solution of caustic soda, adding filter aid and activated carbon for decolorizing. The solution is filtered, concentrated, and the M.S.G. crystals are
centrifuged and dried. I
When beet-sugar wastes are used, the p~incipal steps involved are:
(1) the concentration and collection of the Steffens filtrate, (2) its hydrolysis, usually with caustic soda, (3) neutralization and acidification of the
1 MANNING, et 01., Manufacture of Monosodium Glutamate, Chem. En". PrOflT'.,
44, 491 (1948) i MANNING, Food Flavor from Beet Sugar Byproduct, Chem. Eng., Iili
(4), 100 (1948), with a pictured Bow sheet on p. 136.
594
PERFUME .AND FLAVORING INDUSTRIES
hydrolysate, (4) partial removal of the inorganic salts, and (5) crystallization, separation, and purification of the glutamic acid. The M.S.G. is
made from the acid as described above.
FLAVOR ESSENCE FORMULATION
A formula is given here for a type of apricot flavoring to be used in

candy manufacture. This will indicate in general how a well-balanced
flavor is made up of natural products reinforced with suitable synthetics.
Many formulas are to be found in print which consist mainly of esters of
synthetic origin. These are harsh and unnatural and in many cases the
only resemblance to the original is in the designation of the flavor.
APRICOT ESSENCE
Grams
Apricot extract (a natural product) ....................... . 1,000
Gamma lactone of undecylenic acid (persicol) .............. .
10
Nonyl aldehyde (apricolin) .............................. .
1
Vanillin .......................... '" .................. .
0.5
Ethyl vanillin (bourbona!) ............................... .
0.2
Ethyl cinnamate ....................................... .
0.2
0.2
Benzyl cinnamate .............. " ......... '" .. '" ..... .
Tannic acid ........................................... .
0.1
SELECTED REFERENCES
Guenther, Ernest, "The Essential Oils," 6 vols., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
~ew York, 1948. A most excellent series. Many references.
Poucher, W. A., "Perfumes, Cosmetics, and Soaps," 2vols., 6th ed., D. Van Nostrand
Clarke, A., "Flavoring Materials, Natural and Synthetic," Hodder & Stoughton,
Ltd., London, 1922.
Naves, R., and G. Mazuyer, "Les parfums naturels," Gauthier-Villars & Cie, Paris,
1939. Translated by E. Sagarin, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,'
1947.
De Navarre, M. G., "The Chemistry and Manufacture of Cosmetics," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1941.
The American Perfumer (periodical), The Robbins Perfumer Company, Inc., New York.
Tressler, D. K., M. A. Joslyn, and G. L. Marsh, "1fruit and Vegetable Juices," .Avi
Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1939. Excellent withregard to equipment and
conditions for manufacture.
Bedoukian, P. Z., "Perfumery Synthetics and Isolates," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1951. An excellent book with many references.
Sagarin, Edward, "The Science and Art of Perfumery," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1945. An interesting general account, mostly nontechnical.
Jacobs, M. B., "Synthetic Food Adjuncts," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New
York,1947.
Crocker, E. C., "Flavor," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1945.
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," 15vol~.,
The Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947-1956. See specific compound or general headings, i.e., Flavor, Perfume, etc.
CHAPTER
28
OILS, FATS, WAXES
There are, at present, about 13 billion pounds of animal and vegetable

fats and oils consumed in the United States each year, of which 80 per
cent are of domestic production and the rest imported. Figure J depicts
the relative consumption for food, soap, and paint of the various oils
and fats. It also shows the direct competition of the chemical, soap, and
paint industries with basic food products. Fats and oils are found widely
TABLE 1. FATTY ACID CONTENT OF VARIOUS OILS AND FATS
(The figures under the various oils express per cent present)
No.
of C
atoms
8
10
12
14
14
16
16
18
18
18
18
18
20
20
CotAcid
Formula
Caprylic
Capric
Lauric
Myristic
Unsaturated
Palmitic
Unsaturated
Stearic
Oleic
Linoleic
Linolenic
Unsaturated
Arachidic
Unsaturated
22
Unsaturated
24
Lignoceric
C,H"COOH
C.H"COOH
CllH"COOH
ClIH"COOH
ClIH"COOH
C"HIICOOH
. . . . . . . . . .. . .
C17H ..COOH
C17H .. COOH
C17HIICOOH
C17H"COOH
C,.H"COOH
ton-
seed
oil
Soybean
oil
MenLinWhale
haden
seed
oil
oil
oil
Corn
oil
'oil
Mutton
tallow
-_ -_ -_ - - -_ -_ -_
"'1'
7.9
7.2
48.0
17.5
6.3
9.0
24.7
2.5
19.0
24. i
.... I 47.14
37.2
0.6
0.5
12.0
7.1
2.1
5.7
2.6
30.4
36.0
4.3
/:'
... ... :.
"'1-
1.4
0.4
0.1
5.9
23.4
2.0
1.1
22.9
47.8
10.6
1.0
2.4
23.5
51.2
8.5
8.1
1.2
2.5
30.1
16.3
15.5
0.6
2.4
1.7
1.3
Coconut
. . . I . . . . . . .
1.
.3H.3
i
I 29.6
1.4
19.0
11.7
....
C .. H"COOH
9.2
2.5
15.6
13.9
1.9
4.6
o.lk
'" Data compiled from KIRK ~nd OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 6, pp. 142-14u, and
Chem., 31. 158 (1939), for mutt;'n tallow.
I
GUILL~NPJo.:U. Ind. Eng
distributed in nature, in both the plant and the animal kingdoms. Waxes
likewise are natural products but differ slightly from the fats and oils
in their basic compo~ition. Whereas the fatH and oils are mixtures of
the glyeerides of variJils fatty acids, the waxeH are mixed est\)rs of higher
I
polyhydric alcohols other than glycerol with fatty acids.
Table 1 indicates the. characteristic compositiun of variolls important
oils in regard to their fatty acid content. These acids fall whhin (1) the
595
596
OILS, FATS, WAXES
saturated series as exemplified by stearic acid and are the basis for the
nondrying oils, (2) monoolefinic series with one double bond between carbons as illustrated by oleic acid, and (3) polyolefinic series with more
than one such double bond as exemplified by linoleic and linoleJ?ic acids.
The latter two classes of acids, being unsaturated, furnish the semidrying
and drying oils, according to the amounts of unsaturation present. It is
of interest to note that the chief constituents of the vegetable oils are the
16 and 18 carbon acids, while the 20,22, and 24 carbon acids predominate
in the fish oils. Coconut oil is unique in that it consists of esters of much
shorter carbon chain acids, the 12 and 14 carbon acids being present in
greatest amounts.
The degree of unsaturation of the acids involved affects the melting
point of the ester mixture, the more unsaturated acids giving esters with
lower melting points, these being the chief constituents of the oils. The
more saturated esters, on the other hand, are constituents of the fats.
Thus, we see that the factor determining whether one of these compounds
is termed a fat or an oil is merely its melting point. These oils are called
fixed oils in distinction from the essential or volatile oils described in
Chap. 27. The fixed oils cannot be distilled without some decomposition
under ordinary atmospheric pressure. Differentiation should also be noted
from petroleum oils discussed in Chap. 37.
Historical. Since ancient times man has known how to remove oils
and fats from their natural sources and fit them to his own uses. The
animal fats were first consumed as food, but it was not long before the
burning of the oils for light and heat was learned. The obtaining of oils
from vegetable sources is of ancient origin, for the natives in the tropical
regions of the globe have long been removing these oils from various nuts
after drying them in the. sun. The util(zation of marine oils began with
the whaling industry, which Was started by the Basques in the Bay of
Biscay in the, fifteenth century.
The first chemical reaction applied to fats and oils (excluding oxidation in burning) was that of saponification to give soap, The early raw
I materials were mainly 'of animal origin, the rendering of animal flesh
.
.
being an old art.
Industrialization of oils and fats began with the ereption of a cottonseed mill in South Carolina about 1826. The methoqs were crude and
the product impure. The industry did not expand very rapidly until
after 1865. In 1850, the use of caustic soda to remove free acids from the
oil was introduced from Fra~lCe. About this time, the millers became
aware of the value of the linters that clung to the hulls and also of the
hulls' themselves for cattle feed. By 1887 more scientific methods of
refining had been introduced.
The beginning of the oleomargarine industry in Chicago in 1885 gave
a large impetus to the cottonseed-oil industry, since it was found that
597
HISTORICAl,
the oil could be used as a thinning agent in oleomargarine. The higher

quality demanded by this new market produced several processing improvements. Fuller's earth was used to decolorize t.he oil. In 1893 it was
learned. that the oil could be deodorized by blowing steam through it at
high temperatures. Later it was found that deodorization under reduced
pressure bettered both flavor and odor.
1
EDIBLE
SOAP
MISC.
I-I 00
100 r-
OTHER
9 of-
a GREASE
OILS
COTTONSEED
OIL
OTHER LUBRICANTS
OILS
MARG"RINE
8 of-
SOYBEAN
OIL
70 f-
HEMICAll 1- 90
SOYBEAN-r
01 L
OTHER
LINOLEUM
COCONUT OILCLOTH 1- 80
COTTONSEED
OIL
1- 70
OTHER
60 f-
GREASE
SHORTENING
I
50 I-
OTHER IINEDIBLE
USES 1- 50
i- 40
4 01-
LARD
I
i- 30
3of-
TALLOW
20 r-
PAINT 1- 20
10 I-
r-'ARNISH
BUTTER
i- 10
o'o
ro
20
1-
30
40
50
60
I
,70
FIG. 1. Fats and oils, 1950.
80
90
roo
In 1900 the discovery that oils could be hydrogenated to produce fats

revolutionized the en~ire oil and fat industry and led to our modern
hydrogenated shortenings. This discovery also made marketable many
of the lesser known oils, which up to that time had not been usable. This
phase of the industry ',has advanced rapidly, until (1953) there are 1,674702,000 lb. of .shortening and 3,097,000,000 lb. of hydrogenated oils produced in the United States each year.
1 Margarine is now the accepted term. In the beginning this product contained beef
fat from whence the term oleo WaS derived. Now in the United States it is strictly a
I
vegetable-oil product.
598
OILS, FATS, WAXES
Uses and Economics: The fats and oils have always had an essential
role as food for mankind. In addition, however, our modern industrial
world has found many important applications for them. The uses are
summarized in Fig. 1. The oils are saponified, hydrogenated, and sulfonated to a great number of usable products.
There are two broad classifications for the fats and oils: edible and
inedible. The consumption of fats and oils in edible products represents
TABLE
2.
FACTORY PRODUCTION OF FATS, OILS, AND DERIVATIVES IN
1953"

Animal:
Vegetable:
Lard .................. .
Cottonseed ............. . 1,868,469
Tallow, edible .......... .
58,179
Peanut ................. .
Tallow, inedible ........ .
COrn ................... .
259,181
SOybean ................ . 2,515,497
GrellSe, other than wool ..
Wool grease ............ .
Olive .................. .
6,596
COconut ................ .
Neat's-foot oil. ......... .
422,277
Linseed ................ .
503,108 Fish:
Tung .................. .
Cod and cod-liver ....... .
43,153
Other liver oil. ......... .
Castor ................. .
69,190
Other vegetable ......... .
Menhaden ............. .
27,2P
, S;:;-rdine and herring ..... .
Other fish oil. ........ : ..
Derivatives :b
Winterized oil ........... .
609,813 Tallow oil. ............... .
Deodorized oil. ......... .
279,706 Hydrogenated oils and fats:
Stearin, vegetable oil .... .
Edible ..................
120,612
Stearin, animal .......... .
54,092 Shortening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
55,565 Margarine ................
Oleo, oil. .............. ','
Grease and lard oil, i .' . . " .
60,476
2,123,000
174,616
1,690,973
598,330
9,041
2,158
1,095
302
125,154
4,629
8,120
9,315
3,097,000
1 ,674,702
1,291,803
G "Chemical Statistics Handbook," Manufacturing Chemists' Association, Washington, 1955.

b Naturally, only a partial listing.
about 67 per cent of all uses of these materials. The various edible oils,
cottonseed, olive, soybea.n, corn, etc., are employed for salad dressings,
other table uses, and for cooking purposes. The hydrogenated fats for
/ cooking and baking, such as Crisco and Spry, ~ay include a wide variety
of vegetable oils, such as cottonseed, peanut, and soybean, since the hydrogenating process removes the color, flavor, and odor of the original
source. The various fish-liver oils are used in the medicinal field for their
vitamin content and in the paint industry as drying oils. Castor oil is a
well-known cathartic.
In 1950 about 33 per cent of all oils and fats consumed in the United
States wer for inedible purposes, as shown by Fig. 1. Around 50 per cent
of these inedible oils were used in the soap industry. These include tallow,
coconut oil, palm oil, and certain greases. Others were slightly hydrogenated to make them suitable for soapmaking.
VEGETABLE OILS
599
The drying-oil industries (including paints and varnishes) consume 12

per cent of all inedible oils. The major oil is still linseed, with tung, soybean, and castor in smaller demand. These drying oils are essentially
unsaturated and produce films or coatings upon drying. They are also
employed with synthetic resins and cellulose derivatives to give special
types of films. Castor oil, linseed, soybean, rapeseed, and cottonseed oils
are being used to some extent as plastieizers for nitro-cellulose lacquers.
Other miscellaneous uses include the oilcloth and linoleum, .industry,
the chemical industry for the manufacture of fat and oil derivatives, the
manufacture of lubricants and greases, the printing industry, and the
tin-plate industry. A wide variety of oils form an integral part of various
polishes, creams, and emulsions. Large quantities of sulfonated glycerides
and sulfated fatty alcohols and derivatives serve as wetting agents and
detergents. Table 2 details the statistics of the principal fats and oils
together with some of their important derivatives. It shol.lld be compared with Fig. 1.
The waxes,l carnauba, beeswax, and sperm wax, enter into the manufacture of various polishes for floors, shoes, automobiles, and furniture.
Other outlets, include the making of carbon paper, candles, electrical insulation, waterproof textiles, and phonograph records.
VEGETABLE OILS
For purposes of discussion of the various technica_} aspects, the three

classical divisions of the general subject of oils, fats, and waxes will be
retained: vegetable oils, animal oils and fats, and waxes. Under each
TAlILE 3. ApPROXIMATE OIL YIELDS
OF
CERTAIN VEGETABLE OIL MATERIALS"
Raw material
Percent
Raw material
Per cent
Babassu kernels ............. .

Castor beans ........... , ... " .
Corn kernels ........... : .... .
COpra ....... "': ......... : .... .
Cottonseed ............. 1.... .
Flaxseed ............... : .... .
Hempseed ............. ) .... .
Kapok seed ............ i .... .
63
45
4.5
63
15.5
34
Palm kernels ................ .

Peanuts in the shell .......... .
Peanuts shelled ............. .
Perilla seed ................. .
Rapeseed ................... .
Sesame seed ... -:: ........... .
Soybeans ................... .
Tung nuts .................. .
45
30-35
45--50
37
35
47
18
50-55
24
18
Mostly taken from U.S. Tariff Commission, "Fats, Oils, and Oil-bearing Materials in the U.S.," Washington, Dec. 15, 1941.
of these headings the''general methods of manufacture will be discussed,

after which the mos~ important of the individual members will be presented. Table 3 indicates the yields of vegetable oils from some of the
1
MARSEL, Waxes, Chem. Inci8., 67,563 (1950).
600
OILS, FATS, WAXES
usual sources. The two general methods employed in obtaining vegetable

fats and oils are expression and solvent extraction.
Manufacturing Cottonseed Oil I by the Expression Process. The obtaining of crude vegetable and animal oils involves almost altogether only
the physical changes or unit operations, but the chemical changes or unit
processes are concerned in the refining and the hydrogenation of such
oils. Figure 2 presents flow sheets for crude, refined, and hydrogenated
""fined and Deodorized Oil 'Nickt,llorygrn L;.. stt-r...tty~

,remcnorrww~
D-"' _~ _.~ ___ ~
}
SS lb.
oil
~ ~.
0.1 lb.
n
0.75 ... it AIr
Water (coolingJ 20 gal.
gallon 011
....;"')
Q6 "; '
steom
15 lb.
Steoom
0$ lb.
oi
OJract lobor ODtS moon hr.
01_ labor
().()OOII ...on hr.
iI'/:;".::.I' ..." ._-
Cottonseed
NoOH
~,
}1'eT
f,r., Pl"'ocrUOl" "'fI!'I

':J::X;!izC;:tf:,t:;: ~C;;r~:~~;~" whil, sond will."fiM 111M hyd,."." if. Oi" hytJIrtlt/f1'lllled food ....
Not.: This flow ,hIlt combints proc"SlS nof ordingrily Hrforl'l1Ul In 1M . ." . pllJlni. TIN
(JI
fDr
FIG. 2. Flow 8heet for cottonseed oil, refined and hydrogenated. Hydraulic preBBiDg
(Fig. 3) now more used than expeller.
cottonseed oils. The flow sheet for crude oil can be broken down into the
following sequences of unit operationa (Op.) (hydrogenation will be considered under its own special heading) :
The cottonseeds are cleaned, delinted, and dehulled (Op.).
The kernels are rolled into thin flakes (about 0.010 in.) to make them easily
permeable to the steam in the cooking operation (Op.).
All flaked meats are now cooked before expression to precipitate the phosphatides, to detoxify the gossypol, to reduce the moisture content of the Oakes,
and to coagulate the proteins. For hydraulic pressing, "stack" cookers are the
most common and the moisture content is reduced from 12 to 5 per cent. For
expellers, the cooker is usually integrated with the press (Op. and Pr.).
Hydraulic pressing (see Fig. 3) has become the moat common method of
cottonseed-oil recovery, with expeller or screw presses (see Fip. 2 and 4) &CCOWlting for a smaller portion of the expression process (Op.). Since the late 1940'8,
solvent extraction is now practiced in many cottonseed plants, IIlO8tly with, but
1 BAILEY,
"Cottonseed and Cottonseed Products," IntencieDce PubIiabenI, IDe.,
New York, 1948.
MANUFACTURING COTTONSF.F.O OIL BY THF. EXPRESSIO N P ROCESS
601
sometimes without, a preliminary expression. The~ plant.~ are essentially the

same as those used for soybean extraction (Fig. 5).
The cooked meal is formed into cakes and placed in the hyrlraulic press (Fig. 3).
The pressure is applied gradually to an ultimate of 1,700 to 2,000 lb. per sq. in.
After the oil begins to flow , the press is drained for 20 to 45 min ., the cakes are
discharged and the cycle repeated. The oil-rich edges of thll cakes are t rimmerl off
and reprocessed. One press will handle about 7 tons of cooked meats (equivalent
to 12.5 tons of whole seed) per day (Op.). A continuous expeller or screw press
FIG. 3. Hydraulic press removing oil from cottonseed. (Courte8y of National Cottonseed
Produd8 Association.)
(Figs. 2 and 4) consists of powerful, motor-driven worms operating inside perforated barrels. They exert a pressure of 10 to 12 tons per sq. in., discharging the
oil through the barrel spacings and the spent cake through a cone-shaped orifice
at the end of the final barrel (Op.) . Although the resulting cake contains only
4.0 to 4.5 per cent oil, the equipment and its upkeep are greater and power consumption is high. l
The yields from 1 ton of crude cottonseeds average: oil, 310 t o 320 lb.;
cake, 900 lb.; hulls, 500 lb. ; linters, 160 to 200 lb. ; loss (chiefly moisture),
100 lb. Virtually the entire cottonseed-oil production is used by edible-oil
1 KIRK
and
OTHMER,
op. cit., Vol. 4, pp. 579--588.
602
on,s,
FATS, WA XES
processors for shortenings, margarin e, and salad or cooking oils. The cake
is broken or ground and used for cattle feed. The hulls prm'ide roughage
for livestock feeding. The linters, with an a-cellulose of 70 to 85 per cent,
are utilized as a cellulose source of high purity for rayon, plastics, lacquers, etc.
FIG. 4. Expeller pressing oil out of cottonseed . (Courtesy of National CoUonseed Products
Association.)
Manufacture by Solvent Extraction. Solvent extraction can recover up

to 98 per cent of oil compared wit h about 80 and 88 per cent from hydraulic and screw expression. The soybean, whose physical structure is
particularly suited to solvent extraction, has been responsible for this
development. But solvent extraction is assuming importance in viltually
all vegetable-oil recovery alone or in combination with a prepressing.
High-oil-content seeds, such as cottonseed, usually utilize both expression
and extraction in their recovery systems for higher yields.'
I n 1951-1952 solvent extraction accounted for 70 per cent of the oil
recovery from soybeans, while practically all the rest was obtained from
screw presses. Because of the efficiency of oil yields (hydraulic press, 8.67
1 MOORE, More Oil from Cottonseed, Chent. E ng. , 157 (6), 106 (1950); TRAY and
BILBE, Solvent Extraction of Vegetahll' Oils, Chem. Eng., 54 (5), l3g (1947), with a
pictured fl ow sheet.
MANUFACTUlU!: llY SOLVENT EXTRACTION
603
lb. per bu.; screw presses, 9.16 lb. per bu. ; solvent extraction, 10.94 lb. pel'
bu.) virtually all new soybean installations today are solvent extractors. 1
The preliminary operations of cleaning, hulling, and milling are the
_ me as for expression (Figs. 2 and 5), but the heat-treatment is milder
and varies widely with the extraction method. The basic princip les of
80lvent extraction have been well outlined by Cofield and Perry.2 Although milling releases some of the oil which is immediately dissolved in
the solvent, the greater portion of oil is removed by diffmion of the solvent
through the cell walls until equilibrium is reached. By replacing the
equilibrium solution with solvent of lesser oil content, the diffusion process is again resumed. Economic limit to this procedure is about 0.5 pel'
cent oil remaining in the seed mass. The rate of diffusion is di rectly proportional to the surface area of the seed particle and inversely proportional to its thickness with free circulation of the solvent.
Batch extraction is widely practiced in Europe, but continuous-extraction methods based on countercurrent solventftoto are the preferred methods
here. Many kinds of continuous extractors are used. The original German
Bollman' extractor (see Fig. 5) with its American modifications, is a conventional basket-type extractor and accomplishes 80 per cent of soybean
solvent extraction. Other large-scale extractors are the Hildebrandt, AllisChalmers, Anderson, Kennedy, Sherwin Williams, Rotocel,4 and Bonnoto.
The usual solvents are a light petroleum fraction, consisting chiefly of
n-hexane. Several small extractors employ nonflammable but somewhat
toxic trichloroethylene.
After extraction, the meal is steamed to remove all solvent. If to be
sold for cattle feed, the meal is toasted to increase its nutritive value. The
solvent is stripped from the oil-solvent known as the miscella, as shown
in Fig. 5.'
Purification. Crude oils, obtained by either of the processes outlined
above, should be purified. The recently developed liquid-liqu id extraction
processes for refining of vegetable and animal fats and oils is super:sedillg
the once widely used alkali purification. In the alkali method, the free
1 ANON., Oilseed Solutions, Ind. Eng. Chem., a (2), 15A (1951 ); ANON ., Sans
Prea8ea, Chem. lnda. Week, 88 (14), 15 (1951); KENYON, et aI., Solvent E xtraetion of
Oil from Soybeans, Chem. Inda., eo, 186 (1948); CoFIELD, Solvent Extraction of
Oilseed, Chem. Eng., 58 (1), 127 (1951).
t COFIELD, op. cit.; PERRY, op. cit., pp. 713.11.
I KENYON, op. cit.; COFIICLD, op. cit., for drawings, pictures, and brief dellCriptions
of most of the important extractors; cf. M ARKLEY and GOl!8, "Soybean Chemistry
and Technology," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1944.
4 KABNOP8ItY, The Rotoeel Extractor, Chem. Eng., 17 (8), lOS (1950) ; MCCUBBJ.:K
and RITZ, New Glidden Soybean Plant }o'irst to UIIC the Rotocel Extractor, Chem.
/nda., 88, 354 (1950).
Cr. CBOCltlN, Water Injection Streamlines Mil!CeIla Clal!llificatioll, Chefll. Eng.,
17 (11), 100 (1950).
604
PURIFICATION
605
fatty acids are neutralized with caustic soda or soda-ash-forming soaps,

commonly called foots (see Fig. 2), which are removed by centrifuges or
filters and the fatty acids recovered. The oils are bleached with adsorbent
clay either batchwise or in a continuous! process. For salad oils, the
bleached oil is SUbjected to a winterizing treatment before deodorization,
which consists of cooling the oil to low temperatures and filtering the
solid stearin that crystallizes out. For shortening, the bleached oil is
hydrogenated and bleached again before deodorization. Deodorization in
both cases may be either batchwise or continuous 2 and is accomplished
by blowing superheated steam through the oil (with the hydrogenated oil
still hot and in the liquid stage) under a high vacuum of about 28 in. Hg.
The liquid-liquid extraction systems have many advantages over the
alkali purification as they involve no chemical reactions for the removal
of color bodies, odorous constituents, etc., to provide upgraded and new
products. The Solexol continuous-extraction process 3 employs propane
under pressure and at low temperatures, when the propane mixes in all
proportions with the glyceride oils. By raising the temperature this ability
to mix is reduced and the heavier oils precipitate out. Thus, a selective
extraction of as much material as is desired can be achieved by selectively
raising ij).e temperature (critical temperature of propane is 206F.) and
bringingf1he oil-propane mixture to the desired equilibrium. For example,
100 lb. of crude soybean oil may be extracted yielding 98.5 lb. refined oil
and 1.5 lb. pigment lecithin. A great advantage is that, after preliminary
refining, the 'oil may be further extracted yielding an edible glyceride portion and the industrial highly unsaturated glyceride portion. Further
extraction of the 98.5 lb. refined soybean oil yields 67.5 lb. edible oil,
30.0 lb. paint oil (see Chap. 24), and 1.0 lb. sterol concentrate The latter
contains tocopherols and sterols useful for synthesis of hormones and
other pharmaceuticals. Marine oils provide vitamin A and D sources.
Ariother liquid-liquid process, developed by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass
Company, utilizes furfural as the selective solvent. 4
Linseed Oil. The flaxseed produced in this country is grown largely in
the Midwest, south Texas, and the Far West. The production and refining
are carried out similarly to the process for cottonseed oil depicted in
Fig. 2, either hydraulic presses or Anderson, expellers being employed.
The average oil content of the flaxseed is a,Qout 40 per cent, which would
indicate a yield by expression of about 34 per cent on the weight of the
HIGHTOWER, Better Way to Bleach Vegetable Oils, Chem. Eng., 66 (9), 102 (1949).
See ANON., Deodorizing Edible Oils, Chem. Eng., 63 (9), 134 (1946), for pictured
flow sheets of both processes; SHEARON, et al., Edible Oils, Ind. Eng; Chem., 42,
1266 (1950), including fl~w sheets.
VON BERG and WIi;lGANDT, Liquid-liquid Extraction, Chem. Eng., 69 (6), 189
(1952); private communication.
GLOYER, Furans in Vegetable Oil Refining, Ind. Eng. Chern., 40, 228 (1948);
Goss, Processing Edible Fats, Ind. Eng. Chem., 40, 2247 (1948).
1
606
OILS, FATS, WAXES
seeds, leaving about 6 per cent oil in the press cake. Newer and improved
installations combine screw pressing with solvent extraction, reducing the
residual oil in the cake to about 0.75 per cent.
Soybean Oil. Soybeans are the principal oil source in this country and
are grown largely in the corn belt region. An average yield from 1 ton
of soybeans is about 360 lb. of oil and 1,640 lb. of cake.
Coconut Oil. The raw material for the production of coconut oiP is all
imported from various tropical countries, a large part coming from the
Philippines. The raw material is brought in as copra, which is coconut
kernel that has been shelled, cut up, and heat-dried at the point where
grown. This treatment not only avoids the cost of shipping excess moisture
but also prevents deterioration of the oil. The coconuts, as they come from
the tree, contain from 30 to 40 per cent oil, while the copra contains from
65 to 70 per cent oil. The copra is expressed in expellers or screw presses.
A ton of copra yields about 1,250 lb. of oil and 720 lb. of cake. The oil is
refined and contains from 1 to 12 per cent free fatty acid depending on
the quality of the copra meats. Only oil of low free fatty acid content is
employed for edible purposes, while the rest (about 75 per, cent of the
total receipts) is used for the production of soap and alcohols.
Corn Oil. The production of corn oil differs from some of the others in
certain respects. After cleaning, the corn is placed in large tanks and
steeped with warm water containing S02, thus loosening the hull from
the kernel. The steeped corn is run through the" attrition" mills, which
break the germ away from the rest of the kernel. The separation of the
germ and the kernel is accomplished by running the mixture into a tank
of water, where the germ floats, owing to its oil content, and is skimmed
off. Before !!,Qing into the ordinary grinding and,expelling apparatus, the
germ should be washed and thorou'ghly dried. The crude oil from the
expellers (see Fig. 4) is given the usual purification treatment, such as
that described under Cottonseed Oil. The oil content of the corn kernel,
;exclusive of the hull, is about 4.5 per cent. This oil is used almost exclusively as a salad oil.
Palm Oil. Palm oil is prepared from the fruit of the palm tree, which
has been cultivated on plantations in the Dutch East Indies, the Malay
Peninsula, and elsewhere. The palms grow naturally on the west coast of
Africa. The fruit is 1 to 2 in. long, oval-shaped, and weighs, on an average,
about 6 to 8 grams. The oil content ranges from 40 to 50 per cent of tlie
kernel or seed. The oil is obtained in two separate procedures. In the
first, the oil is removed from the fruit and in the second from the kernels,
or seeds. The former is done at the place where the fruit is grown. The
proredure ronsists in cooking the fruit in large steam-pressure digesters
equipped with agitators. From the steaming, the charge goes to basket
I ANO-'l., Copra Refining, Chem. ,(: Mel. Eng., 52 (2), 148 (1944), with a pictured
flow sheet.
ANIMAL FATS AND OILS
607
centrifuges, where a lO-mirr. treatment, accompanied by blowing with live

steam, separates the oil. The residual fiber and kernels are dried in a
rotary continuous drier and separated by a screening operation. The nuts
or kernels are bagged and shipped to the United States, where they are
processed by the previously described methods for oil removal. The fibers
are burned under the boilers of the first processing plant. Most of this oil
in the United States goes into soap manufacture.
Peanut Oil. Peanut oil is produced by either the hydraulic press or the
Anderson expeller, from the peanuts grown in the various Southern states.
The yield from 1 ton of peanuts is about 600 lb. of oil and 700 lb. of cake.
The oil is hydrogenated and refined for use in the manufacture of margarine, salad and cooking oils, and in some vegetable shortenings. Inedible
grades of the oil are consumed by the soapmaker.
Tung Oil. Tung or China wood oil is obtained from the fruit of the
tung tree which grows extensively in China. Since 1923 large-scale planting has been carried out in Florida and has become one of the prime
industries of that state. Owing to the large demand for fast-drying finishes
and the difficulties in obtaining this oil from China, various modifications
of other oils (see Chap. 24) for drying purposes are employed. As of now,
this oil is superior but unavailable. The oil is obtained by expression and
the cake, unfit for stock feeding, is used as fertilizer because of its high
nitrogen and phosphorus content.
Castor Oil. This well-known oil is obtained from the seeds or beans of
the castor plant found in most tropical regions. The beans contain 35 to
55 per cent oil and are expressed or solvent-extracted.! The finest grade
of oil is reserved for medicinal purposes. The lower grades are used in the
manufacture of transparent soaps, flypaper, typewriter inks, and as a
motor lubricant. Large quantities of the oil are sulfonated to produce the
familiar Turkey-red oil long employed in dyeing cotton fabrics, particularly with alizarin. Dehydrated castor oil, a very important drying oil,
is described in Chap~I 24. This manufactured product compares quite
favorably with tung oil previously imported.
ANIMAL FATS AND OILS
There is no particular method common to the manufacture of all animal

oils and fats.
I,
Lard and Lard Oil; Lard is produced by the rendering of hog fat and
is used for food. Laid .oil is the most important of th,e animal oils and
is expressed from "white grease," an inedible lard. The white grease is
prepared by a circulating rendering process such as that of Wurster and
1 Editorial Staff Report, Now Castor Oil by Solvent Extraction, Chern. lrulll., 64,
926 (1949). '
608
OILS, FATS, WAXES
Sanger,l wherein the ground fat is rendered or sharply separated into

the lard or pure fat, and the nonfat or cracklings. This circulating process involves a low-temperature heating under circulation and a vacuum
wherein the lard is removed as a liquid fat more quickly than usually,
thus avoiding its yellowing. The white grease is seeded with stearin and
held at 50F. to allow the steari I1 to crystallize out (graining). After the
graining process is completed, the grease is wrapped in duck, stacked in a
hydraulic press, and expressed. The oil is used for illumination and in the
textile industry. The stearin is employed for the manufacture of soap.2
Neat's-foot Oil. The skin, bones, and feet of cattle (exclusive of the
hoofs) are cooked in water for 10 hr. to separate the fat. This is skimmed
off the top of the water and, after filtering through cloth, heated in a
kettle to 250F. for several hours. The kettle is cooled, the contents are
settled, the oil is drawn off, filtered through flannel bags, and sent to
the refinery. Here the oil is "grained" in the manner described above
for lard oil. This requires about two weeks at 34F. The product is pressed
once, yielding pure neat's-foot oil. The stearin from the first pressing is
re-pressed to yield a second grade of oil. The pure variety is used for oiling
watches and other fine machinery, the latter in the textile and leather
industries. The stearin from the second pressing is consumed in soap.
Whale Oil. This oil is now obtained from modern floating factory ships
which catch, butcher, and process the mammals at the scene of the catch.
To prepare the oil, the blubber is stripped from the flesh and boiled in
open digesters. The finest grade of oil separates first. It is practically
odorless, very pale in color, and contains very little free fatty acids. Upon
continued boiling a second grade is obtained and, if the residue from
this operation is cooked under pressure, a third grade is made available.
All grades are centrifuged further to clarify and dry them before being
placed in storage. The oils obtained are used in Ithe manufacture of lard
substitutes and in soap making. 3 Both fish and whale oils contain unsaturated fatty acids of 14 to 22 carbon atoms, and as many as 6 double bonds.
Cod-liver Oil. This oil, whose value was known long before. the discovery
M vitamins, was originally prepared by storing: the fish in barrels and
allowing them to rot until the oil floated to the top. It is. now manufactured by live steam cooking of the livers (and other parts) of the cod and
halibut, until a white scum floats to the top. This usually requires about
30 min., after which the mass is settled for 5 min., decanted, and strained.
The oil desired for medicinal purposes is filtered, bleached, and wintere~.
It is rich in vitamins A and D.
Shark-liverDil. Recent investigations have shown that the oil obtained
from the liver of the shark, Galeorhinus zyopterus, contains more vitamins
Circulars, Wurster & Sanger, Inc., Chicago, III.
Industrial Uses of Animal Oils, Chem. Inds., 42, 419 (1938).
3 RADCLIFFE, The Whaling Industry, Ind. Eng. Chern., 26, 764 (1933).
1
LEVITr,
WAXES
609
A and D than cod- or halibut-liver oils. It is rapidly becoming the most

important of the fish-liver oils for use in supplying these two vitamins,
although the others are used. l However, in 1950 vitamin A was commercially synthesized 2 and this process is making a sizable dent in the market
formerly held by fish-liver oils. This 12-step synthesis process is based on
citral, formaldehyde, and acetic acid as raw materials.
Fish Oils. Fresh menhaden, sardine, and salmon are cooked whole by
steam for a short period and pressed. The oil is settled (or centrifuged)
and wintered. The remainder of the fish is dried, pulverized, and sold as
meal for feed. Each fish contains, on the average, 20 per cent oil by
weight. 3 The oils are consumed in paints, as lubricants, in leather
and soft-soap manufacture, and sulfonated to give a variety of Turkey:
red oil.
The tremendous quantities (Fig. 1) of butter and tallow produced for
food in the United States might logically warrant discussing with the
other animal oils. Their methods of processing, however, are fairly well
known.
There are animal, vegetable, mineral, and synthetic waxes, depending

upon their source. The animal waxes are secreted as protective coatings
by certain insects. The vegetable waxes are found as coatings on leaves,
stems, flowers, and seeds. The mineral waxes are tl}e paraffin waxes obtained from petroleum and such waxes as are yielded by coal, peat, and
lignite. The mineral waxes from petroleum are not true waxes (esters)
but are so classified because of their physical characteristics.
Beeswax. This is probably the best-known wax. It is made from the
honeycomb by solvent extraction, expression, or by boiling in water.
Carnauba Wax. This wax is obtained from the carnauba palm which
grows in Brazil. The leaves are cut, dried for 3 days, and sent to the
beater house. The drying loosens the wax which can be easily beaten
from the slashed leaf and falls to the floor, where it is gathered at the end
of the day and melted. Five gallons of powdered wax yield .less than 1 qt.
of molten wax. This iS,filtered hot through cheesecloth, allowed to harden,
and sold. Five palm t,rees will produce about 1 lb. of wax per year. The
product is used as a constituent of floor, automobile, and furniture polishes, in carbon papet, candles, and certain molded products.
Sperm Oil. The oil, removed from the head cavity and parts of the
I
GRANBERG, Automatic Handling Marks Vitamin Oil Extraction, Chem. Inds.,

65, 41 (1949).
S O'CONNOR, Synthetic; Vitamin A, Chem. Eng" 67 (4), 146 (1950).
S ANON., Menhaden's Fame, Chem. Inds. Week, 68 (4), 13 (1951).
4 WARTH, "The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1947.
1
610
OILS, FATS, WAXES
blubber of the sperm whale is in reality a wax, owing to its chemical

composition. Sperm oil is important for lubricating. The head oil upon
chilling and setting yields spermaceti, a solid wax. This constitutes about
11 per cent of the original oil and is largely cetyl palmitate. It is melted,
treated wit.h hot, dilute caustic soda solut.ion, washed with water, and
run int.o molds to solidify. It is translucent, odorless, and tasteless and
is used chiefly as a base for ointments.
Ozocerite is the name given to certain naturally occurring mineral
waxes. The ozocerite known commercially is the particular earth wax
that is mined in eastern Europe, but important similar waxes are mined
elsewhere. One variety, mined in Utah, is known as Utahwax or Utah
ozocerite. This can be substituted to a great extent for the other and is
chiefly employed for electrical insulations, waterproofing and impregnating. Paraffin wax is concentrated in certain lubricating-oil fractions as the
result of distillation and is separated by chilling and filter pressing (see
Chap. 37). The name montan wax generally applies to the wax obtained
from a bituminous wax, solvent extracted from bituminous lignite or shale,
but a similar wax may be obtained from peat or brown coal. Its important
applications include electrical insulations, polishes, and pastes. Synthetic
waxes, developed especially by the Germans, offer some of the same
physical properties, but are not waxylike in appearance. Many types are
now on the market. 1
HYDROGENATION
Hydrogenation,2 or hardening as applied to fats and oils, might be

defined as the conversion of various unsaturated radicals of fatty glycerides into more highly or completely saturated glycerides by the addition
of hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. This constitutes one of the
chief commercial examples of the unit process of hydrogenation. 3 Various fats and oils, such as soybean, cottonseed, fish, whale, and peanut,
afe converted by partial hydrogenation into fats of a more suitable composition for shortenings, margarine, and edible purposes, as well as for
soap making and numerous other industrial uses.' The object of the hydrogenation is not only to raise the melting point but greatly to improve
the keeping qualities, taste, and odor of many oils.
The application of the unit process of hydrogenation to oils has bee..n more
important and far-reaching than any other improvement in this industry.
1 MARSEL, Waxes, Chem. 1nd8., 67, 563 (1950); an excellent table on synthetic and
blended natural waxes is included.
WURSTER, Hydrogenation of Fats, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 1193 (1940); ARMSTRONG,
Fat Hydrogenation, Chemistry & Industry, 61, 92 (1932).
3 GROGGINS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., p. 488, but pp. 513530 particularly, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
MANUFACTURE OF HYDROGENATED OILS
611
Reaction and Energy Changes. As the reaction itself is exothermic, the

chief energy requirements are in the production of hydrogen, warming of
the oil, pumping, and filtering. The reaction may be generalized:
(C 17H31COO)sCsH5
Linolein
Ni
+ 3H 2 -+ (017HssOOO)aOsH6
Olein
Manufacture of Hydrogenated Oils. The hydrogenation plant consists

of hydrogen-generating equipment, catalyst equipment, equipment for.
refining the oil prior to hydrogenation, a converter for the actual hydrogenation, and equipment for posthydrogenation treatment of 'the fat.
These are all included in the lower part of the flow sheet of Fig. 2. One
type of converter is pictured in Fig. 6.
The hydrogen needed may be manufactured by a number of methods, I
i.e., electrolytic, steam-iron, water-gas, and hydrocarbon-steam processes,
depending upon local cost and purity. Since traces of gaseous sulfur compounds (H 2S, S02, etc.) are strong catalyst poisons, as is also, to a lesser
degree, carllon monoxide, it is essential that the hydrogen be completely
free of these poisons as well as taste-producing substances. The amount
of hydrogen necessary is a function of the reduction of unsaturation, as
measured by the decrease in the iodine number during hydrogenation.
The theoretical quantity to reduce the iodine number 1 unit is about 30
cu. ft. (s.t.p.) of H2 per ton of oil. Weighted averages at one plant2 show
a consumption of 0.604 cu. ft. of H2 per pound of oil hydrogenated.
The catalyst used commercially is nickel. It may be manufactured by a
number of processes. Nickel made by the liquid or wet-reduced process is
the most used. s Two to four parts of a highly saturateg oil or the oil to
be hydrogenated and 1 part of nickel formate are introduced into a specially designed closed vessel equipped for accurate temperature control.
The charge is heated as quickly as possible to as high as 464F., but
375F. is a more common temperature. At about 300F. the nickel formate
begins to reduce
Ni(HCOOh2H 20
-+
Ni
+ 2002 + H2 + 2H 20
The charge is held at the maximum temperature upward of 1 hr., then

cooled. During the redliction and cooling period, hydrogen is bubbled
through the oil solely to sweep decomposition products from the oil.
Upon completion of the reduction, the charge maybe pumped directly
to the converter or for~ed' into blocks, flakes, or granules for later Use.
The dry-reduced cat~lysts are prepared by precipitating nickel carbonate or nickel hydroxide on diatomaceous earth, drying and grinding
See Chap. 8 for details!on these various processes.
et al., op. cit~
,
3 See Hydrogenation and Hydrogenolysis Reviews annually in September issue,
End. Eng. Chern.; Symposium, Nickel Catalysts, End. Eng. Chem., 44; 977 (1952).
I
2 SHEARON,
612
OILS, FATS, WAXES
the precipitate, and reducing the resultant powder at a high temperature

with a current of hydrogen. A relatively new type of dry catalyst is
prepared by adsorbing nickel hydroxide formed by anodic corrosion of
nickel on kieselguhr, and reducing. Raney's nickel or sponge nickel is
employed not only for hydrogenation of fats but for various other hydrogenation processes. In its manufacture, the nickel is first alloyed with
aluminum in a proportion of about 1 to 1 by weight. The alloy is cooled
Heoflng
ondcoollng
coil
FIG. 6. Hydrogenator with internal heating and cooling coil,' oil and catalyst circulating
pump, and turhine-type mechanical agitator. (Courtesy of O. H. Wurster.)
and marketed in the form of a powder. For use, this powder is treated
with an excess of strong NaOH. After the iiliti!tl exothermic reaction
the products are heated to 250F. for 2 or 3 'hr. The resulting sludge,
almost entirely metallic nickel, is subjected to repeated washings to remove all traces of sodium aluminate and alkali. The residual sludge is
covered with oil to supply a protective coating and heated. The finished
catalyst is in the form of relatively large particles as compared with the
wet-reduced nickel, thus filtering out more easily.
Hydrogenation of the Oil. Although many continuous processes for oil
hydrogenation have been patented none is 'known to be in operation in
this country. The present commercial hydrogenators range in capacity
from 5 'to 20 tons of oil per batch, are usually made from carbon steel,
HYDROGENATION OF THE OIL
613
and can withstand pressures from 100 lb. per sq. in. gage to full vacuum.
They may be divided into two types. The hydrogen-recirculation type (see
Fig. 2) is a tall cylindrical vessel, often without mechanical agitation,
provided with a hydrogen distributor in the bottom through which the
hydrogen in excess of the amount required is blown during the reaction.
The unabsorbed hydrogen at the top is recirculated from the headspace
by means of a blower. The dead-end system (see Fig. 6) employs a vertical,
cylindrical pressure vessel with a mechanical agitator of the gas-dispersion
type. It is supplied with only
enough hydrogen from high-pressure tanks to be absprbed by the
oil.
The usual range of temperatures
is about 250 to 375F., but all the
variables will depend upon the type
of product desired. Margarine and
shortening stocks are generally
hydrogenated 1 to 2 hr. Since
margarine must resemble butter,
i.e., a firm but low-melting prod0""1---4-_-' Oelay for
laboratory
uct, it is hydrogenated very selecanalysis
tively at relatively low pressures FIG. 7. Typical hydrogenation operating
and high temperatures. Shorten- chart. [Courtesy of Industrial and Enings, however, are hydrogenated gineering Chemistry. Ind. Eng. Chern.,
42, 1266 (1950).] /
'
mainly to olein but with moderate
selectivity at lower temperatures and higher pressures to obtain the
proper high- and low-temperature consistency coupled with maximum
stability and the minimum iodine value. A melting-point range of 95 to
97F. and iodine number of 65 is common.
Although the procedure varies from one plant to another, a typical
hydrogenation will be described. l The oil is first charged to the converter
and heated sometimes under vacuum to drive off any air or moisture
present. Then the catalyst is pumped in and thoroughly mixed with the
oil. Catalyst concentrations are held fairly constant and range from 72
to 172 lb. of nickel per'100 lb. of oil. The hydrogen. is introduced and;
since the reaction is exothermic, the steam is now turned off. See Fig. 1.
for a typical hydrogenation curve. When the desired degree .of hardness
is attained, the oil is c60led and filtered. The press cake is the catalyst,
which is used over and over, either alone or with the addition of small
quantities of fresh catalyst from time to time, until no longer active.
For shortenings and niargarine the finished oil is again bleached and
deodorized.
'
1 SHEARON,
et al., op. cit.
614
OILS, FATS, WAXES
SELECTED REFERENCES
Hilditch, T. P., "The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats," 2d ed., John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1947.
Bailey, A. E., "Oil and Fat Products," 2d ed., Interscience Publishers, Inc., New
York, 1951.
- - - , "Cottonseed and Cottonseed Products," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New
York, 1948.
- - - , "Melting and Solidification of Fats," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New
York,1950.
Markley, K. S., "Soybean and Soybean Products," 2 vols., Interscience Publishers,
- - - , "Fatty Acids," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1947.
Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, a monthly publication. Printed by
Garrard Press, Champaign, Ill. For Edible Fats, see ibid., XXVI (10), 547-u35
(1949) and for Drying Oils, ibid., XXVI (11), 433-544 (1950).
Daubert, B. F., "Fat3-0ils-Detergents," A loose-leaf abstract service, monthly by
Iriterscience Publishers, Inc., New York, since 1944.
Treybal, R. E., "Liquid Extraction," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1951.
Levitt, Benjamin, "Oil, Fat, and Soap," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New
York,1951.
Schwitzer, K. M., "Continuous Processing of Fats," Leonard Hill, Ltd., lpndon, 1951.
Warth, A. H., "The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes," Reinhold Publishing
Root, H. H., "Beeswax," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
Eckey, E. W., and L. P. Miller, "Vegetable Fats and Oils," Reinhold Publishing
CHAPTER
29
SOAP, DETERGENTS, AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
Soap comprises the sodium or potassium salts of various fatty acids,

but chiefly of oleic, stearic, palmitic, lauric, and myristic acids. For generations its use has increased until its manufacture has become an industry essential to the comfort and health of civilized man. We may well
gage the advance of modern civilization by the per capita consumption
of soap. Although soap may be classified as a detergent, a synthetic detergent in present-day usage connotes synthetic surface-active agents deriv~d from a wide variety of materials, particularly petroleum. The
spectacular growth of these compounds may be illustrated by stating
that for 1953 detergents exceeded soaps for the first time, the estimate
being 20+ lb. detergents per capita vs. 20- lb. for soaps, or a production
of 2,134,000,000 lb. for detergents and 1,948,000,000 lb. for soap. Contrast these figures with the 1935-1940 average of 10,000,000 lb. of detergents and 3,044,000,000 lb. of soap.
Historical. Soap itself was never actually" discovered," but instead
gradually evolved from crude mixtures of alkaline and fatty materials.
Pliny the elder described the manufacture of both hard and soft soap in
the first cent~ry. Although a fully equipped soap factory was found in the
ruins of Pompeii, it was not until the thirteenth century that soap was
produced in sufficient quantities to call it an industry. Up to the early
1800's soap was believed to be a mechanical mixture of fat and alkali;
then Chevreul, a French chemist, showed that soap formation was actually a chemical reaction. Domeier completed his researches on the
recovery of glycerine from saponification mixtures in this period. Until
LeBlanc's important discovery of producing lower-priced sodium carbonate from sodium chloride, the alkali required was obtained by the
crude leaching of wood ashes or from the evaporation of the naturally
occurring alkaline 'vat~rs, such as from the Nile River.
The basic process.for soap making has remained practically unchanged
for 2,000 years! This IS by batchwise saponifying the oils and fats with
an alkali ahd salting 6ut the soap. The major changes have been in the
pretreatment of the fats and oils, in actual plant procedure, and in the
processing of the finished soap. Hydrogenation, liquid extraction, and
solvent crystallization of various fats and oils provide newer and better
615
616
raw materials. Better control methods and spray drying are important
examples of the latter two.
Continuous processes in plant stage in this country date from 1937
when Procter and Gamble installed a high-pressure-hydrolysis continuous-neutralization process at Quincy, Mass. The next development was
a. continuous-saponification process jointly developed by Sharples and
Lever Brothers and first installed at the latter's plant at Baltimore in
1945. Since then, there have been many installations of both types. These
TABLE 1. TOTAL SOAP SALES
(By kinds of products. In millions of pounds)
Granulated,
powdered,
Year and sprayed,
package and
bulk
1935
1939
1943
1945
1947
1949
1951
502.6
891.4
1,120.0
1,276.5
1,538.4
1,356.2
964.0
NEIDIG and
23611 (1952).
Chips and
flakes,
package and
bulk
Washing
powder,
package and
bulk
Bar
toilet
Bar
laundry
white
Bar
laundry
yellow
458.4
417.3
386.3
481.7
415.0
308.8
286.0
216.9
239.8
258.7
245.6
187.3
113.2
89.1
345.3
396.1
497.8
510.1
548.8
515.8
514.0
420.5
660.7
493.8
360.1
406.6
301.6
252.2
701.4
566.1
669.4
784.7
340.6
257.6
304.8
HERSBERGER,
Organic Synthet.ic Detergents, Chem. Eng. News, 30,
continuous processes, although extremely important technological developments, have been partially eclipsed by synthetic detergents. The
relatively low labor ratio to the product stabilizes old processes in the
soap industry. As one soapmaker said,! "It does not pay us to scrap our
kettles to install a continuous system, but on any expansion or replacement basis, only such a method will be considered."
Uses and Economics. The soap industry is a large one, embracing 249
/ plants in the United States, with products valued by the U.S. Bureau of
the Census at $1,085,789,000 in 1947, and iiVirig employment to 27,660
people. Table 1 gives a breakdown of the principal sales items. It is a
matter of common information that the chief use of soap is as a cleansing
agent in the home. Although synthetic detergents have been making
inroads into traditional industrial markets such as textile finishing and
dyeing, laundries, and dairies, soap is still an important industrial chemical. Bulk consumption is estimated at 300,000,000 to 400,000,000 lb.
annually of which 136,000,000 lb. are used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber.2 Other important applications are emulsification, particuSoap Progress Since 1900, Soap Sanit. Chemicals, 27 (1), 27 (1951).
What's Ahead for Soap and Synthetio Detergents, Soap San it. Chemicals,
27 (3), 35 (1951).
I
MCCUTCHEON,
I FLETT,
SOAP MANUFACTURE
617
larly of cold cream and cosmetic preparations, and for textile processing.
Although we shall be concerned here with the alkali-metal soaps, i.e:,
those showing pronounced water solubility, heavy metal salts of nonvolatile fatty acids I and organic nitrogen-base soaps also have important
industrial applications. The latter class, of which triethanolamine oleate
is a good example, is used in dry cleaning and cosmetics. Zinc and magnesium stearates are constituents of face powder. Calcium and aluminum
soaps are insoluble in water (Table 2) and, indeed, are water repellents,
be~g consequently employed for waterproofing textiles and walls. Rosin
soap is a widely consumed sizing for paper.
TABLE 2. SOLUBILITIES OF VARIOUS PURE SOAPS
(At 25C. Grams per 100 g. of water)

Stearate
SOdium ......................... .
Potassium ....................... .
Calcium ........................ .
Magnesium ...................... .
Aluminum ...................... .
0.1"
O.OO4b
0.004
Oleate
Palmitate
18.1
25.0
0.04
0.024
i
0.8"
0.003
0.008
Laurate
2.75
70.0O.OO4b
0.007
" Approximate.
b Solubility given at 15C. only.
i indicates that the compound is insoluble.
d indicates decomposition.
)
~OAP
MANUFACTURE
The basic chexnical reaction in the making of soap may be expressed as

8aponification :2
'3NaOH
Caustic
soda
+ (C17H asCOOhCaH. Glyceryl

stearate
3C17HasCOONa
Sodium stearate
+ CaH.(OH)a
Glycerine
In recent years the tendency has been to split or hydrolyze the fat and
then, after separation from the valuable glycerine, neutralize the fatty
acid with caustic soda or soda ash solution.
(C17H 36COO)aCaH.
Glyceryl
stearate
C l1H a.COOH
Stearic acid
I
+ 3H 0 2
+ NaOH Caustic
soda
3CI7H a5 COOH
Stearic acid
+ C H s(OH)a
CI7H 36 COONa
Sodium
, stearate
Glycerine
+H
"The Alkaline Earth and Heavy-metal Soaps," Reinhold Publishing

Corporation, New York, ,1945.
Although stearic acid is written in these reactions, oleic, lauric, or other constituent acids of the fats could be substituted. See Table 1, Chap. 28 for fatty-acid
composition of various fats and oils.
1 ELLIOTl',
618
It should be pointed out that the usual fats and oils of commerce are not
composed of the glyceride of anyone fatty acid, but of a mixture. However, some individual fatty acids of 90 per cent purity or better are
available by special processing. Since the solubility and hardness of the
sodium salts (Table 2) of the various fatty acids differ considerably, the
soap maker chooses his raw material according to the properties desired,
with due consideration to the market price.
Raw Materials. Tallow is the principal fatty material 'in soapmaking,
the quantities used representing 51.5 per cent of the total oils and fats
consumed by the soap industry as shown by Fig. 1, Chap. 28. It contains the mixed glycerides obtained from the solid fat of cattle by steam
rendering. This solid fat is digested with steam, the tallow forming a
layer above the water where it can easily be removed. Tallow is usually
mixed with coconut oil in the soap kettle in order to reduce the hardness
and to increase the solubility of the soa.p. Greases (20.8 per cent) are
the second most important raw material in soap making. They are obtained from hogs and the smaller domestic animals or from garbage, and
are an important source of glycerides of fatty acids. They are refined by
steam rendering or by solvent extraction and seldom used without blending with other fats. In some cases, they are treated so as to free their fatty
acids which are used in soap instead of the grease itself. Coconut oil ranks
third, representing 15 per cent of the total fats and oils consumed in this
industry. This oil is almost always an important constituent of household
soap, as the soap from coconut oil is firm and lathers well. It contains
large proportions of the very desirable glycerides of lauric and myristic
acids, as well as smaller amounts of oleic, stearic, palmitic, and similar
acids. The crude oil is treated with N aOH solution, settled, separated, and
bleached. Palm oil resembles tallow. Palm-kernel and Babassu-nut oils
are very similar to coconut oil and upon saponification produce very
similar soaps. Fish oils, although once important by hydrogenation for
soap raw materials, are now mostly utilized through better processing
techniques where unsaturation is important, i.e., drying oils. Denatured
olive oil is used for soap, but most of it is sold undenatured for edible
Ipurposes.
The soap maker is also a large consumer of cllemicals,-especially caustic
soda, salt, soda ash, and caustic potash as well as sodium silicate, sodium
bicarbonate, and trisodium phosphate. The inorganic chemicals added
to the soap, the so-called alkalinity builders, decrease the cost of the soap
product without decreasing its efficiency.
Free fatty acids are not only a raw material for soap, but are becoming
an ever-increasing source of raw materials for other chemicals. Fatty acid
deriva'tives include the nitrogen-containing chemicals (amines, amides,
and nitriles), the fatty-acid esters (glycerine monostearate, ethylene
glycol monostearate), and the metallic stearates (AI, Zn, Ca, Mg). Free
619
STEARIC ACID
fatty acids are utilized in the soap, detergent, cosmetic, paint, textile, and
many other industries. Although fatty acids have been synthesized commercially in Germany, most of the commercial fatty acids are produced by
the hydrolysis or splitting of naturally occurring fats and oils. Acidification of "foots," or stock resulting from alkaline refining of oils, also produces fatty acids. The important general methods of splitting are' out'lined in Table 3. The Twitchell process is the oldest. Continuous countercurrent processes are found in two modifications; one of these is known
Fots Qnd oil3
Sulfuric Qcid (60 Be.)

Twitcheills reogent
Hydl"tlted lime
Ben2.ine (10$$)
6,600 lb.
600 lb.
1201b.
20 lb.'
2 Ib.
Ste",m
Refri~ra+ion
Electricity
Oirectlobor
18,000 Ib.
3 tons
10 kw.phr.
50 man ... hr.
To Produce
1ton double-pressed
distilled stearic: ClCid.
p-lus2tons redoila;:d
)iCO Ib. crude 91ycerino
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for stearic acid and red oil.
as the Colgate-Emery Process, the other as the Procter and Gamble process. The Twitchell process is an acid hydrolysis of the fats in the presence
of Twitchell's reagent. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, which also shows the
steps leading to the separation of the mixed free fatty acids into a doublepressed stearic acid, red oil (mainly oleic acid), and stearin pitch. The
latter is employed for roofing and other coatings. The glycerine resulting
is free from salt and ~s higher in concentration (15 per cent) than in
spent soap lye (5 ~o 8 per cent). Compare Table 3.
In outline, the purified fats and oils are hydrolyzed by boiling 12 to
48 hr. in lead-lined tanks with % to 1.% per cent of Twitchell's reagent,
on weight of fat, and s;ome 66Be. sulfuric acid diluted 1 to 1 with water.
As shown in the flow sheet (Fig. 1), this hydrolysis is carried out countercurrently in two stages. After settling and skimming off the fat, the
aqueous liquor is neutralized with slaked lime, the calcium sulfate filtered
off, and the glycerine liquor evaporated. It'should be noted from the flow
sheet that more calcil,lm sulfate crystallizes out as the evaporation proceeds and must be filtered off. The 90 per cent glycerine is refined, as
620
TABLE 3. TABULAR COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS FAT-SPLI1'TING PROCESSESa

Twitchell'
Temperature,
of ....
212-220
Pressure, lb.
per sq. in.
gage ....... . o
Catalyst ..... . Alkyl-aryl sulfonic
acids or cycloaliphatic sulfonic acids,
both used with sulfuric acid 0.75-1.25
per cent of the
charge
Time, hr ..... . 12-48
Operation ... . Batch
Equipment .. Lead-lined, copperlined, Monel-lined,
or wooden tanks
Per cent ..... . 85-98 per cent hydrolyzed
Hydrolyzed ... 5-15 per cent ~lycerol
solution obtallled
depending on number of stages
Advantages ... Low temperature and
pressure; adaptable
to small scale; low
first cost because of
relatively simple and
inexpensive equipment
Disad vantages Catalyst handling;
long reaction time;
fat stocks of poor
quality must often
be acid-refined to
avoid catalyst
poisoning; high
steam consumption;
tendency to form
dark-colored acids;
/
need more than one
stage for good 'yield
and high glycerine
concentration; "not
adaptable to automatic control; high
labor cost
Batch autoclave
300-350
450
75-150 425-450
Zinc,
No catalyst
calcium,
or magnesium
oxides,
1-2 per
cent
5-10
Batch
Copper or stainlesssteel autoclave
Continuous
countercurrent'
485 approx.
600-700
Optional
2-3
Continuous
Type 316 stainless
tower
85-98 per cent hy- 97-99 per cent

drolyzed
10-15 per cent glyc- 10-25 per cent glycerol depending on erol
number of stages
Adaptable to small Small flo'or space: uniscale; lower first cost form product qualfor small scale than ity; high yield of
continuous process; acids; high glycerine
faster than Twitchell concentration; low
labor cost; more
accurate and automatic control; constant utility load
High
first cost; high
High first cost; catalyst handling; longer temperature and
reaction time than pressure; greater
continuous processes; operating skill
not so adaptable to
automatic control as
continuous; high
labor cost; need
more than one stage
for good yield and
high glycerine concentration
MAR.SEL and ALLEN, Fatty ACld Processing, Chern. Eng;, 64 (6), 104 (1947).
See Fig. 1.
, See, Fig. 3.
PURIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS
621
outlined in flow sheet on Fig. 5. The fatty acids are washed free of sulfuric
acid and sent to the soap plant, or distilled under low vacuum, or purified
by pressing, as shown in the flow sheet to furnish the various fatty acids
of commerce.
In continuous, countercurrent splitting the fatty oil is deaerated under a
vacuum to prevent darkening by oxidation during processing. It is
charged at a controlled rate to the bottom of the hydroiyzing tower
through a sparge ring which breaks the fat into droplets. These towers.
around 70 ft. high, 3 ft. in diameter, are built of stainless steel Type 316
(see Fig. 3). The oil in the bottom contacting section rises because of its
lower density and extracts the small amount of fatty material dissolved
in the aqueous glycerine phase. At the same time deaerated and demineralized water is fed to the top contacting section where it extracts
the glycerine dissolved in the fatty phase. Mter leaving th~ contacting
sections, the two streams enter the reaction zone.' Here they are brought
to reaction temperature by direct injection of high-pressure steam and
the final phases of splitting occur. The fatty acids are discharged from
the top of the splitter to a decanter where the entrained water is separated. The glycerine-water solution is discharged by an automatic interface controller to a settling tank. See Fig. 5 for glycerine processing.
Purification of Fatty Acids. Although the crude mixtures of fatty acids
resulting from any of the above methods may be used as such, usually
a separation into the more useful components is made. The composition
of the fatty acids from the splitter depends upon the fat or oil from which
they were derived. Those most commonly used for fatty-acid production
include beef tallow and coconut, palm, cottonseed, ~nd soybean oil.
Probably the most used of the older processes is "panning and pressing" (see Fig. 1). This fractional crystallization process is limited to those
fatty-acid mix.tJIres which solidify readily such as tallow fatty acid. The
mo.lten fatty acid is run into pans, chilled, wrapped in burlap bags, and
pressed. This expression extracts the liquid red oil (mainly oleic acid)
leaving the solid stearic acid. The total number of pressings indicates the
purity of the product, although purer products may be derived from
any of the following. ~ more recent method is fractional crystallization
of the acid from solvents. The solvent may be polar or nonpolar (see
Solexol process, page 605). One polar solvent process uses an acetonewater mixture, another a 90-10 per cent mixture of methanol and water.2
In the latter, known:as the Emersol process, the distilled fatty acid is
1 ALLEN, et al., Continuous Hydrolysis of Fats, Chern. Eng. Progr., '3, 459 (1947);
ANON., Fatty Acids, Che~. Eng., 67 (11), 118 (1950).
DEMMERLE, Emersol Process, Ind. Eng. Chem., 39, 126 (1947). This article contains an interesting table on comparative cost data for the mechanical pressing VB.
Emersol process. ANON., 'Continuous Separation of Fatty Acids, Chem. Eng., 63 (11),
168 (1946).
622
dissolved in the methanol solution along with a small amount of glyceride

as a crystal promoter. This mixture is chilled in a multitubular agitated
crystallizer. The crystallized stearic acid is separated on a continuous
rotary vacuum filter, melted, and charged to a still for solvent recovery.
The oleic acid solution from the filter is similarly stripped of solvent.
The above methods separate fatty acids of different degrees of saturation. To separate fatty acids of different chain lengths, distillation ' is
used with vacuum distillation the most widely used. Three fractionating
towers of the conventional tray type are operated under a vacuum. Preheated, crude fatty-acid stock is charged to the top of a stripping tower.
While flowing downward, the air, moisture, and low-boiling fatty acids
are swept out the top of the tank. The condensate, with part redrawn
as a reflux, passes into the main fractionating tower where a high vacuum
is maintained at the top. A liquid side stream also near the top removes
the main cut (low-boiling acids), while overheads and noncondensables
are withdrawn. The liquid condensate (high-boiling acids) is pumped to
a final flash tower where the overhead distillate is condensed and represents the second fatty-acid fraction. The bottoms are returned to the
stripping tower, reworked, and removed as pitch. The fatty. acids may
be sold as such or converted into many new chemicals. 2
Energy Changes, Unit Operations, Unit Processes. The energy requirements that enter into the cost of producing soap are relatively unimportant in comparison to the cost of raw materials, packaging, and distribution. The energy required to move some of the fats and oils to the
soap factory is occasionally considerable. The reaction that goes on in
the saponification kettle is exothermic, but much steam is employed to
raise and maintain the entire mass at boiling temperature and to ensure
an efficiently rapid reaction. However, in large-scale saponifications employing appreciable quantities of coconut o~l, comparatively small
amounts of steam are required. See Figs. 2 and 3 for electricity and steam
required.
/ The following are the principal unit operations (Op.) and' unit processes
(Pr.) into which the making of laundry bar soap can be divided:
Transportation of fats and oils (Op.).
Transportation or manufacture of caustic soda (Op. or Pr.).
Melting of fats and pumping to soap kettle and charging of12 per cent NaOH
(Op.).
I ANON., Fatty Acid Distillation,' Chern. Eng., 66 (2), 146 (1948). with pictured
flow sheets of both straight and fractional distillation; c/. MARSEL and ALLEN, Fatty
Acid Processing, Chern. Eng., 64 (6), 104 (1947); KIRK: and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol 6,
pp. 235ff.; KENYON, et al., Chemicals from Fats, Ind. Eng. Chern., 42, 202 (1950).
KENYON, op. cit.; POTTS and McBlUDE, Armour's Star, Chern. Eng., 67 (2), 124
(1950), with a pictured flow sheet, p. 172; WILLIAMS, Versatility in Fatty Acids,
Chem. Eng., 66 (7), 92 (1949), with a pictured flow sheet, p. 128.
623
Saponification of fatty acid glyceride, forming soap and glycerine, usually

conducted hot and under agitation (Pr. and Op.).
Soap salted out and grained (Pr.).
Lyes separated and soap washed (Op.).
Rosin, sodium silicate, etc., mixed with soap (Op.).
Soap cooled and solidified in frames (Op.).
Soap put through finishing procedures (Op.): drying, cake forming, wrapping,
and packaging.
Methods of Manufacture. The manufacture of soap will be discussed

under the following general headings: full-boiled process, semi boiled process, cold-made process, neutralization processes, and other processes.
Full-boiled Process. The full-boiled procedure is the one most generally
employed in soapmaking. It is represented by the flow sheet of Fig. 2,
Oils, fats
Caustic soda (76 pel'" cent NozO)
~~f~lmake-up)
Steam
wote'
Soda asl> (58 % Na20)

Sodium silicate (IS Be.)
GS3 lb.
111
lb.
2
'237
3
822
tons
gab.L
9~ :~
Per ton afatvPicallaundry soap

(Plus 701&: of 80% glycerine)
lb.
FIG. 2. Flow sheet-laundry soap.
and consists of a series of so-called changes, or steps, including several

brine changes, a "strengthening" change (also known as a strong change),
and a finishing change. These changes may be broken down into unit
operations or unit processes as outlined above. Most toilet soaps and
laundry soaps are made by this process, which is distinguished from the
half-boiled process by the fact that it is carried out in several boiling
stages, or changes, and with eventually an excess-of alkali which enters
the following batch. In this procedure the required mixture of fats and
oils is melted, settled, filtered, and pumped to the kettle, as detailed in
the flow sheet on Fig. 2. Naturally the proportions of fats, oils, and
other constituents vary with the soap.
The soap kettles are. 15 to 30 ft. in diameter and may be twice as deep,
with a capacity of up to 150 tons. To lessen discoloration of soap, they
usually have at least their top sections lined with Monel, nickel-clad
steel,t or stainless steel. They are equipped with both open and closed
I Cox, Corrosion of Metals in the Soap and Allied Products Industries, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 30, 1349 (1938).
624
steam coils, a bottom liquor outlet, and a swing pipe for pumping out
the soap. The open steam coil is for agitation and the closed one for the
boildown on the strong change.
Mter the mixture of fats is melted, the caustic soda solution (18Be.)i
is added followed by agitation and heating with an open steam jet. Small
portions of caustic are added from time to time, as long as the fats will
react with them. Mter 3 or 4 hr. the paste becomes smooth and creamy
and is ready for graining. This is done with recovered and more often
make-up salt, N aCI, either granular or as a strong brine solution. The
salt is added to the boiling soap until a sample on a trowel separates distinctly into soap and spent lye. About 10 to 12 per cent sodium chloride
concentration is usually necessary. The steam is turned off and the kettle
settled. This operation requires at least 3 hr. and frequently many morc.
The lyes, containing from 1 to 8 per cent glycerine and 5 to 1.5 per cent
NaCI, settle to the bottom and are drawn off. The soap is heated and
boiled once more. Water is added gradually until the kettle mass becomes
smooth again, thus dissolving any glycerine and salt retained by the soap.
This condition is known as closed soap. Further quantities of fats and
caustic are sometimes added at this point. If so, they should be boiled,
grained, and separated as described above. Mter adding any needed
caustic and boiling, the kettle mixture is settled to permit removal of the
aqueous solution which contains the residual glycerine. This completes
the so-called brine changes.
The last traces of fat and oil are now saponified by means of a strong,
or strengthening, change. This is generally carried out on the third day.
The soap is brought to a boil once more, water added until the soap is
closed, and then lye of about 25Be. 2 run in at such a rate as not to cool
the mass. The soap is not soluble in the strong alkali. Mter it has become
"grainy" once more, the steam is shut off and the kettle settled for 3 or
4 hr. The lye is run off and used in the initial saponification of a new
batch of fats and oils.
The mixture is ready for the finishing change on the fourth day. The
/oap is heated again and water added until ~he mass "closes." Boiling is
continued until the soap, when tested with a .heated trowel, flows off in a
thin, transparent sheet. This indicates that the boil is in such condition
that the soaps of the higher fatty acids will separate from those of the
lower fatty acids. The mass is then settled, during which time it separates
into three layers. The top layer is neat soap, the intermediate layer is
nigra which is a dark, strongly alkaline soap, and the lower layer is a
mixture of s~ap and lye. The upper layer is removed by pumping out the
soap through a skimmer pipe. The nigre may be degraded and incorporated in cheaper, darker grades of soap, but it generally enters into the
18B6. caustic soda is equivalent to 12.6 per cent NaOH.
'Equivalent to 18.6 per cent NaOH.
625
next batch. The small bottom layer follows the nigre. The neat. soap is
now ready for further treat.ment. This finishing change fteqllently consumes several days' time to ensure complete separation. 1
Soap can be made continuously by the full-boiled process by the
Sharples process by means of centrifugal separation. This new method
requires only 2 hr. to change the fat to neat soap as compared with
several days for the kettle process. 2 The flow through the continuous
process is divided into four stages, corresponding essentially to the
changes of the kettle process, excellt the flow of lye is countercurrent to
the flow of fat. The heart of the process is the centrifuges which operate
at 15,000 r.p.m. and develop a centrifugal force of 13,200 times gravity.
In them the grained soap of the first three stages and the melted neat.
soap of the fourth stage are quickly and completely separated from their
respective spent lyes. Many advantages are claimed, such as reduction in
amount of process water, less degradation of soap color and quality,
nigres are recycled, smaller lye ratio, and higher glycerine content of the
spent lye.
Soap from the full-boiled or continuous processes is finished in many
ways, e.g., bars, flakes, granules, or milled toilet soaps. The continuous
making of soap is shown in Fig. 2. The soap for some bars, such as white
laundry, is still finished batchwise (see Fig. 2). Here soap is run through
a crutcher, which is a special type of steam-jacketed agitator, and poured
into great oblong iron boxes or frames mounted on wheels, Each frame
holds around .900 lb. of soap. After aging for several days, the sides of the
frame are removed, the soap trimmed, cut into bars, dried, stamped with a
trade-mark, and wrapped.
For milled toilet soap bars, the kettle soap is processed into pellets containing the perfumes, medicinals, and other added materials. The pellets
are milled on iron and granite rolls which knead the soap into thin, smooth
ribbons. These are dropped to the plodders, where a spiral screw forces
the soap to the nozzle at the far end. The plodder is water-cooled, except
for the very end of the nozzle, which is heated to give a slight polish to
the soap. The soap emerges as a long, continuous bar which is cut into
the desired blanks an4 pressed with a trade-mark into small bars. All
scrap soap is reworked' and reprocessed.
Soap is flaked by pouring the warm soap, which has previously been
mixed, between two steel rolls. The small upper roll is steam-heated while
the large lower roll is ice cold causing the soap to stick to it in a thin film.
1 For a study of the troublesome middle soap sometimes formed in the soap-boiling
process, cf. FERGUSON an~ RICHARDSON, Ind. Eng. Chem., 24, 1329 (1932). Neat
soap, middle soap, and nigre are different phases of the three-component system of
.
soap, water, and salt.
2 SMITH, Centrifugal Separation Permits Continuous Production of Soap, Chem.
Ind8., 63, 787 (1948).
626
The filmy sheet is cut into ribbonR which arc scraped off by a long blade
and dried in large steam-heated ovens. The ribbons are cut into flakes
and packaged.
Spray-drying to form fast-dissolving, sneezeproof granules or beads is
the most widely used treatment for both soaps and synthetic detergents and is classed as one of the four most important developments in
the soap industry since 1900. I The soap from the crutcher is atomized into
the top of a tower up to 100 ft. in height. The heated air (about 500F.)
may be blown countercurrent or concurrent to the hot sprayed soap particles. The former is most popular as the drying is gradual with less
puffing and the density of the resulting granule is higher. Bulk density is
the most important property. These compounds show a marked increase
in bulk density with increase in solids concentration of the feed material.
They may contain up to 70 per cent solids and still be fluid enough to
atomize, but 62 to 66 per cent is average. Another way of increasing bulk
density is by adding inorganic salts such as sodium chloride. The finished
, product drops to hoppers where it is removed by a conveyer. Any finely
divided soap that is carried along by the hot air current is reclaimed and
added to the fresh soap for recirculation.
Semiboiled Process. By means of this process the fats and oils are heated
with just the required amount of alkali and the saponification is allowed
t.o go to completion. All glycerine formed remains in the soap. The nigre
i~ not,separated out. The product is inferior to full-boiled soap but more
economical to manufacture. Pumice soaps, some floating soaps, and certain soft potash soaps can be prepared by this process.
Cold-made Process. This is undoubtedly the simplest method of making
soap. It is very similar to the semiboiled process, any differences being
largely a matter of temperature. The fats used must, however, be purer,
the lye of exactly the correct proportion and concentration, and the temperature control rigid. Some potash soft soaps are prepared by this process, but it is generally used to produce cold-made coconut-oil and olive-oil
soaps. A typical batch follows: 700 lb. of preheated coconut oil are sent
I to a crutcher maintained at 80 to 90F., and 400 lb. of 36Be. caustic
added. The resulting creamy mass is crutched anywhere from 10 to 60
min. Perfume and sodium hydrosulfite (an antioxidant) are added, and
the mixture is run into frames, where saponification is completed. The
frames are maintained at a temperature of around qOF. After 24 hr.
the frames are removed from the hot room and cooled for 72 to 96 hr. at
room temperature. There are several major objections to this process:
none of the!glycerine can he recovered, all scrap soap must be discarded,
and discolored soaps often occur, as the result of incomplete saponification.
Neutralization Process. This method neutralizes with alkali the free
1 MCCUTCHEON, op. cit.; for a most excellent article, see MARSHALL and
Principles of Spray Dryinj!", Chem. Eng. Progr., 46, 501, 575 (1950).
SELTZER,
CONTINUOUS SOAP PROCESS
627
fatty acids obtained by the processes outlined in Table 3. :The majority

of soapmakers neutralize with N aOH rather than N a 2CO a. The most
important source of the fatty acids is the continuous countercurrent hydrolysis of fats which is the basis of one of the continuous soap processes.
The'main advantages of soap manufactured by this process as compared
with the kettle process are:' (1) improved soap color from a crude fat
Steam
power
FIG. 3. Continuous process for fatty acids and soap. (Courte8Y of Procter and Gamble.)
Based on 100 lb. of finished toilet soap of 20 per cent moisture
,85 lb. fat
10 gal. new water
23.6 lb. lye, 50 oB6. caustic
150 lb. steam
0.67 lb. salt
2_!,~ kw.-hr. electricity
,. 0.5 lb. silicate of soda 49B6.
without extensive pretreatment; (2) improved glycerine recovery; (3)

,
flexibility in control; and (4) less space and manpower.
The raw fats and th1e catalyst, zinc oxide, are blended and introduced
to the bottom of the hydrolyzer or splitting tower (Fig. 3). After water
removal by flashing, the crude fatty acids are purified continuously by dry
vacuum distillation. Tile distillate is neutralized with a proportional quantity of N aOH solution :in a high-speed mixer to yield neat soap. The soap
is discharged at 200F, into a blending tank where it is slowly mixed by a
vertically mounted wdrm in case any minor variation in pumping rate or
caustic concentration 'should occur. The free caustic content is limited
1 McBRIDE, Continuous Process for Soap, Chem. Eng., 64 (4), 94 (1947), with
110
628
to 0.02 to 0.10 per cent Na 20, the salt content is about 0.3 to 0.6 per cent,
and the water content is approximately 30 per cent at this point. This
neat soap, like that obtained from the kettles, may be extruded, milled,
framed, flaked, or spray-dried depending upon the product desired.
This flow sheet of Fig. 3 depicts the finishing operations of a floating
bar soap.
The pressure on the neat soap is raised to 700 lb. per sq. in. and the
soap is heated to about 400F. in a high-pressure steam exchanger. This
heated soap is released to a flash tank at atmospheric pressure where
a partial drying (to about 20 per cent) takes place because the soap is
well above its boiling point at atmospheric pressure. This viscous, pasty
soap is mixed with the desired amount of air in a Votator, a mechanical
heat exchanger, where the soap is also cooled by brine circulation in the
outer shell from 220 to 150F. At this temperature the soap is continuously extruded in strip form and is cut into three-bar lengths. Further
cooling, cutting, stamping, and wrapping complete the operation. This
entire procedure requires only 24 hr. as compared with several days for
the kettle process.
Typical Soaps. The three main classes of soap are: toilet soaps, household soaps, and industrial soaps. The household soaps comprise the various laundry soaps and many varieties of soap chips and powders. These
different soaps can frequently be made by one or more of the previously
described procedures.
Except for the purest of toilet soaps, various chemicals ate added as
"builders" economically to improve their over-all cleansing quality.
Practically all soap as merchandised contains from 10 to around 30 per
cent of water. If soap were anhydrous, it would be too hard to dissolve
easily. Almost all toilet and household soaps contain perfume, even
though it is not apparent, serving merely to disguise the original soapy
odor. Toilet soaps are ma<;le from selected materials and usually contain
only 10 to 15 per cent moisture with very little added material except for
the perfume and perhaps a fraction of a per cent of titanium dioxide as a
/whitening agent.
A typical composition of a laundry soap can be inferred from the materials given on the bottom of Fig. 2. These soaps contain up to 30 per cent
moisture. Household chipped or flaked soaps are generally a little lower
in moisture content than the corresponding bar soaps; a representative
composition would be as follows: moisture, 10 to 20 per cent; soap, 50
to 60 per cent; tetrasodium pyrophosphate, 15 per cent; sodium met_asilicate, 7 per cent; soda ash, 8 per cent.
Shaving soaps contain a considerable proportion of potassium soap
with an excess of stearic acid, the combination giving a slower-drying
lather. The "brushless" shaving creams contain stearic acid and fats
with, much less soap. The soft or liquid soaps at one time were almost
SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS
629
all potash soaps. Now they are mostly soda soaps with the proper choice
of the fatty acid to give the desired fluidity.
DETERGENTS OR SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS
(Other than Soaps)

The modern concept of surface-active agentsl includes soaps, detergents, emulsifiers, wetting agents, and penetrants. These all owe their
activity to a modification of the properties of the surface layer between
two phases in contact with another. Most of the surface-active agents
are a combination of water-attracting or hydrophilic groups on one end
of the molecule, with water-repelling or hydrophobic groups on the other.
The detergents possess these special properties to effect soil removal.
Historical. The consumer packaged powders and liquids which now
account for the great majority of the synthetic detergents 2 produced are
actually the incidental result of the search for new compounds to overcome difficulties, i.e., acidity and hard water encountered in textile processing. Until the 1920's Turkey-red oil, a sulfated castor oil, was the
best commercial product for textile users, but a poor one at best. At that
time the Germans began to search for a "universal soap" and in 1930
the Igepon A series, sulfonated fatty acid esters, and Gardinol, a sulfated
fatty alcohol, were marketed. In 1931 the Igepon T3 series, taurine derivatives, were introduced which overcame some of the difficulties of Igepon
A in textile processing. Since these synthetics used yegetable oils which
were relatively expensive, the search began for cheaper starting materials
such as petroleum. The first cyclic derived detergent, an alkyl-naphthalene sulfonate, was Nacconol which was introduced in 1933. The
alkyl-aryl sulfonates are the largest class of synthetic detergents today.
Uses, Economics, and Classification. Many detergents with their different trade names can be grouped into five main chemical classes. The first
three 01 these are anionic detergents which ionize in water to give a negatively charged organic ion. The fourth group comprises the cationic detergents which ionize in' water to give a positively charged ion. The last
group is the nonionic!,l which do not ionize. Cationics and anionics are
not compatible as they combine into an insolubleprecipitate. For this
same reason cationics :are not compatible with soap. Compounds of the
I
MCCUTCHEON, Synthetic Detergents, Chem. Inds., 61, 811 (1947); SCHWARTZ and
PERRY, "Surface Active ,Agents," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1949;
NIVEN, JR., "Fundamentals of Detergency," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
I,
,
York, 1950.
2 For a more detailed historical discussion, see KASTENS and Ayo, Pioneer Surfactant, Ind. Eng. Chem.,'42, 1626 (1950).
a Only the principal trade-marks will be used here. Hundreds of trade-marked
surface-active compounds are on the market today.
1
630
last gI'OUP, nonionics, are naturally compat.ible with the other groups and
this growing field shows much promise. The five groups I are:
1. Sulfated Fatty Alcohols. (Orvus, Dreft, Duponol, etc.) These are
strong competitors to soap because they are stable in acid, alkaline, or
hard water. Sodium lauryl sulfate, prepared from coconut oil, represents
the bulk of the sulfated fatty alcohols. It is believed that sulfated fatty
alcohols accounted for 19 per cent of the synthetic detergents sold in 1952.
2. Alkyl-aryl Sulfonates. (Oronite, Ultrawet, Santomerse, Tide, Fab,
Surf, Cheer, etc.) Because of their low price, this group is extensively used
in both the home and industry. Sales in 1952 accounted for 58 per cent
of the synthetic detergents (see Table 4). Their stability and soil-suspending power is not so good as Group 1, but by adding sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, the suspending power can be increased.
3. Miscellaneous Sulfates and Sulfonates. (a) Alkyl sulfonates, as Merpols, MP-189. (b) Sulfated esters and acids, as Artic Syntex, Vel, Igepon
A. These detergents, although unaffected by hard water, lack stability
in strong acids or alkaline solutions. (c) Sulfated and sulfonated ami des,
as Igepon T. These detergents have excellent stability and soil-removing
properties. (d) Sulfated and sulfonated oils, fats, and waxes, as Turkeyred oil.
4. Cationic Agents. These are not normally classified as detergents as
their uses are not comparable with soap. Their chief value is their germicidal properties. The quaternary ammonium compounds are the most
important members.
5. Nonionic Agents. (Spans, Tweens, Glim, Triton, etc.) These products
possess excellent soil removal and grease emulsifi<;ation accompanied by
low foam. The ethers are extremely stable,in acid and alkaline solutions.
The nonionics may be further subdi~ided ip.to these principal types: (a)
alkyl phenol-ethylene oxide type, (b) .aliphatic polyhydric alcohol esters,
and (c) fatty-acid amides.
! The packaged-detergent market is by far the most important. Another
large outlet is in scouring powders where 3. to, 7 per cent of the active
ingredients may be a synthetic detergent. Synthetics are used in many
different textile applications inclu~ing wool scouring, dye leveling, kier
boiling of cottons, and as auxiliaries in other applications. Substantial
quantities are consumed industrially in dairies and metal cleaning and
polishing. Synthetic detergents are employed as an entraining agent in
portland cement and as frothing agents in the manufacture of wallboard.
Manufacture. For retail trade the detergent contains around 20 to 40
per c'ent active material, the rest being builders, fillers, dyes, and other
materials. Builders increase detergency. Sodium tripolyphosphate and
tetrasodium pyrophosphate are the most outstanding alkaline builders.
I HERSBERGER and NEIDIG, Present Status of Organic Synthetic Detergents, Chern.
Eng. News, 27, 1646 (1949).
SULFATED FATTY ALCOHOLS
631
The amount of these used varies from 30 to 50 per cent. Small percentages
(1 to 3) of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose markedly improve the soilsuspending power of detergents and prevent the redeposition of dirt.
Brightening agents (fluorescent dyes) are sometimes incorporated in
amounts of 0.01 to 0.05 per cent. Sodium silicate lessens corrosion of
aluminum washing machines. The analysis of the largest-selling heavyduty household detergent by weight per cent is: 7 per cent keryl-benzene
sodium sulfonate, 5 per cent sodium lauryl sulfate, 20 per cent Na 2S04,
10 p'er cent tetrasodium pyrophosphate, 40 per cent sodium tripolyphosphate, 3 per cent sodium silicate, and 3 per cent sodium carboxymethyl
cellulose, water being the rest.
Sulfated Fatty Alcohols. The two most important fatty alcohol sulfates
are made from mixtures of fatty alcohols derived from coconut oil, predominantly lauryl alcohol, and oleyl alcohol. These high-molecularweight alcohols are usually prepared either by sodium reduction or by
catalytic hydrogenation of the fatty glycerides. The hydrogenation processes manufacture the higher alcohols by both continuous and batch wise
reaction in the liquid phase at temperatures of 200 to 300C., pressures
of 100 to 220 atm., with copper chromite or other catalysts. The sodiumreduction process! is the more important method at present because it
seldom affects unsaturation as does hydrogenation. Although the raw
material costs are higher, smaller plant investment and the recovery of
glycerine and sodium hydroxide make it competitiv;e to hydrogenation.
For each batch of coconut oil, 1 ton of molten sodium is dropped into the
reactor which already contains 1 ton of toluene, the latter acting as a
solvent for the reaction mass and as a dispersing medium for the sodium.
Forty-eight hundred pounds of hydrogenated coconut oil and 6,800 lb. of
solvent mix, 4,400 lb. of which is the reducing alcohol such as methyl
amyl, the remainder toluene, are fed to the reactor. The rate is so controlled that only a slight excess of unreacted ester is present in the reactor
at any time. After the ireaction is completed, the mixture is dropped into
water where hydrolysis occurs. The mixture settles into three layers, the
top containing the pro~uct alcohol and the regenerated reducing alcohol.
This crude product is separated by continuous distillation. The pure coconut-oil mixture may be fractionated into cuts or all used for the sulfation.
The saturated fatty/alcohols are usually treated with an excess of concentrated sulfuric acid under moderate conditions, producing the sulfate
which is then converted to the corresponding sodium salt with alkali. The
excess sodium sulfate inay be separated or )eft in, where it acts as a filler
or inert, and the whole mixture dried. Molar quantities of chlorosulfonic
acid are often used as a sulfating agent. The advantage here is that the
resultant sulfuric ester may be neutralized directly giving a product of
1 KASTENS
438 (1949).
and
PEDDICORD,
Alcohols by Sodium Reduction, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41,
632
very low inorganic salt content. When oleyl alcohol is treated with sulfuric acid, both the double bond and the terminal hydroxyl group react.
Because the terminal sulfate with an unaffected double bond is the more
valuable, certain special sulfation methods are used: l
1. Sulfating with the SOa-dioxane complex.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sulfating
Sulfating
Sulfating
Sulfating
with
with
with
with
the SOa-pyridine complex.

sodium or potassium chlorosulfonate.
H 2S0 4 and urea, or other acid amide.
the addition complex of S03 and NaN0 2
Purification for any compound depends upon the amount of impurities

present and the amount desired in the final product.
TABLE 4. STATISTICS OF SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS (DETERGENTS) 1954a
(100 per cent active hasis)
Quantity
(1,000 lb.)
Cyclic compounds, total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640,222

Esters and ethers, nonsulfonated.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42,089 .
7,215
Quaternary ammonium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulfated and sulfonated, total. ............ " . ... . . . . . 590,918
Alkyl benzenoid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 95\)
Alkyl naphthalenoid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7,332
Petroleum aromatic, sulfonated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142,782
Acyclic compounds, total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385,614
56,777
Nitrogen-containing, nonsulfonated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phosphorus-containing, nonsulfonated......... . . . . . . . .
586
Esters and ethers, nonsulfonated ............ "" . . . . .
88,478
Salts of fatty acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21,129
Sulfated and sulfonated ........................ " .. . 218,644
Acids...........................................
3,665
Alcohols, esters.................................. 129,503
76,910
Oils, fats, waxes ............. " ..... : '" .. . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen-oontaining .................... '.' . . . . . .
8,566
Total, cyclic and acyclic .......................... ~ . . . . . 1,025,836
Unit value
per lb.
$0.21
0.34
0.84
0.19
0.22
0.36
0.14
0.23
0.32
0.63
0.25
0.10
0.20
0.33
0.20
0.17
0.40
0.22
a Synthetic Organic CheIhicals, 1954, . U.S. Tariff Comm., Washington, D.C.,

Many more details in these yearly repor'ts.
Alkyl-aryl Sulfonate8. 2 Alkyl-aryl is used to designate those sulfonatable

hydrocarbons which contain an aromatic nucleus, usually alkylated benzene. By sulfonating this water-insoluble hydrocarbon, there is provided
the necessary water solubility. The alkyl group, which comsists of a more
SCHWARTZ and PERny, op. cit., p. 58.
SlTTENFIEUl, Petroleum Chemical Detergents, Chem. Eng., 66 (6), 120 (1948);
KIncHER, Sulfonation of Alkyl Aryls, Soap Sanit. Chemicals, 26 (12), 48 (1950).
1
633
ALKYL-ARYL SULFONATES
or less straight or branched carbon chain (C 10 to C 16) functIons as the oilsoluble portion of the compound. The flow sheet illustrated ,in Fig. 4 may
be divided into three parts: (1) combining the alkyl group with the aromatic hydrocarbon, (2) sulfonating the resulting compound, and (3)
neutralizing the sulfonic acid.
The alkyl portion is derived from a kerosene distillate fra<;tion obtained
from the refining of paraffinic crudes or from polypropylene tetra mer
(Chap. 37). When kerosene is used, it is chlorinated at 60 to iOoC. in a
CalJstic_, ,soda
/ Refined keryl
benzene tonk
Tars
Alkyl aryl
slJlfonate
Heavy ends
FIG. 4. Flow sheet for alkyl-aryl sulfonat.e (or keryl-benzene sulfonate). (Conrtesyof
Petroleum Refirzer.)
lead-lined, agitated, jacketed reactor with a catalyst added, usually

iodine. The monochlorinated kerosene is reacted with an excess of benzene
in the presence of AlOIa in a g~ass-lined, agitated, jacketed reactor. One
part of chlorinated k~rosene to 6 parts of benzene to 0.1 parts of AICh
are the approximat.e ~olar ratios used in this F~iedel-C*afts reaction.
The alkyl-benzene crude is purified by distillation and then sulfonated.
Sulfonation procedures may vary in each plant. For 100 per cent H 2S04 ,
the reaction temperature and time would be, respectively; 65 to 80C.
and 1 hr. Usually the alkyl-benzene is mixed with about 1.25 times its
weight of acid. The reaction temperature is closely controI'led. After sulfonation the mass is allowed to settle, and the spent H 2S0 4 and unreacted
hydrocarbon layers are removed. The sulfonated material is drowned in
ice water and neutraiized with NaOH in a stainless-steel agitated tank
634
provided with cooling coils. After neutralization it may be dried, depending on the finished product.
j}fiscellaneous Sulfates and Sulfonates. The alkyl sulfonates differ from
the alkyl sulfates in having no oxygen linkage between the carbon and the
sulfur atoms. They are manufactured by neutralizing an alkyl sulfonyl
derivative with caustic soda.
The most important products of the sulfated ester group are the sulfated
monoglycerides of coconut fatty acids, which are sold as Artie', Syntex, and
Vel. The fatty monoglyceride may be prepared by the direct reaction of.a
fatty acid with an excess of glycerine under esterification conditions, after
which it is sulfated.
Igepon T is representative of the ark/de sulfate class of detergents. It is
the productl derived from oleic acid chloride and N-methyltaurine:
-i
CH-(CH2h-CH3
II
CH(CH2)7-COC]
+ HN(CH2h-SOaNa + NaOH---?
'-,
CHa
CH-(CH 2 )7-CH a
II
CH(CH2h-C-N-(CH2)2-S03Na
II I
o CH 3
+ H 0 + NaCI
2
Sulfated or sulfonated oils are sulfated aliphatic esters which may be

obtained by treating castor, mustard seed, soybean, peanut, coconut, and
lard oil with 27.5 per cent sulfuric acid, employing so-called high sulfonation, quick sulfonation, or low-temperature sulfonation. These products have long been known as sulfonated oils, but the bond is mostly
through the oxygen of a sulfate group.2 Turkey-red oil, a sulfated castor
oil, has the following formula for one-third
of its molecule:
,
CH a(CH 2) sCH CH 2CH=CH(CH 2),COOCH 2R
Glyceryl-triricinoleyl sulfate of soda
OS03Na
Tallow, neat's-foot oil, and several fish oils are also so treated.
Nonionic Agents. This group contains large numbers of compounds
which are not as yet fully studied. Most of the principal liquid detergents,
including the household field, contain some nonionics. The best-known
series is made by reacting either a phenol or an alcohol with several moles
of ethylene or propylene oxide. Ethylene oxide adds to hydroxyl groups
under moderate conditions of temperature and pressure in the presence of
alkaline catalysts:
and Ayo, op. cit., a most excellent article.
For more details, see 1st ed. of this book, p. 612; also sec GROGGINS, op. cit., p.
1 KASTENS
2
3~8.
GLYCERINE
ROH
R-O-C 2H4-0H
+ CH --CH
o
""/
""/
2
+ CH -CH
2
--->
2 --->
635
R-O-C 2H4-0H
R-O-C 2 H 4-O-C 2H 4-OH,etc.
The fatty acid esters of polyhydric alcohols, such as glycerol, glycol',

sorbitol, and mannitol are prepared in the usual esterification manner.
GLYCERINE
Historical. Glycerine is a clear, nearly colorless liquid, having: a sweet

taste but no odor. K. W. Scheele first prepared glycerine in 1779 by heating a mixture of olive oil and litharge. On washing with water, a sweet
solution was obtained, which on evaporation of the water gave a viscous
heavy liquid, which the discoverer called" the sweet principle of fats."
In 1846 Sobrero produced the explosive nitro-glycerine for the first time,
and in 1868 Nobel, by absorbing it in kieselguhr, made it safe to handle
as. dynamite., These discoveries increased the demand for glycerine. This
was in part satisfied by the development in 1870 of a method for recovering glycerine and salt from spent soap lyes.
Uses and Economics. In 1954 the production of crude glycerine was
approximately 205,000,000 lb. Synthetic glycerine producers supplied
more than 20 per cent of the market, an equal amount from the producers
of fatty acids and fatty alcohols, the rest coming from the soap makers.
Glycerine is supplied in ~everal grades. U.S.P. or c.p. grade is chemically
pure and contains not less than 95 per cent CaHsOa. High-gravity glycerine contains not less'.than 98.7 per cent of glycerol and is suitable for resins
and other industrial products. Yellow distilled is taken for certain proc'esses where the higher-purity types are not essential, such as a lubricant
in'tire molds. Dynamite, saponification crude, and soap lye crude grades
complete the list.
Glycerine is employed :for the making, preserving, softening, or moistening of a great many products. About ;)0 per cent of the glycerine is
consumed in the manufacture of alkyd resins. In explosives and as a
humectant in tobacc6 are the next two largest outlets. This is followed by
its use as a plasticizer in cellophane, then by cosmetics and dentrificeS,
corks and gaskets, and pharmaceuticals.
I
l
GLYCERINE MANUFACTURE
Glycerine may be ~roduced by a number of different methods, among

which thc fol!owing,l are important: (1) the llaponifaetion of glycerides
) The term glycerine ill chosen bce:tusc it is thc technical spelling most used for the
trihydroxy alcohol, glycerol. The spelling glycerin is employed by the United Staies
Pharmacopeia.
636
(oils and fats) to produce soap; (2) the splitting of fats and oils to produce
soap; (3) the chlorination and hydrolysis of propylene from cracked still
gases.
Energy Changes, Unit Operations, and Unit Processes. In recovering
glycerine from the soap plants the energy requirements are mostly concerned with heat consumption involved in the unit operations of evaporation and distillation, as can be seen by the steam requirements tabulated
on the flow sheet on Fig. 5. The breakdown of two procedures for glycerine
is listed in the following columns:
Glycerine from petroleum:
Glycerine from spent lye:
Chemical purification with filtration
PUrification of propylene (Op.)
(Pr. and Op.)
Chlorination to allyl chloride (Pr.)
Evaporation (multiple effect) for
Purification and distillation (Op.)
Chlor.ination with HOCI (Pr.)
concentration and for salt recovery
Hydrolysis to glycerine (Pr.)
(Op.)
Distillation (Op.)
Steam vacuum distillation (Op.)
Concentration (Op.)
Decoloration (Op.)
Redistillation (Op.)
Glycerine from Spent Soap Lyes. The spent soap lyes arc by-products
and must be purified before recovery! of glycerine. A typical spent lye
contains abou(3, to 8 per cent glycerine, 5 to 15 ,per cent sodium chloride
and water, together with small quantities of paustic soda, sodium carbonate, soap, fatty acids, and other organic impurities. After cooling and
settling to remove much of the soap, the lye is treated to reduce the
alkalinity and to'remove organic impurities, in accordance with the flow
sheet on Fig. 5. The lye is pumped to the first treatment tank where
ferric chloride is added, in the_ amount determined by previous experience
as being required to give maximum precipitation of hydroxyl ions and of
soap. About 2.5 lb. of ferric chloride, per 1,000 lb. of lye is usually required. Low-grade lyes need an additional 0.5 lb. of aluminum sulfate
for 1,000 lb. of lye in order to produce a more complete removal. Since
the ferric chloride used is strongly corrosive to iron and steel, it is dis~olved in stoneware crocks 'or glass-lined tanks and added in solution to
the treatment tank. Steel, treatment tanks are satisfactory. A little
hydrochloric acid is added to bring the lye just on the acid side to cause
precipitation of metallic soap.
After thorough agitation in the first treatment tank the lye is filterpressed warm and then run into the second treatment tank, where a little
caustic soda ~s added until the ,lye is alkaline. This lye, filtered again,
has a glycerine content of from 4 to 10 per cent, and a salt concentration
of from' 11 to 18 per cent. The glycerine lyes are concentrated in a single1 WURSTER, The Recovery of Crude Glycerol, Oil ,(: Soap, 13, 246 (1936); for pictured flow sheet, see Chem. &; lIJet. Eng., 60 (!J), 1:32 (1!J43).
REFINING OF CRUDE GLYCERINE
637
or preferably in a double-effect evaporator. The former is used when it

is desired to have a minimum amount of equipment. A double effect is
preferred because the exhaust steam and watel' requirements are approximately half those of the single effect.
As the evaporation proceeds and as the concentration of glycerine increases, the solubility of the salt decreases and it crystallizes out. This
salt, collecting in the cone of the evaporator, is periodically dropped into
the empty one of the two salt catchers. The catchers, or chambers, are
provided with false bottoms thal catch the salt. The glycerine liquor is
drained off and returned to the vacuum evaporator (by a pipe not shown
in Fig. 5), after the main valve between the evaporator and the salt
chamber has been closed and a vent opened to the atmosphere. The salt
is removed from the catcher, centrifugated, washed, and returned to the
soap plant. In some plant1l a large suction filter box, known as a nutsch,
is used instead of the centrifuge. Eventually the evaporator contains
the crude glycerine (80 per cent) which is either sold by small plants to
refiners or refined at once.
Refining of Crude Glycerine. The impurities present in crude glycerine include 0.1 per cel).t fatty acids (as soap), from 4 to 11 per cent salt,
and organic impurities. These are separated by steam vacuum distillation
after being made strorigly alkaline with caustic soda in order to hold back
fatty acids and other impurities. The 80 per cent crude is first heated to
boiling with superhea~ed steam, after which low-pressure steam is turned
directly into the charge and the glycerine steam distilled under vacuum.
The vapors are passed through a series of air-cooled condensers, which
remove most of the glycerine and then through a water-cooled condenser,
where the water and 'remaining glycerine 'are condensed (see Fig. 5). In
a continuous system the procedure is similar, except that crude i~ fed to
the evaporator and salt is continuously removed. This continuit.y of operation permits standardization of operating conditions and perhaps greater
638
uniformity of product. The latest development in crude I glycerine purification is by iOIl exchange 2 which eliminates distillation although not
evaporation. This work is based on removal of impurities and ionized
solids from aqueous solutions of valuable nonionized constituents. The
crude glycerine is purified through successive beds of regenerated cationand anion-exchange resins. No heat is required or excessive amounts of
NaOH as for distillation. C.p. glycerine is derived by evaporation of the
glycerine-water solution, provided there is no excess of nonionized material such as polyglycerides in the original material.
Synthetic Glycerine from Petroleum. The growing market for glycerine, together with the fact that it is a by-product of soap and dependent
upon the latter's production, has been the incentive for research into
synthetic methods for producing this trihydroxy alcohol. The process of
making glycerine from propylene from the debutanizers of the petroleum
industry procured for the Shell Development Company the 1948 Chemical Engineering Achievement Award. 3 The propylene is chlorinated at
510C. at 1 atm. to prpduce allyl chloride in amounts greater than 85 per
cent of theory (based on the propylene). Vinyl chloride, some disubstituted olefins, and some 1 :2- and 1 :3-dichloro-propanes are also formed.
(The reaction producing allyl chloride is new to organic synthesis, involving as it does the chlorination of an olefin by substitution instead of
addition.) Treatment of the allyl chloride with hypochlorous acid at 38C.
produces the glycerine dichlorohydrin, CH 2Cl'CHCI'CH 20H, which can
be hydrolyzed by caustic soda in a 6 per cent N a 2C0 3 solution at 96C.
The glycerine dichlorohydrin can be hydrolyzed directly to glycerine but
this takes two molecules of caustic soda; hence a more economical procedure may be to react with the cheaper calcium hydroxide, taking off the
epichlorohydrin as an overhead in a stripping column. The epichlorohydrin is easily hydrated to monochlorohydrin and then hydrated. to
glycerine 4 with caustic soda. The reactions follow:
CH a'CH:CH2 + Cl 2 ~ CH 2Cl'CH:CH2 + HCl
(85 per cent yield)
/
CH2Cl'CH:CH 2
HOCI ~ CH 2ClCHQlCH 20H
(95 per cent yield)
CH 2ClCHClCH 20H + 2NaOH~ CH 2 0H'CHOH-CH 20H + 2NaCl
The over-all yield of glycerine from allyl chloride is above 90 per cent.
1 STROMQUIST and REENTS, C. P. Glycerol by Ion Exchange, Ind. lffng. Chem., 43,
1065 (1951); ANON., New Units Deionize Glycerine, Chem. Eng., 59 (5), 260 (1952).
2 S'rocKMAN, Glycerine Distillatiqn Greatly Improved by High Vacuum, Chem.- &
Met. Eng., 52 (4), 100 (1945).
3 HI~HTOWER, Glycerine from Petroleum, Chem. Eng., 66 (9), 96 (1948); ANON.,
Synthetic Glycerine, Chem. Eng., 66 (10), 100 (1948) with pictured flow sheet on pp.
134-137.
Kmoo, Petrochemical Processl's, Chern. Eng., 59 (9), 164 (1952).
639
SELECTED REFERENCES
A recent announcement (Shell) indicates another process for glycerine

from propylene. In the following reactions, isopropyl alcohol and propylene furnish acetone and glycerine (through acrolein) and in good yields.
CHaCHOHCH a + air
CHaCH :CH 2
Cat-----+
alyst
Cat-
CHaCOCH a + H 20 2
+ air -----+
CHOCH :CH + H 0
alyst
+ H 0 ---+ CHOCHOHCH 0H
CHOCH:CH 2
H.
---+
CH 20HCHOHCH 20H
SELECTED REFERENCES
Martin, Geoffrey, "The Modern Soap and Detergent Industry," Vol. I, "Theory
and Practice of Soap Making"; Vol. 2, "Manufacture of Special Soaps and
Detergent Compositions," 3d ed., The Technical Press, Ltd., London, 1950.
Wigner, J. H., "Soap Manufacture," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1940.
Thomssen, E. G., and J. W. McCutcheon, "Soaps and Detergents," MacNair-Dorland
Co., New York, 1949.
Leffingwell, G., and M. Lesser, "Soap in Industry," Chemical Publishing Company,
Niven, Jr., W. W., "Fundamentals of Detergency," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1950.
Young, C. B. F., and K. W. Coons, "Surface Active Agents," Chemical Publishing
Moilliet, J. L., and B. Collie, "Surface Activity," E. F. N. Spon, Ltd., London, 1951.
McCutcheon, J. W., "Synthetic Detergents," MacNair-Dorland Co., New York,
1950.
Schwartz, A. M., and J. M. Perry, "Surface-active Agents; Their Chemistry and
Technology," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1949.....
Ralston, A. W., "Fatty Acids and Their Derivatives," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York,1948.
Markley, K. S., "Fatty Acids," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1947.
Elliott, S. B., "The Alkaline-earth and Heavy-metal Soaps," Reinhold Publishing
Miner, Carl, and N. N. 'Dalton, "Glycerol," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York,1953.
Leffingwell, G., and M. iLesser, "Glycerin, Its Industrial and Commercial Applications," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New Yo_r_k, 1945.
Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, MacNair-Dorland Co., New York.
Price, Donald, "Detergents," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
CHAPTER
30
SUGAR AND STARCH INDUSTRIES
The carbohydrates, sugar and starch, are products of our soils. They
serve as man's principal energy foods and enter into countless manufacturing sequences. The present virile chemurgic movement seeks to
broaden the application of these and other farm products into an everincreasing tide of raw materials through the country's factories into manufactured consumers' goods.
SUGAR
Nature has always provided foods from her ample stores in the vegetable kingdom to supply the" sweetness that man requires in his diet.
The average perSOll in the United States eats his own weight in sugar
about every year and a half.l The world average is only one-third of
this. This is due not solely to his liking for the sweet taste but to the
demands of an active body for fuel, since sugar supplies man with about
13 per cent of the energy required for existence. As a result, sugar refining
is an enormous industry, representing in the United States alone an investment of more than $250,000,000 and paying about $100,000,000 in
annual Federal taxes.
Historica1. 2 It is difficult. to discover just when sugar was first known
to mankind, but it seems to be generally agreed that it occurred in India
many centuries before Christ. Methods for extracting and purifying the
sugar from the cane were very slow in being developed, but we find
fecord of crude methods having been brought, from the East to Europe
about 1400. The sugar tra,de between Asia and Europe Was one of the
most important commercial items in the early centuries. Later, cane plantations were established in northern Africa and in the West Indies.
Sugar was first extracted in North America in 1689, using cane from
the West Indies, while in 1751 cane was grown on the continent. From
this time on, the industry increased steadily, both in size and in quality
of product. Steam-driven crushing and grinding roller mills were introduced in the latter part of the eighteenth century; the vacuum pan was
1
A more exact figure is \)3.:3 lb. per capita per year, based on 1\)49 consumption.
et al., Sugar Chemistry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 804 (1\)51).
640
2 HORNE,
SUGAR
641
invented by Howard about 1824; bone-black filtration was employed for

the first time in 1812. Multieffect evaporation was proposed about 1834,
and the first suspended centrifugal was developed by Weston in 1852. A
recent development has been the use of decolorizing carbons, which in
several plants has been replaced by treatment with bauxite, followed
by calcium hypochlorite.
Evaporation, adsorption, centrifugation, and filtration were early important and necessary steps in the manufacturing sequences for sugar,
and much of our knowledge of these steps came from their application to
the industry. We may say that this study of the functioning of evaporation, adsorption, centrifugation, and filtration as exemplified in sugar
making helped to establish the generalized concept of unit operations.
In 1747 beet sugar was discovered, but it was not introduced into the
United States until 1830, and no successful plants were operated until
1870. A great deal of time, effort, and money was expended in bringing
the more complicated beet-sugar industry to the point where it could
compete with cane sugar. The various tariffs imposed on raw cane-sugar
imports, among other things, are responsible for the continuance of the
beet-sugar industry.
The first preparation of dextrose in 1811 led to the development of
the corn-sugar industry in this country. The first manufacturing began
about 1872, the product being liquid glucose. It was not until 1918,
however, that appreciable quantities of pure, crystalline dextrose were
produced.
At the start of the present century, the Bergius process for the production of sugar by saccharification or hydrolysis of wood received its
first industrial trial. A small plant for the production of alcohol was
erected in South Carolina in 1910. In 1916 Bergius and Hagglund, in
Germany, undertook the development of the present Bergius process,
employing hydrochloric acid. In 1930 Scholler began operations with
Imlfuric acid, at Tornesch, Germany. As far as the United States is concerned, these processes, although chemically feasible, have generally
proved economically unsound, owing to the abundance and low price of
starch and sugar; however, they seem to be finding their place in the
countries of Europe, w~ere the scarcity of food supplies gives the products
a higher value.
Uses and EconomiCs. Over 9,000,000 tons of refined sugar are consumed in the United States. Of this total about 75 per cent is of cane
origin and the remainder is from beet. Exports are around 60,000 tons.
About 50 per cent of the sugar consumed annually is sold for household
use in the United Stat~s; the remaining 50 per cent goes to various industries where baking leads. The soft drink, candy, and condensed-milk
industries are also large consumers. Nonfood uses of sugar are very few
and constitute only a small amount of the total output. They include the
642
SUGAR AND STAUCH INDUSTRIES
use of sugar as a strengthening agent in lime-sand mortar, in leather

tanning, in paper softening, as calcium saccharate in whipping cream
and ice cream, as copper saccharate insecticide, and as sucrose octaacetate, a denaturant in ethyl alcohol. Histadine and histamine are made
with sugar as a raw material. Dextran, 1 the polysaccharide produced from
sucrose by certain bacteria, is a very effective plasma volume expander.
Administered by intravenous infusion, it relieves shock and prevents loss
of body fluids after extensive burns or other wourr<)s~>"
Probably no other organic product of cOJllpa:fable purity....(Q9.5 per cent)
is offered on the retail market for sQ::low ~ price as sugar. TBt~, however,
is merely a reflection of the ,progress and growth, in refining me'thods due
to applied chemical engineering within the industry, which has succeeded
in reducing the price from the $4 a pound prevailing during the administration of John Adams to its present low level of about 9 cents per
pound.
r MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR
Cane. Sugar cane is a member of the grass family. It has a bamboolike

stalk, grows to a height of from 8 to 15 ft., and contains 11 to 15 per cent
sucrose by weight. The source of the raw cane refined in the United
States is port.z:ayed in Table 'i. The cane is usually planted with cuttings
TABLE 1. PRODUCTION OF CENTRIFUGAL SUGAR (RAW) IN PRINCIPAL AREAS
SUPPLYING TRE UNITED STATES MARKET"
(Tn thousands of short tons)
1940--1944
average
1935-1939
average
Area
1950
1954
1,950
525
1,275
4
1,085
1,000
6,300
12,139
2,037
610
1,200
10
1,092
1,405
4,998
11 ,354
United States (beet)", , , .... , , , ,

United States (eane)""" , , , " , ,
Puerto Rico, ... , . , ...... , , .. , , .
Virgin lslands .... " .... , ... , . , ..
Hawaii ..... , .. " .. ". ", ...... '
Philippine Islands, .. , ...... , ....
Cuba ....... , ... ,., .... , ... ,.,.
Total. . , , ....... , .. , , .. , ~ .. , '
1,518
474
974
6
980
1,058
3,183
8,,193
1, 41?I
429
961
4
880
320
3,686
7,731
The world total for 1954 was 24,690,000 short tons. Data ate from Sugar
Research Foundation and U.S. Department of Agriculture.
from the mature stalk, which sprouts and produces a number of new
stalks.
As inany as 20 succes~ive crops or "ratoons" may be obtained
I
from a single planting, provided conditions are favorable. The approximate period of growth of the cane is 12 to 15 months in Cuba, while
I BlxLlm, HIN]!;S, MeG]!;]!;, and
flow sheet.
SRUB'i'EB,
Dextran, Ind. Eng. Chem., 45, 692 (1953),
CANE
643
nearly twice this time is required in Hawaii. Harvesting is done by hand

with machetes or by mechanical cutters. The workmen cut off ~the stalks
close to the ground and then remove the top sections and leaves, which
are used as cattle food or fertilizer. The remainder of the stalks is loaded
on trucks or large wagons which may be taken to a railroad siding. The
trucks or railroads take the cane to the raw-sugar plants, or centrales as
they are called in Cuba. There can be no delay in getting the freshly cut
cane to the factory, because failure to ,grind it in less than 2 days after
cutting causes much of the sucrose to be lost by inversion into glucose
and fructose.
The production of raw cane sugar at the factory is illustrated in Fig. 1
and may be divided into the following unit operations (Op.) and unit
processes 1 (Pr.):
The cane is torn and shredded by crushers in preparation for removing the
juice (Op.).
The juice is extracted by passing the crushed cane through a series of mills,
each of which consists of three grooved rolls that exert a heavy pressure. Water
and weak juices may be added to help macerate the cane and aid in the extractio'n. About 95 per cent of the juice is extracted from the cane (Op.). The spent
cane (bagasse) is either burned for fuel or used to manufacture insulating material.
The juice is screened to remove floating impurities and treated with lime to
coagulate part of the colloidal matter, precipitate some of the impurities, and
change the pH (Op. and Pr.). Phosphoric acid may be added because juices
that do not contain a small amount of phosphates do not clarify well. If acid is
added, an excess of lime is used. The mixture is heated with high-pressure steam
and settled in large tanks called clarifiers or in continuOl(s settlers or thickeners
(Op.).
To recover the sugar from the settled-out muds continuous rotary drum
vacuum filters are generally used although plate-and-frame presses may be
employed (Op.). The cake constitutes 1 to 4 per cent of the weight of cane
charged and is used as manure.
The filtrate, a clarified juice of high lime content, contains about:85 per cent
water. It is evaporated to approximately 40 per cent water in triple- or
quadruple-effect evaporators2 (Op.).
The resulting dark-brown, viscous liquid is crystallized in a single-effect
vacuum pan. The sirup is concentrated until crystal formation begins (Op.).
The mixture of sirup and crystals (massecuite) is dumped into a crystallizer
which is a horizontal agitated tank equipped with cooling coils. Here additional
sucrose deposits on the brystals already formed, and crystallization is completed
(Op.).
I
1 See also the pictured' flow sheet, Raw Sugar from Cane, Chem. & Met. Eng., 48
(7),106 (1941); Processllow Sheet for Raw Sugar House, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6tli'ed., p. 1340, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York,
1942.
For vacuum evaporation equipment and accessories, heat-transfer data, and
condenser water, see section by Badger, pp. 500-522, in Perry, op. cit. On p. 505, types
of evaporators are presented, and on pp. 516-518 consideration is given to calculations
for the economical number of effects.
I
I
I
'"c:
0
tJ
""c:
....
0
'"::>
.~
....
644
.:>t
;':5
.... e-
41
~.~
.....'-::>
.......
.,
\
.:>t
=c:
.- 0
E41
;'5
..,. ......
645
CANE SUGAR
The massecuite is then centrifuged to remove the sirup. The crystals are
high-grade raw sugar, and the sirup is retreated to obtaill one or two more crops
of crystals. The fi.nalliquid after reworking is known as blackstrap molasses (Op.).
The raw sugar (light brown in color), containing approximately 97 per cent
sucrose, is packed in bags and shipped to the refinery (Op.).
The molasses l is shipped to the United States and other countries in full tank
steamers and is used as a source of carbohydrates for fermentation and for cattle
feed (Op.).
Cane Sugar. The sacks of raw sugar, weighing 300 to 330 lb., are unloaded from the ships at the refinery dock and are sampled. both by the
chemists and the customs inspector. The bags are then stored and
emptied as needed into the raw-sugar dump, whence the raw sugar is
transported to the raw-sugar bin of the refinery by means of bucket elevators and screw conveyers. The jute bags are given a water wash or
brushed to remove the adhering sugar, dried, and sold. The wash water
is evaporated to sirup, which then undergoes the usual refinery operations.
Figure 2 illustrates the following sequence of unit operations (Op.) and
unit processes (Pr.)2 in the refining of cane sugar:
I
The first step in refining is called aifination, wherein the raw-sugar crystals
are treated with a heavy sirup (60 to 80 Brix)3 in order to remove'the film of
adhering molasses.",This strong sirup dissolves little or none of the sugar but
does soften or dissolve the coating of impurities. This operation is performed in
minglers which are heavy, scroll conveyers fitted with strong mixIng flights (Op.).
The resulting sirup is removed by a centrifuge and the sugar cake is sprayed
with water 4 (Op.).
The crystals are dumped into the melter, where ~hey are dissolved in about
half their weight of hot water, part of which is sweet water from the filter presses
(Op.). The sirup from the centrifugals is divided, part being diluted ~nd reused
as mingier sirup while the remainder is diluted to about 54 Brix with s~eet waters
and sent to the defecators.
Defecation is the preparation of the raw liquor for filtration and clarification
by removing solid impurities. During the operation a flocculent precipitate is
formed which entangles the suspended matter and colloids; at the same time the
acidity of the solution is reduced. So-called blow-ups (Pachuca tanks), which are
circular tanks with corncal. bottoms fitted with steam and air connections, are
used. The sirup is first heutralized with lime to a pH of 7.0 to 7.3, and diatomaceous earth is added as a filter aid (Pr. and Op.). However, a new defectant~
made from specially processed alkaline earth metals (the principaI' one, mag1 See Chap. 31.
'For pictured flow sheet, see Chern. & Met. Eng., 47,119 (1940); SHEARO:-l, et al.,
Cane Sugar Refining, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 552 (1951). This is a most excellent article.
The degree Brix is the percentage, by weight, of sucrose in a pure-sugar solution;
commNcially it is the approximate percentage of solid matter dissolved in a liquid.
, PERRY, op. cit., pp ..99i-lOOO for centrifugals.
6 ANON., Sugar Takes a Giant Step, Chem. Eng., 58 (10), 224 (1951).
OM
go
.0
N
I
o
o
""
646
647
CANE SUGAR
nesium) is showing promise as a lime replacement. Already used commercially, it

yields an improved product in less time.
The mixture is filtered and the effluent liquor from the filter presses, now free
of insoluble material, still retains a large amount of dissolved impurities.' These
impurities are removed by percolation through bone char~ (Op.). The char tanks
COI4TACTMAKING
WATTMETER
CONTROL
SOARD
DRAIN
'DISCHARGE VALVE
FIG. 3. Cross section of vacuum pan equipped with mechanical circulator. The sirup is
heated by passage upward through the tubes of the steam chest or" calandria" near the
bottom. The liquid boils at the upper surface, vapor being drawn out through the large
central pipe. A set of screw impellers forces the liquid back through the central downtake pipe. The stirrer is motor driven, with recording and controlling wattmeters in its
circuit. (Courtesy of Esterline-Angus Company.)
are about 10 ft. in diameter and 20 ft. deep. From 24 to 36 char filters are required
per 1,000,000 lb. of melt. The percolation is carried out at about 180F. and the
product is a clear, wa~r-white sirup.
After a certain amount of use, the char loses its decolorizing ability and must
be reuiuified. This is done approximately every 32 hr. by first washing free of
sugar and then removing the char and roasting it at 1000 to 2000F. in retorts
(Pr.).
'
The sirups from the bone-char filters are piped to the liquor gallery where
1 Symposium, FiltratIon and Clarification, Ind. Eng. Chem., 34, 403 (1942); Symposium, Purification of Sugar Juices, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 603 (1951); MINDLER,
Dcmineralization of Sugar Cane Juice, Ind. Eng. (,hem., 40, IZll (1948).
PERRY, op. cit., p. 897; LEWIS, SQUIRES, and BROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry
of Colloida! and Amorphous Materials," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942.
648
they are graded according to purity and strength, there heing four classes: 99 to
99.7 deg. purity, 90 to 93 deg. purity, 84 to 87 deg. purity, and 75 to 80 deg.
purity (Op.).
The lower grades are too dark to make granulated sugar directly and are
given a triple filtration and then sometimes used for soft-sugar production (Op.).
The higher grades are sent to different vacuum pans and concentrated under
reduced pressure to produce various types of sugars (Op.).
Figure 3 shows a cross section of the crystallizing or "strike" vacuum pan.
Here the sugar sirup is concentrated to crystallization or "seeds." These small
crystals are grown to a mercHantable size by a properly regulated rate of boiling
........ . '.
,,:-"!"
'.A':'.__' ._. ___~._;_~~.~- ,. .~~ .,
t~.'-" ,.,~,' ::".,;;"_"~:"'_'~'.<~_.;'k"~,..J""'!...~':;:,,!'!.~,~_"!J~
FIG. 4. Wattmeter chart showing Jower input to stirrer after perfectionjn instrument
control method. 'The controlling wattmeter 'was set to cut off the stirrer at 82 kw. Note
the uniform processing time, the uniform rise in viscosity during the hoiling operation,
and the lack or necessity for addition of water. The average boiling time was only 2%
hr. as compared with 4 hr. before installation of instrument control. (Courtesy of
Esterline-Angus Company.)
or evaporation as well as of agitation. This rate should not be too rapid or new
crystals (false grains) will be formed and not have time to grow, with consequent loss through the screen of the centrifugal. This operation therefore requires
careful control which may be secured by charting the power consumption of the
stirrer as depicted in Fig. 4.
The purest sirups are used for ()ubes, cut-loaf, confectioner's, and granulated
~ugar, and the second and third grades for "off-granulated" sugar, which is
gradually mixed with the better strikes.
The pan is discharged into a mixer which keeps the whole mass from sticking
together, then sent to centrifuges where the crystals are separated from the sirup,
washed, and dropped to the wet sugar storage bin (Op.).
The sirup is returned to the process for further recovery of sugar (Op.).
When the purity of the sirup becomes too low, it is used for blended tabl~
sirups, with the poorer lots going for animal feed or alcohol manufacture.
The wet sugar is dried i~ 'a gra~ulator, which is a horizontal rotating drum
about 6'ft. in diameter and 25 ft. long, having a series of narrow shelves (flights)
attached to its inner surface. These lift the sugar and allow it to fall through the
stream of hot air flowing countercurrent to it (Op.).
649
CANE SUGAR
The dried crystals pass oyer a series of screens where they are graded according to size (Op.).
Various automatic packing and weighing machines put up the sugar in barrels,
sacks, and boxes (Op.).
The powdered sugars are made by grinding the granulated sugar in mills (Op.).
Cube and cut-loaf sugars are prepared by mixing certain types of granulated
sugar with a heavy white sirup to form a moist mass which is then molded and
dried (Op.).
The soft or brown sugars are not dried but are packed directly from the
centrifugals. They are graded according to color, running from No.1 which is
nearly white to No.4 which is dark (Op.).
The yield of refined sugar obtained, based on raw sugar of 96 polarization, is usually about 93 to 94 per cent, sirup 5 per cent, with mechanical
and wash losses 0.7 per cent.
In handling sugar, some inversion takes place according to the following reaction:
C 12H 22 0 11
Sucrose
Polarization
+66.6
+ H 0 ---+ C H
2
12
06
d-Glucose
+52.8
+CH
6
12
06
d-Fructose
-92.8
The prod\lct: is called invert sugar, but the polarization of the pure sucrose
of +66.6 (+ to the right) now reads -20.0 (- to the left) for the resulting mixture.
/
In some important installations, sugar refineries have turned to processes employing activated carbon, rather than the older bone-char process. 1 The difference in the two processes lies in the purification step. The
bone-char process requires a filtration of the insoluble materials in a filter
foilowed by the decolorization in the bone-char filters. The activated
carbon requires mixing tanks to mix in the activated carbon, followed
by specially designed filters. The fact that the activated carbon is a
much better filtering product and a much more powerful decolorizing
agent than the bone qhar permits the substitution of one-thirtieth to onefortieth of weight o~ bone char. There results, -naturally, a saving in
time, fuel, wash wa~er, building space, and investment in equipment.
In addition, the factjthat the new-type plants can operate economically
on a smaller scale than the old, combined with the water and fuel savings,
allows these plants to be built in the tropics right alongside the raw-sugar
mills. This, in turn, s,aves on transportation and sacking of the raw sugar.
This new development in sugar refining seems to be taking hold rapidly
and may someday force some of the bone-char plants into obsolescence
1 PERRY,
op. cit., PIl' 901,903 (flow sheet),
650
SUGAR AND STARCH INDUSTlUES
provided the cost of the decolorizing carbon can be considerably reduced.

However, today, an established bonc-char refinery can produce sugar more
cheaply because the bone char can be used many times over again and
reactivated at a low cost.
Manufacture of Celotex. 1 In the United States it has been found much
more profitable 2 to make insulating board from the bagasse from cane
mills than to burn it under the boilers. Besides finding use here, it is also
employed as a plastics filler and as a source of furfural. The bagasse is
baled at the raw-sugar mill and shipped to the board plant. Here the
bales are broken open by hand and the material conveyed by an endless
belt to the rotary digesters, which are 14 ft. in diameter. The liquor is
cooked under pressure in order to rencl.er the fibers pliable, loosen the
incrusting material, dissolve organic material, and sterilize the fiber. The
resulting pulp, in a 2 to 3 per cent suspension, is pumped to swing hammer
shredders and washed in specially designed rotary washers in order to
remove dirt, soluble compounds, and some pith. From the washers, the
pulp enters half stock chests, where the si"zing",usually papermakers' rosin
and alum, is added and the mass stirred with powerful agitators to remove
any irregularities. The fibers are refined in conical-revolving Jordans,3 to
give optimum fiber size. The refined fiber goes to stock chests, from which
it is fed, as an approximately 2 per cent suspension, to the head box of the
board machine. 'In the head" box it is diluted to about 0.5 per cent.
The board machines, although of special design, are somewhat similar
to Fourdrinier machines. The stock is fed onto forming screens, led to
drying felts, and fina,lly to p,ress rolls. The sheets do not appear laminated
but are felted together to giv~ the required thickness. The board from
these machines is' 13 ft. wide, contains 50 to 55 per cent water, and is
produced at the rate of 200 ft. 'per min. It is dried in a continuous sheet,
at 300 to 450F" in ::j. gas- or steam-heated drier 800 to 1,000 ft. long.
The product is practically bone dry and must be sprayed with water-as
it leaves the drier in order to bring it up to its normal water content of
approximately 8 per cent. The board is now cut and fabricated into the
forms in which it is used. The dust from these operations is used as a filler
lin plastics.
,
Beet Sugar. The familiar sugar, sucrose, can 'be obtained from many
sources, other than can.e, such as maple sirup and palm sugar. However,
the great commercial sources are the sugar cane and the sugar beet. Only
a skilled chemist can tell whether a sample of refined sugar originated
from the tropical cane or the beet grown in the temperate zone. Ordinarily speaking, there is no distinction.
The sugarl beet differs from the ordinary table beet in that it is much
I
The Celotex and Cane-sugar Industries, Ind. Eng. Chem., 22, 449 (1930).
This use of the bagasse pays the sugar mill enough money for it to buy other fuel.
3 Figure 7, Chap. 33.
1 LATHROP,
2
651
BEET SUGAR
larger and is not red. Sugar beets arc an important. crop in many sections
of the world, not only because of t.heir sugar value butaJ,lso because they
enrich the soil for other crops. The mills begin operation in early September, the farmer harvesting his crop with machines thlJ-t uproot the
beets. Field workers follow the machines, remove the dirt and leaves
from the beets, and load them for shipment to the factory. The beets,
containing from 13 to 17 per cent sucrose and 0.8 per cent ash, enter the
factory by way of flumes, small canals filled with warm water, which not
only transport them but wash them as well.
Con.
~
c
~
~S
Holassesfo
deS<ltJClriling
Key:Carb.,corbonatorsi Sulf., Sulfitors F., filters; W., wash wateri C..centrifugals;Con,condensersjO..dissolwrs
Note: About heM of all plants use sweet water from filter washing for slaking lime; others use fresh water
Farm land
Ei~;t=ts
Coke
0.6 acre
~g ~~s
0.05 +on
Coal (power and heating) 0.66 ton

SulfUr"
Water
Oirect labor
10 lb.
~O
+Ons
16-20 man- hr.
To Produce
I ton refined sugar

800
Ib.molas.es f50percentsucroae)
800 Ib. dried pulp
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for beet sugar.

/
Figure 5 illustrates the essential steps in the making of beet sugar. This
manufacture may be divided into the following unit operations (Op.) and
unit processes (Pr.):1
The beets are rewashed, weighed, and sliced into long narrow strips called
cossettes (Op.).
The cossettes are dropped into large tanks or cells, 12 or 14 of which are connected in series to form a diffusion 2 battery. The sugar is extracted countercurrently with water at 160 to 175F., the water being in contact with each cell
for 6 to 8 min. (Op.). The resulting sirup contains 10 to 12 per cent sucrose,
a small amount of invert sugar, and 2 to 3 per cent ash. The pulp remaining
contains 0.1 to 0.3 per cent sugar (based on the beets); -This pulp is dried and
sold as cattle feed (Op.);
The sirup is given a rough screening to remove foreign materials (Op.).
Milk of lime is added :until the concentration is equivalent to about 2 to 3 per
cent. The lime aids in the precipitation of undesirable impurities. Any calcium
1 See also pictured flo;ly sheet, Beet Sugar Production, Chem. & Met. Eng., 49
(6), no (1942); McDILL, Beet Sugar Industry-Industrial Wastes, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
39, 657 (1947); MCGINNIS, "Beet Sugar Technology," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1951. .
2 ANON., New Diffuser Proves Its Worth, Chem. Eng., 68 (11), 238 (1951).
652
saccharate formed is decomposed in carbona tors by passing carbon dioxide

through the sirup 4>r 10 to 15 min. The foaming that occurs at this stage is reduced by adding a small quantity of castor oil and/or tallow (Pr.).
The sludge produced by the lime is equal to 4 or 5 per cent of the weight of
the beets charged. This is removed by filtering the mixture on Oliver filters (Op.).
Lime is added again until the concentration is equivalent to 0.5 per cent and
the mixture again carbonated, this time hot (Pr.).
It is then filtered on a plate-and-frame press (Op.).
The resulting filtrate contains a large concentration of calcium ions, which
are removed by bubbling sulfur dioxide through the sirup in sulfitors. At the
same time the sulfur dioxide serves to bleach the solution of its pale yellow color
(Pr.).
The precipitate of calcium sulfite is removed on plate-and-frame presses (Op.).
The purified sugar is concentrated from 10 to 12 per cent sugar to about 55 per
cent sugar in multiple-effect evaporators (Op.). This increases the concentration
of calcium ions again and necessitates retreatment with sulfur dioxide and another
filtration (Op. and Pr.).
The resulting sirup is grained in vacuum pans,l cen~rifuged, washed, dried in
a granulator, screened, and packed in much the same manner as described for
cane sugar (Op.).
The sirup from the first vacuum pan is given further' treatment to recover
more sugar crystals, but they are not pure enough for market and a,re sent back
to the process for further purification (Op.).
The sirup remaining after the several crystallizations is called molasses

,and may be sold to the various industries as explained under Cane Sugar.
Processes for the recovery of the remaining sugar have been worked out
and are used commercially. Initial recovery is obtained by the Steffen
process.
In the Steffen process the molasses from the centrifugals is cooled to
lOoC., and finely ground quicklime added. A precipitate of tricalcium
saccharate is formed and filtered off .. This" saccharate cake" is washed
/ and returned to the process, where it is mixed with the juice from the
diffusion battery, thereby clarifying it in the same manner as the lime
which this tricalcium sagcharate partly replaced. The! molasses remaining, so-called discard molasses, contains about 60 to '63 per cent sugar,
2 to 5 per cent raffinose, 14 to 16 per cent ash, and 5 per cent sugar, based
on the dry material. It is sold as livestock feed or rprocessed for the
recovery of monosodium glutamate and other amino compounds.
Ion exchange is a recent development in beet-sugar manufacture. 2. It
has I;>een tried or proposed for the treatment of process liquors at several
I McGINNIS, MOORE, and ALSTON, Low-purity Beet Sugar Factory Materials,
[roil. Eng. Chem., 34, 171 (1942).
2 MICHENER, et al., Ion Exchange in Beet Sugar Factories, ~nd. Eng. Chem., 42,
643 (1950); MANDRU, Ion Exchange in Beet Sugar Manufacture, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
43, 615 (1951).
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
653
places in the manufacturing procedure. At present, deionization is used

commercially on the second carbonation juice and gives, compared with
the previously described process, greater recovery of white sugar, better
color removal, lower ash, and crystallization of two or three strikes of
white sugar instead of one. The beets are sliced and diffused in the usual
manner. The diffusion juice lis carbonated to free it of colloids which
cause trouble in the presently used ion-exchange equipment. Also nonsugar solids in the raw juice, removable by lime, may be eliminated more
cheaply by lime than by ion exchange. One commercial ion-exchange unit
consists of four pairs of cells, each consisting of a cation and an anion
exchanger. At anyone time only one pair of cells is used in the cycle, while
the other pairs are in various stages of regeneration or other preparation.
In operation, the juice is pumped first into the cation cell of a freshly
regenerated pair and is passed through the pair until breakthrough occurs.
The breakthrough is determined by pH meters on both cation and anion
effluents. Breakthrough occurs when the latter pH attains 7.0, at which
time the former is about 3.0. The amounts of regenerating chemicals used
are regulated so that breakthrough on both cells occurs at approximately
the same time. After completion of this so-called juice cycle, the juiee
flow is transferred to another pair and water is introduced into the. original
pair to displace the juice. This is called sweetening off and is continued
until the Brix reaches some low figure, about 1.5. The cells are backwashed with raw water which removes mechanically held impurities and
reclassifies the resins, thus reducing the pressure drop through the beds
during the service cycle. After draining, the cation bed is regenerated 1
with 5 per cent sulfuric acid. Usually 200 to 300 per cent of the .stoichiometric amount is used. The anion bed is regenerated with 2 per cent
aqua ammonia. Both cells are rinsed to remove excess regenerant and
then are ready for use again. A typical time cycle in minutes is: juice, 45;
sweetening off, 17; backwash, 15; drain, 7; regeneration, 30; and rinse, 20.
Ion exchange requires a large amount of water for the various procedures
outlined above. Besides this, the main disadvantages are the large capital!
cost of the outlay, the'acidproofing of all exposed surfaces, and the high
price of the regenerating chemicals.
Energy Requireme~ts. In the direct manufacture of sugar there are
few or no chemical changes that require energy. Almost all the steps in
the manufacturing sequences involve physical changes or unit operations.
These consume energy in the form of power for crushing, pumping, and
centrifugation, and heat for solution, evaporation, and drying. On the
bottom of the flow sheets for refined cane sugar and for beet sugar (Figs.
2 and 5) are given some average figures for energy material (steam or coal)
requirements. The steady improvement by chemical engineers of the
equipment necessary to make these various unit operations function
1
See Chap. 4 for
more details on ion exchange.
654
SUGAU AND STARCH INDUS'rRIES
efficiently has gradually reduced the energy requirements to the reasonable amounts given.
Although bagasse is used for fuel in most raw-sugar mills, bagasse is
becoming a more important raw material yearly (Celotex, chicken litter,
stock feed); hence, other fuel may be employed. In fact, only 8 per cent
of the total weight of sugar cane is obtained as raw sugar, and recovery
of such potential by-products as allyl sucrose, lactic acid, sorbitol, furfural, and wax from the cane pulp, cuticle wax, and molasses should be
profitable.
In all sugar-manufacturing establishments, there is an economical dual
use of steam (see Chap. 5) wherein high-pressure steam from the boiler
is expanded through a reciprocating engine or a turbine to furnish power
and wherein the exhaust steam is condensed to secure heat for evaporation
of the juices and sirups. The condensed steam resu!ting is pumped back
to the boilers or is employed for making sirups.
In beet-sugar refining, Fig. 5 indicates 0.66 tons of cqal for 1 ton of
refined sugar or lO,OOO B.t.u. l per lb. of sugar. ,Some plants now produce
1 lb. of refined beet sugar with only 6,000 Rt.u. 2
Miscellaneous S~gars:Lactose or milk sugads presented in Chap. 39
under Milk Chemicals, while sorbitol' and mannltol'are now made by
hydrogenation. Much molasses serves as the carbohydrate raw material
in the fermentation. industries (Chap. 31) or as cattle feed.
\
STARCHES AND RELATED PRODUCTS
Although starch is known to have the approximate formula (C SH lO 0 5)n,

its exact structure is still unsolved. It may be regarded as a chain polyglucosidic mac~omolecule. It is one of the most common substances existing in nature and is the major basic constituent of the average diet. Industrially', its applications are numerous, being used in more than 300 modern
industries, including the manufacture of textiles, paper, adhesives, insecticides, paints, soaps, explosives, and such derivatives as dextrins, nitro)'tarch, and corn sugar. Starch has been the object of a large amount of
research in recent years, covering such products as heat-resistant adhesives, esters comparable to the cellulose esters, oxidation of dextrose to
carboxylic acids, and the preparation of wetting agents.
Historical. 3 It is a well-known fact that the ancients used starch in
manufacturing paper (as an adhesive and stiffener) as early as 3500 B.C.
PERRY, op. cit., p. 1561, for B.t.u. in typical coals.
SHAFOR, Process Economy Emphasized in Recent Beet Sugar Developments,
Chem. & Mel. Eng., 47, 464 (1U40); DANIELS and COTroN, Reburning of Defecation
Lime Cake, Ind. En!/. CAcm., 43, 624 (JU51).
3 RAULBY, "Starch aud Its Derivatives," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New
York, 1940.
1
USES AND ECONOMICS
655
The Egyptians of this period cement.ed papyrus t.ogether in this manner.

Between A.D. 700 and 1300 most paper was heavily coated with starch
but the practice was abandoned toward the end of the fourteenth century
and was not revived until our modern era. The use of starch in
textiles began during the Middle Ages, when it was very common as
a stiffening agent. By 1744 the English were using it in sizing and
warp glazing.
Textile demands soon brought about the introduction of potato starch
to supplement the wheat starch solely available up to this time. In 1811
the discoveries of Kirchhoff with respect to glucose and the thinning of
starches by enzymatic action gave great impetus to starch manufacture
through the increased fields of application which they created. The llse
of roasted starch did not begin until 1821, its usefulness being discovered
as the result of a textile fire at Dublin, Ireland. It had, however, been
prepared by LeG range as early as 1804.
The first starch produced in this country was white-potato starch,
made at Antrim, N.H., in 1831. In 1842, Kingsford began the production
of corn starch, which became increasingly popular until by 1885 it had
risen to the position of the leading textile starch in the field. It was in
this period also that the manufacture of dextrins (roasted starches) was
begun in the United States.
Uses and Economics. In 1954 nearly 2 billion pounds of starch were
produced in the United States, for all purposes, including conversion into
sirup and sugar. Of this total about 95 per cent was corn starch. Some
statistics on corn are presented in Table 2. Imports, consisting principally of tapioca, sago, and arrowroot starches, totaled about 63,000,000
lb., and exports, principally corn starch, totaled about 100,000,000 lb.
The largest single use for corn starch is as a food,l about 30 per cent
being thus consumed. Industrial uses account for the remaining 70 per
cent with the cotton textile industry and domestic and commercial
laundry trade the largest consumers. The third largest is the paper industry which utilizes corn starch as a filler and sizing material. Following
in importance are the explosives, cosmetics, and adhesive industries. Adhesives 'requiring a starch base are used in making an almost countless
number of products, ad is discussed more fully in Chap. 25. White-potato
starch can be employedl for almost everyone of the uses outlined for corn
starch. Approximately.8,250 tons of starch were made in 1949 requiring
3,000,000 bu. of potatoes for production. It has the advantage of a large
granule size and more ,desirahle phosphoric acid content, hut it is more
expensive than corn starch.
Wheat, rice, arrowroqt,
and ca.~8ava (tapioca) .~tarches also have many of
,
1 ANON., "The Story of ,Corn and Tt.s Pl"Oducts," Corn Industries Research Foundation, New York, 1949.
656
the same applications as corn starch. Rice starch is particularly preferred

for laundry purposes. Tapioca starch is very common as a food.
In addition to the starches themselves, many further reaction products
are made. These include the following: Dextrin, or "roasted starch,"
which is available. in more than 100 different blends and types, varying
from pure white to light yellow in color; they are used to make a great
number of different pastes, gums, and adhesives. Corn sirup is a combination of dextrose, maltose, dextrin, and water. Approximately 1.9 billion
pounds a year, or 95 per cent, are used for food, largely as sweeteners.
TABLE
2.
SAT,E O~' SPECIFIEr> CORN PRODUCTS FRO~{ 'VET-PROCESS GRINI>INGS'
(For Hl5.t)
Product
Starch .... , , .... , , , ,
Sugar,., ... ,." .. '..
Sirup, unmixed . , ' , .
Dextrins ........ , ...
] ,000
lin its
1,fl05,586Ih,
745,112 lb.
1, 55\) ,594 lb.
168,958 lb.
Product
1,000 units
Corn oil, crude. , ........

Corn oil, refined .........
.Corn oil meal. ...... ' ...
Gluten feed and mpal. ...
53,3!l-t lb.
17(),986 lb.
fl45 tons
46 tons
" U.S. Department of Agri(mlture, Washington, 195.5.
Nonfood or industrial applications are small but important, such as in the

textile, leather tanning, adhesive, pharmaceutical, paper, and tobacco
industries. Corn sugar, or dextrose, is the sugar found in the blood. It has
many food uses dependent upon its lower rate of crystallization, lesser
sweetness, and different crystal formation. It is widely employed by the
medical profession for infant feeding and prescriptions in sirup form.
Industrially, it is important as a constituent of the viscose-rayon spinning
bath, in leather tanning, tobacco conditioning, and fermentation. Important by-products of the starch industry are corn gluten, feed and meal,
corn-oil meal, and corn oil. Virtually all the gluten and meal is used as
feed, but a specially prepared gluten, very high in protein, is employed as
a material for plastics and lacquers~ Zein, concentrated from the gluten
/ fraction, is used as the raw material for Vicara. Over 12,000,000 lb. of
steep water are consumed annually in the growing of penicillin and streptomycin (Chap. 31). Inositol,I or hexahydroxy-cyclohexane, a sugar substance and a member of the vitamin B complex, is made from corn steep
water.
Manufacture of Starch, Dextrin, and Dextrose from Com. Corn refining is an enormous industry, consuming (in 1954) 130,940,000 bu. of
corn, and at one time (J947)'as high as 140,000,000.
1 ANON., Up Output Tenfold, Chern. Eng., 68 (7), 200 (1951), including a flow sheet;
c/. GREENFIELD, et aI., Industrial Wastes Cornstarch Process, Ind. Eng. Chern., 39,
583 (1947).
MANUFACTURE OF STARCH, DEXTRIN, AND DEXTROSE FROM CORN
657
Chemically, the corn kernel consists of from 11 to 20 per cent water

and t.he following nonaqueous constituents, expressed in per cent:'
Starch .................. .
\l Proteins ................. .
Pentosans ............... .
60.0--65.0
8.0--10.0
7.0-- 7.5
Oil. .................... .
Fiber ................... .
Ash .................... .
3.0-4.5
1.2-1.5
1.2-1.3
On this basis, 1 bu. of corn yields about 30.8 lb. of starch, 23.5 lb. of byproducts (gluten meal, corn bran, germ-oil meal, and steep water), and
1.7 lb. of corn oil.
The sulfurous acid method of refining is employed, using shelled corn
as raw materia12 and the following physical changes or unit operations (see
Fig. 6).
The first operation consists of cleaning the corn by means of screens, compressed air, and electromagnets. The cleaned corn is steeped for 2 days in warm
water (115 to 125F.) containing about 0.30 per cent sulfur dioxide. The latter
prevents fermentation during the soaking period. Large, hopper-bottomed, woodsteeping vats are employed for this operation which softens the gluten a,nd loosens
the hull. The steep water dissolves salts, soluble carbohydrates, and protein.
The cleaned and softened kernels are degerminated between two studded steel
plates, one rotating and one stationary, which tear the kernels apart anr} extricate
the corn germs without crushing them. The latter is liquid-separated from the
hull in so-called germ separators, which are large agitated tanks. The germ, because
of its oil content, is floated away from the rest of the kernel and carried off in
the overflow. It is washed, dried, ground, and put through expellers (see Chap.
28).
The remainder of the corn kernel contains the starch, gluten, and cellulose. It is wet-ground in buhrstone mills and passed through a series of
hexagonal reels open at both ends and covered with nylon bolting cloth.
W liter washes the starch and gluten through the nylon sides while the
hull and fiber particles tumble out the lower end. The last bits of hull
and fiber are removed on rectangular shaker screens covered with nylon
bolting cloth, after which the starch-gluten suspension flowsl into the
centrifugal separators.1 Figure 6 shows the still widely used sCl;eens and
starch tables.
Centrifugal separatdrs are a ~ecent innovation 3 to improve the old-time
starch tables. They reguire less space, are cleaner because they are completely enclosed, show a marked reduction in start-up and shut-down
1 WALTON, "A Comprehensive Study of Starch Chemistry," Vol. 1, pp. 130--139,
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 192!'l.
STARR, Making the Most from Corn, Chem. Eng., 56 (8), 93 (1949), with a pictured flow sheet on p. 140.
3 TAYLOR, Centrifugals Replace Tables for Separation of Stareh and Gluten, Chem.
Inds., 62, 54 (1948).
C\...
\...0
U J
00'1
en
CCII
UQ)
1-
I-t:
oCS
V
658
MANUFACTURE OF STARCH, DEXTRIN, AND DEXTROSE FROM CORN
659
time, and give a satisfactory separation of starch and gluten. A starch

recovery of 85 to 90 per cent of theoretical was the best available on the
tables, while centrifugals recover 95 per cent or better. The starch and
gluten suspensions are passed through two centrifugals operated in series.
The starch, being the heavier, leaves the underflow from the first centrifugal and is further separated from the gluten in the second stage.
After centrifuging, the last traces of soluble materials are removed from
the starch slurry by continuous vacuum filters. The washed starch cake
is removed from the drums by either a "doctor blade" or string-discharge
arrangement. The starch is reslurried and processed: into a finished dry
starch product or converted into other products. The gluten, obtained
from overflow in the centrifugal separators, is partially dehydrated by
centrifugal force, dried, and sold as adhesive or food.
If commercial starch is to be made, the starch is removed from suspension with a vacuum string-discharge filter. The cake is broken and dried
in a continuous-tunnel drier traveling countercurrent to the air. The
starch enters with a moisture content of 44 per cent and exits at 10 to 14
per cent. This form is sold as pearl starch. Powdered starch is ground and
screened pead starch. Lump or gloss starch is made from powdered starch
containing a slightly higher per cent of moisture. Precooking the starch
yields gelatinized starches. For thick-boiling starch, alkali conversion is
used; for thin-boiling starch, mild-acid conversion.
Another product of corn refining is dextrin, or "roasted starch." Starch
itself is not soluble in water, but its derivative, dextrin, dissolvef:l readily
to give various commercial adhesives, pastes, and gums. Conversion is
carried out in round wood 'tanks equipped with a scraper and open at the
top. The scraper prevents sticking during the heating period which may
vary from 2 hr. for some white dextrins to 15 hr. for certain gums. The
temperature also influences the kind of dextrin being prepared.
When starch is hydrolyzed in the presence of acid, the product is either
corn sirup ()r corn sugar (dextrose), depending upon the extent of the COIlversion. Hydrochloric acid is the hydrolyzing agent employed almost
exclusively in the Un!ted States and sulfuric acid in Europe. A green
starch suspension is pumped into a cylindrical bronze conv~rter and
heated to 270 to 280<?F. over a period of 15 to 2_0 min. If corn sugar
(dextrose) is being prepared instead of the sirup, a slightly stronger acid
(0.2 per cent) and a loAger conversion period are necessary. The,converter
mixture is adjusted to 'a pH of 4.5 to 5.5 with soda ash, filtered, and concentrated to 30o Be. The Tesulting sirupy liquid is decolorized with activated carbon and evaporation continued, now under. vacuum, until the
concentration has rea!ched 42 to 456. 'Phe resulting sirup, containing
dextrose, maltose, dextrin, and water, is cooled, packaged, and sold as
corn sirup or glucose. The sirup may be dried between two steam-heated
chromium-plated rolls where the moisture is reduced to less than 5 per
660
WHITE-POTATO STARCH
661
cent. The dried material is s('raped off the heated drum rolls and ground.
If pure corn sugar is desired, the hydrolysis is carried farther so that
little or no starch and dextrin are in the sirup. This sirup, concentrated
to 42Be., containing about 80 per cent corn sugar, is cooled, seeded, and
crystallized slowly with gentle agitation in closed horizontal cylindrical
vessels during 100 hr. (see Fig. 7). This sugar is separated from its mother
liquor in centrifuges, washed, and dried. Three types of corn sugar, known
as crude, pressed, and refined, are available. The commercial product is
usually sold as dextrose or corn sugar but chemically this is the monosaccharide d-glucose. Lactic acid may be and is produced from the fermentation of dextrose by lactobacilli in wooden fermentors.
A new plant, in fact the first plant processing starch1 from grain built
in the United States since 1922, was completed in 1949. This plant was
specifically designed to process starch from grain sorghums as milo maize.
Although the chemical composition of milo maize is about the same as
corn, milo maize differs in practically every other respect. This plant
employs continuous and fully automatic operation, and since it is located
at- Corpus Christi, Tex., utilizes partly" outdoor" type of construction.
The processes used are very similar to those described under wet-milling
of corn.
MISCELLANEOUS STARCHES
Two varieties of potato starch are manufactured at present: whitepotato starch and sweet-potato starch.
White-potato Starch. 2 White potatoes contain lO~o 30 per cent starch.
The starch may be recovered either batchwise or continuously, with the
trend definitely toward the economical continuous processing. Upon being
received at the factory, the potatoes are washed and disintegrated to a
watery pUlp. Formerly for disintegration a rasping machi.ne was used,
butt newer practice utilizes a hamme."'mill. The pulp is treated with sulfur
dioxide gas, in the ratio 0.5 lb. per lb. of starch and sent to a continuous
horizontal centrifuge with an imperforate conical bowl and continuous
spiral ribbon starch remover. The protein-water mixture is separated from
the starch, cellulose, and skins, and the latter resuspended in water as a
milk. The suspension is sieved, the pulp from the'sieves is reground and
resieved. The milk frdm the second sieving is again passed through a cenI TAYLOR, Starch "and Sugar from Milo Maize, Chem. Inds., 64, 932 (1949); HIGHTOWER, The New Corn Products Plant: It Makes Wet Milling History, Chem. Eng.,
66 (6), 92 (1949), with, a ,pictured flow sheet. This plant may be of particular interest
because the literature c.ontains accounts of the laboratory and pilot-plant studies
which may be compared'with the actual plant practice. See ROGGE, Dextrose from
Cornstarch, Ind. Eng. C,hem., 41, 2070 (1949).
2 HOWERTON and THEADWAY, Manufacture of White Potato Starch, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 40, 1402 (1948); REICHENBERG, Potato Starch Compback, Chem. Eng., 66
(6), 120 (1949).
662
tl'ifugc, suspended in water, and sent to the tables for separation. From
this point on operations are similar to those used for the manufacture of
corn starch.
Wheat Starch.! In the manufacture of this cereal starch, the major
diffi~ulty encountered is the separation of the starch and gluten. This
may be accomplished by fermentatinn or Martin's process. In the fermentation process the grain is steeped until soft, a mash made which is
left to ferment for 7 to 30 days. The gluten is solubilized, and the remainder of the grain loses its adhesive properties. At the proper point the
starch is' washed from the mixture in a washing drum. The process is
hut rarely used because of its objectionable odor, low yield, and wastage
of now valuable gluten. In the Martin process, wheat is ground to flour,
made into a dough with about 40 per cent of its weight of water and stored
for 1 hr. The resulting mass is divided into small lumps and placed in a
scmicircular sieve where a traveling roller presses out the starch, whiph
is removed by a fine water spray. The resulting liquor is treated in much.
the Same manner as corn-starch liquor.
Rice Starch. This is made from" cargo rice" which still has the brown,
outer cuticle attached, or from the broken white grains rejected as foodstuff. The rice is steeped for 24 hr. witli caustic soda solution (specific
gravity 1.(05) in cement or iron tanks with perforated false hottomR. At
the end of the period the liquor il:l withdrawn, the rice washed, fresh liquor
added, and steepinl!: continued for another 36 to 48 hr. The resulting
Roftened grains are ground with a caustic solution to a specific gravity
of 1.24 and the mash is centrifuged. The solids obtained include all sorts
of fibrous material, starch, and gluten. These are resuspended, a small
amount of formaldehyde is added to inhibit fermentation, and the~. are
recentrifuged and washed. A bleaching or bluing agent may be added fat
this point. The liquor is screened, adjusted t.o a specific gravity of 1.21,
and sent to draining boxes having perforated bottoms covered with cotton
fabric. Settling is aided by applying suction through the .box ,bottom.
The resulting starch blocks are cut and placed on porous plates in a
I crusting stove, where they are allowed_ to,dry for 2 days at 50 to 60 c e.
Cassava (Tapioca) Starch. This starch is obtained from the roots and
tubers of th.e manioc plant, which grows in the East Indies, West Indies,
and South America. The average starch conteI].t varies from 20 to 30 per
cent, In general, the roots are pulped and washed on si~ves to obtain the
starch. In the West Indies, the pulp is squeezed through coarse bags to
expel the starch milk. Separating and purifying operations are similat; to
those described for potato starch.
Sago Starch. This is obtained from the pith of the sago palm, and also
from yams in the East Indies and Borneo. Pearl sago starch is made by
1 KERR, "Chemistry and Industry of Starch," 2d ced., Academic Press, Inc., New
York, 1950.
SELECTED REFERENCES
663
drying the starch so as to form a plastic dough, which is then forced

through sieves and dried in the air.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Sugar:
Sugar, monthly journal, 339 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La.
Tromp, L. A., "Machinery and Equipment of the Cane Sugar Factory," Norman
Rodger, London, 1936.
Spencer, G. L., and G. P. Meade, "Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers," John
Davies, J. G., "Principles of Cane Sugar Manufacture," Norman Rodger, London,
1938.
Browne, C. A., "Physical and Chemical Methods of Sugar Analysis," 3d ed., John
Lyle, 0., "Technology for Sugar Refinery Workers," Norman Rodger, London, 1941.
U.S. Tariff Commission, "Sugar and Reciprocal Trade Agreements," Wilshington,
April, 1940.
pp. 1335-1377, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
Sugar Bibliography, pp. 1373-1377 in "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry,"
6th ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
McGinnis, R. A., "Beet Sugar Technology," 'Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1951.
Starch:
Walton, R. P., "A Comprehensive Study of Starch Chemistry," Reinhold Publishing
Radley, J. A., "Starch and Its Derivatives," 3d ed., Vols."I and II, John Wiley &
U.S. Tariff Commission, "Starch and Dextrins and Reciprocal Trade Agreements,"
Washington, September, ,1940.
pp. 1378-1406, D. Van 'Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
Kerr, It. W. Eo, "Chemistry and Industry of Starch," 2d ed., Academic Press, Inc.,
New Y!>rk, 1950.
I,
CHAPTER
31
FERMENTATION INDUSTRIES
'The employment of microorganisms to convert one substance into

another is a science that man is assiduously studying and is energetically
applying. Although the fermentation of fruits to alcohol was known to ,
primitive man and although the making of various beverages out of fruits
and grains has been well established for centuries, it is only dtuing the
past generation that the wider application of this procedure has been recognized. Now, man is directing the life processes of yeasts, bacteria, and
molds to the production of chemicals. Alcohol can be viewed as having
been produced in this way from the earliest times, but the making of
acetone and butanol, of acetic acid, lactic acid, ~itric acid, and the many
antibiotics is a recent technical accomplishment.
The foundation of the scientific understanding of fermentation, indeed
of the action .of all microorganisms and hence of their economic control,
rests firmly upori the genius of one man, Louis Pasteur. 1 He showed that
fermentation is directly caused by the life processes of minute organisms.
By understandirlg how these microorganisms function and by the recognitionthat varieties of yeasts, for instance, act differently and that environment fundamentally affects even a given strain, one can control these
processes of fermentation in an exact scientific manner.
The fungi are a branch of the nongreen plants and include bacteria,
yeasts, and molds. These feed upon organic materials. It is this feeding
that interests the manufacturer; for if he supplies to certain yeasts,
I bacteria, or molds the necessary fundamental energy food, together with
the other needed nutrients, then these mirovegetative organisms will
not only grow and mUlt.iply but will change the food-into other chemical
su bstances.
Yeasts and bacteria are unicellular and of very smaH dimensions. The
yeasts are irregularly oval and perhaps 0.004 to 0.010 mm. in diameter.
The bacteria are smaller, mostly less than 0.007 mm. in the longer dimension and more diverse in shape. Many of them, the bacilli, are rod-shaped.
Th~ yeasts multiply by budding, and the bacteria by binary fission. The
molds are multicellular filaments and increase by vegetative growth of the
1 For further historical background, see
Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 574 (lU51).
BORU~'F
664
and
VAN LANEN.
Fermentation,
FERMENTATION INDUSTHIES
665
filament. Sporulation provides for the next cycle, as it does also with
many bacteria. The vegetative reproduction cycle of these bacteria and
of the yeasts is short-measured in minutes. Because of this, they multiply exceedingly fast.
Many microorganisms have been brought into useful service to man.
One of the striking developments since the 1920's has been the extension
to the making of chemicals, other than alcohol, of the life processes of these
minute vegetative organisms. Table 1 lists some of these performances,
which, in larger industrial scale, embrace the manufacture of antibiotics,
acetone, butanol, acetic acid, lactic acid, and citric acid. This table shows
the importance of fermentation in foods and feeds. Several of the older
laboratory procedures, such as the making of citric and gluconic acids,
have been developE;ld to the industrial stage. One of the outstanding developments of the Second World War was the making of penicillin which
stimulat~d further important discoveries in the field of antibiotics. Many
fermentation processes are frequently in direct competition with strictly
chemical syntheses. Alcohol from fermentation and from ethylene compete. Aceton~, butanol, and acetic acid by fermentation have largely been
superseded by their synthetic counterparts. However, the antibiotics have
paced a recent fermentation revival and with the exception of one, chloramphenicol, all the major antibiotics are obtained exclusively from fermentation processes. Dextran' is another fermentation product which,
because of its possible use as a plasma volume expander, has gained
prominence. The microbiological production of vitamins has also become
economically important.
Actually fermentation under controlled conditions involves many chemical processes. Some of the more important ones are: oxidation, e.g., alcohol
to acetic acid, sucrose to citric acid, and dextrose to gluconic acid; reduction, e.g., aldehydes to alcohols, as acetaldehyde to ethyl alcohol and
sulfur to hydrogen sulfide; hydrolysis, e.g., starch to glucose or sucrose to
glucose and 'fructose; and esterification, e.g., hexose phosphate from hexose
and phosphoric acid.
However, many of 'the chemical reactions caused by microorganisms
are very complex and! cannot easily he classified; so the concept of fermentation itself as a unit process has been developed. According to Silcox
and Lee 2 the five basip prerequisites of a good fermentation process are:
I. A microorganism ~hat forms a desired end product. This organism must
be readily propagated and be capahle of maintaining biological uniformity,
thereby giving predictaqle yields.
et aI., Dextran, Ind. Eng. Chem., 46, 692 (H)53).
and LEE, F.,rmentation, Ind. Eng. them., 40, 1602 (1948); LEE, et al.,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 41, 1868 (1949); 42, 1672 (1950); 43, 1948 (1951); 44, 1996 (1952);
PERLMAN, et al., 41l', 1944 (HI53). The fermentat.ion section of these annual unitprocess rev"iews should be,especially consulted.
1
BIXLER,
SILCOX
666
2.
3.
4.
5.
Economic raw materials for the substrate.

Acceptable yields.
Rapid fermentation.
A product that is readily recovered and purified.
According to Lee, certain factors should be stressed in relation t.o the

fermentation unit process concept, such as microorganism, equipment,
and the fermentation itself. Certain critical factors of the f.ermentation
are the pH, temperature, aeration-agitation, pure-culture fermentation,
and uniformity of yields.
In understanding, and hence in correctly handling microorganisms, a
sharp differentiation should be made usually between the initial growth
of a selected strain of these organisms to a sufficient quantity; and the
subsequent processes whereby, either through their continued living or as
a result of enzymes previously secreted, the. desired chemical is manufactured. To get a maximum chemical yield it is frequently advisable to
suppress. additional increase in quant.ity of the microorganism. Highly
specialized mycologists! working in well-equipped laboratories are engaged in selecting and growing the particular strain of the organism that.
experiment has shown to produce the chemical or chemicals wanted and
with the greatest yields and the least by-product.
No longer will just. any yeast do to make industrial alcohol or a fermented beverage; not only are wild yeasts excluded, but a special strain
must be used.
The yeasts, bacteria, and molds employed require specific environments and foods to ensure their activities. The conce~tration of the sugar
or other food affects the product. The temperature.most favorable varies
(5 to 40C.). the pH also has great influence. Indeed, the bacteriologist
has developed some acid-Iov'iiig yeasts, so t.hat the wild yeasts, not liking
this condition, do not flourish. Some microorganisms require air (aerobic),
and others go through their life processes without air (anaerobic). Certain
anaerobes will' neitlier grow nor function in the presence of air. In airecting these minute vegetative organisms, conditions can 'be controlled to
I encourage the multiplicat.ion of the organism first and then its functioning
either directly or through the enzymes secreted. How important this is
can be seen from the knowledge that to grow 1 gram of yeast (dry basis)
requires 1.5 to 2.0 grams of monosaccharide per day, and 6 grams to maintain the yeast. By virtue of this growth organic catalysts or enzymes are
formed frequently that directly cause the desired chemical change. During
the growth period, in addition to the primary or energy food, such as
monosaccharides for yeast, there are needed various nutrients, such as
small amounts of phosphates, nitrogenQus compounds, as well as the
favorable pH and temperature. Finally, certain substances will poison
I Those skilled in dealing with bacteria, yeasts, and molds. Industrially, one laboratory will frequently control the use of only one species of bacteria, for example.
66i
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
these useful little vegetables and their enzymes. Even the alcohol formed
by the yeasts will eventually reach a concentration (varying with the
yeast from about 2 to 15 per cent) that will suppress the activity of the
organism and of the enzymes. Weare, furthermore, recognizing the im:TABLE
SURVEY OF IMPORTANT FERI.{ENTATIOJ:'Sa
Industrial, pharmaceutical
Food and feed
Laboratory
Bread (Y.)
Alcohol (Y.)
Succinic acid (M., Y., and
Cheese (M. or B.)
Yeast (Y.)
Enzymes (M., Y., and B.)
Carbon dioxide (Y.)
Lactic acid (B.)
Gallic acid (M.)
Glycerine (Y.)
Acetic acid (B.)
Acetone-butyl alcohol CB.)
Citric acid (M.)
Fumaric acid (M.)
B.)
Vinegar (B. and Y.)

Sauerkraut (B.)
Koji (M. and Y.)
Tea (B.)
Coffee (M.)
Cocoa (B. and Y.)
Pickles (B. and Y.)
Kojic acid (M.) ,

Butyric acid (B.')
Propionic acid (B.)
Malic acid (M. and Y.)
Fuel gas, II2 (B.)
Dihydroxy-acetone (B.)
Acetic acid from cellulose
(B.)
Gluconic acid (M.)

Penicillin (M.)
Sulfuric acid from
Olives (H.)
Yeast (Y.)
~ulfur
(B.)
Beer (Y.)
Wine (Y.)
Whisky (Y.)
Vitamins
Riboflavin (H. and Y.)
Vitamin B" (H. and M.)
Ergosterol (Y. and M.)
Vitamin Bl (Y.)
Antibiotics
\ Penicillin (M.)
Aureomycin (M.)
Terramycin (M.)
Bacitracin (M.)
Prccipitation iron (B.)

Nitrogen fixation (B.)
Fusel oil (Y.)
2,3-butanediol (B.)
Itaconic acid (M.)
2-Ketogluconic acid (B.)
5-Ketogluconic acid (B.)
Penicillin (M.)
Streptomycin (M.)
Chloramphenicol (M.)
Aureomycin (M.)
Terramycin (M.)
Bacitracin (B.)
~eomycin
V~rious antibiotics
(M.)
Dextran (B.)
a
Y. stands for yeast; B. for bacteria; M. for molds.
portance of the life processes of the microorganisms in making vitamins,

some of which are being recovered and sold in a concentrated form.
"
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
Industrial alcohoi was an outgrowth of alcoholic beverages, but now it

has become important by virtue of its economically useful properties as
668
FERMJ<JNTATION INDUSTRIES
a solvent and for synthesis of other chemicals. Alcohol is sold as tax-paid I

alcohol or, much more widely, as nontaxed denatured alcohol. There arc
two classes of the latter: completely denatured and specially denatured
alcohol. The completely denatured formulas comprise admixtures of substances which are difficult to separate from the alcohol and which smell
and taste bad, this all being designed to render the alcohol nonpotable.
Such completely denatured alcohol is sold widely without bond. The
public uses it as an antifreeze and the factories find it an essential raw
material. A typical completely denatured alcohol formula follows:
Formula No. 12. To every 100 gal. of ethyl alcohol of not less than 160 deg.
proof add:
4.0 gal. of ST-115 2 or a compound similar thereto.
1.0 gal. of Dehydrol-O or a compound similar thereto.
0.5 gal. of acetaldol (hydroxy-butyraldehyde) or 1.5 gal. of methyl isobutyl
ketone.
1.0 gal. of kerosene.
The Federal government has recognized the needs of industry for alcohol in such form that it can enter into specialized manufacturing processes
where the denaturants used in the completely denatured alcohols would
interfere. So, since 1906, ,vhen the first United States denatured alcohol
law was passed, many formulas, of specially denatured alcohol, have been
approved by the Federal authorities. Such special formulas are limited to
certain designated processes and are manufactured, stored, and used
under bond, to ensure such specially denatured alcohols from unlawful
consumption. However, the 57 appf(~~ed special formulas under their
authorized uses enter into an exceedingly broad section of the entire
industrial life of the nation. 3 Typical'specially denatured formulas are:
I The Federal tax is $10.50 per proof gallon and hence $19.95 on a gallon of 190proof alcohol. To this the state may add its own 'tax. The total sum collected by the
Federal Alcohol Tax Vnit was $2;549,119,689 during the fiscal year 1952, largely from
beverages. A proof gallon (tax gallon) signifies a gallon containing '50 per cent alcohol
by volume; 100 volumes of lOG-proof alcohol contain' 50 volumes of absolute alcohol and 53.73 volumes of water, owing to volume contraction. Ordinary alcohol of 95 per
cent strength is thus 190-proof alcohol, and pure anhydrous alcohol is 200-proof.
It is interesting to observe that lOO-proof alcohol is about the 'lower limit of burning
for alcohoi dilutions by direct ignition at ordinary temperatures. A wine gallon is a
measure of volume (231 cu. in.) of any proof.
.
The d!lnaturants added to make completely denatured alcohol are frequently
commerciai mixtures. Full specifications are given in the pamphlet entitled "Formulae
for 'Completely and Specially Denatured Alcohol," published by the U.S. Bureau of
Internal Reyenue, Appendix to Regulations, No.3, revised, 1942. ST-115 is an impure'
pyroligneous product, free from wood alcohol, but produced from destructive distillation of wood. Dehydrol-O is a compound petroleum product.
3 Formulas 1, 2B, and 29 accounted for approximately 80 per cent of the withdrawals during the fiscal year 1952 of 489,788,861 proof gal. (455,999,873 in 1951).
USES AND ECONOMICS
669
To every 100 gal. of ethylllicohol, add for the designate!l number:

No. 1. five gal. approved wood alcohol. Withdrawals for 1950: 25,272,-l68 wine gal.
Authorized uses: lacquers and other surfaced coatingR, dyes, chemicals, etc.
No. 2B. One-half gal. benzol.
Withdrawals for 1950: 20,013,497 wine gal.
Authorized uses: plastics, dehydrations, exploRives, foorl procluets, ehemicals,
etc.
No. 29. One gal. of 100 per cent acetaldehyde.
Withdrawals for 1950: 94,430,664 wine gal.
Authorized uses: manufacturing acetaldehyde, acetic acid, esters, E_lthers, etc.
In industrial nomenclature alcohol means ethyl alcohol or ethanol with

the formula C 2H 50H. It is sold by the gallon which weighs (i.79~ lb. and
contains 95 per cent C 2H 60H and 5 per cent H 2 0 both hy volume and at.
15.56C.l No dist.inction is made as to the source of the alcohol, whether
it be from fermentation or from synthesis.
Uses and Economics. 2 Tax-paid pure alcohol is used only for medicinal,
pharmaceutical, flavoring, or beverage purposes. The large consumption
and the wide field of industrial application have arisen only since the
availability of the low-priced tax-free denatured alcohols. Completely
denatured alcohol is consumed chiefly as an antifreeze. The ~rend has
been toward the use of specially denatured alcohols for industrial applications. Alcohol is second only to water in solvent value and is employed
in nearly all industries. In addition it is the raw material for making
hundreds of chemicals. Most important of these are acetaldehyde, ethyl
acetate, acetic acid, ethylene dibromide, glycols: and ethyl chloride.
During the Second World War when tremendous quantities of butadiene
and styrene were needed for the synthetic-rubber program, alcohol was
used as a supplemental taw material for butadiene although petroleum
is, the cheaper raw material. In fact, in 1945, 75 per cent of the specially
d~natured alcohol entered into synthetic-rubber manufacture.
In petroleum-poor countries it is economical to mix alcohol (frequently
absolute) in with the gasoline in order to conserve the petroleum products.
For such mixtures, i'f th,e alcohol is not anhydrous, a blending agent is
needed. These procedures have been carried out quite extensively in
Europe and in some tropical sugar-growing countries where from 10 to
20 per cent alcohol may be in the motor fuel, the higher amount having
been employed in Sreden for many years. Similar proposals have been
made for the United States and even tried in localized areas but were
uneconomical.
The cost of alcohQI is largely that of the raw material, alth(;mgh steam,
1 This corresponds to 92.423 per cent of ethyl alcohol by weight. However, when
alcohol percentage strength is given, it refers to percentage by volume.
'Staff Report, Industrial Alcohol, Chem. Eng. News, 29, 4932 (1951); "Ethyl
Alcohol," U.S. Tariff Commission, Industrial Materials Series, M-1, 1951.
670
overhead, labor, and other factors vary as to location. Raw materials

from which ethyl alcohol may be made fall into four general classifications: (1) saccharine materials (molasses from sugar beets and sugar
cane), (2) starchy materials (cereal grains, potatoes), (3) hydrocarbon
gases, and (4) cellulosic materials (wood, agricultural residues, and waste
TABLE 2.
ETHYL ALCOHOL: COMPAaATIVE STATISTICS, FISCAL YEARS
1951
1954"
(In thousands)
AND
Materials used:
Total grain, lb ................................ .
Corn and products, lh ........................ .
Rye and products, lb ........................ .
Malt and products, lh ........................ .
Wheat and products, lh ...................... .
Sorghum grain and products, lb ............... .
Ethylene gas, lb ............................... .
Molasses, wine gal. ............................ .
Ethyl sulfate, wine gal. ........................ .
Sulfite liquors, wine gal. ....................... .
Domestic un denatured alcohol, proof gal:
Production ................................... .
Withdrawals from bond, total. .................. .
Tax-paid withdrawals ........................ .
Tax-free withdrawals ........................ .
For denaturation ............................ .
All other ................................... .
Denatured alcohol, wine gal.:
Completely denatured alcohol:
Production ................................. .
Withdrawals ................................ .
Specially denatured alcohol:
I
Production ................................. .
Withdrawals ........... , .................... .
1951
1954
1,310,874
96,614
59,988
2,072
3,314
31,165
2n,139
701
109,646
63
930,681
72,409
128,536
148,393
256,238
117,259
80,916
]89,423
250,546
444,935
536,524
42,824
499,699
456,000
38,553
3J8,444
410,634
15,225
395,410
386,229
8,982
1,438
1,456
625
621
243,998
237,192
207,921
207,353
'"
"Chemical Statistics Handbook," Manufacturing Qhemists' Association (published annually).
sulfite liquors). Until 1935, blackstrap molasses from cane sugar was used ,.
more than any other material because of its cheapness, availability, and
easy conversion into alcohol. Blackstrap molasses contains from 50 to 55
per cent of fermentable sugar consisting mainly of 70 per cent sucrose
and 30 per cent invert (glucose-fructose mixture) sugar. A high-test
molasses was used extensively from 1935 to 1941 for alcohol production
and was a product of cane sugar which has been partly hydrolyzed, usually by acid treatment. It contains about 70 to 78 per cent total fermentable sugars, mostly invert. Molasses being almost unobtainable
671
MANUFACTURE OF INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
during the Second World War, manufacturers turned to corn and wheat
as the demand was urgent and cost secondary.
Since that time, the economics of the situation have varied so that
fermentors use the cheapest raw material, although a long-term trend
indicates that fermentation is to occupy a place of less importance as
a source of industrial alcohol. The year 1950 was the first year that fermentation accounted for less than 50 per cent of the alcohol produced,
the greater part being synthetically derived. The beverage laws specify
the use of grain alcohol in certain beverages (whisky), and custom demands it for some tax-paid solvent uses (see Tables 2 and 3). Thus a
TABLE 3. RAW MATERIALS USED IN ETHYL ALCOHOL MANUFACTURE"
(Per cent of total output)
Raw material
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951 b 1952'
Molasses ...............
Grain ..................
Ethylene ...............
Other ..................
Sulfite liquor ............
29.2
43.3
17.2
10.3
26.4
31.8
38.6
3.2
21. 7
16.0
53.5
8.8
42.8
10.4
42.1
4.7
36.3
3.3
46.9
13.5
31.5
0.7
57.5
10.3
23.9
25.7
48.5
1.9
26.3
18.2
48.7
5.5
1.2
"KUHN and HATCHESON, Ethylene Chemicals, Chern. Week, 69 (13), 24 (1951).

b Staff Report, Industrial Alcohol, Chern. Eng. News, 29, 4932 (1951).
, Annual Report, Internal Revenue, 1952, Table 16.
demand is created for this higher':priced grain alcohol which means that
lower-priced synthetics under these conditions will not entirely displace
fermentation alcohol.
MANUFACTURE OF INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
Raw Materials. THe manufacture of alcohol from ethylene or other

synthetic manufacturing procedures, now the most important source, is
discussed in Chap. 37. Alcohol from cellulosic materials, wood, wood
wastes, and sulfite liqttors is considered in Chap. 32. This last is not competitive except under special conditions, largely because of the cost of
converting the cellulosic material to fermentable sugars.
Reactions. The principal reactions in alcohol fermentation are Equation
of inversion:!
C 12H 220 11
Sucrose
+ H 0 --> C6H!~06 + C6H

2
d-Glucose
06
12
d-Fructose
1 In commercial parlance, reducing or invert sugars are fermented and include

the scientific d-glucose and d-fructose. The product sold commercially as glucose is
usually a sirup of d-glucose with some dextrin and maltose, while dextrose U.S.P. is
d-glucose.
672
F]';RM]';N'l'A'rlON INDUt;'fRlJ,;:,;
Hqualions of fermentation:!
C6H!206
2C 2H 50H
---+
Monosaccharide
Aleohol
+ 2C0
2;
tJ.!! = -31,200 cal.
(1 )
Toward the end of a fermentatioll, the acidity and glycerille increase.

N euberg's third equation may account for this.
2C 6H!206
+ H 20
---+
Monosaccharide
C ZH 6 0H
Alcohol
+ CHaCOOH + 2(,;0 + 2C aH 0a
2
Acetic
(2)
Glycerine
~cid
There is always found in alcohol fermentations a small amount of

glycerine.
Energy Requirements, Unit Operations, Unit Processes. The shipment
of raw material may involve tank-car moveme~t of molasses to the Cuban
Key
~;go:'("ro. Be:)
fJ'IH.1.50.
St ."m
es C~ndenser
&~?1't
0.015 lb.
SO lb.
Os Dephlegmator H- Heat e~changer S; Sepo.r~r
~"Process water'
~~~'i~rcit;+er
10 9"1.
}
ri.tl ~~~hr. _ . Per gal. 190 prOof alcohol
Direct labor
0.01 mClln-hr:
.FIG. 1. Flow sheet for industrial alcohol.
or Puerto Ric~n shore, steamer to an American (or other) port, and

barge or tatJ-k-train 2 transshipment to a plant, if inland. The plant procedures require steam heating for distillation, power for pumping, and
water for condensation and occasionally for cooljng during the exothermic
1 This is the classic, Gay-Lussac equation for alcohol 'formation. It is the" principal
equation in acid or low pH medium. When growing yeast for sale"'a~ su~h or for
inoculation, usually with some air blown in, the yield of.. alcohol is Jow~~, it being
I partly changed to CO 2 and H 20. However, this ftm;;ntation,~lik~ so, ,very many
industrial reactions, is very much more involved than"these simple reactions indicate.
Probably the first step is a phosphate-hexOse ester formation, 'followed by a split in
the six-carbon chain. Cf: 'MICHAELlS, Chemistry of Alcoholic Fermentation, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 27, 1037 (19351' The fusel oil (mixed amyl alcohols with some propyl,
butyl, ~nd hexyl alcohols ,and esters), amounting to 3 to 11 parts per 1,000 of alcohol,
obtained from yeast fermentations, is held to be furnished by the protein materials
in the mash fermented. Cf. PRESCOTI' and DUNN, "Industrial Microbiology," 2d ed.,
Chap. IV, MqGraw-HilI Book Compiiny, Inc., New York, 1949; UNDERKOFLER, L. A.,
editor, "Commercial Fermentations,'?Chemicai Publishing Company, Inc., New York,
1952.
The U.S. Interstate Commerce Commission allows, the rail~ads to make special
(low) freight charges for !'ntirc trainload shipments of tank rars of Illola~~es.
MAKING OF INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
673
fermentation. The heat evolved by this fermentation reaction calculates

to 88,940,000 kg.-cal., or 353,000,000 B.t.u. per 1,000 gal. of 95 per cent
alcohol. Its evolution is usually spread over several days.
The manufacture of alcohol, as presented in Fig. 1, can be broken
down into the following principal unit processes (Pr.) and unit operations
(Op.). The main steps in the competitive manufacture of alcohol from
petroleum cracking (cf. flow sheet, Fig. 19, Chap. 37) are shown in parallel
comparison.
Fermentation Alcohol
Alcohol from Ethylene
Transportation of molasses or corn Liquefaction of the petroleum gases
(Op.).
containing ethylene (Op.).
Storage of molasses or corn (Op.).
Rectification to produce pure ethylene
and pure ethane (Op.).
Grinding, etc., of corn (Op.).
Hydrolysis by heating of cornmeal with Dehydrogenation of ethane to ethylene
malt or acid to make mash (Pr.).
(Pr.).
Growth of inoculating~ cultures (Pr.).
Esterification of strong sulfuric acid by
Fermentation of diluted i~;erted
. ...... mo- ethylene (Pr.).
Hydrolysis of diluted ester to alcohol
lasses or of corn mash (Pr.). c,"\ .........
and diluted sulfuric acid (Pr.).
Distillation of alcohol from "be~r:!'
(Op.).
Distillation of alcohol from acid (Op.).
Rectification and purification of alcohol Rectification and purification of alco(Op.).
hol (Op.).
Recovery of by-products, e.g., CO 2, Concentration of diluted sulfuric acid
feed, potash salts (Op.).
to strong acid (Op.).
Recovery of by-products, e.g., ether
(Op.).
/
Making of' Industrial Alcohol. The flow sheet in Fig. 1 shows the
various operations and processes involved in changing molasses into
salable alcohol. Molasses, 'because of the strong concentration of sugar,
does not support direct yeast fermentation.' It must be diluted first to a
concentration of about 10 to 14 per cent sugars. This is called the mash
and represents the carbohydrate ready for yeast inoculation. It is pumped
to a large steel fermen~or (60,000 to 500,000 gal.), closed in modern plants
to collect the carbon dioxide evolved and to afford easier conditions for
cleaning and sterilizing. An ammonium salt and sulfuric acid are added,
the one to furnish a nutritive constituent deficient in molasses, and the
other the right environmental pH (4.0 to 5.0) to facilitate the activity
of the selected yeast ahd to suppress the multiplication of wild yeasts or
bacteria. Magnesium sulfate is also added, when deficient.
In the meanwhile a charge of the selected yeast (about 5 per cent of the
total volume) has bee,~ growing in the yeast 'tub. All this is under exact
laboratory supervisioJ?, including the selection of the inoculating yeast
I
Indeed strong sugar sirup is a
pre.~ervativc;
witness the prest'rving of fruits with it.
674
strain, the sterilization of the diluted molasses, the addition of the nutrients, the pH, the temperature (76F.) and finally the cleaning and
sterilizing of the yeast culture machine in readiness for the next batch.
The bacteriologists have been able to cultivate a strain of yeast that
thrives under these acid conditions, while wild yeast and bacteria do not.
As the reaction study indicates, the fermentation is exothermic and so
cooling by outside sprays is frequently used; hence one advantage of the
steel fermentor. Although the most favorable temperature varies, it is
usually around 70F. for starting and under lOOF. at the end. Four days
are allowed by governmental regulations for a fermentation cycle, though
usually 36 to 50 hr. are used. As alcohol is formed by yeast only from
monosaccharides, it is necessary to split the sucrose, C!2H 22 0 u , into
d-glucose and d-fructose.! In alcohol fermentation by yeast, this microorganism furnishes an organic catalyst, or enzyme, known as invertase
which effects this hydrolysis. The yeast also produces another and more
important enzyme, zymase, which changes the monosaccharides into
alcohol and carbon dioxide. The flow sheet of Fig. 2, Chap. 8, outlines
the procedure for purification of the carbon dioxide from fermentation.
Such recovery is practiced from a number of differe)1t fermentationsindustrial alcohol, whisky, and butanol-acetone.
When starchy materials are used for industrial alcohol, it is first necessary to convert the starch to monosaccharides. This can be done with
either malt or various mold processes. The malt process except for emergency periods is too expensive for industrial alcohol. Fungal amylase, an
enzymatic material produced by the fermentation of Aspergillus niger,
has been found to be an economical 2 replacement of malt for industrial
alcohol. However, grain alcohol! made by this method is still not competitive with that produced by lynthesis or by fermentation of blackstrap
molasses. In: addition fungal amylase cannot replace barley malt for
beverage production, since the flavor is not ,the same and because of
Federal regulations. During the Second W orId War, grain processing
I changed from batch operations to continuous cooking and hydrolyzing
processes. 3 Two types of such cookers were used commercially: a pipe-line
I cooker operated at 350F. with a holding time. of 1 to 2 min.; and a vertical tower, embodying a lower temperature and longer holding time.
1 An equimolecular mixture of these is known as invert sugar and results by the
action of heat, acids, or enzymes.
ANON., Grain Alcohol without Malt, Chem. Week, 68 (3), 19 (1951); ANON.,
Methods and Costs of Producing Alcohol from Grain by the Fungal Amylase Process
on a Commercial Process, U.S. DlJpt. Agr. Tech. Bull. 1024; cf. KIRK and OTHMER,
op. cit., VoL 1, pp. 252-286.
3 STARK, KOLACHov, and WILKIE, Wheat as a Raw Material for Alcohol Production, Ind. Eng. Chem., 36, 133 (1943); ANON., Continuous Cooking of Cereal Grains,
Chem. & Met. Eng., 61 (10), 142 (1944), a pictured flow sheet; ANON., Rec(\nt Advances in Fermentation, Chern. Eng., 64 (12), 141 (1947).
MAKING OF INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
675
The liquor in the fermentors after the action is finished, is called a beer.!
The alcohol is separated by distillation. 2 In such fermentation as pictured in Fig. 1, the beer, containing about 6.5 to 8.5 per cent alcohol by
volume, is pumped to the upper sections of the beer still, after passing
several heat exchangers. As the beer passes down the beer cQlumn, it
gradually loses its lighter-boiling constituents, namely, alcohol and a
small amount of aldehydes. The liquid discharged from the bpttom of
the still through a heat exchanger is known as slop or stillage. 3 It carries
proteins, some residual sugars, and, in some instances, vitamin ~products
so that it is frequently evaporated and used as a constituent of animal
feed. The overhead containing alcohol, some water, and the aldehydes
passes through a heat exchanger to the partial condenser or dephlegmator, which condenses sufficient of the'vapors to afford a reflux and also
to strengthen the vapors that do pass through to the condenser where
about 50 per cent alcohol, containing the volatiles or aldehydes, is condepsed. This condensate, frequently known as the high wines, is conducted
into the aldehyde or heads column, from which the low-boiling impurities,
or aldehydes, are separated as an overhead. The effluent liquor from part
way down the aldepyde column flows into the rectifying column.
In this third col~mn th~ alcohol is brought to strength and finally
purified in the following manner: The overhead going through a dephlegmator is partly condensed to keep the stronger alcohol in this column and
to provide reflux for the upper plates. The more volatile products, which
may still contain a trace of aldehydes and of course some alcohol, are
totally condensed and carried back to the upper part of the aldehyde still.
Near the top of the column 95 to 95.6 per cent alcohol is taken off through
a condenser for storage and sale. Farther down the column, the higherboiling fusel oils are run off through a cooler and separator to a special
still where they are rectified from any alcohol they may carry, before
being sold as an impure amyl alcohol for solvent purposes. The bottom
of this rectifying column 4 discharges water.
Alcohol-water mixtures are rectified to increase the strength of the
alcohol component by virtue of the composition of the vapors being
stronger in the more v~latile constituent than the liquid from which these
vapors arise. This is sllown quantitatively by the c.urves of Fig, 2 where
1 This is a general term'applied to the result of any such fermentation, whether it
results finally in industri~l alcohol or the beverage beer, or whisky, or butanol and
acetone.
For an excellent series of diagrams of various types of distillation units, see KIRK
and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 264ff.
3 REICH, Molasses Stilh\.ge, Ind. Eng. Chem., 37, 534 (1945).
Further details with excellent pictures of a somewhat similar plant' to that of
Fig. 1 are given by REICOH, ,Modern Molasses Distillery, Chem. & Met. Eng., 41, 64
(1934); ANON., Modern Molasses Distillery, Chem. & Met. Eng., 46, 365 (1939),
676
the composition of the vapor in equilibrium with the liquid is on a hori.

zontal line. However, alcohol cannot be made stronger by rectification
than 95.6 per cent because, as can be seen from Fig. 2, water forms a
binary constant boiling mixture of this composition which boils slightly
lower than absolute or anhydrous alcohol. The principles shown here
100
-..........
98
94
-\
\
'12
.I
"~.J
"0
~o",.
~.
\
~
ti>
88
"
1\
'\\
I\.
-E... 86
.EM
82
'"
)\..<>
9(.......Q_..
I\'o
data for
vapor of
~".a
~mpOSifions
~.
~,
80
-'-">
'\
1\
cJ90
aboveCfM
~~
I
78
76
95.6%/
78.15
10
12.4
20 30 40 50 60
70
Per Cent Alcohol, By Weight
80
90
100
24.5 36.2 47.4 58.0 68.2 76.9 85.6 93.3 100

Per Cent Alcohol,By Volum~ (for liquid only)
FIG. 2. Temperature vs. composition of vapor and liquid for alcohol-water at 760J'nm.
are the basis of the strengthening of the more volatile constituent of any
liquid mixture by distillation.
ABSOLUTE OR ANHYDROUS ALCOHOL'
Anhydrous alcohol was made by absorbi~g the 5 per cent of water

present in 95 per cent industrial alcohol, using quicklime, with subsequent distillation. This process was expensive and, although it produced
a very high quality of anhydrous alcohol, it has now been superseded
largely by improved chemical engineering unit operations of distillation
and extraction involving a third component. This has led to lower cost
of dehydrating operations, mostly of a continuous nature using preferably
all liquids or solutions, and has resulted in reducing the price of anhydrous
alcohol to a figure only slightly in excess of the usual selling value of the
I This is practically 100 per cent ethyl alcohol and is frequently known as absolute
alcohol but, as the absence of water is more notable than that of other impurities,
the term anhydrous alcohol is prpferred by some.
ABSOLUTE OR ANHYDROUS ALCOHOL
677
alcohol contents. These newer procedures involve improvements both in

dehydrating agents and in the continuous columns used.
According to D. B. Keyes, 1
. . . the basic principle of a dehydrating agent, when used in a fractionating
column to produce anhydrous alcohol from wet alcohol, is the effect of the dehydrating agent on the partial pressure of the alcohol and of the water. In other
words, there are two classes of dehydrating agents used in fractionating columns
for this purpose. One depresses the partial pressure of the water more than the
alcohol and the other depresses the partial pressure of the alcohol more than the
water. In the first instance, the alcohol goes out of the top of the column, and
in the second instance, out of the bottom. The dehydrating agent functions
according to the _above-mentioned principle. For example, lime, anhydrous
calcium sulfate, 2 or any solid dehydrating agent will naturally come out of the
bottom of the column and must carry the water- with it, forcing the alcohol to
come out of the top. Glycerine and ethylene glycol being high-boiling constituents have a tendency to be removed at the bottom of the column and are
useful because they depress the partial pressure of the water more than the alcohol
and,_ therefore, carry the water with them, permitting the alcohol to come out
at the top of the column. Ether, benzene, ethyl acetate, toluene, hexane, or
carbon tetrachloride,3 on the other hand, are much more volatile constituents
than the glycerine and glycol and also have a tendency to depress the partial
pressure of the alcohol more than the water. Therefore, they are removed with
the water at the top of the column and the anhydrous alcohol leaves at the
bottom.
The water in 95 per cent alcohol is removed technically by either of

two principal methods: (1) Dehydration by distillation with a third component 4 which forms a minimum constant boiling mixture in the- system,
boiling at a lower temperature than the 95 per cent alcohol (78.15C.)
or the water. Here (a) the minimum is a binary one, of which water-ethyl
ether is an example,5 or (b) the minimum is a ternary one of which
alcohol-water-benzene is an example. In such instances anhydrous alcohol is obtained at the bottom of the distilling column, because its vapor
pressure is relatively 19wer than that of the constant boiling mixture
removing the water. (2) D_ehydration by countercurrent extraction 6 HSUI Private communication; cf. KEYEs, The Manufacture of Anhydrous Ethyl Alcohol,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 21, 998-1001 (1929); OTHMER, Partial Pressure Processes, Ind. Eng.
Chem., 33, 1107 (1941).
2 WALLIS, Absolute Alcoh61, Intern. Sugar J., 38, 217-219 (1936). This process used
a solid absorbent CaSO. ch~nging to the hemihydrate.
3 Other withdrawing agents employed are trichloro-cthylcnc or a petroleum fraction, or other liquid fairly jinsoluble in water and boiling in the range 30 to 120C.
This third component IS frequently called a dehydrating or withdrawing agent or
!limply an en/rainer.
50THMER and WENTW()RTII, Absolute Alcohol, Ind. Eng. Chem., ~2, 1588-1593
(1940). Here the water is removed overhead by ether, the system being under 100 lb.
pressure.
6 OTHMER and TRUEGER, Recovery of Aeetone and Ethanol by Solvent Extraction,
Trans. Am. In8t:Chem. Engrs., 87, 597-\\J9 (1941).
678
ally also in a continuous column with a third component which depresses

the vapor pressure of water more than it depresses the vapor pressure of
alcohol, e.g., glycerine, ethylene glycol, glycerine or glycol with dissolved
salts, molten eutectic mixture of Na and K acetates. Anhydrous alcohol
comes out the top of the extraction column.'
The basic principle of the process using benzene as a withdrawing
agent is illustrated 2 by Fig. 3. There are three binary minimum constant
Ethyl Alcohol
C
AL_~JO--~~~~~~~~~~~~~6,
Water
Benzene
FlO. 3. Ternary diagram of liquid system. Watcr-aleohol-bcnzcnc.
boiling mixtures in the system, two homogeneous ones and Olle' heterogeneous one (between water and benzene), and a ternary minimulll constant boiling mixture which is the lowest-boiling composition in the system, boiling at 64.85C.
In Fig. 3 the composition of the ternary3 minimum constant boiling
mixture is represented by point F. In order that the removal of the
c.b.m. from the starting. mixture shall leave anhydrous alcohol in the still,
the starting composition must lie oiI the straight line CF. If the starting
mixture is to be made up by adding benzene to 95 per cent alcohol, the
starting composition must also lie on the line EB. }:'herefore, the intersection G represents the starting composition. If enough benzene is added
to 95 per cent alcohol to bring the total composition to point G, continuous distillation gives the ternary constant boiling mixture (boiling point,
64.85C.) at the top of the column and absolute alcohol (boiling point,
78.3C.) at the bottom of the column in a simple distillation.
.
,
1 ;rhe use of a solid dehydrating agent, such as quicklime or calcium sulfate, may
be looked upon as an extreme case of this method, though usually run in a discontinuous manner because of the solid involved.
2 A somewhat similar procedure is the ether pressure system of OTHMER and WEN'I'WORTH, op. cit.
a See PERRY, op. cit., pp. 7181., for triangular phase diagrams.
ABSOT,UTE OR ANHYDROUS ALCOHOL
679
An important.1 feat.ure of t.he process is the separation of the condensate into t.wo liquid layers, represented in Fig. 3 by points M and N.
FIG. 4. Manufadure of ahsolute alcohol from 95 perllent alcohol.
The ratio of the top layer N to the bottom layer M is equal to MF IFN.
The compositions involved are
Ternary distillate:
18'.5 per cent alcohol.
7.4 per cent water.
74. 1 per cent benzene.
Top layer of condensate at 20C., representing 84 per cent by volume:
14.5 per cent alcohol. ;
1 per cent water.
84.5 per cent benzene.
Bottom layer of condensat~ at 20C., representing 16 per cent by volume:
53 per cent alcohol.
36 per cent water.
11 per cent benzene.
Figure 4 illustrates ,how this process functions. The 95 per cent alcohol with the requisite amount of benzene 2 is introduced continuously into
1 GUINOT and CLARK, Azeotropic Distillation in Industry, Tram. Jmt. Chem.
Engrs. (London), 16, 189 i(1938).
2 This withdrawing agent is used over and over again with a loss that should not
exceed 0.05 per cent on the, volume of the anhydrous alcohol produced.
680
column A heated at the bottom by a closed steam coil. The ternary

goes overhead through the condenser B to the separator and decanter C,
or is partly returned as reflux. From the decanter, the top layer, rich
in withdrawing agent, is returned to the main column A and the lower
layer, rich in water, is run to the smaller column D, from which the overhead as the ternary c.b.m. is passed to the main condenser B. From the
bottom of the small column D, aqueous alcohol is obtained which is
rectified to 95 per cent alcohol in column E and returned to the main
column. From the base of E the water flows to the sewer. The product,
anhydrous alcohol, passes from base of main column A.
These same principles of distillation in multicomponent systems, involving constant boiling mixtures, are used for dehydrating other organic
liquids such as propyl alcohol and for removing the water formed in sulfonations (benzene-sulfonic acid) and esterifications (ethyl acetate).l
BEERS, WINES, AND LIQUORS
The making of fermented beverages was discovered by priInitive man

and has been practiced as an art for thousands of years. Within the past
century and a half this has become a highly developed science. As Muspratt writes, "There is no department of the arts and manufactures where
chemistry has exerted a more decided influence than in brewing." But
E. A. Siebel adds to this, "A modern brewer has to be an engineer, a
chemist, and a bacteriologist." In common with other food industries,
the factors of taste, odor, yes, and of almost individual preference exist,
to force the manufacturer to exert the greatest of skill and experience in
producing palatable beverages of great variety. In the last analysis, the
criterion of quality, with all the arts of modern science, still lies in the
human sensory organs of taste, smell, and sight.
Uses and Economics. As Table 4.indicates, many Inillions of barrels
of alcoholic beverages are manufactured in the United States each year.
Raw Materials. Grains and fruits supplying carbohydrates are the"
basic raw materials. The variety of grains and fruits employed is wide,
changing from country to country or from beverage to beverage. Russiaferments potatoes and by distillation obtai'ns 'vodka; similar treatment of
the sap of the maguey in Mexico yields pulque; but the world's chief raw
materials for fermentations are the cereals, corn, barley, and rice, togl'!ther
with the grape.
Making of Beer.2 Beer and allied products are beverages of low alcoholic content (2 to 7 per cent) made by brewing various cereals with
hops, usually added to impaI:t a more or less bitter taste, followed by
and CLARK, op. cit.; OTHMER, op. cit.

and WEISSLER, Brewing, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43,1262 (1951), many excellent pictures, tables, and diagrams.
1
GUINOT
SHEARON
681
MAKING OF BEER
fermentation. The cereals employed are called brewers' grains and are
barley, malted to develop the necessary enzymes and the desired flavor,
as well as malt adjuncts: flaked rice, oats, and com, with wheat used in
Germany and rice and millet in China. Brewing sugars and sirups (com
sugar or glucose) and yeast complete the raw materials. For beer the
most important cereal is barley, which is converted into malt by partial
germination. l
TABLE
4.
UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES,

1950, AND 1954
Beverage
1939
Still wines, wine gal. ................ 231,986,000

Sparkling wines, half pt ..............
6,634,000
Rectified spirits and wines, proof gal. . 43,401,000
Fermented malt liquors, bbl. ......... 53,871,000
Cereal beverages, bbl. ...............
63,000
1950
297,857,104
21,225,108
107,951,272
88,807,075
45,211
1939,
1954
117,133.731
31,032,920
90,410,552
85,747,439
27,473
NOTE: "bbl." contains 31 gal.
The barley is steeped in cold water and spread out on floors, or in

special compartments, and regularly turned over for from 5 to 8 days,
the layers being gradually thinned as the germination proceeds. At the
proper time, when the enzymes are formed, the growth is arrested by
heat. During the growth, oxygen is absorbed, carbon dioxide given off,
and the enzyme, diastase, formed. This latter is the 'biological catalyst
that changes the dissolved starch into the disaccharide maltose which,
after transformation into the monosaccharide, glucose, by the maltase
enzyme, is directly fermentable by yeast.
The flow sheet for beer on Fig. 5 may be divided into three groups
of procedures: (1) brewing of the mash through to the cooled hopped wort,
(2) fermentation, and (3) storage, finishing, and packaging for market.
Mashing is the extraction of the valuable constituents of malt, malt
adjuncts, and sugars by macerating the ground materials with water
treated to prevent too'high pH, which would tend to make a dark beer.
In America, 35 to 38 l~. of barley malt and 12 to 14 lb. of malt adjuncts
or unmalted cereals (rice, com, or carbohydrate) are used per U.S. barrel
of 31 gal. These are flaked or ground on rolls. This mixture is added to
water in the proportion of 1,000 lb. per 7.5 to 9 bbl. of water. The materials so treated, the converter mash, are heated in the pressure cooker in
order to convert insoluble starch into soluble starch, and th~ soluble
'malt starch into dextiin and malt sugars" The reSUlting boiling cooker
1 See ANON., Brewing of Lager Beer, Chem. & Met. Eng., '9 (7), 112 (1942), for
pictured flow sheet; ct. KiRK'and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 384-413; Staff Industry
Report, Beer, Ind. Eng. Chern., &S, 1264 (1951).
682
mash, mixed with the rest of the malt in the mash tub, raising the temperature to 168F., is used to prepare the brewers' worU This is carried
out in the mash tun. Mter all the required ingredients have been dissolved from the brewing materials, the entire mash is run from the mash
tun to the lauter or straining tub, where the wort is separated from the
insoluble spent grains through a slotted false bottom and run into the
copper wort cooker. For complete recovery of all substances in solution,
Spenf .. L"uter
groins (filter tub)
Brewer's m,,!t
M"lt adjuncts
Hops
YeClst
35-38 lb.
12 -14 lb.
'/z-IY4Ib.
'4- I lb.
Brewery I"bor
$0.SO-$1.50}peru.s.
Power and stea",
0.50- 0.70 oorrel
Bottlin9 costs ~I"bor
(31 gal)
IClbels,alkali,etc.)
1.50- 2.50 ofbeer
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for manufacture of beer.
a spray of decarbonated water at 165F. is rained through the grains.

This is called sparging.
The wort is cooked for approximately 3 hr., during two of which it is
in contact with hops. The purpose of boiling is to concentrate the wort
to the desired strength, to sterilize it (15 min.) and destroy all the enzymes, to coagulate certain proteins by heat (180F.), to modify the
malty smell of the wort, and to ex~ract the tannin and aroma from the
hops which are added during the cooking process. At the end of the 3
/ hr., the spent hops are, separated from the boiling wort very quickly
through a false bottom in the hop jack or strainer un~erneath the copper
cooker. Since the spent' hops retain 3 bbl. of wort per 100 lb. of hops,
they should also be sparged. The wort is then ready to be cooled.
The cooling step is not only to reduce the temperature but also to
allow the wort to absorb enough air to facilitate the start of the fermentation. In addition, the protein and hop resins are precipitated. The. hot
. wort may:be first cooled to about 150 to 160F. in a large shallow cooler
1 The wort is the liquid resulting from the mashing process, i.e., the extracting and
sQlubil;zing of the malt and malt adjuncts. Wort composition varies from 17 to
24 per cent solids by weight for the first wort, to approximately 1 per cent solids for
the last wort removed by the sparge water.
MAKING OF WINE
683
where certain of the resins precipitate. The wort is then run over the
horizontal, brine-cooled copper tubes of the open Baudelot cooler, where
aeration also takes place. Slight boncentration, due to evaporation, occurs.
This operation is performed under controlled conditions to prevent contamination by wild yeasts. Frequently, sterilized air is used.
The cooled wort is mixed with selected yeasts in the line leading to the
starting tubs, between % and 1 lb. of yeast being used per barrel of beer.
The initial fermentation temperature is 40 to 43F. but, as the fermentation pr-oceeds, the temperature rises to 58F. This is easily explained by
the fact that the conversion of the sugar to CO 2 and ethyl alcohol, by the
enzymes of the yeast, generates 280 B.t.u. per lb. of maltose converted.'
The temperature is partly controlled by attemperators inserted in the
fermentors. The mixture is skimmed to remove the foreign substances
that the evolved carbon dioxide brings to the top. Thus it is quite evident that a steady evolution of gas is necessary to cleanse the beer properly. The CO 2 evolved is collected by using closed fermentors and stored
under 250 lb. pressure for subsequent use in carbonating beer.
The yeast gradually settles to the bottom of the tub, so that at the
end of 7 to .10 days the fermented beer is ready to be vatted. The liquid
is very opalescent in appearance, under a cover of foam. As the beer
leaves the fermenting cellar, it contains in suspension hop resins, insoluble
nitrogenous substances, and a fair amount of yeast.
The beer is cooled to 32F. and stored in the cellar for 3 to 6 weeks at
this temperature. During this period, clarification, separation, and precipitation of hard resins and improvement in palatability (mellowing)
occur. At the end of the period the beer is carbonated 2 and pumped
through a pulp filter with or without such non taste-imparting filter aids
as asbestos fiber. In the United States, public demand favors a brilliant
beverage. 3 As a result, the beer is sometimes refiltered through cotton
pulp; keeping carbon dioxide on the entire system. About 97 bbl. of beer
are produced per 100 bbl. of wort in the starting tubs. After bottling,
the beer is pasteurized'at 140F.
Making of Wine. Wine 4 has been made for several thousand years
by fermentation of the juice of the grape. Like other fermentations, many
of the primitive procedures have been supplanted by improved science
and engineering, to reduce costs and to make more uniform products.
ROSENBUSCH, Brewing-:-The Present Situation, Refrig. Eng., 26, 251-253 (1933).
The carbon dioxide shohld be kept free from air which would interfere with the
stability and quality of the beer. The gas is pumped in close to 32F. and amounts
to between 0.36 and 0.45 per cent of the weight of the beer.
3 Max and Leo Wallerst4in have invented a proc!lss for the production of haze-free
chillprooi beers by adding ,selective proteolytic enzymes to beer right after fermentation to split the proteins and thus delay or prevent the formation of the protein-tannin
haze.
HULL, et al., Modem Winemaking, Ind. Eng. Chern., 43, 2180 (1951).
1
684
FRRMRNTATION
INDn~TRlE~
But now, as always, the quality of the product is largely related to grapE'.
soil, and sun, resulting in variation in flavor, bouquet, and aroma. TIl('
color depends largely upon the nature of the grapes and whether t.he
skins are pressed out before fermentation.
Wines are classified as natural (alcohol 7 to 14 per cent), fortified
(alcohol 14 to 30 per cent), sweet or dry, still or sparkling. The fortified
wines have alcohol or brandy added. In the sweet wines, some of the
sugar remains.
For the manufacture of dry red wine, red or black grapes are necessary.
The grapes are run through a crusher which macerates them but does
not crush the seeds, and also removes part of the stems. The resulting
pulp, or must, is pumped into 3,000- to lO,OOO-gai. tanks,l where sulfurous acid is added to check the growth of wild yeast. An active culture
of selected and cultivated yeast equal to 3 to 5 per cent of the volume of
juice is added. During fermentation, the temperature rises, so that cooling
coils are necessary to maintain a temperature of 85F. The CO 2 evolved
carries the stems and seeds to the top, which is partly prevented by a
grating floated in the vai. This allows an_ extraction of the color and the
tannin from the skins and seeds. When the fermentation slows up, the
juice is pumped out of the bottom of the vat, back over the top. The
wine is finally run into closed tanks in the storage cellar 'Yhere, during a
period of 2 or 3 weeks, the yeast ferments the remainder of the sugar.
The wine is given a cellar treatment to clear it, improve the taste, and
decrease the time of aging. During this treatment the wine is first allowed
to remain quiet for 6 weeks to remove part of the matter in suspension,
then racked for clarification. 2 Bentonite, or other diatomaceous earth,
may be used for clearing, 2 to 16 lb. being stirred into every 1,000 gal.
of wine. An insoluble precipitate with the tannin is also formed. Extra
tannin may also be added, the wine racked, filtered through diatomaceous _
earth, asbestos, or paper pulp. The wine is corrected to commercial standards by blending it with other wines and by the addition of sugar, acids,
or tannins. It is standard procedure to chill some wines for removal of .
argols or crude potassium acid tartrate which is recovered and constitutes
the commercial source of tartaric acid and -its compounds. This treatment
also gives a more stable finished wine. By- quick aging ,methods it is possible to put out a good, sweet wine in 4 months. These methods include
pasteurization, refrigeration, sunlight, ultraviolet light, ozone, agitati('m,
and aeration. The wine may be held at about freezing for 3 weeks to a
1 In many of the modern American wineries these tanks are even larger and are
constructed of concrete.
,
During this and following periods the new wine undergoes a compli!'ated s('ries of
I'pae'tions, r('slIlting in the r('moval of IIndesired constituents and the development,
of thp aroma, hOllquet, and taste. Oxidation takps pla!'e, as wpll as pr('cipitation of
proteins and argols, a.nd esterification of the acids by alcohols.
DIS'l'ILLED LIQUORS
685
month, and a small amount of oxygen gas bubbled in. Then the wine is
racked, clarified, and further filtered in the usual manner.
Distilled Liquors. Various fermented products, upon distillation and
aging, yield the distilled liquors. Figure 6 shows the flow sheet for whisky
and gin. Brandy is distilled from wine or from the marc, which is the
pulp left by racking or straining. By making a beer! from a grain mixture
containing at least 51 per cent of corn and distilling and aging it, bourbon
whisky is yielded. Similarly rye whisky must have started with 51 per
cent of rye in the grain to be mashed and fermented. By inspecting the
Gin still
FIG. 6. Flow sheet: distilled liquors.
flow sheet of Fig. 6 in the light of Figs. 1 and 5, and the description
accompanying them, the procedures of Fig. 6 for distilled liquors will be
clear. The equipment,2 up to the stills, in modern liquor plants is of steel,
with the stills of copper. By law, the aging of bourbon or rye whisky of
claimed age must take place in charred new white-oak barrels of approximately 50 gal. These are kept in bonded warehouses at 65 to 85F. and at
a preferred humidity of 65 to 70 per cent for 1 to 5 years usually. During
this time an evaporation of the contents takes place, largely through the
ends of the barrel sta~es. By reason of a more rapid capillary travel and
osmosis of the smaller water molecules in comparison to alcohol molecules,
1 The yeast in this fermentation is grown in the presence of lactic acid to ensure
proper strain and to secure the desired quality of the product (whisky).
OWEN, Modern Distillery Design, Sugar, 37 (3), 26-30 (1942). In Chern. & Met.
Eng., 49 (ll), 126 (1942) is a pictured flow sheet of a grain distillery; STAJ,J,INGS,
WILLKIE, and HERMAN, Chemical Engineering Developments in a Grain Distillery,
Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs., 38, 791 (1942).
686
an increase in percentage of alcohol is found in the barrel contents. The

government shrinkage allowance is approximately 8 per cent the first
year, 4 per cent the second year, 4 per cent the third year, and 3 per cent
the fourth year. If the shrinkages are exceeded (and this is often the case),
the manufacturer must pay a tax on the excess but, with the best cooperages under the best conditions, these allowances can just be met. The
distillate from the spirit still is under 160 proof and is subsequently diluted
upon barreling to 100 to 110 proof. It is not pure alcohol but contains
small amounts of many different constituents, generally classed together
as congenerics, which by their reaction with each other or the alcohol, or
by their absorption, all catalyzed by the char of the wood, help greatly
in imparting the whisky flavor and bouquet.' The aging whisky also
extracts color and other products from the charred white oak. Changes
of a like nature occur similarly on aging brandy and rum. Here, as in
other divisions of the fermentation industries, skill and scientific knowledge aid in the producti(')ll of a palatable product. By law, whisky must
be fermented from whole grains, so that the germs (containing the corn
oil) and the husks are in suspension in the liquor from the beer still in
whisky manufacture. This discharge liquor is known as slop or stillage.
As shown in Fig. 6, this,is treated to recover the values by separating the
solids from the liquid slop. After vacuum evaporation of the liquid 2 portion, it is added to the solids, and the mixture dried in rotating steamheated driers to produce distillers' grains,3 a valuable cattle feed.
BUTYL ALCOHOL AND ACETONE
Until the First World War, all the acetone produced in the United
States was made by the dry distillation of calcium acetate from pyroligneous acid. Under the stimulus of the wartime demand for acetone for the
manufacture of double-base smokeless powder the important process
became that developed by Chaim Weizmann 4 for the fermentation of
starch-containing grains to butyl alcohol and acetone. The Commercial
Solvents Corporation was organized, and it built and operated two plants
I in the corn belt to ferment corn using Clostridium acetobutylicum bacteria.
However, this fermentation
gave 2 parts of butyl alcohol to 1 part of
,
1 LIEBMANN
and SCHERL, Changes in Whisky while Maturing, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
41, 534 (1949).
Ct. BORUFF, et al., Vitamin Content of Distillers' By-products, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
32, 123 (1940).
3 For a pictured flow sheet, see Recovery of Grain Alcohol By-products, Chern. &
Met. Eng., 62 (6), 130 (1945); BORUFF, Industrial Wastes: Recovery of Fermentation
Residues as Feeds, Ind. Eng. Chern., 39, 602 (1947).
.Brit. Pat. 4845 (1915): U.S. Pat. 1315585 (1919). Weizmann used much of his large
royalties from this process to help finance his interest in the Zionist movement of
which he became the head in 1920.
BUTYL ALCOHOL AND ACETONE
687
acetone and until the development of the fast-drying nitrocellulose lacquers particularly for the automotive industry, there was virtually no
market for the butyl alcohol produced. Then the conditions became
reversed with butyl alcohol becoming the important commodity and
acetone the by-product. This better sale of first one product and then
another is characteristic of industries in the chemical field, where more
than one substance results from a process and reflects the changing demand that accompanies a growing and dynamic industry.
With the advent of the manufacture of butyl alcohol and especially of
acetone by chemical processes, competition forced the abandonment of
corn in favor of the lower-priced by-product molasses for the monosaccharide raw material for fermentation after new cultures were found which
would work well on the molasses, since the Weizmann starch-fermenting
bacteria were not satisfactory. These new cultures also gave a more desirable solvent ratio (approximately 3 parts of butyl alcohol to 1 of acetone).
Since the early 1930's the molasses process has been in use, except during
certain periods of the Second W orld War when the scarcity of molasses
made it necessary for producers in the United States to return temporarily
to grain. Higher costs for molasses and grain now heve given the synthetic
processes dominant positions.
Uses and Economics. The production of normal butyl alcohol and of
acetone amounted to somewhat over 194,000,000 and 478,000,000 lb.,
respectively, during 1954. It is estimated that 40 per cent of the butyl
alcohol and 4 per cent of the acetone is produced by fermentation. About
70 per cent of n-butyl alcohol enters directly or indirectly into lacquer
solvents. A percentage breakdown of the end use of acetone is approximately as follows: cellulose acetate, 50; acetylene (solvent), 5; chemicals,
15; paint, varnish, and lacquer, 12; drugs, 5; and miscellaneous, 15.
Reactions. The action of the bacteria on starch has been very carefully
studied and Fig. 7 gives the best hypothesis as to the course of this
fermentation.
Manufacturing Procedure. The flow sheet on Fig. 8 illustrates the fermentation! of either starch or sugar, furnishing butanol, acetone, and
other products. Most of the apparatus outlined in this flow sheet is made
of steel except the stihs which are constructed of copper. The process,
when starting from corn, goes through the usual operation of separating
the corn oil, the germ meal, and the husks from the starch, which is made
into mash by mixing iwith hot water and cooking. The steam cooking
not only disperses the starch into a so-called soluble form available for
1 GABIIIEL, Butanol F~rmentation Process, If!:d. Eng. Chern., 20" 1063 (1928);
GABIDEL and CllAwFoIUl"Development of the Butyl-acetone Fermentation Industry,
Ind. Eng. Chern., 22, 1163 (1930); MCCUTCHAN and H!CKEY, The Butanol-acetone
Fermentations, Chap. 9 in UNDEIIKOFLEII, editor, "Commercial Fermentations,"
Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
688
the bacteria to act on but at the same time sterilizes it so that the unwanted microorganisms are killed. At one time, the Terre Haute factory
became contaminated with other bacteria which grew and multiplied
even more rapidly than the Weizmann bacteria, which divided and doubled in 20 min. Thus the available food was consumed by the invaders,
and the yield of solvents greatly decreased. Now, complete sterilization
following each batch fermentation, coupled with exact selection and
+H 2 0
(C6HIOOS~--~~---"
starch
e6H12 0 6
91ucose
~
2C 3 H&03
meth"yl-glyol<al hydrate or other compound
2C02+2HZ
+2HZO
2CH 3 COOH"'4H
acetic acid
-H2 0
CH3 CH OHeHzCHO
aldol
CH 3 CO. CHOH.CH 3
acety I- met hy 1- corbinol
CH 3 CO.eH2 eOOH
acetoacetic acid
l .
+2H
CHs CO. CH~+ C02
C2 HSOH
CH 3 CH Z.CH z COOH
butyric ocid
t"'4H
CHSCH ZCH 2 CH z OH+H 2 0
acetone
ethyl alcoho\
n-butyl alcohol
2mols
I mol
3rnolsFIG. 7. Degradation of carbohydrates by Cl. acetohutylicum. Known produl'ts are
underlined. (After Peter80n and Fred.)
cultivation of only the selected microorganisms, ensures the desired

fermentation.
,
The respective desired bacteria are carefully 'cultured in the laboratory :by s~lled and experienced bacteriologists who, after they have
secured a pure culture, inoculate the sterile mash in increasing quantities,
from a test tube up to the 800-gal. seed tank, as shown in Fig. 8. In the
meanwhile the main mash has been prepared and pumped into the 50,000gal. fermentor through '" heat exchanger, lowering the temperature to
98F. for the starch mash, and to about 85F. for the molasses mash.
The fermentation proceeds with the liberation of the hydrogen and carbon dioxide (60 per cent CO 2 and 40 per cent H 2), which are used for the
manufacture of methanol or burned for fuel.
After 36 to 40 hr. the fermentation is ended and the beer, containing
MANUFACTURING PROCEDURE
689
a.round 1.5 to 2.5 per cent solvents, is pumped to the beer still. The
yield of the neutral solvents is 30 per cent and up, on the weight of the
starch from corn or of the fermentable sugar in molasses. In addition
there is evolved about 1.5 times the weight of solvents in gases (60 per
cent CO 2 and 40 per cent H2 by volume).
The beer still consists of a continuous column containing plates, one
on top of the other, yielding as vapor overhead, 50 per cent mixed solvents. The discharge from the beer still is known as distillers' slop or
stillage and, as is true of a number of these fermentation operations, is a
co..
.~.
to boi/~, 0'
1I,/hanDI pion'
Growmg bochria, 21# hf3 af ,,t In Ieb ronlalllU

Iqt.
flQ.k
rminator
Corn -
:;:r:
xScmn Roller
~rm "Clgnttic~
mill
Oil ,. ~ftlltor\!l
.rptl/.r~Gtrm _ ,
10
o:./n
t. oaks
.0/d
1/""""s",o:{~,.
"~com
l!mO
I'
I bu. cor" produces

(33Ib. larch)
{6-S
{1.6S-,.4S Ib. Butanol

or Igol.molasses 0.07-0.1 lb. Alcohol
(6-0.6 lb. sugar) 0.65 -0.4 lb. Acetone
prod.u~es
(2.37-1.95 Ib. tOlal
15-1&lb.60'7.Co,.40~H.
plus Co..H.)
lb. Butanol
l-IY:z lb. Alcohol
3-4 lb. Acetone
FIG. 8. Flow sheet: butanol and acetone by fermentation.
solution containing a very considerable quantity o! proteins, fats, and

carbohydrates, of value in animal feeds.
It has been discovered 1 that the butyl-alcohol-producing bacteria in
their life cycle synthesize vitamins. The vitamins thus produced are
riboflavin (vitamin B 2) and other factors of the original B complex. A
rib9flavin-containing feed is being manufactured from the butyl fermentation process.
The 50 ,per cent mixed solvents obtained from the beer still are rectified through careful fractionation, yielding pure butanol, 95 per cent
ethyl alcohol, and acetone. This butanol is the normal butyl' alcohol.
This fractionation fu~ishes initially.. fractions rich in acetone, alcohol,
and butanol. Careful rectification yields the pure products. The fraction
rich in butanol2 is a mixture of 85 per cent butanol and 15 per cent water
(by volume) boiling at 92.25C. at 760 mm. of Hg. This is introduced
into a column still where the take-off is first an azeotrope, containing
37.3 per cent of water by weight. This is condensed, whereupon it separates into two layer~: an upper one wit4 some water and a lower one
with 4. per cent butanol and 96 per cent water. (This lower layer so rich
in water is returned to the beer still.) The upper layer is run back to the
I
MINER, U.S. Pat. 2202i61 (1940).

Cf. STEVENS, U.S. Pat. 1394232 (1921).
690
column still. The net result, is a constant withdrawing of water with an

enhancement of the butanol percentage up t.o any desired figure.
VINEGAR AND ACETIC ACID
The aerobic bacterial (Acetobacter aceti or Bacterium aceti) oxidation

of alcohol to dilute acetic l acid (8 per cent) is another ancient procedure,
furnishing vinegar, a flavorea acetic acid solution, fermented from wine,
cider, malt, or dilute alcohol. If a pure dilute alcohol is fermented, pure
dilute acetic acid results. The yield is from 80 to 90 per cent of theory.
Air 2 must be supplied as these formulations indicate:
2C 2 H 60H
2CH aCHO
+O
+O
2CH aCHO + 2H 20
2CH aCOOH
As these reactions are exothermic, either the alcohol can be slowly trickled
through the apparatus, letting the heat dissipate, or it can be recirculated
with special cooling.
If cider, malt, or wine is fermented, the acetic acid content of the
resulting vinegar rarely exceeds 5 per cent, owing to limitations of the
sugar content; if dilute alcohol is the raw material, the acetic acid may
rise to 12 or 14 per cent, at Which acidity the bacteria cease to thrive.
If a fruit juice is turned to vinegar, certain esters are formed varying
with the raw materIal, thus imparting a characteristic flavor.
The ancient 'process consisted in letting alcoholic products like wine
or cider stand around in contact with air until the wine or cider turned
to vinegar. This was a slow procedure, taking many months. The modern
quick vinegar process, as commercially carried out, trickles the diluted
alcohol, usually mixed with vinegar, down tall wooden tanks with false
bQttoms (20 ft. high by 10 ft. in diameter) packed with beechwo.od shavings or coke on which the bacteria find lodgment commonly as mother of
vinegar. The acetic bacteria secrete an enzyme which causes the reaction.
Air rises up through the tank. 3 This takes a week or so, but the production
amounts to 10 to 16 gal. of 9 to 10 per cent spirit vinegar per 24 hr. from
a 200-cu. ft. generator. Acid mashes are fa"\\orable to the acetic fermentation and oxidize rapidly; so it is customary to charge the generators with
a mixture of vinega~ and the alcoholic raw material. When 10 per cent
(acetic acid) spirit vinegars are wanted, a mix of 8.2 per cent acetic and
2 to 2.6 per cent by volume of alcohol is charged. 4 This is made by mixing
1 For a description of the largest factory engaged in this process, c/. HERRICK and
MAY, Chern. & Met. Eng., 42, 142 (1935).
Too much air will cause ldsses due to further and undesired oxidation.
, By keeping cider or wine casks full, so that no air is present, the vinegar formation
cannot take place. Likewise, the fortified wines (above 15 per cent) have so much
alcohol present that the A. aceti cannot function, so these wines stay sweet.
4 HASSACK, Vinegar Manufacture in the United States, Chern. Age, 29, 105 (1920.
691
CITRIC ACID
finished vinegar with dilute alcohol or low wines. If a cider vinegar is

desired of 5 to 5.5 per cent acetic content, there is fed a mix containing
3.4 to 3.75 per cent acid and 2 to 2.6 per cent alcohol by volume.
Modern chemical engineering has improved the quick process by designing apparatus using pumps to circulate rapidly the mash over the
packing, and with cooling in the recirculation to control the temperature
low enough for favorable action of the acetic bacteria, or with special
devices to ensure an adequate air supply.! Such designs permi~ the ~se
of large generators, even up to 10,000 gal. capacity. In line with studies
on, other fermentations, it has been found that the acetic bacteria also
need, for best conversion of alcohol to acetic acid, the proper minor foods
or nutrients that contain sugars and the necessary inorganic salts, such as
phosphates. Commercially, dilute acetic acid (8 to 10 per cent) is made
this way. The process is economical if the dilute acetic can be utilized.
CITRIC ACID
Citric acid is one of our widely employed organic acids, its production
amounting to around 40,000,000 or 50,000,000 lb. Its major use is as an
acidulant 'in carbonated beverages, jams, jellies, and other foodstuffs.
Another large outlet is in the medicinal field, including the manufacture of
citrates and effervescent salts. Industrial uses, relatively small, include
citric acid as a sequestering agent and acetyl tributyl citrate, a vinyl resin
plasticizer.
Except for small amounts (less than 7 per cent) produced from citrus
fruit wastes, citric acid is manufactured 2 by aerobic fermentation of crude
sugar by a special strain of Aspergillus niger following the classical researches by Currie.
The over-all reaction is:
C!2H220 11
Sucrose
+ H 0 + 30
2
~ 2C 6H s0 7
+ 4H 0
2
Citric acid
The fermentation changes sugar, a straight-chain compound, into a

branched chain.
In the tray process for ci'tric acid, air is circulated for 9 to 12 days over
hundreds of shallow pure-aluminum trays (approximately 43 by 43 by
2 in.) filled with a sugar solution. These trays are placed a few inches
above each other in a ~losed cabinet provided with facilities for steriliza1 FRINGS, Manufacture .of Vinegar, U.S. Pat. 1880381 (1932); OWENS, Vinegar
Generator, U.S. Pat. 2089412 (1937)'; HANSEN, Making Vinegar by the Frings
,
Process, Food I ndu8tries, 7~, 277 (1935).
See KIRK and OTHMER', op. cit., Vol. 4, p. 12; for a more detailed presentation ('Of
the following reaction and:other features of citric acid made by fermentation, see Vol.
6, pp. 364jJ.
a CURRIE, The Citric Acid Fermentation of A. niger, J. Biol. Chern., 31, 15 (1917).
692
FERMENTATION INDUS1'RIES
tion, ventilation, and temperature control. Because of the expense to

sterilize, fill, handle, and empty the thousands of trays needed for largescale production, submerged fermentation was developed.
The essential steps of the submerged process' are probably as follows:
A medium is prepared from decationized molasses feedstock, decationized
well water, and the following nutrients-ammonium carbonate, monobasic potassium phosphate, and magnesium sulfate. The addition of 500
p.p.m. of morpholine to the medium is claimed to increase the efficiency
of the fermentation, to stimulate spore germination, and to have a stabilizing effect on the physiological characteristics of the fungus, thereby
giving better results. The pH of the medium is adjusted to 2.5 with
hydrochloric acid followed by 10 lb. steam sterilization for 20 min. The
fermentation is carried out by a special strain of A. niger with sterile air
bubbled through for both aeration and agitation for approximately 4 to
9 days at 30 to 32C. Yields based on the initial sugar are claimed to be
approximately 80 per cent.
The citric acid is probably recovered from the converted broth by precipitation of the acid by calcium or barium hydroxide followed by filtering
or centrifuging and washing. The citric acid is liberated from the salt by
sulfuric acid and is crystallized from the filtered, concentrated liquor.
This development of a process for the production of citric acid in a
,!,ubmerged ferment~tion is an outstanding recent accomplishment.
LACTIC ACID
Lactic acid, 2-hydroxypropionic acid, is one of the oldest known organic

acids. It is the primary acid constituent of sour milk, from whence it
derives its name, having been formed by the fermentation of milk sugar
(lactose) by Streptococcus lactis. Commercially, lactic acid is manufactured'
,by the controlled fermentation of the hexose! sugars from molasses, corn,
.or milk. Lactates have b~n made by synthetic methods from acetaldehyde and other starting materials; but such methods are more expensivethan fermentation procedures. It has only been since 1930 that lactic acid
has been produced co~mercially from the milk by-product whey. Abouf
12 billion pounds of whey are produced annually from cheese or casein
production, but less than 2.5 billion pounds is employed in food, feeds, or
the production of lactose, much of the rest being was~ed or fed to animals.
Of the 5,000,000 lb. (100 per cent) of lactic acid 2 consumed annually,
1 U.S. p'ats. 2476159 (1949), 2492667 (1949), and 2492673 (1949); cf. WAKSMAN
and KAROW, Production of Cit~ic Acid in Submerged Culture, Ind. Eng. Chern., 39,
821 (1947).
'
"PECKHAM, The Commercial Manufacture of Lactic Acid, Chern. Eng. News, 22,
440 (1944); WHITTIER and W]!;BB, "Byproducts from Milk," Reinhold Publishing
693
LACTIC ACID
the technical grade accounts for 40 per cent and iR employed mainly for
deliming leat.her in tanning. Edible gradeR are used primarily as acidulants for a number of foods and beverages. The small amount of lactic
acid remaining is converted into plastics,' solvents, and certain other
chemical products. The U.S.P. grade is an old, well-established standard
pharmaceutical.
The general course of the fermentation reactions may be expressed as
C 12 H 22 0 11
Sucrose or
lactose
+H 0
2
-4
C aH 12 0 6
Glucose
+ C aH
,2
06
Fructose or
galactose
C aH 120a - 4 2CH 3CHOHCOOH

The commercial acid is the inactive or racemic form, consisting of a
mixture of the dextro and levo forms, usually in equal proportions, and
it is therefore inactive.
The procedure consists in fermenting a mash of a carbohydrate substrate together with suitable nutrients in the presence of an excess of
calcium carbonate. The lactic acid as formed reacts with the CaC0 3 ,
producing calcium lactate and carbon dioxide, thus preventing the pH
(general range 5.0 to 6.0) in the fermentation from becoming so low as
to inhibit bacterial action. The thermophilic 2 type of Lactobacillus delbrUckii is generally preferred. This eliminates most contamination problems and permits the use of a medium which is pasteurized rather than
sterilized. However, this bacterium will not ferment the lactose or
milk sugar where a- mixed culture of L. bulyaricus and a mycoderm are
/
necessary. 3
After the fermentation is completed, where yields of 85 per cent lactic
acid based on the weight of the fermentable sugar are normal, the calcium
lactate is decomposed by sulfuric acid to regenerate the lactic acid. Technical lactic acid is manufactured from the calcium lactate as produced in
fermentation or after decolorization. The finer grades are made from
calcium lactate that has been crystallized at least once; for making acids
from 35 to 50 per cent concentration, the" building up" operation is used.
Here crystals of calcium lactate are dissolved in the lactic acid, sulfuric
acid added as before, iand the CaS0 4 '2H 2 0 removed by filtration. Usually two of these operations are necessary for the 50 per cent grade. For
stronger acids, a vactium concentration in stainless-steel or glass-lined
evaporators is needed:
I
FISHER and FILACHIONE, "Lactic Acid-Versatile Intermediate for the Chemical

Industry," AIC-178, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Eastern Regional Research
Laboratory, May, 1948. I,
2 Thermophilic is the term given to high-temp'eraturl'-thriving bacteria. The general strain used here exhibits optimum activity at 50C.
3 See WHITI'IER and WEBB, op. cit., pp. 31-41 for a detailed presentation of lactic
acid from whey including a. flow sheet.
1
696
growth cycle and sterile air is used. At 25 to 27C. the fermentation takes
50 to 100 hr. When the penicillin concentration reaches the optimum the
liquor is clarified by filtering out the solids (mycelia, etc.) by means of a
rotary vacuum filter (Young type). This antibiotic was recovered from the
filtrate by a carbon adsorption and elution, but now the organic solvent
extraction method shown in Fig. 9 is employed at a ,pH of 2.0 to 2.5.
The penicillin is quickly extracted from the aqueous phase into the" solvent" such as amyl or butyl acetate or methyl isobutyl ketone. The
Aqueous liquid to
om)'llJCI1tote recoyer),
Waste
Waste
FIG. 9. Flow sheet for penicillin by using solvent extraction (usually butyl or amyl
acetate).
reverse takes place at pH of 7.5. However, the penicillin molecule is quite

unstable in the acid condition; hence the advantage of the Podbielniak
equipment which makes countercurrent contact between the aqueous and
the organic solvent rapid and efficient.
Figure 9 depicts the extraction by amyl acetate from the acidified large.:
volume fermentor filt~ate (or "beer"), then into -the alkaline buffered
phosphate aqueous solution, and thirdly after acidulation into a smaller
volume of amyl acetate. This latter has its penicillin extract.ed into a
small volume of alkaline aqueous solution (e.g., NaOH), from which the
penicillinI is isolated by drying at low tentperature through freezing
and
h~gh-vacuum evaporation: Potassium penicillin or procaine penicillin
can be made easily (see Kirk and Othmer reference). The yield is 53 to
60 lb. of penicillin per 10,000 gal. of "beer" or fermentor filtrate. An
important improvement in fermentation technology was the use of precursors. When phenylacetic acid, a decomposition product of benzyl-penicillin G, is fed to the mold, a substantial increase in the amoupt of
697
BACITRACIN
benzyl-penicillin G is obtained. It has been proved by radioactive-tracer

technique that the phenylacetyl groups actually are precursors and
supply the acyl group to the molecule and increase the yield.
Streptomycin 1 and Dihydrostreptomycin. The commercial method of
producing these compounds is also an aerobic submerged fermentation
OH
NH
NH
H.N-~NH-C~ "CH-NH~-NH.
Ho-6H
"c~
6H-0-CH-CH--0---CH
~H
~/ OH
"
Streptomycin
/ "
CH
c=o
I
CH,
II
0/ "CHNHCH,
6H
/"
6HOH
CH.OII"
"eH
~H
similar to that used for penicillin production. The medium must be rich
in protein, and such sources as meat extracts, fish meal, and soybean
meal are commonly used. Probably this antibiotic is recovered from the
filtered broth by an ion-exchange process, replacing the old recovery
method of adsorption on activated carbon followed by alcoholic hydrochloric acid elution.
I
Chloromycetin. 2 Chloramphenicol (trade-marked/ Chloromycetin) is
unique among antibiotics, being
H
NHCOCHCh
produced by both submerged11
aerobic fermentation and a com02N-C-C-CH 20H
pli<;ated synthetic process of 10
I
I
reactions with about 30 steps. In
OH H
1950 it is believed that only 20
per cent or less was produced by fermentation.
Bacitracin. 3 Bacillus subtilis and related bacteria of the gram-positive
spore-forming rod typb produce a variety of antibiotics 4 of which at present bacitracin is the ,commercially most important. Not only of thera-
I PORTER, Streptomycin Engineered into Commercial Production, Chern. Eng.,

63 (10), 94 (1946).
OLIVE, Chloromycetin by Parke, Davis, Chern. Eng., 66 (10), 107 (1949); plus a
flow sheet for the synthetic process and Ii. pictured flow sheet for the fermentation
I.
process, p. 172.
'INSKEEP, et al., Bacitracin, Ind. Eng. Chern:, 43, 1488 (1951). A most excellent
article including many pictures, diagrams, and a flow sheet; ANON., Bacitracin, Chern.
Eng., 60 (6), 282 (1953); pictured flow sheet.
GARIBALDI and FEENEY, Subtilin Production, Ind. Eng. Chern., 41, 432 (1949);
NELSON, et al., Production of Circulin, Ind. Eng. Chern., 42, 1259 (1950).
698
peutic value alone or when mixed with penicillin, bacitracin is of value

as a feed supplement where it stimulates the growth and reduces the
mortality of poultry and swine. It is produced by a submerged-fermentation process of a mash containing soybean meal, followed by a filtration
and solvent extraction (n-butyl alcohol) purification quite similar to that
used in the production of penicillin.
Aureomycin and Terramycin. Although the commercial method of production has not been reported in detail for these two broad-spectrum antibiotics, it is known that they involve aerobic submerged-fermentation
processes. These are likewise valuable in animal-feed supplements.
SELECTED REFERENCES
General:
Prescott, S. C., and C. G. Dunn, "Industrial Microbiology," 2d ed., McGraw-Hili
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1949. This book has excellent bibliographies
at the end of each chapter. It is also an extensive and fundamental presentation
of the subjects of this chapter.
Underkofler, L. A., and R. J. Hickey, editors, "Commercial Fermentations," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
Yeasts:
Jorgensen, A., "Praotical Management of Pure Yeast," 3d ed., revised by A. Hansen,

Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd., London, 1936.
Walter, F. G., "The Manufacture of Compressed Yeast," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1940.
Underkofler, L. A., and R. J. Hickey, "Industrial Fermentations," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
Annual Unit Process reviews, usually the September issue of Ind. Eng. Chern. The
excellent presentation with hundreds of references on fermentation is divided
into two parts-present or potential commercial fermentations and fermenta-
tion as a unit process.
Symposium, Fermentation, Ind. Eng. Chern., 42, 1769 (1950).
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," The Inter-.
science Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947-1956.
Industrial Alcohol:
Jacobs, P. B., Industrial Alcohol, U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. publ. 695, 1950.
Anon., "Ethyl Alcohol (Industrial Alcohol)," Industrial Material Series, Report No.
M-l, U.S. Tariff Commission, Washington, 1951.
Brewing and Wine:
Babo, A.IF. von, and E. Mach, "Handbuch des Weinbaues und der KeJlerwirts.chaft,"
4 vols., Paul Parey, Berlin', 1923-1927.
Vogel, E. H., Jr., F. H. Schwaiger, H. G. Leonhardt, and J. A. Merten, "The Practical
Brewer-A Manual for the Brewing Industry," Van Hoffman Press, St. Louis,
1946.
Herstein, K. M., and M. B. Jacobs, "Chemistry and Technology of Wines ,and
Liquors," 2d ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1948.
699
SELECTED REFERENCES
Antibiotics:
Baron, A. L., "Handbook of Antibiotics," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New

York,1950.
Fleming, Sir Alexander, editor, "Penicillin: Its Practical Application," 2d ed., The
C. V. Mosby Company, St. Louis, 1950.
Herrell, W. E., "Penicillin and Other Antibiotic Agents," W. B. Saunders Company,
Philadelphia, 1945.
Clarke, H. T., J. R. Johnson, and Robert Johnson, editors, "The Chemistry of Penicillin," Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1949.
Work,. T. S., r-nd E. Work, "The Basis of Chemotherapy," Interscience Publishers,
Miscellaneous:
Whittier, E. 0., and B. H. Webb, "Byproducts from Milk," Reinhold Publishing

Tauber, Henry, "The Chemistry and Technology of Enzymes," John Wiley & Sons,
Foster, J. W., "Chemical Activities of Fungi," Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1949.
Walter, F. G., "The Manufacture of Compressed Yeast," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1940.
I,
CHAPTER
32
WOOD CHEMICALS
Wood,1 in general, may be divided into two classes, differing from one
another in such physical characteristics as specific gravity, compactness
of cell structure, and resistance to mechanical treatment, and in. such
chemical properties as lignin and resin content. These two classes are
known as hardwoods and softwoods, or as broadleaf (deciduous) and coniferous woods. The former contain larger quantities of" extractive matter,"
including pentosans, while in the latter the amount of resinous matter
present is high. Table 1 shows the average composition of wood, the values
TABLE 1., AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF WOOD'
, (In per cent)
Cellulose ......................... .
Pentosans ........................ .
Gums, resins, and oils .............. .
Ash ............................. ..
Lignin ....................... ,' ... .
Broadleaf or
hardwood
Coniferous or
softwood
56
58
7
18
2
1
23
8
1
26
Adapted from HAWLEY, "Wood Distillation," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,.

New York, 1923.
for the individual species falling within the ~anges- indicated. The resincontent of the decidu~us varieties is usually iust high enough to cause
difficulty but not high enough to yield any valuable product. Both types
of wood (broadleaf and coniferous) are suitable for distillation to produce
charcoal but, in the case of the resinous softwoods, prior extraction of
oils and resins is desirable hefore the destructive distillation. However,
commerdial
charcoal is made from hard woods.
,
1 The important uses and treatments of wood ItS II cheluical engineering material
of construction arc reviewed annually ill the October isslle of Industrial Ellyilleering
Chemistry; sec Chap. 33 for cellulose.
700
HISTORY
701
DISTILLATION OF HARDWOOD
History. The origin of the destructive distillation of wood can be traced

back to antiquity. The first. chemical process invented by man was prob-,
ably the making of charcoal by the cave man t.o provide a smokeless fuel
in his caves. In ancient Egypt a process for the distillation of wood was
known from which were recovered not only charcoal but fluid wood t.ar
and pyroligneous acid as well. The latter was used for embalming. In
early times, however, wood distillation was usually carried out for eharcoal alone or, when resinous coniferous wood was used, for tar and pine
oil in addition. At one time illuminating gas was manufactured from wood
by the English, but the process was soon abandoned in favor of the nowfamiliar coal process.
Wood spirits, a mixture of acetic acid and wood alcohol, was collected
and purified to wood alcohol, as it was then called. The demands of the
growing intermediate dye and synthetic organic chemical industries for
wood alcohol became so great that wood was distilled for the main purpose of obtaining this solvent or reagent. In 1870, the process for the
manufacture of acetic acid and acetone via calcium acetate from wood
was developed. This caused marked advances in wood distillation
processes all over the world, particularly in the United States and
Hungary, where wood was cheap.
For many years the wood distillation industry was the only source
of acetic acid, methanol, and acetone. In addition it furnished considerable quantities of tar, pitch, methyl acetone, /and wood oil to the
trade. During the First World War, however, a process for producing
acetone by fermentation was worked out, as described in Chap. 31.
This process effectively removed the acetone produced by t.he pyrolysis
of calcium acetate from wood distillation as a competitor. The introduction, in 1928, of acetic acid from calcium carbide and of acetone from
propylene further decreased the wood distiller's market. The manufacture and importation from Germany of synthetic methanol a short
time later were further shocks to this industry. In 1953-1954 was introduced another source of by-product acetone-that from the cumene
phenol process (see page 887).
Now faced with business ruin, some wood distillers became conscious
of the gross inefficiency of many of their operations and applied sound
chemical engineering to their problems, but competition has closed all
but the better plants. From 100 hardwood-distillation plants, the number
in operation dropped to 46 in 1932. In 1947 all but 15 of those had been
shut down permaneAtlyl-and as of 1954 this number has been reduced.
While the distillation by-products can be made synthetically, there is no
1 Wood Distillation,
Conn., 1947.
Northea.~t.
Wood Utilization Council Bull. 15, New Haven,
702
WOOD CHEMICALS
synthetic counterpart for charcoal, a product of steadily increasing

importance but of enhanced price.
Products and Economics. It was.estimated in 1947 that 1,200 cords of
wood were processed daily by the hardwood-distillation industry. That
year saw a total product value of $13,415,000 with a product breakdown
of 26,600,000 lb. of acetic acid, basis 100 per cent; 156,577 gal. of crude
methanol and 2,552,574 gal. of refined methanol, both on a 100 per cent
basis; and 373,362,654 lb. of charcoal. The methanol produced represented approximately 3 per cent of the total production for that year,
TABLE
2.
COST PER CORD OF WOOD PROCESSED G
Item
Amount
Wood .................... 1947: $8-$12; 1954: $12-$20

Fuel equipment ........... 1,000 lb. bituminous coal (actually wood gas, wood
waste, natural gas, and tar are also burned)'
Labor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.5-0.7 man-day
Water ................... 14,000 gal.
Power ................... 15 kw.-hr.
Capital investment ........ $5,000 per cord capacity (not. including chemicalrecovery plant)
G Wood Distillation, Northeast.
Wood Utilization Council Bull. 15, New Haven,
Conn., 1947.
'fABLE
3.
PRODUCTS FROM ONE CORD (4,OOO',LB:) HARD)VOODB
Product
Percent
Product
Per cent
Charcoal. ......... '.. '.... , ... .

Crude. methanol. ............. .
Acetic acid, or equivalent ..... .
25.2
1.9
2.9
Tar, oil ..................... .

Gas ........................ .
Water, etc .................. .
5.0
18.3
46.7
Chem. & Met. Eng., 39, 534 (1932).
82,900,000 gal. being manufactured synthetically. Hardwood distillation

is practiced principally in Pennsylvania, Michigan, New York, ArkanI sas, and Tennessee, where the' wood is grown as a crop, being harvested
after a sufficient period of years to furnish merchantable timber, the
scrap going into retorts. ,
The major items of plant cost per cord of wood proc!)ssed are given in
Table 2. The products from a cord of hardwood, on ~ weight basis, are
shown in Table 3. These products given in Table 3 have a wide variety of
.
applications, some of which are described below:
Charcoal. 1 About half of th,e charcoal produced is used in the metallurgiqal ind.ustries, chiefly electrometallurgical, where its function is
that of both a reducing agent and a fuel. Wood charcoal is the source of
1 LAnoo
and
STOKES,
Industrial Carbon, Chem. IOOs., 63, 609 (1948).
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS, UNIT OPERATIONS, UNIT PROCESSE~
703
carbon considered essential for the manufacture of carbon disulfide.

Fuel uses rank third in quantities consumed.
Methanol. This aliphatic alcohol is employed as a denaturant for
ethyl alcohol, an antifreeze for automobiles, a solvent, as a methylating
agent, and for formaldehyde.
.
Acetic Acid. The applications of acetic acid are too numerous to
mention completely. It is used in the preparation of a great number
of the products of the process industries, including acetic anhydride,
sodium acetate, cellulose acetate, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, amyl
acetate, white lead, and for dyeing, and souring agent in textiles.
Methyl Acetone. This is a ternary azeotropic mixture of 21 per cent
methanol, 28 per cent methyl acetate, and 51 per cent acetone and is sold
as such by the refiners as a solvent to the paint and lacquer manufac~
turers. However, the composition in practice runs between the limits
of 25 to 30 per cent methanol, 40 to 50 per cent acetic esters, and 25 to
45 per cent acetone.
Tar and Oil. The tar produced yields pitch, useful as a rubber softener
on electrical insulation, and widely sold gasoline oxidation inhibitor oils.l
Various grades of wood oils are employed as solvents, in wood preservation, and as insecticides. Some are purified and redistilled to yield
guaiacol and wood creosote. Any residue is burned under the plant boilers.
Gas. The gas evolved contains 53 per cent carbon dioxide, 27 per cent
carbon monoxide, and 15 per cent methane. It is burned to heat the
retorts and to furnish part of the fuel for the boilers. It has an average
heat content of 150 to 250 B.t.u. per cu. ft.
/
MANUFACTURE
Raw Materials. The hardwood distillation industry pyrolyzes all

varieties of woods which are commonly classed as members of the broadleaf or deciduous species; i.e., oak, ash, birch, beech, hard and soft maple,
hickory, cherry, eucalyptus, and chestnut. As stated previously, only
wood wastes are commonly employed, i.e., second-growth timber,
branches, twisted trunks, and unmarketable lumber.
Energy Requirements, Unit Operations, Unit Processes. 'rhe principal unit process is pyrolysis or destructive distillation. In this industry,
although the pyrolytic reactions require considerable energy in the form
of heat to reach the ,temperature of reaction, certain later stages are
exothermic. Many unit operations are involved to make the unit process
of pyrolysis function and to separate and purify the products of the
pyrolysis. Among the~e are heat transfer, condensation, distillation, and
extraction (liquid-liquid). Much energy, mainly as steam heat, is required
1 Universal Oil Produc:ts Co., Chicago, Ill.; ct. Goos and
from Wood Carbonization, Ind. Eng. Chern., 88, 132 (1946).
REITER,
New Products
704
WOOD CHEMICALS
to carry on these operations. The modernization and improving of the

wood-distillation industry have largely been concerned with a chemical
engineering study of the various unit operations involved in the separation and purification of the crude pyroligneous acid with the object of
reducing cost, both capital and operating.
Pyrolysis and General Treatments. Except in the continuous retorts
of the plant of the Kingsford Che~ical Co. at Iron Mountain, Mich., all
United States plants producing wood chemicals by the destructive
distillation of hardwood char the wood in batches loaded on steel buggies
on standard-gage railroad tracks, in steel retorts holding fro{Il 6 to 10
cords, operating on about a 24-hr. cycle. The retorts a!"e hung in firebrick
settings, heated by coal or natural gas, sometimes supplemented by the
wood gas or tar obtained in the procedure of a previous batch. Some
plants cut the wood into short blocks; some char 52~in. billets. Some
predry wood for 2 or 3 days, using waste heat from retort or boiler
furnace stacks; some dry wood out of doors for 3 to 18 months; but all
produce about the same quality and quantity of charcoal and raw
pyroligneous acid liquor (see Table 3).
Most plants settle and decant raw retort or pyroligneous liquor to
separate clear liquor fr6m settled tar, then give this clear decanted raw
liquor a preliminary plain distillation to help free it from" soluble" or
polymerized tar, thus producing so-called .boiled liquor. Some plants,
representing a very small proportion of the total cordage. pyrolyzed, still
neutralize acids in boiled liquor with lime, distill off " weak alcohol" from
this neutralized liquor, and evaporate to dryness the remaining acetate
liquor to produce "gray" calcium acetate. This process is obsolete and
it is believed this practice has been almost discontinued in this country.
Acetic Acid Separation and Purification. The greatest differences in
the processes are in the methods of concentration or recovery of acetic _
acid. Any process for the direct recovery of aC,etic acid from pyroligneous
acid must accomplish two things: (1) remove the many organic substances
present and (2) econOInically concentrate a dilute acetic acid solution.
Concentration of the acid by straight rectification is impractical
because the vapor composition never diffe~s greatly from the liquid
composition, and the curve even becomes concave as it approaches low
concentrations of the acid. 1 Therefore a very long distilling column with
a heavy reflux would be required to remove the acetic acid from dilute
solutions. The three processes developed, although subordinate in
commercial importance to the synthetic methods, are good illustrations
of new solutions that have been developed for the problems in chemical
engineering. The Suida extractive-distillation process is not widely used
(only two plants), because of the process requirements, relatively expensive equipment which does not produce anhydrous acid. The liquid1
PERRY,
op. cit., p. 573.
LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION PROCESS
705
liquid extraction process using ethyl acetate (or ether) is more important.
The Othmer azeotropic-distillation process is popular because of the
minimum of equipment required and economictLl operation.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction Process. The liquid-liquid extraction process,
as illustrated by Fig. 1, extracts substantially all the acetic acid from the
previously distilled liquor with over 95 per cent of the water content
flowing to waste without the necessity of reevaporating it. The choice
between the two commonly used solvents, ethyl ether and ethyl acetate,
depends largely on local fuel costs. Ethyl acettLte produces a somewhat
drier extract and its vapor pressure is lower, with consequent less tendency
Key: 5 = Steam; W=Wc.ter. -----Vapor; --Other process fluids

Steam
'140 lb.
} Per 120 lb. refined
Whole raw liquor
Water
4000 9al.
acetic acid (boos;s 100%)
from I cord hardwood 250,901. Direct labor 0.4 man.hr.
and 8.5 -10 9al. crude
Solvent ether loss
'2 lb. Depr.l0"7., Maint.,etc.,40c. methanol (basis 100"7.)
FIG. 1. Acetic acid by cold liquid-liquid extraction froIn pyroligneous acid. (Courtesy
of J. M. Coahran.)
/
to solvent loss. Since density, latent heat of vaporization, and boiling

temperature are all greater than for ethyl ether and since about the same
volume of each is required, steam consumption may be somewhat lower
for the ether. Further, the greater temperature difference between the
boiling points of boiled liquor and ether allows the economical use of
liquor vapors from primary stills in an evaporator for the evaporation
of ether after extraction (see Fig. 1). In properly designed and operated
acetic-extraction plants, ether losses can be kept under lYz lb. per cord,
thus providing a very satisfactorily low solvent cost. The extraction
processes are not widely used.
Figure 1 is a flow :diagram of a typical plsnt for ether extraction of
acetic acid from pyroligneous acid liquor. This process may be broken
down into the followi~g coordinated sequences of unit operations (Op.):
Settled raw liquor (~yroligneous acid after settling out of the insoluble tar)
is fed continuously to aiprimary still for distillation from the soluble tar in order
to lessen fouling of subsequent operations (Op.).
Mixed vapors from this still are passe(j to the heater tube bundle of the ether
evaporator anti, after partial eontiensation, to the middle of the methanol coluIIln
706
WOOD CHEMICALS
as its feed. Eighty-five per cent crude methanol is the overhead from this column,
and dealcoholized liquor is the bottom dis'charge (Op.).
The latter is cooled and pumped through a vent scrubber into the upper part
of the mechanical countercurrent extractor (Op.).
The acetic acid in the dealcoholized liquor is extracted cold as the aqueous
liquid passes downward in this mechanical extractor, using 2.6 volumes of ether
per volume of liquor countercurrent to the rising ether (Op.).
The ether-saturated extracted liquor is conducted through a heat exchanger
to the top of a steam-heated ether exhauster column for the recovery of the dissolved ether. The spent liquor flows from the bottom of this exhauster through
the heat exchanger to waste, containing less than 0.1 per cent acetic acid (Op.).
The ether solution of the acetic acid (2 to 3 per cent) is piped from the top
of the mechanical extractor to the ether evaporator. Here, heated by the vapors~
from the primary still, the ether is vaporized, along with some acetic acid (Op.):':::The acid freed of most of its ether is led to a lower section of this same ether <column. The overhead is rectified ether vapor to be condensed and recirculated.
The discharged acid collects in an acid extract receiver kept sufficiently warm by
steam to remove ether (Op.).
The ether has carried over into this acid extract practically all of the acetic
acid, a small amount of wood oils, some polymerized tar, and from 2 to 3 per cent
of water-resulting in a 70 per cent dark crude acid. The water content is a
distinct advantage as it forms minimum boiling mixtures with the volatile impurities and facilitates their fractional separation. If sufficient water is not
present, it is expedient to add it.
The 70 per cent crude acetic may be refined by either continuous or batch
distillation. Figure 1 shows a single batch distillation with .an oxidizing and
purifying treatment with from 2 to 4 lb. of sodium dichromate per ton of acid.
Sometimes, double distillation is practiced with the dichromate treatment
between (Op.).
The final acetic acid is of any desired concentration from 90 per cent
to glacial, of water color, and with a purity dependent upon the design
of the fractionating equipment and the care ,with which it is operated.
Final acid condensers are constructed of silver, though aluminum or
Duriron can be and sometimes is used. Modern practice inclines to
stainless steel throughout (KA2S Mo 317). Other acid-handling equipment is made of copper or copper alloy, and the parts handling strong
hot acid are often lined with acidproof b;ick set in acid proof cement.
Strong acid is stored and shipped in aluminum tanks, with an occasional
rubber-lined vessel. For acid under 90 per cent, paraffined wood tanks
can be used.
Suida Process. In the Suida process (Fig. 2) the upper layer from the
initial settling of the crude pyroligneous acid is first treated to remove
acetic acid by being vaporIzed and scrubbed countercurrently with a
wo~d oil, which is obtained by vacuum distillation of the tar from the
settlers (see Fig. 1). The oil with acetic acid in solution passes through
a dehydrating column into a vacuum stripping column, where the acetic
707
OTHMER OR AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION PROCESS
acid is boiled off under vacuum. The oil returns to the system, while
the acetic acid is rectified to 92 per cent or higher. Fresh oil is added to
the scrubbing column at frequent intervals. The vapors from the scrubbing column, having been stripped of acetic acid by the oil, are sent to
methanol recovery, their alcohol content being about 4 per cent. They
also contain a small amount of acetone. Subsequent concentration in an
exhausting and rectifying system produces 90 per cent methanol or its
equivalent. Final rectification yields 99 per cent methanol, allyl alcohol,
acetone, and "weak alcohol." The yields of products per cord (4,000 lb.)
of wood and resulting 250 gal. of pyroligneous acid are charcoal, 1,330 lb.;
Cond(lns~rs
Suido
Proc...
r
-
_WastE'
!las
Scrubbing oil
---- Aceficacid
Boiler
II U
H-~--l~:=L'
OJ 0, ~~~~o:;
~,:.:::-~ ___ ~ To
Vacuum receoiVEI'fS
So/ublt> fo,.
~~~~gi~~o~~I'iquor 500~tol~~
gal} P>r ton IOO~
Wat('rp~c1udin9 retorts) 240 M
gl~"~b!~(incl moint)
11~~::~~ ac('tic acid
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for acetic acid extraction from pyroligneous liquor-Suida process.
Steam
32-37to05
oil, 4.5 gal.; tar, 40 to 45 gal.; acet.ic acid (100 per s:ent hasis), 1201h.;
and methanol (100 per cent basis), 9 gal.,! based on cord wood GO in. long
(vs. usual 52-in. sticks).
Othmer or Azeotropic Distillation Process. The various steps may be
divided into the following unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
Hb.rdwood, previously dried so that moisture content is about 25 per cent, is
loaded on "buggies," which hold about 2 or 2~ cords of wood, rolled into a steel
retort 50 to 55 ft. long, and heated for about 20 hr. at 600 to 700F. (Pr.). In
order to avoid warping, the doors of the retort are not heated. The initial temperature may be maintained at about 500F. for 4 hr. to distill out the water,
and then raised to 700F.; for 4 to 6 hr. more. At the end of this time the reaction
becomes exothermic and, little or no external heat is needed to maintain the
desired temperature.
Charcoal is removed from the retorts and cooled out of contact with air for
48 hr., placed in open sh~ds for 2 days, and shipped to consumers (Op.).
The vapors formed by the heat-treatment are passed through water-cooled
copper condensers (Op.)~,
1 POSTE, Suida Process for Acetic Acid Recovery, Ind. Eng. Chern., 24, 722 (1932);
KRASE, Solvent Extraction Obviates Waste in Acetic Acid Production, Chern. & Met.
Eng., 36, 657 (1929).
708
WOOD CHEMICALS
The wood gas produced is conducted to a scrubbing system and sent to the
distributing pipes leading to the burners (Op.). The gas has a fuel value of 150 to
250 B.t.u. per cu. ft.
The condensed vapors, known as pyroligneous acid Oi liquor, are sent to
settling tanks for 24 hr. Here the insoluble tars settle out and are removed
(Op.).
Liquid from the tar still is pumped to the demethanolizing column and the
crude methanol distilled (Op.). This distillation is a continuous operation. The
2009al
purewQter
auf
FIG. 3. Direct acetic acid by azeotropic distillation-Othmer process.
plates in the column below the feed plate are of a special perforated design to,
permit removal of tar deposits (see Fig. 3).
"Crude methanol," containing some acetone and methyl acetate and about
15 per cent water, is fractionated off the, top of the column and condens'ed (Op.).
Dealcoholized liquor from the botto~ of the column is jmetered and sent to a
preevaporator (Op.). This evaporator has a conical bottom to permit removal
of the tars that passed the previous treatments.
The remaining volatile materials (acetic acid and water) are distilled in the
evaporator, pass through a ca'tchall to remove any suspended matter and then
to the azeotropic dehydrating column (Op.). Water cannot be removed prac~
tically from acetic acid by simple distillation because of the excessive number of
plates req~ired in the column and the prohibitive heat requirements. The water
is removed in the dehydrating column by adding a water-insoluble "withdraw-
CONTINUOUS HARDWOOD DISTILLATION
709
ing" liquid such as butyl acetate.t This method of removmg water from acetic
acid is the Othmer process. Ethylene chloride or vario'ls other solvents, some
of which may be fractions of oils present in wood distillation, may also be used
for this purpose. The butyl acetate or other withdrawing liquid distills with the
water as a minimum boiling azeotrope and thus removes the water from the acid
(Op.).
The vapors of butyl acetate and water are condensed and cooled. Separation
into two layers takes plac~ (Op.).
Buty~ acetate is returned to the top plate of the column as reflux and the water
containing a small amount of butyl acetate is distilled to recover all the acetate
(Op.). The water discharges from the bottom of this water column and contains
about 0.01 per cent acetic acid.
The crude acetic acid from the dehydrating column contains some formic,
propionic, and butyric acids, a little tar, and not more than 0.5 per cent water.
This is rectified in one or sometimes two continuous columns to produce glacial
acetic acid, a formic acid fraction, and a fraction of higher acid homologs.
Continuous Hardwood Distillation. The plant of the Kingsford Chemical Company at Iron Mountain, Mich., continuously feeds dry wood to
Badger-Stafford retorts at 302F., the wood entering at the top and
being heated as it sinks, until it distills. Retort temperature is 1004F.,
maintained (after initial heating of the retort to this point by gas)
entirely by the exothermic reaction accompanying distillation. These
retorts, which are 40 ft. high and 10 ft. in diameter, discharge into rotary
coolers lined with water-cooled tubes and externally sprayed with water.
From the coolers the charcoal passes to rotary condi~ioners, which permit
absorption of oxygen. Complete conditioning of the charcoal in 5 hr. is
possible by this method. 2
The wood gas and pyroligneous acid are taken off the retorts and the
acid is condensed. The gas is scrubbed and used for fuel. Every two
w~eks the stills are taken off the line, and the tar is removed. This
latter is sent to the pitch department where creosote oil and pitclJ. are
recovered. The pyroligneous acid is settled to remove tar.
This plant produces various esters of acetic acid and not the free
acid as its products. The,distillate from the primary tar stills is distilled
in a continuous systerh to yield 95 per cent crude methanol overhead and
15 per cent acetic acid at the base of the column. The crude wood alcohol,
containing allyl alcohol, methyl acetate, and acetone, is refined in dis-.
continuous stills, yi~ding refined allyl alcohol in addition to several
lOTHMER, Acetic Acid and a Profit from Wood Distillation, Chem. & Met. Eng.,
42, 356 (1935); OTHMER, Dehydrating Aqueous Solutions of Acetic Acid, Chern. &
Mel. Eng., 40, 631 (l9:33j; pictured flow chart, Chem. & Met. Eng., 47, 349 (1940);
numerous patents.
2 NELtioN, Waste-wood Utilization by the Badger-Stafford Process, Ind. Eng.
Chcm., 22,312 (WaO). RIEGEI~, "Industrial Clwrnistry," 5th ed., pp. 319-321, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1949, gives a flow sheet for this process.
710
WOOD CHEMICALS
fractions that yield pure methanol, 75 per cent methyl acetone, and 75
per cent methyl acetate upon further refining. The 15 per cent acetic acid
initially obtained is esterified to ethyl acetate.
PRODUCTS FROM SOFTWOOD
The term naval stores is usually applied to the group of. products
made by the distillation or extraction of softwood or from the oleoresin
that exudes therefrom. These products are turpentine, rosin, pine oil,
rosin oil and spirit, pine tar, and pitch. These products were used by the
Navy in the days of wooden ships. Turpentine and rosin are complex
mixtures of organic compounds obtained from pine wood or sap. The
destructive distillation of wood yields turpentine but does not produce
rosin, while reclaimed gum residues yield rosin but not turpentine
(Table 4).
History. Turpentine and rosin are produced from the longleaf pine.
This tree flourishes particularly in the Southeast and Southern parts of
the United States; in fact, in the early days of America the forests in this
region were said to extend in a belt approximately 700 miles deep and
1,000 miles long. The earliest records show that 'turpentine was being
made in 1606 in Maine. In 1608 what was probably the first cargo of
American naval stores was shipped to England. Pine-tar manufacture
became one of the first industries of the New England colonies, flourishing
as early as 1650. 1 By 1750, North Carolina had been settled and had
established a growing trade in naval stores. By 1860, South Carolina,
Georgia, and Florida had begun production and by 1900 Georgia was
the chief producing state. The same year, H. T. Yaryan of Toledo,
Ohio, began a series of experiments which resulted in the erection of a
plant at Gulfport, Miss., to obtain turpentine and pine oil from the
logging waste and also to attempt the removal of the rosin present.
Plant production .by the steam distillation method rose to 1,700 bbl. of
turpentine, 14,000 bbl. of rosin, and 700 bbl. of pine oil per annum.
Florida and Georgia produce 95 per cent of t'oday's gum turpentine and
rosin. The industry has offered new products and grades of old products
to the consumer.
Products and Economics. The production of rosin and turpentine
is shown in Table 4. The apparent United States consumption during
1953-1954 was 25,248,000 gal. of turpentine and 626,200,000 lb. of rosin.
"Gum" turpentine or rosin refers to that obtained by exudation' from
incisions in trees of the longleaf or slash pine varieties, while "wood"
turpentine, or rosin indicates those products obtained from the destructive
distillatIon, steam distillation, or extraction of wood or stumps.
Although turpentine and rosin are available from different methods of
productio~ (Table 4), the uses of each product from the various sources
1 PALMER,
Naval Stores, Ind. Eng. Chem., 27, 741 (1935).
711
PRODUCTS AND ECONOMICS
are generally interchangeable; hence, no attempt will be made to distinguish between these sources in the list that follows. The major products
of the naval-stores industry are the turpentines, rosins, pine oils, rosin
oils, spirits, and pine-tar pitches and tars. The tabulation at the bottom
of Fig. 4 shows the products obtained from 1,000 tons of white-pine
chips, while Table 5 represents t.he consumption of turpentine and rosin
in various industries.
TABLE.4. UNITED STATES PRODUCTION m' ROSIN AND TURPENTINE, 1950-1954"
Turpentinp., 50-gal. bbl.
Hosin, 520-1h. drumH
Crop yp.ar, April 1-March 31
Gum ............. . 1 . . . . . . , ...

Wood ................ : .......
Wood: Steam distilled ..........
Sulfate ................
Destructively distilled ...
Total production .... ; .
a
195~-195.J.
1950-1951
177,680
.... ...
193,090
164,220
2,860
5:l7,850
195~-H)54
1950-1951
271,880
5~1,620
0.. . .
1,21:l,:l40
797,620
1,:l39,410
237,080
194,180
5,410
708,550
1,744,960
2,137,030
U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Turpentine is a mixture of organic compounds known as terpenes. The

principal constituent is a-pinene:
Turpentine as a household paint and varnish thinner accounts for a

large part of the present consumpt.ion. Important chemical uses have
increased the outlets for turpentine. These include synthetic camphor,
terpineols, pharmaceuticals, insecticide manufacture, and the production
of additives for lubrimi.ting oil exposed to extremely high temperatures.
Ikosin. One of the c~ief components of rosin is abietic acid (probably
the aphydride),
7]2
WOOD CHEMICALS
a1though other acids such as 0:- and ~-pimaric also are present.. Many
grades of rosin' are on the market, largely distinguished by color, clarity,
saponification number, and softening point.
The major uses of rosin are for" sizing" or impregnating various types
of paper and paperboard; in protective coatings such as varnishes,
enamels, and paints; in chemicals and pharmaceuticals; and in yellow
laundry soap. Rosin enters into insecticides and germicides because of its
adhesiveness, a property that enables it to be used in such widely diversified products as can label cement, linoleum, and sealing wax. The esters
of rosin are also quite useful. Methyl and ethyl abietates 2 are employed as
plasticizers and cosolvents, while the glycerol ester, widely known as ester
gum, is applied with tung oil in making water-resistant varnishes. Ester
gum is important in synthetic resin and nitro-cellulose coatings.
TABLE
5.
PERCENTAGE CONSUMPTION OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN BY VARIOUS

INDUSTRIES IN
1951"
Industry
Turpentine
Rosin
Chemicals and pharmaceuticals .......... .

Ester gum and synthetic resins .......... .
Linoleum and floor covering ............ .
Paint, varnishes, lacquers .............. .
Paper and paper size ................... .
SOap ................................. .
Other industries ....... \ ............... .
70.a
26.6
21.1
2.5
6.8
30.3
6.1
13.\)
0.0
9.0
0.0
0.0
6.8
6.6
19.50--1951 Annual Naval Sto~es Report, U.S. Depart.ment of Agriculture, Washington, 1951.
Rosin Oils. These oils are used in printers' inks and in varnishes. They
are rather high-boiling oils obtained by destructively distilling rosin and
are of higher molecular weight and of greater chemical complexity than
the terpene hydrocarbons.
Pine Oils. These are mixtures of terpene alcohols, terpenes, aldehydes, and ketones. They do not occur naturally but arise by distillation
of wood. They have peen fractionated to yield a-terpineol, fenchyl
alcohol, borneol, and anethole. Industrially, pine' oil itself is used in the
flotation of lead and zinc ores, industrial detergents, in textile scowing,
and as a cleanser, disinfectant, and deodorant.
Dipentene. Commercial dipentene is a mixture of dipentene (or limo..,
nene) , terpinene, and terpinolene. These compounds are isomeric p-'
terpadienes.
1 "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., Chap. 17, p. fi91, D. Van
NQstrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942; HUMPHREY, Solvent Refining of Wood
Hosin, Ind.. Eng. Chern., 35, 1062 (1943).
LEE, H!!rcules Makes Resins from Rosin, Chern. Eng., 55 (11), 129 (1948), with a
pictur!!d flow sheet on p. 158 on hydroahietyJ alcohol.
I
ROSIN AND TURPENTINE
713
CHa
/'\-
H 2C
CH
H 2C
CH 2
"'C/
/"'-CHa
HaC
Terpinolene
Dipentene is a solvent, widely used because of its ability to prevent, or at .

least retard, the formation of surface skins in cans of paint, printing ink,
or varnish. It is also employed as a solvent in reclaiming rubber from
old tires.
MANUFACTURE
The raw materials for the production of naval stores include those
species of wood commonly classed as coniferous. Either the gum that
flows from the living longleaf or slash pine, or the stumps from the cutover pine forests, together with other resinous wood wastes, form the
source of raw material for the various processes employed.
Processing of Gum.' The processing of gum for naval stores products is
the older procedure. Originally, all gum was produced in the old, directfired copper still. The turpentine was distilled off with the water and
separated by gravity; the rosin remained in the kettle and was removed in a molten and impure condition at the end of the run and
strained to remove wood chips, pine needles, dirt, etc. Fire stills have
largely been supplanted in this country by large steam stills operated
either batch wise or cqntinuously in what is known as a central plant. In
1951, over 90 per cent of the gum naval stores products were produced in
29 such plants. Sinc~ the advent of these central stills, the owners of
pine stands are largely gum farmers instead of processors. They obtain
the gum by chipping or wounding longleaf and slash pines and collecting
the exudate by means of gutters or cups. A 40 to 60 per cent sulfuric
acid spray on the strJak increases the yield. The oleoresin so obtained is
collected every 3 to.4 weeks and delivered to central gum-cleaning plants.
Although the stel!-~ still was developed first, it was not entirely
,
1 For a most exceIIen11 ar~icIe see SHEARON, et at., Continuous Distillation of Gum
Turpentine, Ind. Eng. Chem., 40, 1695 (1948); cf. POOLE and PATTON, Pine Gumprocl'ssing Labor and Fuel Costs, Che11l. Bng., 54 (8), 102 (1947); COLLINS and PATTOl\',
A New Taek for GUill Naval Stores, ('hem. Eng., 68 (!J), 154 (1951).
714
WOOD CHEMICALS
successful, until the development of the Olustee process of gum cleaning

in 1938. Here the crude gum is diluted with turpentine, heated with
steam, screened and filtered, and washed with hot water before distillation. There are other methods of gum cleaning,l but the Olustee process
accounts for approximately 75 per cent of today's cleaning. All central
stills clean the gum before processing in order to upgrade and increase
the amount of rosin recovered. Turpentine is usually about the same
quality, if properly distilled, regardless of the gum cleanliness or method
of processing.
The batch still consists of a stainless-steel cylindrical tank containing
steam coils and spargers to which gum and water are charged. The
turpentine is distilled, condensed, and separated from the water by
gravity. The final traces of water are removed in a dehydrator, a receiver
containing 4-mesh rock salt, through which the turpentine passes upward.
At the end of the charge, the rosin is drawn off the bottom and packaged.
Continuous distillation of gum turpentine was first patented in 1944,
and the system departs considerably in both design and operation from
the batch steam still. It also differs from the continuous processes of
distillation used in the wood naval-stores industry for two reasohssimplicity and operation at atmospheric pressure. Basically, the still
embodies a standard 12-in. pipe or upright column about 20 ft. high with
a flash chamber at the top, a preheating coil for treating the gum, a
condensing tank, and pipe outlets. The cleaned gum is preheated to
350F. and sprayed into the flash chamber where around 75 per cent of
the turpentine IS flashed off. The rosin flows downward through the
steam-jacketed column, with a current of live steam flowing upward to
remove the remaining turpentine. The turpentine is run off continuously
from the bottom of the condenser. By adjusting the steam injected into
the base of the column, the amount of turpentine in the final rosin may be
carefully regulated. Advantages of continuous over batch opcration
include lower capital investment, lower operating costs, less labor, and
greater throughput.
There are three methods for processing wood for naval-stores products,
as can be seen from Table 4.
Destructively Distilled Wood Turpentine. This product involves a distillation very similar to that employed for the distillation of hard wo;d. The
pine wood is charged to gas-fired retorts arranged in long rows. The
vapors. and gases pass through condensers and drain into open tubs.
The noncondensable gases are used for retort fuel. The heating period is
16 hr. and the cooling period 8 hr. The lighter oils are condensed fir~t and
separated from the pyroligneous liquor which settles to the bottom.
During the latter half of the run, heavier oils come over and displace
this acid, which rises to the top. The light and heavy oils are filtered,
1
See SHEARON, et al., op.
cit., for descriptions.
715
MANUFACTURE
treated, and combined for steam redistillation in pot stills, the distillate
containing turpentine, pine oil, and dipentene. The mixture is bleached
with sulfuric acid and subsequently fractionated and refractionated to
produce refined dipentene, refined turpentine, and pine oil.' The residue
in the original pot stills is pine tar. No rosin is produced. As can be seen
in Table 4, this process is unimportant.
Steam and Solllent Process. The cutover pine forests of the South
provide the raw material, mainly stumps and some other resinous waste
. Turpentin.
155-lb7C
Intermediate terpenes Ib7-200"C
5.270 gal
2.700 gal
Pine oils
5.000 Qal}
Tar
.
540 901.
Total crude ools 13.510 gal.
Obtained from
1.000 tons of
white pine
Included herein are the hydrocarbons: para-menthane, dipentene. poro-cymene. terplnene. and terpinolene
Fw. 4. Flow sheet for wood rosin and turpentine by steam and solvent extraction.
wood, for this process. Figure 4 shows the essentia11mit operations (Op.)
in this method. 2
The wood is first ground in a wood hog and then reduced to splinters in a
shredder (Op.).
The chips are loaded into a battery of extractors, where they rest upon a false
bottom, below which live steam under pressure is admitted at the end of the run
for solvent recovery. The extractors are built of acid-resistant stainless alloys
and operate at pressures of 65 to 85 lb. per sq. in. gage COp.).
The solvent (so selected that it is easily separated from turpentine) countercurrently extracts the chips (Op.). This solvent may be naphtha or a petroleum
fraction with a boiling range 'of 200 to 240F. The hot solvent is drained off, and
the residual material on the .chips is removed by subsequent steam distillation.
The chips are used for fuel (Op.).
Most of the solvent is removed from the turpentine, pine oil, and rosin in a
concentrating evaporator (Op.).
The residue from the1first evaporator is sent to an intermediate evaporator.
The vapors from this evaporator are led into the upper part of the continuous
fractionating column, ,and the residue is sent to the finishing evaporator (Op.).
1 NEALEY, Distilling P~pe Products at New Orleans, Chern. &: Met. Eng., 48, 20
(1936).
'
HIGHTOWER, From Pine Stumps to Rosin and Terpene Oils, Chem. Eng., 64 (12),
119 (1947), with a pictured flow sheet, p. 150; Naval Stores; New Plant Does Old
Job Better, Chem. Eng., 66 (8), 108 (1948).
716
WOOD CHEMICALS
Vapors from this final evaporator are combined with those of the intermediate
evaporator before entering the fractionating column (Op.).
Residue from the third evaporator is whole wood rosin and may be treated by
selective solvents and certain adsorbents such as fuller's earth -and light rosins 1
(Op.).
The continuous fractionating column separates the pine oils and turpentine
from the last of the solvent (Op.).
Pine liquids from the continuous column are separated into three fractions
in a batch still: crude pine oil, an intermediate cut of terpenes, and crude turpentine (Op.).
Careful fractionation of these three cuts produces many marketable products
(Op.).
Sulfate Pulp Turpentine. The relief gases from the digesters for sulfate
(or kraft) pulp contain turpentine and pine oil. Upon condensation, a
crude oil is found floating on top of the condensate. There are 2 to 10 gal.
of oil per ton of pulp produced. This oil contains 50 to 60 per cent turpentine and 10 to 20 per cent pine oil; and these may easily be separated by
fractional distillation. The resulting turpentine contains offensive mercaptans which must be removed by hypochlorite solution or ethylene
diamine. 2 Another by-product of the process is tall oil, a so-called liquid
rosin obtained upon acidification of the digester liquor. It might be
classed as a sulfate rosin.
~
"Sulfite turpentine" is another kind of turpentine available from the
paper industry and consists chiefly of p-cymene rather than of a-pinene.
It is obtained from the pulping of spruce by the sulfite process. To date
the actual recovery in the pulp industry is unimportant.
******
The increased use of chemicals from wood is dependent upon a solution

of the problem as to what their various chemical components are. This'
is being solved and new derivatives are being made; such a result is
stimulating to the entire naval stores industry. There is ample evidence to._
predict that the component products of this tndustry can be developed
by
I
research to form the basis for a group of allied industries. similar in interdependence to coal tar and its related drug 'and dye industries.
HYDROLYSIS OF WOOD
Although such cellulosic materials as corncobs, cottonseed ~ulls,

peanut shells, and bagasse have all been proposed as potential so_urces
of alcohpl, following hydr9lysis of cellulose to sugar-and its fermen: HIGHTOWER,
op.
cit.
, "Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. III, 3d ed., Sec. 5, p. 192, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1937; cf. Lee, Closer Fractionation, Finer Chemicals,
Chern. Eng., 68 (3), 142 (1951).
MANUFACTURE
717
tation-only wood pulp and wood wastes have ever gained even minor
status.
History. The saccharification of wood received its first industrial trial
at the beginning of the present century. During the first World War,
two American plants manufactured alcohol from sawdust using dilute
sulfuric acid as the hydrolyzing agent. Because of the low yields, approximately 22 gal. of 100 per cent alcohol per ton of dry southern pine, the
plants could not compete and were closed 2 years after the war. At.the
same time Scholler was trying to produce alcohol from wood in Germany.
Using about the same methods, he attained yields of a 3 per cent sugar
solution, representing 60 to 70 per cent of theory. Also Willstatter and
Zechmeister published the discovery that, at ordinary temperatures,
40 per cent hydrochloric acid easily puts cellulose into solution. It was
not until 1916, however, that Bergius and Haaglund undertook the
development of a process employing hydrochloric acid and not until
1930 that Scholler began operations with 'sulfuric acid at Tornesch. 1
By 1941, 30 foreign plants were in successful commercial operation.
During the Second World War, two plants were built in this country.
The plant at Bellingham, Wash., utilizes waste liquors from the sulfite
pulping process in which hydrolysis of cellulose to sugar had occurred.
During the fiscal year 1951 it. produced 2,900,000 gal. of alcohol, which
was about 1 per cent of the total United States production. The alcoholfrom-wood-waste plant at Springfield, Ore., employed a modified Scholler
process developed by the Department of Agriculture's Forest Products
Laboratory at Madison, Wis. This plant was not "completed until the
summer of 1947 and after a brief run was shut down.
Manufacture. In the sulfite process for the manufacture of pulp,
sugars are formed by the hydrolysis of wood constituents that are dissolved out to produce usable fibers. Approximately 65 per cent of these
sugars is capable of being fermented to alcohol. This is equivalent to
about 1 to 2 per cent of the sulfite waste liquor. First, the sulfite waste
liquor is separated from the pulp and conditioned for fermentation. 2
After cooling to 30C.: and adding lime to adjust the pH to 4.5 and urea
nutrient, the liquor is pumped into the first of a series of seven fermentors.
The yeast, reclaimed (roni a previous fermentation, is added and fermentation occurs for a period of 20 hr. Each of the tanks is agitated and the
flow is continuous. After fermentation the yeast is separated from the beer
in centrifugal separators. The yeast is recycled and the alcohol is stripped
from the beer before entering the rectifying column. In this column,
1 BERGIUS, Conversion/of Wood to Carbohydrates, Ind. Eng. Chem., 29,247 (1937);
The Utilization of Wood rfor the Production of F~od-stuffs, 7'rans, lnst. Chern. Engrs.
(London), 11, 162 (1933).
ERICCSON, Alcohol fr6m Sulfite Waste Liquor, Chern. Eng. Progr., 43, 165 (1947),
including a flow sheet.
718
WOOD CHEMICALS
operating under substantial reflux, the alcohol is concentrated to 190

proof or higher and then purified to remove the low-boiling contaminants.
After vaporization, the cooled condensate is deposited to alcohol storage.
In Sweden all the alcohol (and many derivatives therefrom) come from
waste sulfite liquors. This includes all beverage spirits and during the
war, alcohol for motor fuel.
The Oregon plant was designed to hydrolyze 221 tons per day of
Douglas-fir sawmill waste. The process wood is shredded to proper size
and packed in five 2,000 cu. ft. percolators by steam shocking to a
controlled density. Dilute (0.4 to 0.8 per cent) sulfuric acid is added to the
percolator which hydrolyzes the hemicellulose and cellulose of the wood
to sugars and other by-products, mostly lignin. After flashing, lime is
added to neutralize the excess sulfuric acid. The calcium sulfate formed is
filtered out. Nutrients and yeast are added to the liquor and it enters a
fermentation cycle of 24 hr. at 86F. After centrifugal separation of the
yeast from the beer, the alcohol is separated by a distillation system.!
Theoretically, 11,500 gal. of 190-proof ethanol should be obtained per day.
CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES
Many cellulose denvatives have attained commercial importance,

such as the ethers: ethyl cellulose,2 methyl cellulose (Dow's" Methocel")
and carboxy-methyl cellulose. The latter is frequently known as "CMC"
and may be prepared by the following "alkylation" or by a variation in
the proportions:
[C 6H 70 2 (OH)alz
Cellulose
+ xNaOH ~ [C 6H 70 2(OHhONal z
Alkali cellulose
[C sH 702(OHhONal z + xClCH 2 COONa ~ [C6H702(OHhOCH2COONalz

Sodium chloroacetate
Sodium carboxy-methyl cellulose
Various degrees of etherification are del:!cribed in the literature anp it is

probable that several formulations are commercial. The sodium carboxymethyl cellulose 3 is a white powder when :dry, though it is generally
produced and sold as solutions of varying concentration and viscosity.
In 1953, 20,005,000 lb. were sold valued at $8,512,000. It is physiologically inert, and is employed as a protective coating for textile and
1 U.S. Pat. 2152164 (1939); HARRIS and BEG LINGER, Madison Wood Sugar Process,
Ind. 1lJng.,Chem., 38, 890 (1946); Symposium, Sugars from Wood, Ind. Eng. Chem.,
37,4 (1945).
ANON., Ethyl Cellulose, Flow Sheet, Chem. & Met. Eng., 62 (9), 142 (1945); see
Chap. 35 for cellulose derivatives used in plastics.
3 HADER, Carboxymethylcellulose, IiuJ. Eng. Chem., 44,2808 (HJ52).
SEI,ECTED REFERENCES
719
paper, sizing, ice cream, and other emulsion st.abilizers and as an additive
to impart strength to sausage casings and other films.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1947-1956.
Benson, Henry K., "Chemical Utilization of Wood," U.S. Department of Commerce,
22d Rept. NaU. Comm. Wood Utilization, 115 pp., 1932. This is an excellent summary and contains a comprehensive bibliography.
Hawley, L. F., "Wood Distillation," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1923.
Klar, M., "The Technology of Wood Distillation," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
New York, 1925.
Bunbury, H. M., "The Destructive Distillation of Wood," Ernest Benn, Ltd.,
London, 1923.
Gamble, T., "Gamble's International Naval Stores ypar Boo);:," T. Gamble, editor
and publisher, Savannah, Ga., 1940.
Haynes, Williams, "Cellulose, the Chemical that Grows," Doubleday & Company,
CHAPTER
33
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRIES
Cellulose is probably the most versatile raw material known to man,

and its conversion to a group of products that are indispensable to
modern civilization is the everyday function of the pulp and paper
industry. In 1947, there were 226 pulp mills! employing over 50,000
persons. That year there were 665 paper and board mills to process the
pulp employing over 140,000 people and the value of the products
shipped was nearly 3 billion dollars. Our present per capita use of paper is
above 350 lb. annually which is more than any other country in the
world. The pulp industry also supplies purified cellulose for explosives,
rayon, and plastics; The chemicals used in volume in the pulp and paper
industry, the third largest customer of the chemical industry, include
heavy chemicals, such as lime, soda ash, caustic soda, sodium silicate,
sulfur, salt cake, sodium sulfide, chlorine, clay, calcium carbonate, and
titanium dioxide; and organics such as paraffin waxes, rosin, glue, casein,
starch, formaldehyde, and dyes.
Historical. 2 Man's earliest attempts to record human activities were
made on stone. A little later, bark, leaves, and ivory were also used.
Between 2500 and 2000 B.C. the manufacture of a writing paper from
papyrus, a tall reed growing along the Nile, was begun. It is fro~ this
reed that the word paper is derived. There were, however, other early
writing materials, including dried calf- and goatskin parchment, t~e
wax-covered boards of the Romans, and the clay-brick records of the
Babylonians.
,
The actual manufacture of paper was, invented by the Chinese about A.D. 150 but was kept secret until about 700, when the Arabs conquered
Samarkand. By the end of the fourteenth century, the process of manufacture had undergone several improvements and was well known in
southern Europe. The industry did not obtain a firm foothold in England'
until the seventeenth century, and it was almost the beginning_ of th~ ,
eighteenth century (1690) before America's first paper mill was established.
I
'1947 Census of Manufactures. See Tables I and II for 1954 consumption and
production statistics.
2 HUNTER, "Papermaking-The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft,"
2d ed., Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1947.
720
HISTORICAL
721
The only raw material used by the early industry was rags, which were
washed, stamped into a pulp by water-driven stamping rods, and the
resultant mass diluted. A wooden frame with a wire-screen bottom was
dipped into the pulp and shaken as the liquor drained through, matting
the fibers into a sheet. These sheets were placed on felts, stacked, pressed
to remove additional water, and hung up to dry. The product was rag
paper.
Between 1750 and 1800 the Holland beater was developed and adopted.
In 1799, a Frenchman, Louis Robert, invented a process for forming a
sheet on a moving wire screen. He disposed of his invention to M. Didot
and John Gamble, who after making additional improvements sold out
to the Fourdrinier brothers in 1804. This machine is known today as the
Fourdrinier machine. In 1809 the cylinder machine was invented by
John Dickinson and immediately forced the Fourdrinier into the background, where it remained until about 1830, when its importance was
finally realized. It was in this period that the first Fourdrinier was
received in America (1827) and that steam cylinders for drying were
first used (1826).1
The increased production made possible by the Fourdrinier and cylin
der machines so greatly increased the demand for rags that a scarcIty
soon developed. In 1841, however, Keller of Saxony had invented, a
mechanical process of making pulp from wood. The soda process was
developed by Watt and Burgess in the years 1853-1854. In 1866 and
1867 the American chemist, Tilghman, was granted the basic patents
(British) for the sulfite process, although the commercialization of the
process was carried out independently of Tilghman, by the Swedish
chemist, C. D. Ekman, who began the manufacture of sulfite pulp at
Bergvik, Sweden, in 1874. The sulfate or kraft process (kraft is German
for strong) was the result of basic experiments conducted by C. F. Dahl
in 1879, at Danzig. In 1908 the sulfate process was introduced into the
United States. At that time, pulp production was divided as follows:
mechanical, 48 per cent; sulfite, 40 per cent; soda, 12 per cent. Pulp
manufacture gradually developed into an industry of its own and served
industries other than the paper industry as well.
The manufacture of pulp for rayon manufacture has assumed major
importance and becorile a distinctly specialized dfvision of pulp manufacture. Perhaps the greatest change in the industry in recent years has
been the rise of the sulfate process to the position of major importance in
the industry, a place held for years by the sulfite process. This situation
will undoubtedly continue.
The control and utilization of the industry's by-products have received
widespread attention. The creation of useful materials from the lignin
and the waste liquors means an increased income for the industry as well
1 JOHNSEN,
The Pulp and, Paper Industry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 27, 514 (1935).
722
PUl..P AND PAPER INDUSTRIES
as a partial solution to its major problem, the avoidance of stream

pollution.
Uses and Economics. For statistics see Table 1 and Table 2. Over half
the world's production of paper is consumed in the United States.
TABLE
1.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF WOOD PULP, PULPWOOD, AND
(1,000 short tons) ("Facts for Industry," Bureau

Censns, Washington, D,C.)
O'rHER FIBROUS MATERIALS
Production
-------------------------------1
1954
preliminary
of
Consumption
I-------1--------------1953
1954
preliminary
1953
Woodpulp.tot..L...........................
18,341
17.537
HI. 033
18,681
Speci ..1 alpha and dissolving grades...... . . . . .
791
677
58
55
Bleached sulfite....... . . . . ...... . . . .. . . . . .
1,800
1,728
2.062
2,067
Unbleached sulfite........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
582
593
892
942
llleached sulf ..te........... ................
2,684
2,389
8,148
2,905
Semible .. ched sulfate........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
326
302
363
353
Unbleached sulf..te.........................
6,797
6,752
6.914
7,018
Sod.... .. .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
43 I
427
495
504
Groundwood...............................
2,428
2,342
2,634
2,523
Semichemical..... . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
1,126
1,028
1,121
1,022
Detibrated or exploded.......... ............
1.203
1,153
1,191
1,142
Screenings, damaged, ete...... . . . . . . . . . .. ...
169
140
151'
144
Other fibrous m ..teri..ls, total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9,275
.9,785
W ...te p..per...............................
8,063'
8,530
Str ..w.....................................
239
277
Rags......................................
316
325
Cotton tiber.. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .
16
13
Manila stock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
44
All other.. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. __.:..:....:.".:.;____.:..:....:..:_:_:--'____.::.59~1:__..;___.:::5.::.93::_
Cord. of 128 cu. ft.-roughwood basi.

Pulpwood I total ..... ~ .......................~.
Softwood ................................. .
H ..rdwood ................................ .
29,436
24,635
4,800
28,150
23,772
4,377
MANUFACTURE OF 'PULP FOR PAPER
There ar~ two distinct phases in the conversion of raw wood into the
finished paper which is s,uch an integral part of our everyday life. These
are (1) the manufacture of pulp from the raw wood as-outlined in Table 3
and (2) the conversion of the pulp to paper itself. Papermaking will be
presented in a later section.
There are four different kinds of wood pulp: mechanical pulp, sulfite
pulp, sulfate pulp, and soda pulp as shown in Tables 1 to 3. The first
is prepared by purely mechanical means, the other three by chemical
means. The mechanical pulp contains all of the wood except the bark
and that lost during storage and transportation. Chemical pulps, however, are essentially pure cellulose, the unwanted and unstable lignin and
the other noncellulosic components of the wood having been dissolved
away by the treatment. Because of this, chemical pulps are much
superior to mechanical (or ground-wood pulp) for fine papermaking.
723
RAW MATERIALS
However, owing to the special processing required, they are too expensive
for the cheaper grades of paper, such as newsprint.
TABLE 2. PAPER AND BOARD PRODUCTION, 1954 AND 1953 (1,000 short tons)
("Facts for Industry," Bureau of Census, Washington, D.C.)
1954
All types, total. ................................... .

Paper, total. ....................................... .
Newsprint ........................... , ............ .
Groundwood paper ................................ .
Paper machine-coated ............................... .
Book paper ....................................... .
Fine paper ....................................... .
Coarse paper (including shipping sack) ............... .
Special industrial paper (including absorbent paper) ... .
Sanitary tissue .................................... .
Tissue paper (except sanitary and thin) .............. .
Paperboard, total, .................................. .
Liners ................... , ..... , .................. .
Corrugating material. ............................. .
Container chip and filler board ...................... .
Folding boxboard ................................. .
Special food board ................................. .
Other bending board .............. , ................. .
Set-up box board .................................. .
Other non-bending board ......................... '.. .
Speeial paperboard stock ............................ .
Cardboard ........................................ .
Wei-machine board .................................. .
Construction paper and board, total ................... .
Construction paper ................................ .
Hardboard, density over 26 lb. per cu. ft ............. .
Insulating board, density 26 lb. or less per cu. ft ...... .
preliminary
1953
26,656
11,614
1,191
807
26,527
11,405
1,068
1,215
1,182
1,622
1,297
1,559
1,323
3,428
526
1,320
240
12,04&
4,335
1,816
280
2,484
941
245
710
209
144
79
132
2.862
1,355
493
1,013
771
3,398
554
1,217
232
12,274
4,4w
1,906
296
2,428
967
160
763
181
1,074
75
151
2,695
1,316
423
955
Raw Materials. Wood is the principal source of cellulose for papermaking. However, cotton, linen rags, and waste are also used by the
mills, as well as the various hemps, their principal source being the
cordage and rough waste of the textile industry. I
There are two principal methods used for debarking, apart from
manual labor. The first method utilizes friction by tumbling or rotating
action in a moving mass. of pulpwood sticks. The two principal types of
equipment, both contin,uous in operation, are the rotating cylindrical
drums and stationary machines with agitating cam equipment to stir
'''Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. 1, Chap. 1, Part I, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Ine., New York, 1950. This is a four-volume detailed treatise on the various
phases of the pulp and paper industrie8, written by a number of experts under the
direction of a committ~ of the paper industry of the United States and Canada.
l'ULI' AND PAPEH INDURTIUES
up the mass of logs. In the case of the drums, still the most common
machines in use, the wood is fed into the upper end of a rotating drum
immersed in a tank partly filled with water where it is tumbled. The bark
is literally rubbed off and the clean wood discharged at the other end.
The second method for debarking uses mechanical friction or highpressure (about 1,400 lb. per sq. in.) water jets applied to individual
logs. Hydraulic barkers direct the water jets against the log in such a
way that the bark is broken up and removed.! In the Astrom barking
machine the log passes through a rotating ring of chain links held in close
contact with the log which is prevented from turning.
Mechanical Pulp. This process involves no chemical treatment of the
pulp whatsoever. The chief woods employed are spruce and balsam,
which are of the soft, coniferous species. They have the advantage that
they can be floated in streams to the mill, in contrast to poplar which
sinks soon after immersion. After arrival at the mill, the wood is slashed
and debarked. It is then ready to be ground, which is done in water to
remove the heat of friction and to float the fibers away. The grinding
is at an acute angle to the length of the blocks in order to furnish longer
fibers by tearing rather than by right-angle cutting.
For small tonnages, the "three-pocket" grinder is very widely used.
This consists of a central grindstone mounted on a steel shaft and having
three chambers or pockets around its periphery. The top of each chamber
is surmounted by a hydraulic cylinder which operates a ram whose
purpose is to force the blocks against the revolving, usually artificial,
stone. These stones are given a suitable type of burr by properly dressing
their surface. Cooling and removal of the product are effected by means
of a spray of "white water" which is returned to this point from a later
step in the process. For larger tonnages the Roberts and Great Northern
grinders are popular, but for the large instlJ-llations of 200 2 daily tons or
more, either the hydraulic or chain-feed magazine type are preferred.
These consist of a large vertical, cylindrical chamber filled to the top with
logs. The pressure of the wood on the grindstone at the bottom of the
chamber is maintained by the weight of the wood in the magazine.
The pulp and water mixture from the gri~ders is dropped into a stock
sewer below the grinders and is passed along to the sliver screen. Here
the larger material is retained and discarded by the screen, while the fine
material falls into the screened stock pit, from where it is pumped to the
fine screens. The fines that pass these screens are concentrated in thickeners to give commercial mechanical pulp. The oversize from the fine
screens is treated in refiners and then returned to the screens again.
The water overflow from the thickeners contains ahout 15 to 20 per cent
<:Jf the original fibers and is the i:io-called white water which is used ill
I Editorial Staff, Developments that Aid Wc~tefll Pulp Illdu~try, Chern. & Met.
Eng., 61 (12), U6 (IU'!4).
2 PERRY, Trend ill LllC Mallufacture oj' Gwulldw()od, 1'uppi, 32, 67 (W4!).
CHEMICAT, PlTT,P
TABLE
3.
Type of process
COMPARISON OF THREE TYPES OF CHEMICAL WOOD PULpG
Sulfate pulp
Sulfite pulp
Soda pulp
Cellulosic raw Almost any kind Coniferous; must be of Limited to shortmaterial

of wood, soft or good color and free of fibered hardwoods
certai.n hydro,;.y phebecause of low
hard
yields and pulp
nolie compounds
strength, e.g.,
poplar, hir~h,
maple
Principal reaction in digester
Hydrolysis of lig- RC=CR' + C8.(HSO,h Hydrolysis of lignins to alcohols -> RCH-CH'SO,72'Ca nins to alcohols
and acids; some
and acids
mercaptans
formed
Composition of 12.5% solution of 7% by weight SO" of 12.5% solution of

NaOH, Na2S, and which 4.5% is combined NaOH and
cooking
Na,CO,. Typical as sulfurous acid and Na,CO a in the
liquor
analysis of solids: 2.5% as Ca(HSO,),.
ratio 85 to 15; disCooking 1 ton of pulp solving action due
58.6% NaOH,
27.1% Na,S,
requires 225 to 300 lb. of solely to NaOH
14.3% Na 2 CO a
sulfur and 350 to 400 lb.
Dissolving action of lime rock
due to NaOH and
Na,S. Na 2 CO, inactive and represents the equilibrium residue between lime and
Na2CO, in the formation of NaOH
Cooking conditions
Time: 2-5 hr.

Time: 7-12 hr.
Time: 6-8 hr.
Temperature: 340- Temperature: 265-300F. Temperature: 330Pressure: 70-90 lb. per 340F.
355F.
Pressure: 100-125 sq. in.
Pressure: 90-105 lb.
lb. per sq. in.
per sq. in.
Chemical recovpry
Chemicals too ex- SO, relief gas recovered; Sodium hydroxi<i<'

pensive ;to discard; liquor discarded after recovered and f('therefore, most of wood digestion and pulp used as in kraft
process is devoted washing; little present process, but maketo recoyery of
salvage of chemicals hut up chemical is
cooking 'chemicals use of waste liquor being Na,CO, im,t<'!ul of
with incidental rp- extensively studipd
Na,SO.
covery of heat
through burning
organic matter
dissolved in liquor
726
TABLE
PUJ,P AND PAPER INDUSTRIES
3.
COMPAIURON OF THREE TYPES
Type of proeess
Sulfate pulp
m' CHEMICAL WOOD
Sulfitt> pulp
PULp
(Continued)
Soda pulp
from wood; chemical losses from

system are replenished with salt
cake, Na.SO,
Materials of
construdion
Digesters, pipe
Acid liquor requires di- Same as kraft mat ..lines, pumps, and gester lining of acid- rials
tanks can be made proof brick; fittings of
of mild steel or chrome-nickel stt>els
iron because
(Type 316), lead, and
caustic liquor does bronze
not readily corrode them
Pulp character- Brown color; diffi- Dull white color; easily Brown color; easily
cult to bleacl);
bleached; fibers weaker bleached; fibers
istics
weaker than kraft
than kraft
strong fibers; reor sulfite
sistant to mechanical refining
Typical paper
products
Usually blended
Strong brown bag White grades: book
and wrapping;
paper, bread wrap, fruit with other pulps;
book and magamultiwall bags,
tissue, sanitary tissue
gumming paper,
zine grades, coated
papers, sanitary
building paper;
tissue
strong white
papers from
bleached kraft;
,paperboards such
I
as uf!led for cartons, containers,
milk bottles, and
corrugated board
<-
I
Mostly taken from SAWYER, et al., Kraft Pulp Production, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42,
757 (1950).
-
grinding and to aid flow in the stock sewer. As the process continues to
operate, it is necessary to add fresh water to the system to keep down the
tempera~ure; therefore, sOple of the white water must be removed.
B~fore being sent to waste, this water has the remaining fibers strained
from it. The fiber is returned to the thickeners.
The energy requirements are all mechanical and consist chiefly of power
727
SULFATE OR KRAFT PULP
for grinding. The only chemical change occurring in mechanical pulp is

a slight hydration of the cellulose by long contact with water.
The uses of mechanical pulp are for the most part restricted to the
cheaper grades of paper and board, where permanency is not required.
The eventual deterioration that occurs in paper made from mechanical
pulp is due to chemical decompositions of the noncellulosic portions of
the wood. In the manufacture of newsprint, cheap manila, wall, tissue,
and certain wrapping papers, the mechanical pulp is usually mixed with
a small amount of chemical pUlp.
Sulfate or Kraft Pulp. This process is responsible for the major part of
the pulp manufactured at the present time (see Table 1). Almost any
Wood
~~:
mIg: 1~.r
Soda Process Note

With almost no variation this flow she.'
mcay b. token for the ,oda ~f'1)ce$S. Th.
1.4",",
Steam
10.000 lb.
[leclric;1y 250 kw-hr.
Dir"'PCt labor 5
man-hr.
tor> "'
cI".d sulfate
pulp
r~~~if:~r!~:~~e~s ::~ ~~~$~~~o~! sr~t cak.
,..duced to sulfide. Make-up soda ash is

adde-d in the cous1;ozing tonk at Y
Per ton dried Pulp
Wood
1.5-2","s Steam
13,000 Ib
_I;"no 50011>.
Soda ash 2SOlb.
EIt<\r;city lW kwbr.
D;It'C! IobOr 5 manhr.
FIG_ 1. Flow sheet for sulfate pulp and soda pulp.
kind of wood may be useq hard and soft, although coniferous woods are
mostly employed. The process was developed especially to remove the
large amounts of" oil and resins in these woods. For the production of
dissolving pulp for rayon from hardwoods, a modified sulfate process is
in use. This involves a prehydrolysis to remove the pentosans and
polyoses, followed by the sulfate treatment and multistage bleaching.
With softwood supplies becoming more critical, more and more attention
will be turned to hardwoods.
The chemical reacti?n8 are rather indefinite but involve hydrolysis of
the lignins to alcohols and acids (see Table 4). This hydrolysis also
produces mercaptans and sulfides, which are responsible for the familiar
bad odor of sulfate-pulp mills.
The energy requirell'is given in Fig. 1 and largely involves mechanical
energy to chip the wood and steam to heat up the chips in the digesters
to the point where the noncellulosic material is rapidly dissolved.
728
The steps in the manufacture of sulfate pulp are depicted in the flow
shcet of Fig. 1. These may be separated into the following sequences of
tmit operations (Op.) and unit processes! (Pr.):
The logs are slashed and debarked as previously described and conveyed to
the chippers, which are large rotating disks holding four or more long heavy
knives to reduce the wood to small chips (Op.).
The chips are screened on either rotary or vibrating screens to separate the
oversized chips, the desired product, and the sawdust. The oversized chips and
slivNs are put through crushers or rechippers to reduce them to the proper size.
They are then stored in a large chip bin from where they can be fed to the digesters
by gravity (Op.).
..._,.
The digesters are charged with chips, the cooking liquor containing essentially
sodium sulfide and caustic soda is added, and live steam is turned on. Either a
stationary or a rotary digester may' be used. These are constructed of unlined
steel. The pressure is raised to 110 lb. per sq. in. The cooking period lasts about
3 hr. (Op. and Pr.).
At the end of this time the pressure is allowed to drop to 80 lb. and the charge
is blown into th.e pit or: into,a battery of countercurrent diffusers, which are closed
tanks designed to recover through heat exchangers the steam normally wasted
in a blow pit; better washing also results.
The pulp after separation from the cooking liquor is washed (Op.).
The spent cooking liquor (black liquor) is pumped to storage to await recovery
of its chemicals for reuse in the process (Op.).
The washed pulp is passed to the screen room where it enters the knotters
which remove the knots that have failed to disintegrate in the cooking operation,
then to screens that sieve out any small slivers of uncooked wood, and finally to
filters and thickeners where a greater portion of the water is removed. The
thickeners consist of cylindrical frames covered with fine wire screen rotating
into the thin pulp. As it emerges, the water passes through the screen, leaving
the pulp on the outside (Op.).
The removed knots are wasted, but the screenings are reduced in a refiner,
prescreened, and returned to the diffuser chest (Op.).
The thickened pulp is next bleached. Two types of bleaching are employed:
a one-stage process which consists of. treatment with calcium hypochlorite bleach
and produces a cream-colored paper, and a three-stage process which involves
treatment with free chlorine, neutralization with milk of lime or caustic sOQa,
and then a bleach with calcium hypochlorite. The bleaching agent in either
case oxidizes and destroys the dyes formed from the tannins in the wood and
accentuated by the sulfides present in the cooking liquor (Pr.).
After bleaching, the pulp should be washed and rethickened in preparation
for making it into sheets dry enough to fold into a bundle called a Zap (Op.); or'
it may be run into the charge chest of a paper machine to give dried pulp.
The lapping is done on a ~et thickener which consists essentially of a cylinder
1 SAWYER, et al., Kraft Pulp Production, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 756 (1950), with
flow sheets; "Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. 1, Chap. 5; PORTER, Bleached
Kraft Pulp, Chem. Eng., 66 (6), 123 (1948), with a pictured flow sheet, p. 136; ANON.,
Sulfate Pulp Bleaching, Chem. & Met. Eng., 51 (3), 132 (1944), a pictured flow sheet.
729
SULFATE OR KRAFT PULP
dipping into a vat filled with stock solution, an endless felt belt which carrieB the
pulp sheet through squeeze rolls, and a series of press rolls. The resulting laps
contain 35 to 45 per cent air-dry fiber. These" wet" laps are stacked in hydraulic
presses and subjected to pressures up to 3,000 lb. pel' sq. in. This product contains 50 to 60 per cent air-dry fiber (Op.).
Sulfate pulp, made from coniferous woods, has the longest fibers of all
the pulps. This, coupled with the fact that the chemicals used are not so
harsh in their action as those employed for the other two chemical pulps,
makes possible the production of very strong papers. In the past, the dark
+. .
~ ...... Chlorin"+ion ....... ~ .. C"ustic ....

extraction
Chlorine (for pine)

160-200 lb.
Chlorine (for hemlock) 140-180 lb.
Coustie Sod",
40 lb.
so"kinB ..
~.WOChIO:it!\
+. .
+omochine
I ..Chlorite..
.j
pH .....
bleaching "ror hypch.lonte "c;l'ustmenf
bleaching
~
Woter
60.2249al. } To bleoch 1 ton
Steam
3,120 lb:
dry sulfate pulp
Direct I"bor 2",enper shift
of 80-85 G.E.
brightness
FIG. 2. Sulfate pulp bleaching-continuous sulfate or Kraft process.
color of the kraft paper h_as limited its uses mainly to wrapping papers,
sacks, and paperboard. However, newer developments in the bleaching
treatment have made possible the manufacture of light-colored and white
pulps (see Fig. 2). This allows the mixing of this very high strength pulp
with other types of pulp to increase the strength of the paper.
Recovery' of the Bl~ck Liquor. An important factor in the economic
baJance for the sulfate process has been the recovery of the spent liquor
from the cooking process. The black liquor removed from the pulp in
the pulp washer or diffuser contains 95 to 98 per cent of the total alkali
charged to the digeste~. Most of the alkali is present as sodium carbonate
or as organic compounds with sodium having properties very similar to
the carbonate. Appreciable amounts of organic sulfur compounds are
present in combinatio'n with sodium sulfide. There are also small amounts
of sodium sulfate, salt, silica, and traces of lime, iron oxide, alumina, and
I "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., p. 1419, D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., New York, 1942; SAWYER, el al., op. cit., p. 760.
730
potash. Total solids usually average about 20 per cent. This black liquor
is first concentrated in multiple-effect or cascade evaporators to a concentration between 45 and 70 per cent total solids, depending on the
type of recovery unit. This removal of water is necessary in order to
produce a liquor that will ignite and burn when sprayed into the furnace.
Figure 3 shows a modern recovery system. Hot, concentrated liquor,
to which has been added make-up sodium sulfate, is fed into the disk
evaporator, countercurrent to the .gas flow. As the charge moves down
the furnace, water is evaporated and the organic salts are broken down.
Recovery ever 95 percent; IO.OOOlb. steam produced per Ion pulp
FIG. 3. Black-liquor recovery. (Courtesy of Combustion Engineering Company.)
The resulting strong black liquor, containing almost all of the organic
matter in the original black liquor, discharges into the smelting )uoJ'llace.
Here any remaining organic compounds are broken down, the carbon is
burned away, and the inorganic chemicals are melted. At the same time,
the .reaction
Na 2S04
+ 2C -
Na 2S
+ 2C0
takes place. The molten chemical "smelt" is allowed to fall into a weak
solution of "dissolving liquor" coming from the causticizing plant. The
chemicals dissolve immediately to give a characteristic green liquor. The
insoluble impurities are allowed to settle out and the liquor is then
causticized by adding slaked lime prepared from the recovered CaCO a
The reaction
Na 2 CO a(aq)
+ Ca(OHMs) -
2NaOH(aq)"
+ CaC()3(s);
!J.H
-2,100 cal.
occurs quickly. The resulting slurry is separated by rotary continuous

filters, using Monel metal screens as a filtering medium. The calcium
oarbonate sludge is sent to a limekiln to recover the CaO for reuse in the
process. J'he filtrate is the ')JJhite liquor used in the cooking of the fibers.
It, contains caustic soda, sodium sulfide, and small quantities of sodium
carbonate, sodium sulfate, sodium sulfite, and thiosulfate.
Figure 4 shows another method of black liquor recovery. In this
process the strong black liquor is sprayed into the furnace. The water
SODA PULP
731
is evaporated and the resulting material is heated to 1500F. to remove

organic compounds and melt the inorganic ones. The smelt is dissolved
to form green liquor as described above.
Among the by-products from the black liquor recovery plant is tall
oil, a black, sticky, viscous liquid composed mainly of resin acids, fatty
acids, and methanol.! The tall oil may be separated from the weak black
liquor by means of centrifuges (in America), or obtained by flotation from
the concentrated liquors (in Europe). It is used in the manufacture of
soaps and greases and in the preparation of emulsions. Methanol may
be recoverd by dry distillation of the pulverized mass obtained by
evaporation of the black liquor with ba'ium hydrate. The cost does not
Chemical recovery. 95 percent; Steam production. IO.OOO-12.000Ib per ton pulp
I<lG. 4. Flow sheet for black-liquor recovery from either sulfate or soda pulp-B. & W.
Tomlinson process. (Courtesy of The Babcock & Wilcox Company.)
permit economical recovery, however. The digester relief gases yield

paying quantities of spruce turpentine, from 2 to 10 gal. per ton of pulp
produced. This may be refined to produce sulfate turpentine.
Soda Pulp. The manufacture of soda pulp is very similar to that of
sulfate pulp, both being alkaline processes. The woods used are of the
deciduous or broadleaf variety. Poplar makes up the largest tonnage
and is also the easiest to cook. Other woods employed include birch,
maple, chestnut, gum, and basswood. Owing to the tendency of broadleaf woods, to sink, it is usually necessary to ship them by rail or truck
to the mill rather than to float them in. The preparation of the wood
for cooking is similar to that described above- under Sulfate Pulp (see
notes on Fig. 1). The cooking liquor has a density of 11 to 13Be. and
contains 6 to 7 per cent caustic soda.
The digesters are ':ery similar to the digesters used in the sulfate
process and are constructed of steel or wrought-iron plate, likewise
unlined. The cooking time varies from 2 to 3 hr. at a pressure of 110 lb.
per sq. in. and a temperature of 344F. The digesters are usually blown
to blow pits which have provisions for heat exchange to utilize the steam.
The pulp is washed in: an open tank with 'a false bottom constructed of
heavy steel plate covered with a fine wire netting. The plate is perforated
1
"Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. 1 Sec 5, pp. 495,0'.
732
with %-in. holes, closely spaced. The remaining operations are very
similar to those used for processing sulfate pulp.
The black liquor from the soda pulp contains about 16 per cent total
solids and 4.5 per cent total alkali. Most of the latter is sodium carbonate, the remainder being free sodium hydroxide. This liquor is concentrated by multiple-effect evaporation as in the sulfate process (Fig. 1) 1
and fed to either stationary furnaces or rotary driers. No smelting
furnace is used ordinarily, the product being a black ash (not fused) containing 20 to 25 per cent free carbon. This ash is charged to a series of
leaching tanks equipped with false bottoms. The ash is leached countercurrently with water or weak alkali, the resulting solution being fed to
the slaking tanks and the carbon waste discarded.
Recovered lime is added to the liquor in the slaking tank and the
slurry fed to the causticizing tanks, where make-up sodium carbonate is
added. The reaction taking place is essentially
Na 2 CO a + Ca(OHh --> 2NaOH
+ CaCO a
The calcium carbonate sludge is filtered off and sent to the limekilns.
The filtrate is the white liquor used in the digesters, all as outlined in
Fig. 1.
Since the fibers from broadleaf woods are shorter (1% mm.) than
those from coniferous woods used in the sulfate process (2 tp 3 Il\Il).), the
product of the soda process i:;{ a pulp that makes a weaker paper. Ther~
fore, it is generally used with mixtures of other pulps, serving to fill in the
spaces betwee-n the longer fibers. The largest tonnage of the pulp enters
into the manufacture of book, magazine, and tissue papers.
Sulfite Pulp. On the basis of quantity produced, this process ranks
second only to the sulfate process. Although spruce is the wood most
commonly employed, apprecip,ble quantities of hemlock and balsam are
also used. The wood is barked, cleaned, and cripped as described under
Sulfate Pulp, the resulting chips being about Y2 in. in length. It is then
conveyed to the storage bins above_ the digesters, preparatory to being
cooked.
I
The chemistry of the, sulfite digestion of cellulosic materials is very
complicated, and the thermodynamic data ar~ incomplete and not very
reliable. The external energy required for the process includes steam for
the preparation of the cooking liquor and cooking the pulp, and mechanical energy for chipping the wood and pumping.
The more common sulfite process consists of the digestion of the wood
in an aqueous solution containing calcium bisulfite and an excess of sulfur
dioxide. The sulfite process 'involves two principal types of reactions,
which are probably concurrent: (1) the reaction of the lignin with the
I Cf., ANON., Carbon Rccovcry from llIack Ash, Chem. Eng., 69 (3), 206 (HJ52), a
733
SULFITE PULP
bisulfite, and (2) the hydrolytic splittillg of the cellulose-lignin complex.

The hemicelluloses are also hydrolyzed to simpler compounds, and the
extraneous wood components acted 011. fiillce the disposal of waste liquor
(more than half of the raw material ~nt.ering the process appears here as
dissolved organic solids) is a serious pollution problem, concerted attention
has been turned to its disposal or utilization. Substituting magnesium
oxide ior lime is being evaluated commercially! because chemical and
heat recovery is possible accompanied by a solution of the disposal
problem of the waste liquor. Sodium and ammonia have also been substituted for calcium as a pulping base and are used in a limited number of
~ommercial plants. So far costly and complicated chemical recovery
Wood
Sulfur
lim.stone
or Limp
1.1.2.2 cords
Steam
150210 Ib
Woter
llg:~~ :~:
~Ii~ti~~~r
5.000'7.500 Ib
4.~Omko~:~~..
Perton of dried pulp
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for sulfite pulp.
limits their widespread use. The calcium-based sulfite-pulping process is

described below.
/
Two methods of preparing the cooking liquor (tower and milk of lime)
and two methods of cooking (direct and indirect) are widely used.
Figure 5 shows the preparation of sulfite pulp using the tower system
and direct cooking. The essential reactions involved in the preparation
of the cooking liquor are quite simple.
S + 02~ S02
2S0 2 + H 20 + CaCO a ~ Ca(HSO a)2 + CO 2
2S0 2 +I H 20 + MgCO a ~ Mg(HSO a)2 + CO 2
The entire process may be divided into the following unit operations (Op.)
and unit processes 2 (I;'r.), as illustrated in Fig. 5.
Sulfur is melted in ~ tank heated by the rotary burner and then fed to this
burner (Op.) for oxidation (Pr.).
Any sulfur that is vaporized in the burner enters a combustion chamber, where
I
HULL, et al., Magnesia-base Sulfite PulpIng, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 2424 (1951), a
most excellent article with, flow sheets and pictures.

2 "Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. ~, Sec. 4; ANON., Sulfite Pulp, Chem.
Mel Eng., 48 (8), lO6 (HI4J), pictured flow chart.
&;
734
it is oxidized to sulfur dioxide. The amount of air in this operation is closely

eontrolled to prevent the formation of sulfur trioxide (Pr.).
The sulfur dioxide obtained is cooled quickly in a horizontal, vertical, or pond
cooler consisting essentially of a system of pipes surrounded by water. In all
but the pond system the water is sprayed on the outside of the pipes (Op.).
The next step in the process is the absorption of the gas in water, in the presence of calcium and magnesium compounds. This is accomplished in a series of
two or more absorption towers packed with limestone. A fine spray of water
passes down through the tower system countercurrent to the sulfur dioxide gas,
which is blown up through the tower (Op. and Pr.).
The liquor leaving the towers contains a certain amount of free sulfur dioxide,
which is enhanced from time to time as the free sulfur dioxide vented from the
digesters is bubbled through it in the "reclaiming tower" that follows. The final
liquor as charged to the digesters is a solution of calcium and magnesium bisulfites, analyzing about 4.5 per cent" total" sulfur dioxide and about 3.5 per cent
" free" 1 sulfur dioxide. The digester is filled with chips and the acid cooking
liquor is pumped in at the bottom (Op.). The digesters are cylindrical steel
vessels with a capacity of from 1 to 23 tons of fiber and 3,000 to 51,000 gal. of
"acid." A special lining of cement, crushed quartz, and acid-resisting brick is
used to avoid the corrosive action of the cooking liquor.
The digester is heated with direct steam. In recent years the industry has
turned to digesters with forced outside circulation, which heat the cooking liquor
in an outside stainless-steel tube heater and circulate it through the charge by
means of pumps. This permits a better temperature distribution through the
charge and prevents dilution of the liquor with the direct steam formerly used
for heating. Conditions of the cook depend on the nature of the wood, the composition of the acid, and the quantity of pulp charged. The pressure varies from
70 to 160 lb. depending upon the construction of the plant. The time and the
temperature range from 10 to 11 hr. and 105 to 155C. (220 to 311 of.) (Pr.).
At the end of the cooking process the digester is discharged by blowing to a
blow pit (a large,'round tank having a false bottom and equipped with means to
wash the pulp with fresh water). The cooking liquor is not recycled (Op.-).
The pulp is pumped from the pit to a series of screens where knots and large
lumps of fiber are removed (Op.).
The accepted stock from the screens is sent to the rifHers (a series of long feltlined troughs equipped with cross bars every 6 ft.). The foreign matter in the
pulp gradually settles out (Op.).
The relatively pure'pJllp is concentrated in thickeners which are cylindrical
frames covered with 80-mesh bronze wire. The water passes through and the
pulp is retained on the screen (Op.).
The pulp is sent to the bleacher, and free chlorine is introduced. After the
chlorine has been exhausted, milk of lime is added to neutralize the mass (Pr.).
The stock is washed (Op.), thickened (Op.), and sent to the machine_chest.
Pulp fr:om the chest is formed into laps of about 35 per cent dry fiber content
1 In the parlance of the pulp manufacturer, the "free" sulfur dioxide is the sum of
that as sulfurous acid and that portion which requires alkali to convert from a bisulfite
to a neutral sulfite.
RAG PULP
735
(Op.), and the laps are dried with steam-heated rolls to a product which is 80 to
90 per cent dry fiber (Op.).
The milk-of-lime system of preparing the cooking liquor consists of

slaking burnt lime containing a high percentage of magnesia with warm
water to produce a lOBe. suspension. A high percentage of magnesia is
desirable because the magnesium sulfites formed are more soluble than
the corresponding calcium compounds. The calcium compounds tend
to settle out and clog the pipes. This solution is treated with sulfur
dioxide gas to produce the cooking liquor.
The direct process of cooking utilizes a vertical or horizontal digester
equipped with hard lead or copper steam coils. The cooking time is
about 58 hr., and the maximum temperature and the pressure are 130C.
(266F.) and 60 lb. per sq. in.
Sulfite pulp is a high-grade type of pulp and serves for the manufacture of some of the finest papers embracing the bond office line. It is
used either alone or with some rag pulp to make writing paper and highgrade book paper.
Waste Sulfite Liquor. The disposition of the waste liquors formed in this
process has been the subject of much research. Until very recently it was
common practice to dump this liquor into a near-by stream, but legislation preventing stream pollution is gradually stopping this. Although
preventing stream pollution is now the most important factor, economics
emphasizes the importance of the utilization of this vast potential raw
material. Among the principal products which have been investigated,
proposed, or used are alcohol by fermentation of the waste liquor (see
Chap. 32); vanillin from the lignin present (Chap. 27); oxalic acid;
tanning material; road binders; special cements; portland cement accelerator; corebinders; plastics from the lignin present; and food yeast.!
Unfortunately, a great deal of work still remains to be done on this
problem-either the disposal or the utilization of the by-product. The
latest development for the disposal of waste calcium sulfite liquor is the
use of the conkey fiat-plate (Rosenblad) evaporator for concentrating
the waste liquor to the point where it can be burned. This self-descaling
evaporator functions ,whereas ordinary types of evaporators foul too much.
Rag Pulp.2 A small but important source of fiber for the manufacture
of fine paper is rags. New rags are largely scraps from textile mills and
garment factories, while the old rags are collected from the waste disposal
from domestic sources. The rags go through a thrasher where dust is
removed, before they can be sorted. All are separated according to
color. Colors hard tQ, bleach are used in the manufacture of dark papers,
1 INSKEEP, et al., Food Yeast from Sulfite Liquor, Ind. Eng. Chern., 43, 1702 (1951);
PEARL, Utilization of Sulfite Waste Liquor, Chern. Eng. News, 26, 2950 (1948); ANON.,
Who'll Take Vanillin ~ow! Chern. Week, 70 (5), 33 (1952).
"Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. 2, Chap. 1.
736
PULP AND PAPBU INDU8TRIBS
and the more easily bleached colors are employed for the lighter papers.
After being I:lorted, the rags are cut into small squares, the dust is removed,
and the squares are passed over magnets to remove metallic foreign
materials. After this they are ready for the cook. In this operation
the wax and resins in the fibers are removed, together with additional
dirt and grease, and the dyes loosened from the fibers. The cooking
liquors inelude either caustic lime, caustic soda, or a mixture of caustic
lime and soda ash. The digester is a cylindrical, horizontal, rotary boiler
holding about 5 tons of eloth. Cooking is continued for 10 to 12 hr. at
I:WoC. The resulting pulp is washed, bleached with chlorine and/or
chloride of lime, and rewashed. It is then ready for manufacture into
fine writing paper.
MANUFACTURE OF PAPER
The various pulps, even though frequently manufactured in coarse

sheets, still lack those properties which are so desirable in a finished paper,
such as proper surface, opacity, _strength, and feel. Pulp stock is prepared for formation into paper by two general processes: beating and
jlMefal blades
'Me fa! sfrips sef in wood
FIG. 6. Hollander or beater.
refining.' There is no sharp distinction between these two operations.

Mills use either one or the other alone, or both together.
The most generally used type of beater (also known as a Hollander,
Fig. 6) consists of a wooden or metal tank having rounded ends and a
partition part way down the middle, thus giving a channel around which
/ the pulp circulates continuously. On one I?ide is a roll, equipped with
knives or bars, and direqtly below this a bedplate consisting of stationary
bars. In operation, the circulating pulp is forced between the bars on
the revolving roll and the stationary bars of the bedplate. The roll itself
may be raised or lowered to achieve the results desired. Beating the
fibers makes the paper stronger, more uniform, more dense, more opaque,
1 "Pulp aJ?,d Paper Manufacture," Vol. 2, Chap. 3; LEWIS, SQUIRES, and BROUGH'rON, ,"Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and Amorphous Materials," Chap. XV, The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1942; LEE, American Made Papers for Your Cigarettes, Chem. Eng., 63 (6), 94 (1946), a pictured flow sheet on p. 138; ANON., Glassine
Paper, Chem. Eng., 64 (11), 148 (1947), a pictured flow sheet.
737
and less porous. It is in the beater that fillers, coloring agents, and sizing
are added. Since the beaters are batch machines, some mills making
lower grades of papers have done away with them entirely and use only
refiners. The standard practice in making the finer grades of paper,
however, is to follow the beaters with the refiners, which are continuous
machines.
The Jordan engine (Fig. 7) is the standard refiner and consists essentially of a conical shell, on the inside of which are set stationary bars.
Revolving inside the shell is a core, also set with bars. It is the action
between these two sets of bars that produces the desired effect on the
..-A
drive
Section A.-A
~
FIG. 7. Conical refiner or Jordan engine.
pulp. The latter enters the small end of the cone and, after being acted
upon by the bars, passes out at the other end.
Filler, sizing, and coloring may be added either in the beater, which is
usual practice, in the Jordan, or in both. The orsler in which these
materials are added to the beater may vary in different mills, but generally
is as follows: (1) The various pulps are blended to give the desired density
and uniformity. (2) The filler is added with or just after the fiber. (3)
After sufficient beating the. size is put in and mixed thoroughly. (4) The
color is added and distributed well throughout the mass. (5) The alum is
introduced to produce coagulation and the desired coating of fibers.
All papers except absorbent types, i.e., tissue or blotting paper,
must have a filler' added to them, the purpose of which is to occupy the
spaces between the fibers, thus giving a smoother surface, a more brilliant
whiteness, increasing; printability, and an improved opacity. The fillers
are always inorganic s.ubstances and may be either naturally occurring
materials, such as talc or certain clays, or manufactured products such as
suitably precipitated cfllcium carbonate, blanc fixe, or titanium dioxide.
All are finely ground.
Sizing 2 is added ,tq paper to impart resistance to penetration by
liquids. Again, the only papers not so tr~ated are blotting and other
1 "Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. 2, Chap. 4 .
Ibid., Chap. 5; ANON'., Compact Emulsifier Helps Paper Makers, Chem. Eng .
58 (10), 238 (1951).
738
absorbent papers, where penetration is desired. The sizing may either

be added in the beating operation or applied to the surface after the sheet
is formed. The process of engine or stock sizing, i.e., adding size in the
beater, involves the addition of the sizing agent, consisting of either a soap
made from the saponification of rosin with alkali or a wax emulsion,
followed by precipitation of the size itself with papermaker's alum,
Ah(S04)a18H 2 0. This treatment gives a gelatinous film on the fiber,
which loses water of hydration and produces a hardened surface.
Tub sizing, on the other hand, is carried out on the dried paper, or
surfaces which mayor may not have been previously and partly sized in
the beating operation. The material used for this treatment must have
adhesive properties, the principal substances being animal glue, modified
starches, and wash sizes. The operation is carried out either on the papermaking machine- itself or in a separate sizing press employing air drying.
The paper runs through a bath of the size material, then through rolls
that remove the excess material, and finally over drying rolls. This type
of sizing operation is used further to enhance the water resistance of the
paper and especially to make it take ink evenly without blurring, even
after erasures.
Another material that is added to the paper is coloring. l Approximately 98 per cent of all paper produced has a certain amount of coloring
material added to it. Coloring, like sizing, may be added either in the
beater or after the paper has been made, although about 95 per cent is
added in the former manner. However, surface coloring, the latter method,
uses less dye and requires the production of only one type of paper, which
may be colored any shade later as needed.
All types of dyes (acid, basic, direct, sulfur) and all types of pigments
(both natural and synthetic) are used as coloring agents. The acid dyes
have no affinity for the cellulose fibers and must, therefore, be fixed to
them by means of mordants. If the paper is colored in the beater, the
alum that is added to precipitate the size will also act as a mordant for
the dye.
Surface dyeing m~y be carried out either in the papermaking machine
or in a separate piece of equipment. In either case, the process consists
in passing the paper through the dye bath, removing the excess dye by'
means of press rolls, and drying.
Th~ machines used for the actual formation of the sheet are of two
, general types: the Fourdrinier machine and the cylinder machine. The
basic principles of operation are essentially the Hame for both machines.
The sheet is formed on a traveling wire or a cylinder, dewatered under
rollers, dried by heated rolls, and finished by calender rolls.
1
"Pulp and Paper Manufacture," Vol. 2, Chap. 6.
739
Fourdrinier Machine.! Figure 8 shows the essential parts of a Fourdrinier machine. The stock from the foregoing operations, containing
approximately ~ per cent fiber, is first sent through screens to the head
box, from which it flows through the sluice onto a moving, endless, bronzewire screen. The pulp fibers remain on the screen while a great portion
of the water drains through. As the screen moves along, it has a sidewise
shaking motion which serves to orient some of the fibers and give better
felting action and more strength to the sheet. While still on the screen,
the paper passes over suction boxes to remove water and under a dandy
roll which smooths the top of the sheet. Rubber deckle straps travel
",0 Woteq 96
83
65--20
/Calenden"ng
/ or ironing
Screen--Flow box--
Winding reel
"
/ ' ,
"
F;ne~mesh bronze screen! ~ucfion roll "Wafermarldng ''Fell-drying blankef

FIG. 8. Fourdrinier machine.
along the sides of the screen at the same speed and thus serve to form the
edges of the paper.
From the wire, the paper is transferred to the first felt blanket which
carries it through a series of press rolls, where more water is removed and
the paper given a watermark if so desired. Leaving the first felt the
paper passes through steel smoothing rolls and is picked up by the second
felt which carries it through a series of drying rolls heated internally by
steam. The paper enters the rolls with a moisture content of 60 to 70
per cent water and leaves them 90 to 94 per cent dry. Sizing may be
spr~yed on the sheet at this point, in which case it must pass through
another series of drying rolls before entering the calender stack which is
a series of smooth, heavy, steel rolls which impart the final surface to the
paper. The resulting product, finished paper, is wound on the reel.
The enormous quantity of water used makes it necessary to recirculate
as much of it as possible for economical operation ..
The operation of a ,Fourdrinier is a very complicated procedure. One
of the major problems is making suitable allowance in the speed of the
various rolls for the shrinkage of the paper as it dries. The operating
speeds of the machines vary from 200 ft. per min. for the finer grades of
paper, to 1,700 ft. pex: min. for newsprint.
1 SAWYER, et ai., Kraft Papermaking, Ind. E~g. Chem., 42, 1007 (1950); SANKEY
and COWAN, Problems in Materials Separation on a Fourdrinier Machine, Chem. Eng.
ProUT., ", 745 (1948).
740
Cylinder Machine. For the manufacture of heavy pa,per, cardboard,

or nonuniform paper, the cylinder machine is employed. It enables
several similar or dissimilar layers to be united together into one heavy
sheet. The cylinder machine has from four to seven parallel vats into
each of which similar or dissimilar dilute paper stocks are charged. A
wire-covered rotating cylinder dips into each vat. The paper stock is
deposited on the turning screen as the water inside the cylinder is removed.
As the cylinder revolves farther, the paper stock reaches the top where
the wet layer comes into contact with and adheres to a moving felt. The
traveling felt carrying the wet sheet underneath passes on under a couch
roll to press out some of the water. This felt and paper come into contact
with the top of the next cylinder and pick up another layer of wet paper.
Thus a composite wet sheet or board is built up and passed through press
rolls and on to the drying and smoothing rolls. Such a composite may
have the outside layers of good stock while the inside ones may be of
ground-wood pulp.
Paper De-inking. For reworking waste paper to fine papers the ink
must be removed. This is accomplished by a combination of various
chemical and mechanical operations.! The old paper is sorted, shredded,
dusted, and then cooked. The digester is either an open cooking tank
with fume hood or a rotary boiler, live steam being used in either case.
The cooking liquor usually employed is a weak caustic soda solution of
about 8 per cent, the cooking time is around 10 hr.; the temperatures are
in the neighborhood of 200F. The purpose of the cooking process is to
dissolve out the vehicle from the ink, thus breaking up the ink so that it
may be removed. The cooked pulp goes to a series of screen washers
similar to thickeners, where dirt and loosened carbon from the "ink are
removed. It may be necessary to put the pulp through a beater before
washing, in order to aid in the loosening of the ink from the fibers. The
washed pulp is bleached with either chlorine gas or chloride of lime, yielding in many cases a snow-white product. The recovered pulp is of such
a quality that it is used in all fine grades' of paper, mixed with new pulp
in proportions that vary over a wide range.
Another method of de-inking paper, which has found widespread favor
particularly in the utilization of old telephone directories, is based on
printing with an ink having an iron lake of hematin as pigment. Paper
printed with this special ink is first disintegrated in rod mills and then'
treated 'with sulfur dioxide gas in diffusers. The sulfur dioxide serves
td discharge the ink from the paper. The gas is added as such, as a
strong liquor containing 6 grams of sulfur dioxide per liter, and then as a
weak liquor containing 4 grams of sulfur dioxide per liter (see Fig. 9). The
1 WELLS, De-inking and Reprocessing Paper Accomplished by New Methods,
Chem. & Met. Eng., 40, 634 (1933); cf. LEE, Paper Mill Goes Modern-Now De-inks
with Peroxide, Chern. Eng., 65 (1), 106 (1948), with a pictured flow sheet on p.: 146.
PAPERBOAUD
741
de-inked pulp is discharged to a stuff chest and then to a rotary filter and
screw press, finally yielding a recovered paper stock. The pigment is
recovered from the spent liquor by neutralization with caustic soda and
subsequent filtration in a plate-and-frame press. Part of the sulfur
dioxide in the waste cooking liquor is recovered III a "S02 boiler," a
Sulfur required: 40 lb. per ton pulp recovered
FIG. 9. Flow sheet for paper de-inking.
waste containing 2 grams of sulfur dioxide per liter being discharged to

the sewer.
PAPERBOARD!
The use of waste paper in the manufacture of pulp has reached a very
important stage, the reasons being (1) the large supply available, (2)
the small cost of making it into pulp, (3) the low original cost, and (4)
the grade of product obtaIned. Over 12,000,000 tons of products from
this' waste are made yearly, as Table 2 shows. With only mechanical
methods, old newspapers, wrapping paper, and box board may be made
into pulp suitabJe for roofing paper and new box board. Since the product
is dark colored, it is hot necessary to remove the ink and pigments.
Therefore, shredding and beating operations suffice.
SELECTED REFERENCES
"The Manufacture of Pulp and Paper," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York: Vol. 1, "Mathematics, How to Read Drawings, Physics," 1921; Vol. II,
"Mechanics and Hydraulics, Electricity, Chemistry," 1923; Vols. III, IV, and
V of this series are re~ised under the new title "Pulp and Paper Manufacture,"
and numbered Vols. 1,2,3, and 4: Vol. 1, "Preparation and Treatment of Wood
Pulp," 1!J50; Vol. 2,1 "Preparation of Stock for Paper Making," 1951; Vol. 3,
"Manufacture and Testing of Paper and Board," 1!J53; Vol. 4, "Auxiliary Paper
Mill Equipment," 1!J55.
I ANON., Modern Paperboard Plant, Chcm. Eng., 69 (2), 240 (1!J52), a pictured
flow sheet.
742
Casey, J. P., "Pulp and Paper," 2 vols., Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York,
1952.
Jenness, L. C., and John Lewis, editors, "University of Maine Lectures on Pulp and
Paper Manufacturing," Lockwood Trade Journal Company, Inc., New York,
1951.
Clapperton, R. H., "Modern Papermaking," 3d ed., Basil, Blackwell, and Mott,
Ltd., Oxford, England, 1947.
Tiemann, H. D., "Wood Technology; Constitution, Properties, and Uses," 3d ed.,
Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York, 1951.
Sutermeister, C., "The Chemistry of Pulp and Paper Making," 3d ed., john Wiley &
Marsh, J. T., and F. C. Wood, "An Introduction to the Chemistry of Cellulose,"
2d ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1942~
Witham, G. S., Sr., "Modern Pulp and Paper Making," 2d ed., Reinhold Publishing
Stevenson, L. T., "The Background and Economics of American Papermaking,"
Harper & Brothers, New York, 1940.
West, C. J., "Bibliography of Papermaking," 1900-1928, 1928-1935, and annually
thereafter, Tappi, Lockwood Trade Journal, Inc., New York.
Institute of Parer Chemistry, Appleton, Wis. Various publications.
Ott, Emil, editor, "Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives," Interseience Publishers, Inc.,
New York, 1943.
CHAPTER
34
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
The ability of the chemist and the chemical engineer to create, from
the test tube through the factory, produets that are often superior to
naturally occurring materials is one of the outstanding accomplishments
of this generation, and nowhere is it so graphically portrayed as by the
modern synthetic, or man-made, fibers. These synthetics from their
humble beginning in 1900 have grown to a total world production of more
than 4.3 billion pounds in 1954. The United States started the manufacture of rayon in 1910 and produced in 19.'>4 about 1.2 billion pounds of
rayon and acetate. Over 300,000,000 lb. of other synthetic fibers were
made in 1954. The list of synthetic fibers, which in 1900 included only
nitro-cellulose, today has many new products, the more important ones
being viscose rayon, acetate, nylon, and the fibers made from polyacrylonitrile (Orion), acrylic copolymers (dynel, Acrilan), polyesters
(Dacron), vinyls (saran, Vinyon), proteins (Vicara; Ardil), and glass
(Fiberglas, Vitron). It is the purpose of this chapter to consider the
leading synthetic fibers, their development, methods of manufact ure,
and uses, thereby presenting a picture of the chemistry and engineering
behind our modern" fashions out of test tubes."
Although the word fiber originally referred only to naturally occurring
materials (cotton, wool, etc.), it is now used for synthetic products.
This latter usage includes both the semisynthetics and the true synthetics.
Semisynthetics result when natural polymeric materials such as cellulose
or certain proteins arei brought into a dissolved or dispersed state and
then spun into fine filaments. Viscose rayon and the various protein
fibers are included in: this classification. True synthetic polymers as
nylon, Orlon, Dacron,! etc., result from two methods of forming longchain molecules: addition polymerization and condensation polymerization. The polymer is then taken from its melt or solution and processed
into fiber form. Cellulose acetate really lies between these two classes as
here a natural polymef' (cellulose) is convert.ed into one of its derivatives
(cellulose acetate) wh~ch is dissolved and spun into fiber form. From an
engineering viewpoint, perhaps the best method of classification for
synthetic fibers is by the type of spinning technique--wet, dry, or melt.
743
744
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
Except for the various rayons and acetate, this classification will be used
to correlate the manufacturing procedures for the other fibers.
Three of the more important general properties of fibers are length,
crimp, and cross section. Concerning length there exist essentially two
types of fibers: continuous filaments and. staple fibers. Continuous
filaments are individual fibers whose length is almost infinite. Silk, rayon,
nylon, and all other true synthetics are manufactured in this manner.
Cotton and wool are examples of natural fibers in the staple form, i.e., of
short and more or less uniform lengths. Artificial staple fibers such as
rayon, acetate, nylon, and Dacron result from the cutting of the tow
(untwisted filaments) to uniform lengths usually between 6 and 20 cm.
Crimp is the curl or waviness placed in synthetic fibers by chemical or
mechanical action which is of great importance in the processability of
staple fibers. Cotton and wool possess natural crimp. Cross section is
another important property of all fibers. It is usually measured in denier.
A fiber has a cross section corresponding to 1 denier, if 9,000'meters of it
weighs 1 gram.
RAYON AND ACETATE
The idea of creating synthetic fibers is not new. In 1664, Robert Hooke
prophesied that "silk equal to, if not better than that produced by the
silkworm will be produced by mechanical means." However, it was not
until 1855 that the first patent was issued for the preparation of artificial
silk utilizing nitro-cellulose that had been discovered by Schonbein in
1845. Joseph Swan exhibited in London in 1885 fabrics woven from fibers
prepared by squeezing collodion through fine orifices. It remained for
Count Chardonnet,. "father of the rayon industry," to focus and utilize
the work of all who preceded him and to establish the first commercial
unit for producing artificial silk in 1891.
I
The basic process of producing cuprammonium rayon was patp.nted in
1890 and the viscose process was discovered in 1892. The first patent for
! the production of cellulose acetate filaments was issued in 1894. Commercial production in the United States of vi~cose r!tyon began in 1910,
of nitro-cellulose rayon' in 1920, and of cellulose acetate in 1924. By
1926 the production of the various types of rayon and acetate exceeded
the consumption of silk. The viscose, cuprammonium; and acetate yarns
proved superior to nitro-cellulose which was discontinued here in .1934.
Since 1949, nitro-cellulose rayon has not been made anywhere.
Uses and Economics. In 1954, the United States production and consum'ption of rayon and acetate, the largest man-made fibers, were as
shown in Table 1. The 1950 world production of rayon and acetate
was percentagewise, according to process: viscose, 73.5; acetate, 23.5;
and cuprammonium, 3. Viscose is the largest man-made fiber and its
USB::;
~Nf)
745
EOONOMICS
manufacture consumes more than 10 per cent of our entire industrial

chemical output. High-tenacity viscose yarn is used mainly in tire cords
and fabrics for tires, hose, and belting. The difference in strength between
ordinary and high-tenacity viscose is conditioned by the amount of
TABLE 1. RAYON AND ACETATE PRODUCTION, 1954"
Filament yarn
Million lb.
Staple fiber
Textile, total. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viscose'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acetate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viscose high tenacity. . . . . . .
Total...................
368
170
198
339
707
Viscose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acetate...... . . . . . .. . . . . . .
Total. ....... " . '" . . .. .
312
67
379
Total rayon and acetate. . . .
1,086
Million lb.
ANON., Textile Organon, February, 1955, p. 17.

, Cuprammonium-pro~ess rayon yarn is combined here, as no separate breakdown is
given to avoid disclosure of individual company operations. No cuprammonium rayon
is used for the production of staple fiber.
4
orientation imparted to the fiber molecules when made. The hydroxyl

groups in the cellulose molecule allow water absorption to take place in
the fiber and also serve to hold molecules together despite strong bending,
thus resulting in fibers which tend to maintain their strength better and
even at high temperatures. Since early 1950 substantial quantities of
TABLE 2. UNITED STATES TEXTILE RAYON AND ACETATE FILAlIlENT-YARN
SHIPlIlENTS, 1954"
(Million lb.)
/
Viscose and
cupra yarns
I
Acetate
yarn
Knit goods:
Hosiery .......................... .
2.3
1.1
Circular .......................... .
20.8
1.0
Warp ............................ .
4.7
24.1
Woven goods:
.
Broad(over12i~.wi~e) ............
126.1
167.4
Narrow (less than 12 Ill.)............
12.5
0.5
Miscellaneous ..... ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21. 6
3 .0
1----------1--------Total. textile .....;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
188.
197.1
"ANON., Textile Organon, !February, 1955, p. 26.
both viscose and acetate have been blended with wool in carpet manufacture. Table 2 shows the breakdown of the, textile consumption according to process. The pric~ of rayon and acetate varies according to the size
of the filaments, process of manufacture, and type of finish, but it is
around 75 cents a pound .for 150 denier viscose and acetate.
746
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
Raw Materials. The total cellulose consumption of the United States

fiber industry for 1950 was 590,600 short tons of which 77 per cent was
wood pulp, the remainder cotton linters. Of the total cellulose employed
for the viscose and cuprammonium processes, 87 per cent was wood
pulp. The acetate process for its cellulose requirements utilized wood
pulp, 61 per cent, and cotton linters, 39 per cent.
Up to a few years ago, the cuprammonium and acetate processes used
only cotton linters as their source of cellulose, but recent trends here are
toward sulfite-pulp consumption. The viscose process is based on 'Sulfite
and some sulfate pulp. The preparation of the wood pulp is described in
Chap. 33. The cotton linters are obtained as follows: The seeds from the
cotton gin, which have a considerable quantity of short fibers clinging to
them, are cleaned to remove any foreign impurities such as leaves and
sand, and are sent to the delintering machines. Here the short attached
fibers, called cotton linters, are cut off by a row of disk saws. First and
second cuts are made, the latter fibers being shorter but cleaner. They
have the following typical analysis: cellulose (obtainable by caustic soda
digestion), 80 to 85 per cent; ash, 1 to 1.5 per cent; iron, 0.06 per cent;
ether extract, 1 per cent; lignin (insoluble in H 2S0 4 ), 3 per cent; moisture,
6 per cent. These linters are graded, examined, and tested by laboratory
processing in the solution in which they are eventually to be used.
The purification and conversion to the so-cllUed chemical 'ctJtton are
accomplished as follows: A blend of raw linters is charged to a rotary
digester, into which is pumped dilute (1 to 10 per cerit) NaOH. Steam is
introduced and the cotton cooked under about 20 to 110 lb. per sq. in.
for 2 to 6 hr. The mass is dropped into a tank, washed, and bleached.
The bleach tanks are preferably of stainless steel, with false, perforated
bottoms; here chlorine as such or in the form of hypochlorite is added to
the linters and the ,resulting discolored solution drained off. An acid
treatment may then be applied to remove, inorganic matter. The cotton
is again washed, is pumped over riffies to remove foreign matter and
passed through rubber-covered squeeze rolls, which reduce the moisture
content to about 50 per cent. The wet lumps are pulled apart in a " picker"
and allowed to fall onto a conveyer which ,carries them through a tunnel
drier and to the baler. The resulting product is chemical cotton, 98
per cent a-cellulose (see Fig. 2 of Chap. 22).
If sheet cellulose, the form used in viscose manufacture, is desired, the
cotton, after the bleaching treatment has been completed, is blended with
several other batches, passed successively through a beater and a refiner
(see Manufacture of Paper in Chap. 33), and formed into sheets on 'a
'
Fourdrinier. 1
I
Viscose rayon is a major consumer of sulfuric acid, caustic soda, and
KIRK
and
OTllMER,
op. cit., Vol. 3, p. 352.
747
REACTIONS
carbon disulfide. Titanium dioxide is used in delusterizing the yarn.

Cellulose acetate employs large quantities of acetic anhydride, glacial.
acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and acetone. In addition to this important
consumption of basic chemicals, the fiber industry needs significant
quantities of dyes and other chemicals.!
The viscose process and the cuprammonium process produce a filament
of regenerated cellulose, while the acetate forms a thread that is a definite
chemical compound of cellulose, cellulose acetate. Although each of these
processes is quite different as far as details of procedure are concerned,
th~y all follow the same general outline: solution of the cellulose through
a chemical reaction, aging or ripening of the solution (peculiar to viscose),
filtration and removal of air, spinning of the fiber, combining the filaments into yarn, purifying the yarn (not necessary for acetate), and
finishing (bleaching, washing, oiling, and drying).
Reactions
Viscose:"
{C SH 90 4 OH)",
Cellulose
+ xNaOH ~ {CsHgOcONa)", + xH 0
{CaH 90 CONa)",
Alkali cellulose
+ XCS2~ (C6H904-0-C(S
3 (CSH904-O-C(S )
SN '"
( c IIH270
12
SN
Cellulose xanthate
'"
+ 2xH 0 ~ (C!8~27012(~H)20-C(S
(OH).O_C(S )
SNa
)
SN '"
+ 2xCS 2 + 2xNaOH'
Ripened xanthate
+ ~ H.SO. --> (C~H90.0H)b + xCS. + ~ Na.SO.

VIScose rayon
Cellulose Acetate:
[C SH 702'(OHh]",
Cellulose
+ 3x(CH aC0)20 ~ [CSH702(02CCHah]",

Cellulose acetate
1 ANON., Textiles Emer~g from Slump, Chem. & Eng. New8, 30, 3620 (1952).
The cellulose molecule is composed of a large undetermined number of glucose
units, here represented as (CJI.O.OH)x. The value of x does not remain constant
throughout these reactions.1 ;Each reaction causes a reduction in the molecular weight
of the cellulose molecule, so that the viscose-rayon molecule is considerably smaller
than the original cellulose fed. Some OS. breaks away from the cellulose xanthate
during the ripening process.
748
SYN:THETIC FIBERS
Cupram1rUJnium:
+ Cu(OH)2 + NH3 + H 20 ~ solution of cellulose 1

Schweitzer's reagent
Cellulose solution + NaOH (5%) ~ partly coagulated cellulose
Partly coagulated cellulose + H2S04(1~%) ~ (C H 100
(C 6H 100 6),,
Cellulose
6)"
Cuprammonium rayon
The main energy requirements for any of these processes are for the
mechanical operations of the pumps that force the solutions through the
spinnerets and for the multitudinous other mechanical steps of the various
processes. Little energy has to be supplied to cause the chemical reactions
to occur.
Viscose Manufacturing Process
From the tonnage standpoint, this is the most important of the synthetic proc~sses, r..~presenting approximately two-thirds of all the rayon
and acetatf) manufactured in the United States. The finished filament is
pure cellulose as shown by the equations but, because it consists of
smaller molecules than the cellulose of the original wood pulp or cotton,
it possesses different physical properties.
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. The sequences of the process, 2
as shown in Fig. 1, can be broken down into the following unitoperationk
(Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
>
The cellulosic raw material (usually sheets made from wood pulp) is charged
to a steeping press containing vertical perforated steel plates; and is steeped in a
caustic soda solution (approximately 18 per cent) for 2 to 4 hr. at 56 to 62F.
(Pr.).
The excess liquor is drained off and recovered 3 (Fig. 2). The soft sheets of.
alkali cellulose are reduced to small crumbs in a shredder (Op.). This requires.
2 to 3 hr., and the temperature is maintained at 65 to 68F.
The crumbs of alkali cellulose are aged for 48 to 72 hr. at 75F. in steel cans.
Some oxidation and degradation 4 occur, although the actual chemical change is
unknown (Pr.).
After sufficient aging, the crumbs are charged into the barratte (a hexagonal,
horizontal iron drum mixer with a hollow axis). Carbon disulfide in the ratio
1 This is a chemical reaction but the exact formula of the soluble reaction product is
not known.
ANON., Producing Cellophane and Viscose Rayon, Chem. & Met. Eng., 46, 25
(1939).
See Chap. 4 in LIPSETT, "Industrial Wastes," Atlas Publishing Company, Inc.,
New York, 1951, for chemical' waste recovery in the viscose-rayon industry. The
Webcell dialyzer process is also included here.
LEWIS, SQUIRES, and BROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and
Amorphous Materials," pp. 360jf., The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942.
VISCOSE PROCESS
749
of 1 lb. of disulfide per 10 lb. of crumbs is added. The drum is rotated for about
3 hr., during which the crumbs gradually turn yellow and finally a deep orange
and coagulate into small balls (Pr.).
The cellulose xanthate balls are dropped into a jacketed mixer (vissolver)
containing dilute sodium hydroxide. The xanthate particles dissolve in the
caustic and the final product, viscose solution, contains 61 per cent cellulose
and 8 per cent sodium hydroxide (Pr.). If desired, delustering agents such as
titanium dioxide or organic pigments l are added to the viscose solution in the
mixer.
Several batches of viscose solution are blended and ripened for 4 to 5 days
under rigidly controlled conditions at 66F. and until the cellulose approaches
nearly to the coagulating point. The percentage of combined sulfur decreases
as some xanthic acid splits off and part of the cellulose is regenerated (Pr.).
During this ripening period the solution is filtered several times to get rid of solid
material likely to clog the spinnerets and finally placed under vacuum to remove
all bubbles which would break the continuity of the filament (Op.).
The solution is fed to the spinning ~achine. Two types are in general use:
the bucket and the bobbin. Three-qu\)-rters of United States production uses
the bucket type (see Figs. 3 to 5). The 'solution is extruded under pressure (gear
pumps are used) through the spinneret into the spinning bath (Op.).
The spinnerets are small caps of noble metal, containing minute holes through
which the solution is extruded, as depicted in Fig. 3. Just ahead of the spinneret
are the candle filters to remove, in a final filtration, any foreign matter that might
clog the holes. The spinning solution contains 8 to 10 per cent sulfuric acid
to neutralize the caustic, 13.5 to 21.5 per cent sodium sulfate, about 1 per cent
zinc sulfate to promote crenellation of the fiber, and 4 to 10 per cent glucose
to prevent crystallization of the salts in the filaments. The solution from the
spinnerets is coagulated in the bath as a filament of regenerated cellulose (Pr.).
If the bucket machine is used, the spinneret head dips horizontally into the
spinning solution, several of the filaments are gathered into a thread and fed
down to a small centrifugal bucket spinning at 7,500 r.p.m. (Op.). This is illustrated by Figs. 4 and 5. The bucket imparts one twist to the filaments per revolution and removes a greater portion of the occluded bath liquor through perforations in the periphery (Fig. 3).
If the bobbin machine is used, the spinnerets dip vertically upward into the
spinning bath, and the filaments are wound on a revolving bobbin, as shown in
Fig. 6 (Op.). No twist is imparted to the thread.
Yarn from either type is washed to remove the spinning,liquor (Op.).
The bobbin yarn is dried (Op.), twisted, and skeined (Op.).
The bucket cakes are skeined without drying (Op.).
Both types of yarn are d,esuifurized by treating with a % to 1 per cent sodium
sulfide solution (Pr.).
Both types are washed (Op.), bleached in hydrochlorite solution (Pr.), washed
again, dried, and coned (Op.).
1 BENGER,
Economic and Technical Aspects of the Rayon Industry, Ind. Eng.
Chern., 28, 511 (1936).
750
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
In the continuous process,l the entire treatment of the filament after

extrusion, including washing, desulfurizi~, bleaching, lubricating, drying, and twisting of the yarn is carried out continuously on one machine,
without more than routine attention from the operators. The procees
Con_",IOII PI' lb. of vll_

Wood pulp
CO.Slic soda. 76"4
Corban disulfide
Sulfuric acid (as 100%1
Corn '.Qar
1.12 lb.
0.9 III.
0.35 III.
1.3
III.
0.09 III.
royGII
Olrec' labor
Steam
RefrigtrOtiOll
Electrlcily
W,afer
0.05_ ...."
1501..
0.02 fOIl
2-3 lw.oIIr.
170 ....
FIG. 1. Flow sheet for viscose rayon.
New caustic soda

791~
Recovered caustic &ado Z7Z I II Pu 100 lb.
Woter,bo$ed on ..lid
pulp uead
caustic makeup)
9 101
Cauatic breakdown
basi" IOOlNaOH
U..: Alkali.ulluioH 48 III.

Dilution
27 II>.
Recove...,,:OtIIinI_228lb.
Oialylll&
4 .. III.
I.or.a:
'" lit,
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for caustic soda recovery in viscose manufaotuJe-Cerini proceIB.
reduces the entire series of operations, requiring by the old method as

high as 90 hr., to about 6 min. and is revolutionizing the entire industry.
Each year more viscose yarn is made mto staple fiber. This is manufactured by drawing the filaments from many spinnerets without twisting
and cutting them into short, uniform lengths.' Filament yam or fiber,
OLIVE, Viscose Rayon Spun Continuously, C/&em. ct M.,. B",., ' " 888 (1938);
Continuous Production of VillCOlle Rayon, CAem. ct Mel. B",., " (10), 116
(1942), pictured flow sheet; ANON., Continuous Rayon 8pinniDc Proo.a, CAem .,.,
M (11), 103 (1947) .
For a pictured flow sheet, see C/&em. It Mel. E",., II (8), 128 (1944).
1
ANON.,
VISCOSE PROCES8
751
FIG. 3. Spinning in viscose process. (Courlull qf E. I. d" PmtI II Nemours &: Company
1m.)
FIG. 4. General view of bucket type of spinning machine at the Richmond, Va., piant
of E. I. du Pont de Nemours &; Company, Inc. The white lines up the face of the
machine are the rayon threads 88 they leave the chemical baths. (Courtesy of E. [.
tlu Pont II Nemours tt Comp6ftl/, lne.)
752
RYNTHE1'lC FIBERS
described above, is rayon or aret,a tf' t.wiRt,ed into a continuous yarn 88

t he filaments leave the spinneret,
Transparent viscose sheeting (cellophane) is manufactured from a
solution similar to that used for the rayon.! The spinning solution is
FIG. 5. "Threading up " a spinning machine, Pulp U8Ild in the manufactUl'e of rayon
comes from the barrattes; it is treated chemically and becomes a reddish-brown sirup
and is then fed through nozzles called spinnerets into an acid bath that hardens it again,
A worker at a rayon plant of E. I. du Pont de Nemours ct Company, Inc., near Richmond, Va., picks up the thin thread, p _ it over a spinning machine, and guides it
into buckets by a stream of water. (Courtuy of E. I . du Pont de N_ra d: Company,
Inc.)
extruded through a narrow slot into the coagulating bath. This may be
done in a variety of ways, one of which is to cast the sheet onto a rotating
drum, the lower side of which is submerged in -the bath. The viscose
film formed is transferred to succeeding tanks of warm water to remove
the acid. It is desulfurized in a basic solution of sodium sulfide and
rewashed. The characteristic yellow tinge' must then be removed in a
hypochlorite bleach bath, after which the sheet is rewashed. Then, in
J HYDEN, Manufacture and Properties of Regenerated Cf'JluIOlllC Films, IfIUl. Eng.
Chem., 21, 405 (1929); LEVEY, Films and Shet'ting from Plastic Products, Modem
Plastics, 14 (12), 40 (1937); BRANDENBERGIlR, !Ilotes on Cf'lIophane, J. Franklin
Insl., 226, 797 (1938); a pictured flow sheet for I'ellophane is givl'.D in C1aem. d: Met.
Eng., ' 6. 25 (J939).
CUPRAMMONIUM MANUFACTURING PROCESS
753
order to impart softness and pliability to the film, it is passed through It

glycerine bath where it absorbs about 17 per cent glycerine, after which
it is dried. Much of the cellophane is subsequently made moistureproof
by coating it on one side with a suitable lacquer of nitro-cellulose. The
development of moistureproofing was due principally to W. H. Charch
of the Du Pont Company, to whom has been awarded the 1932Schoellkopf
Medal of the Buffalo Section of the American Chemical Society for t.hi s
FIG. 6. A spinning machine of the bobbin type used in the manufacture of rayon.
(Courte8y of E . I . du Pont de Nemour8 &; Company, Inc.)
achievement. Cellophane may be dyed, either with mordant dyes or

direct colors. Owing to its attractive appearance as well as its moistureproofing, it is widely used as a packaging and wrapping material.
Viscose may be employed to prepare a durable cellulose sponge by
introducing a mixture of various sizes of Glauber's $BIt crystals, hemp or
fibrous material, and viscose in a box, which is placed in the coagulating
bath to regenerate the cellulose. The blocks are leached with warm water
t.o remove the crystals of salt and cut into small-sized blocks for sale.
CUPRAMMONIUM MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Cuprammonium rayon is represented by the Furness process (Fig. 7),

a continuous process that spins, coagulates, decoppers, washes, dries,
twists, and spools the yarn in a total time of about 3 min. Bemberg
cuprammonium rayon owes some of it,s desirable properties to "stretch"
7M
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
spinning, wherein the filaments are Htretched during the coagulation in

the spinning bath. This process can produce extremely fine yarns of as
low as 15 denier and of great wet st.rength. Only one company produces
t.his kind of rayon in this country.
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. The spinning solution is prepared by
charging 350 lb. of linters to a double-arm mixer with vacuum connections,
as shown in Fig. 7. The ammoniacal copper hydroxide solution (prepared by
adding caustic soda to a copper sulfate solution, filtering, and dissolving the
precipitate in a solution of 26Be. aqua ammonia) is run in and mixed (Op.
and Pr.).
Colton hnter.
0.92 lb.
Ammon',Q (1.'Be) 051 lb.
Copper sulfate
Sulfuric Q<.id(60'Bel06Ib.est.}
Water.
Elect"c,t-~
45-60 gal.
1.4 kw.-hc
Per aund of n"f,mo;sture ~an

.( hem." Met.e,tj"",tes)
~~t~~~!d~e(~~;;)~ go\~ ~~
~~!Jo~';~;~OIi.5;"lg~-hr
FIG. 7. Flow sheet for cuprammonium rayon.
The excess ammonia is withdrawn through a vacuum line and the sirupy
solution is diluted with water and filtered five times (Op.).
Aging of this solution is not necessary. The solution is forced vertically upward
through a nickel spinneret into a coagulating bath of 5 per cent caustic soda (Oll.).
The filament is coagulated (Pr.) and passed into a decoppering bath of 1~ per
cent sulfuric acid (Pr.).
The yarn is washed (Op.), dried (Op.), and twisted (Op.) continuously by
means of a specially designed cylindrical cage. 1
Recovery of chemicals is very successfully accomplished; 95 per cent

of the copper and 40 per cent of the ammonia are obtained again. The
caustic soda is not consumed and is recycled,
CELLULOSE ACETATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Cellulose acetate (or its homologs) is an ester of cellulose and not

regenerated cellulose. The spinning solution may be used to produce
fibers, transparent film, photographic film, or precipitated to form molding powder for plastics and' the basic constituent of cellulose lacquers. 2
CHASE, Furness Process Rayon, Textile World, 80, 1888 (1931).
SMITH, Cellulose Acetate Rayons, Ind. Eng. Chern., 32, 1555 (1940); for a pictured flow sheet on Cellulose Acetate Staple Yarn, see Chem. Eng., 62 (1), 132 (1945).
1
CELLULOSE ACETATE
755
Unit Operations and Unit Processes. The general sequence of operations

(Fig. 8) is essentially the same as those of the other two described processes. The
raw material for the spinning solution is prepared by charging 100 lb. of acetic
anhydride, 100 lb. of glacial acetic acid, and a small quantity of sulfuric acid as a
catalyst to a jacketed, glass-lined, agitated, cast-iron acetylator (Op.).
The mixture is cooled to 45F. and 35 lb. of linters are added slowly. The
acetylation requires 5 to 8 hr. and the temperature is maintained below 86F.
(Pr.).
The viscous fluid is diluted with equal parts of concentrated acetic acid and
10 per cent sulfuric acid and allowed to age for 15 hr. at lOOF. Hydration of
some of the acetate groups occurs (Pr.). No method has been devised at present
Pulp (wood.plu5cottonlinters) O.70Ib.

Acetic anhydride
2.0 lb...
Acetic acid"
3.2511>.
Sulfuricocid
Directlabar
Acetone 105S
0.1 lit.
}
0.04man hrs. Petlboof
0.2 lb.
acetate royo~
"Recovery is about 5 lb. perlb. of cellulose ocetot.
FIG. 8. Flow sheet for cellulose acetate.

whereby cellulose can be converted directly to a product of the desired acetyl
content. It is necessary to transform it first to the triaoetate and then partly
hydrolyze off the required proportion of acetate groups.
The hydration is stopped by running the mixture into a large volumel of
water and precipitating the secondary acetate (Op.). The secondary acetate is
centrifugated to separate it from the still strong acetic acid which is recovered,
concentrated, and used over as shown in Fig. 8.
The flakes are washed several times by decantation (Op.) and then centrifuged
to remove the remaining liquor (Op.). They are dried (Op.) and then are ready
to be used in preparing the spinning solution.
The spinning solutio~ is made by dissolving the dry flakes in acetone in a
closed, agitated mixer and, if desired, the delustering pigment is added (Op.).
Several batches are bl~nded, filtered, and sent to the spinning machine (Op.).
The solution is force~ through the spinnerets into a current of warm moist
air (Op.).
The acetone evaporates and is recovered, leaving a filament of cellulose acetate (Op.).
These filaments are twisted and coned in the same manner as those of the
previously described ray'?ns (Op.).
Filament yarn is made by twisting the threads before winding on the
bobbin. Tow consists of threads gathered without twisting and is cut into
short lengths for use as ,staple fiber.
756
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
The economical operation of the process depends 011 the recovery of as

many of the chemicals as possible. Dilute acetic acid from various parts
of the process is run through a Dorr thickener to remove last traces of
acetate and then concentrated in a distilling unit, shown in Fig. 8 of this
chapter and described in Chap. 32. The acetone-laden air from the spinning machines may be passed through activated charcoal to adsorb the
solvent (which is subsequently recovered by steaming and rectification) or
by cooling the air in water towers and simultaneously dissolving out the
acetone, the water-acetone mixture subsequently being rectified.
The manufacture of transparent cellulose acetate sheeting comparable
to cellophane (viscose sheeting) is carried out by extruding an acetate
dope of the required properties through a narrow slot onto a rotating
drum where, in the presence of warm air, the acetone solvent evaporates.
The reSUlting sheet is pliable and moistureproof. A trade-marked product
is sold under the name Kodapak.
A new triacetate fiber is being spun by Celanese Corporation and sold
under the name Arnel. It is reported to possess "resistance to glazing at
high ironing temperatures, complete machine washability, low shrinkage
in stretching, good crease and pleat retention, and an adaptability to a
wide range of colors, designs and prints."l
SYNTHETIC FIBERS OTHER THAN RAYON' AND ACETATE
All true synthetic fibers first began with the preparation of a polymer
which consists of extremely long, chainlike molecules. The polymer is
spun in one of the three ways (see below) resulting in a weak, practically
useless fiber until it is stretched to orient the molecules and set up
crystalline latices. A single-polymer chain is long enough to occupy about
four or five crystalline regions. Although the range of anyone polymer
is always limited, by controlling the degree ,of orientation and crystallinity a single polymer can be used to make a number of fibers with
different mechanical properties. That is, some can be weak and stretchy;'
others, strong and stiff. The two elements important in determining the
range of the polymer's mp.chanical propex:ties are the attractive forces'
between the molecules ;and the flexibility of the molecular chains.
The three spinning procedures are the melt, dry, or wet. Melt spinning,
developed for nylon and also used for Dacron, saran, polyethylene, and
others, involves pumping molten polymer through spinneret jets. The
polymer solidifies into filaments as it strikes the cool air. In dry spinning,
1 GROVE; C. S., Jr., R. S. CASEY, and J. L. VODONIK, Fibers, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41,
197.3 (1955).
ANON., Synthetic Fibers, Chern. Eng., 68 (8), 125 (I\l51); Staff Report, Synthetic
Fibers, Chern. Eng. NfJW8., 29, 2552 (1951); KIRK and UTHMER, vp. cit., Vol. 6, pp.
453-467.
757
NYLON
as descrihed under acetate, the polymer is dissolved in a suitable organic

solvent. The solution is forced through spinnerets and the filaments
result upon the evaporation of the solvent in warm air. Orlon and Vinyon
are spun in this manner. Viscose rayon, dynel staple, and Vicara are
examples of wet-spun fibers. Here, as the solution emerges from the
spinneret, it is coagulated in a chemical bath.
MELT SPUN FIBERS
Nylon. This fiber was truly the first all-synthetic fiber and resulted
from the brilliant researches of the late Wallace H. Carothers of the
Du Pont Company.! It opened the entire field of true synthetic fibers
wherein it has a position of commercial superiority. Nylon is commonly
produced by reacting hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid to form
"nylon salt" or hexamethylene diammonium adipate. This, by removing
a molecule of water and polymerization becomes polyhexamethylene
adipamide, a linear polyamide. The two intermediates which form the
"nylon salt" are currently produced from four different raw materials:
1. Cyclohexane from. (coke ovens derived) benzene.
2. Cyclohexane from petroleum.
3. Furfural from oat hulls or corncobs. 2
4. Butadiene from petroleum.
The first commercial nylon was made from phenol. 3 However, this
process was dropped in favor of the one based on oxidation of cyclohexane
for adipic acid and of butadiene as foundation for hexamethylenediamine.
The reactions involved may be formulated as follows:
]'fYLON INTERMEDIATES
A. Adipic .Acid
C SH12
Cyclohexane
from
(a) hydrogenation of
benzene or
(b) petroleum
Air
--~
C 6H 110H
Mn- 'Cyclohexanol
Co- I
55%
Acetatl'-l!
80 D C.
---..+
Aqueous
HNO.
I,
CsH!oO
Cyclohexanone
45%
HOOC(CH 2).COOH
Adipic acid
+ xN 0 + yNO
2
BOLTON, Development of Nylon, Ind. Eng. Chem., 34, 53 (1942).

CABS, Oat Hulls --> Adiponitrile --> Nylon, Chem. Inds., 60, 612 (1949).
For reactions and further description of this process. see the 1st ed. of this book,
pp. 734-736.
1
758
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
B. Hexamethylenediamine
CH 2 :CH'CH:CH 2
+ Cb ~ CICH 'CH:CH'CH Cl
2
Butadiene
from dehydrogenation
of butane
1,4-Dichloro-butene
Distill out
2NaCN
+ ccl NCCH CH:CHCH CN + 2NaCI

2
NC'CH 2 'CH:CH'CH 2 'CN

1,4-Dicyano-butene
u
H.
1,4-Dicyano-butene
"
H.
NC(CH 2 )4CN
PalladIUm
Adiponitrile
~H'
19h
pressure
NH,
H 2 N(CH 2)6NH 2
Hexamethylencrliamine
C. Nylon Salt and Nylon

xHOOC(CH 2 )4COOH
Adipic acid
~
+ xH N(CH )sNH
2
Hexamethylenediamine
X(-H.7N (CH 2)sNH 3 00C(CH 2)4COO-)

Hexamethylene diammonium
adipate or nylon salt
-2xH.O
(-HN(CH 2)6NHOC(CH 2)4CO-)X

Polyhexametnylene
adipamide or nylon
In the manufacture of the fiber,l the nylon salt solution is stored on

the first floor. The actual processing starts on the sixth level and the
materials move down by 'gravity through the various steps which may
be divided into the following coordinated sequence of unit operaions
(Op.) and unit processes (Pr.) as depicted in the flow sheet of Fig. 9.
This presents batch processing but continuous procedures have been
developed.
The hexamethylene diammonium .adipate solution is pumped to the sixth,.

level where the batch is divided equally between two evaporators and concentrated at room temperature (Op.). Acetic acid is added to the evaporator charge
to stabilize the viscosity, since any monovalent reaction will interrupt the
polymer formation (Pr.)'.
After evaporation, the salt solution flows into jacketed autoclaves, equipped
with internal coils !l-nd heated by Dowtherm vapor. Here the rest of the water is
removed, the pigment dispersion agent (Ti0 2 ) is added, and polymerization
takes place (Op. and Pr.).
completed, the molten sirupy polymer is forced
After the polymerization
out of the bottom onto a casting wheel by specially purified nitrogen at 40 to
50 lb. per sq. in. Each 2,OOO-lb. batch requires approximately 1 hr. to extrude
(Op.).
,S
1 LEE, Nylon Production Technique Is Unique, Chem. Eng., 63 (3), 96 (1946), with a
pictured flow sheet, p. 148.
:NYLON
759
A ribbon of polymer about 12 in. wide and ~~ in. thick flows on the 6-ft. casting
drum. Water sprays on the inside cool and harden the underside of the ribbon;
the outer is cooled by air COp.).
The ribbons are cut into small chips or flakes before being blended. Two or
more batches are mixed by a screw device in airtight blenders COp.).
The blenners empty into hoppers on a monorail which supply the spinning
area. Special precautions are again taken to keep these and the spinning operation's oxygen-free COp.).
The spinning unit is composed of a metal vessel, surrounded by a Dowtherm
vapor-heated jacket which keeps the temperature of the vessel above the melting
Adipic
acid
Hexamethylene
diamine
Nylon
Evaporator
yarn
FIG. 9. Flow chart for nylon yam.

point C263C.) of the nylon. As the nylon flake enters the vessel it strikes a
grid where it melts and dribbles through to the melt chamber below COp.).
The molten polymer passes through the port holes in this chamber to the gear
spinning pumps. They deliver the polymer to a sand filter which is followed by
screens and spinnerets COp.).
The filaments are solidified by air in a cooling chimney and are passed in a
bundle through 'a steam humidifying chamber where the moisture content is
brought to equilibrium COp.).
After lubrication in a glass finish roll, the yarn is stretched or drawn to the
desired degree by passing it through a roller system. Here the strength and
elasticity characteristics of nylon are developed because the molecules are
oriented from their previous helter-skelter arrangement COp.).
The nylon filament is shipped to the various manufacturers for processing COp.).
Nylon is also a popular plastic molding powder and bristle material.!

Like all other synthetic fibers that become competitively popular, nylon
in both the filament,and staple form must have certain properties that
are superior to natural fibers. It is stronger than any natural fiber and
has a wet strength of 80 to 90 per cent of its dry strength. Its good
I
WILLIAMS, How Washington Works, Chern. Eng., 66 (9), 118 (1948); c/. Chap. 35.
760
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
flexing qualities make it popular for stockings and it has excellent stretch
recovery. Nylon's high tenacity has made it important in parachute
fabrics and related items. Nylon can be dyed by all acid, acetate, pigment,
and chrome dyes. It has a low affinity for direct cotton, sulfur, and vat
dyes. Probably, as for all other synthetic fibers, its biggest outlet in the
future will be in blends with other natural and synthetic fibers.
Dacron. Dacron is a polyester, the condensation product of dimethyl
terephthalate and ethylene glycol. The dimethyl terephthalate is oxidized
directly from p-xylene in the presence of nitric acid and methanol.
About 0.31 lb. glycol and 0.86 lb. ester are added to the reactor for each
pound of Dacron. The polymerization is carried out at a high temperature
using a vacuum. The reaction 'releases methanol, and a polymer chain
containing about 80 benzene rings is formed. After filtering, the material
is melt-spun in a manner similar to that described under nylon. The
filaments are stretched about four times their original length. As can be
seen from Table 3, some of the interesting properties of this fiber are its
resilience, strength, and crease recovery. It is particularly well suited for
knit fabrics such as sweaters and socks, men's summer suits, men's shirts,
and ladies' blouses. Dacron is also availabl~ in both the filament and
staple form.
Saran. Saran is the copolymer of vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride.
It is prepared by mixing the two monomers with a catalyst and'lieating
the mixture. Color is added by introducing the pigment in the mass. The
copolymer is heated, extruded at 180C., air-cooled, and stretched.
Saran is resistant to mildew, bacterial, and insect attack which makes it
suitable for insect screens. Its chemical resistance makes it advantageous
for filter-cloth applications; however, its widest use has been for automobile seat covers and home-upholstery uses.
Glass Fibers. Fiber glass was prepared for wearing material as early
as 1893, when a dress of fibers about five times the diameter of the presentday product was made by Michael J. Owens. Since that time, however,
numerous improvements have been discovered until at present fibers as
small as 0.0002 in. in diameter and of indefinite length are possible. The
/ largest and original (1938) producer of glass fibers is the Owens-Corning
Fiberglas Corporation which markets under the trade name of Fiberglas,
Other companies are in commercial operation.
Glass fibers! are derived by two fundamental processes: blowing
(glass wool) and drawing (glass textiles). The textile fibers can be made
as continuous filaments or staple fibers. In blowing, molten glass at
2800F. drips through the small holes of a platinum alloy plate, called
bushings, at one end of a standard glass furnace. It is caught by highspee(l. steam jets (72,000 ft. per min.) and the tiny fibers of glass are
formed and are ripped off and hurled onto a moving belt. This woolly
1 ANON., Fiber Glass Production, Chern. Eng" 54 (6), 130 (1947), a pictured flow
sheet; ANON., }'ibcrglas, Fortune Magazine, 35 (1), 87 (1947).
ORLON
761
mass is impregnated with various binders, and is formed into countfess

shapes for use as insulation or, in the ease of fibers coarse as broom straw,
set into frames for use as air filters.
In order to use glass in textile manufacture it is necessary to have a
material equal in purity to the better grades of optical glass. Also the
molten glass must be free of any seeds or bubbles that would tend to
break the continuity of the fiber. In the continuous-filament process
specially prepared and inspected glass marbles are melted, or a batch of
molten glass is particularly purified. Either is allowed to flow through a
set of small holes (usually 102 or 204 in number) in a heated platinum
bushing at the bottom of the furnace. The fibers are led through an
"eye" and then gathered, lubricated, and put on high-speed winders
which rotate so much faster than the flow from the bushing that the
filaments are drawn down to controlled diameters. These spools can be
operated up to 120 m.p.h. The yarn so spun is then put through the
finishing operations. It is used for electrical insulation in electric motors
and genera,t,ors, structural reinforcement for plastics, and fireproof wall
coverings.
In the production of staple fiber, the glass marbles are automatically
fed at regular intervals to a small electrically heated furnace. The molten
glass discharges continuously through a spinneret. Directly below the
orifice plate is a steam jet discharging high-pressure superheated steam in
such a manner as to seize the molten filaments and drag them downward,
decreasing their diameters~ The individual fibers are projected through
the path of a lubricating spray and a drying torch onto a revolving drum.
The fibers are directed through guides and wound on tubes, and after
drafting and twisting to form yarns. they are sent to weaving and textile
fabrication.
Coloring can be achieved through the use of resin-bonded pigments.
Ho,Wever, these binders have the disadvantage of not being completely
flame-resistant, and the treated fabrics are stiff and won't drape easily.
A new process imparts an affinity for vat pigments to glass piece goods
by the cross-linking of methyl vinyl ether-maleic anhydride copolymer
with polyvinyl alcohol. At the same time, the flame resistance is not
impaired, and the fastness to washing, abrasion resistance, and draping
qualities are improved.
DRY SPUN FIBER!"
OrIon. Polyacrylonitrile is the major component of several new fibers

reaching industrial status, but Du Pont's OrIon was the first to attain
commercial-scale operation. The name OrIon, like nylon, represents a
whole family of fibers; The production in Du Pont's first unit at Camden,
S.C., was of a "nondyeable" type. Dyeable OrIon types are generally
copolymers.
762
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
Orion is made by polymerizing acrylonitrile. I The ivory-white polymer

is dissolved in an organic solvent, generally believed to be dimethyl
formam ide, although it can he dissolved in many concentrated solutions
of salts like lithium bromide or sodium sulfocyanide or more successfully
in other organic solvents such as dimethoxyacetamide and tetramethylene
cyclic sulfone. The solution is filtered and then dry-spun utilizing the
spinning technique described under acetate. Unlike nylon which is drawn
at room temperature, OrIon is drawn at elevated temperatures 2 in a
special machine. It is stretched three to eight times its original length to
orient the molecules into long parallel chains for final strength. The
continuous-filament yarn is very similar to silk in appearance and feel.
The staple fiber has properties like those of wool, as shown in Table 3.
OrIon's resistance to chemical attack and especially to weathering makes
it highly useful in several fields.
Vinyon. Vinyon is the trade name given to the copolymer of 90 per cent
vinyl chloride and 10 per cent vinyl acetate. The copolymer 'is dissolved
in acetone to 22 per cent solids, filtered, and the fibers extruded with the
dry-spinning technique. After standing, the fibers are wet-twisted and
stretched. Resistance to acids and alkalies, sunlight, and aging make
Vinyon useful in heat-sealing fabrics, workmen's clothing, filter cloths,
and other related applications.
WET SPUN FIBERS
Dynel. 3 Dynel is the generic name given by Carbide and Carbon to

their staple fiber m_ade from acrylonitrile and vinyl chloride. Dynel
resin is polymerized from a mixture of monomers that contains 60 per
cent vinyl chloride' and the remainder acrylonitrile. The resin is con..,
verted into staple in a continuous wet-spinning process (cf. viscose rayon).
The white resin powder is dissolved in acetone, filtered, and run through
a spinneret where the fibers are formed in the aqueous spinning bath.
The fiber is dried, stretched, cut, and crimped. After stabilizing and
opening, it is packaged and shipped in 300-~b. bales. Dynel is similar to
wool in many respec~s and has some superior characteristics. Its uses
include work clothing, water-softener bags, dye nets, filter cloth, blankets,
draperies, sweaters, pile faQrics, etc.
Zein Fibers. Vicara is the sole commercial fiber made from the corn
protein zein. The zein is removed from the corn meal by solution in
See Chap. 36 for the manufacture of this important chemical.
Orion: Case History of a New Fiber, Fortune Magazine, 42 (4), 107
(1950); QUIG, "Orion" Acrylic Fiber-A New Synthetic Textile, Papers Am. Assoc.
Textile Technol., 4 (2), 61 (1949).
, ANON., Dynel, Chem. Eng., 68 (1), 186 (1951).
I
" LESSING,
FINISHING OF TEXTILES
763
alkali, followed by precipitation from an acid solution. The spinning

solution is prepared by dissolving in an alkali, extruding the solution
into an acid bath where the fibers form. The fiber is cured, stretched,
run through several hardening baths, and further treated to improve the
resistance to boiling water. After washing, the tow is dried and cut to
staple fiber. Unlike most synthetics, Vicara dyes better than wool which
it closely resembles (see Table 3). It is used mostly in blends with wool
especially, nylon, and rayon. Another protein fiber of interest is Ardil,
the Imperial Chemical Industries' (Britain) new fiber from peanut protein
made similarly to Vicara. 1 Limited quantities of protein fibers from
soybeans and milk are made elsewhere but are not important in this
country.
FINISHING OF TEXTILES
The textile industry is second in size to the food industry and many
of its mill operations abound in chemical engineering problems. 2 Dyeing,
bleaching, printing, special finishing, scouring, water treatment, and
waste disposal are outstanding examples of mill treatments where such
unit operations as filtering, heating, cooling, evaporation, mixing, and
others are involved. Some mill operations are discussed in a general
manner elsewhere, e.g., water treatment and waste disposal in Chap. 4,
but here brief mention will be given to the use of special finishing agents.
The modification 3 of fibers and fabrics by special treatments to change
their properties and to improve their usefulness,is increasing yearly.
Three important finishes consist of fiameproofing or fire retarding, mildew
or rotproofing, and water repellency. These are by no means the only
lines of treatment. Temporary flameproofing of cellulosic fibers is achieved
by the application of ammonium salts or borax and boric acid. Ideal
fabric ftameproofing which can be cleaned or laundered and yet maintain
desirable fabric characteristics is yet to be achieved, although much
research is directed to this aim 4 and some processes are finding commercial
acceptance. Mildewpr:oofing of cellulosic fabrics may be obtained through
the use of many organic and inorganic compounds. Commonly used
materials include chlorinated phenols, salicylanilid~ and organic mercurial
ANON., Garments from Goobers, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43 (9), llA (1951).
ANON., Chemical Engineering in the Textile Industry, Chem. Eng., 66 (3), 127
(1948).
I
3 For an annual resume of the work done, see the section on Fibers in the annual
Materials of Construction review published in the October issue of Industrial Engineering Chemistry; cf. SMITH,'Use of Textile Auxiliaries, Chem. Eng. NewJ, 29, 548 (1951);
ANON., Chemical Proces~ing, Chem. Eng. News, 30, 4153 (1952).
'LITTLE, "Flameproofing Textile Fabrics," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1\.)47; Symp<?sit;m, Flame Retarding of Textile, Ind. Eng. Chern., 42, 414
1
(1050)
"o
.!!
.!i
:>
e
Co
>
"*"
."
SELECTED REFERENCES
765
compounds, copper ammonium fluoride, and copper ammonium carbonate. To produce water-repellent finishes durable to the usual cleaning
processes, special quaternary ammonium compounds are heat-treated on
the fiber.
Shrinkproofing of wool employs various chlorinating processes, especially for socks, shirts, knitting yarns, and 'blltnkets. Another method for
shrinkproofing woven fabrics is a melamine formaldehyde. Thermosetting
resins are being widely used to impart crease or wrinkle resistance to
cellulosic fibers. Commonly used products include urea formaldehyde
and melamine formaldehyde resins. The fabric is treated with watersoluble precondensates together with a cDndensation catalyst. The
treated fabric is dried and heated at an elevated temperature to develop
the resin within the fiber structure. Many other special treatments for
fabrics include mothproofing, improving of resHiency, stiffening, softening,
eliminating electrostatic charge during processing, sizing, lubricating,
and inhibiting atmospheric gas fading.
In recent years chemical finishes are actually being used to react with
the fiber material, e.g., cotton, and to thereby change its properties by
esterification (carboxymethylation) or ami nation (2-amino-ethyl sulfuric
acid); this is a promising line for research.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Schwarz, E. W. K., and H, R. Mauersberger, "Rayon and Staple Fiber Handbook,"
3d ed., Rayon Publishing Corporation, New York, 1939.
Worden, E. C., "Technology of Cellulose Ethers," 5 vols" 3396 pp., Worden Laboratory and Library, Millburn, N.J., 1933.
Ott, Emil, editor, "Cellulose and Cellulose Derivstives," Interscience Publishers,
Hermans, P. H., "Physics and Chemistry of Cellulose Fibers," Elsevier Press, Inc.,
Houston, Tex., 1949.
Rob'inson, A. T. C., "Rayon Fabric Construction," Thomas Skinner & Co., Ltd.,
New York, 1950.
Leeming, Joseph, "Rayon," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Moncrieff, R. W., "Artificial Fibres," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
Sherman, J. V., and S, L. Sherman, "The New Fibers," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., New York, 1946,
Mauersberger, H. T., editor, "Matthews' Textile fibers,'! 5th ed., John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York; 1948.
Hall, A. J., "The Standard Handbook of Textiles," p, Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
I
New York, 1946.
Harris, Milton, "Handbook of Textile Fibers," Harris Research Laboratories, Inc.,
Washington, 1954. I
Fibers, Annual Review, Materials of Construction, October issue of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry~
,
Textile Organon, monthly; Textile Economics Bureatl, Inc., New York.
Rayon and Synthetic Textiles, monthly, Rayon Publishing Corporation, New York.
Textile World, monthly, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc., New York.
CHAPTER
35
PLASTICS
The development of plastics from laboratory curiosities to recognized

products of industry has brought new and economical materials of construction to the engineer and the designer. Not only may plastics partly
replace metals and other materials but they may also be used with them.
The common basic raw materials are coal, petroleum, cotton, wood, gas,
air, salt, and water. Plastics lend themselves to exceedingly wide application because of their toughness, water resistance, ease of fabrication, and
remarkable color range. In this chapter the term plastics refers to the
rigid materials that in their course of manufacture have been plastic in
some stage but when used are rigid, showing no or only a moderate
deformation under usage. This excludes the related pro~ucts known
as rubbers or elastomers.
Plastics and resins may be defined as organic materials that can bE!
easily molded or shaped by mechanical or chemical action to give tough,
noncrystalline substances l that are solid at ordinary temperatures. These
solids may have various substances incorporated with them to impart
color and strength. They are resistant to the action of many chemicals
and atmospheric conditions.
The use of a plastic material for any specific application is dependent
upon its composition, its particular properties, and the design of the part.
Synthetic resins are the largest source of plastics with cellulose derivatives
ranking next. The great. utility of plastics may be shown by reference
to a few typical applications in the various fields where these new mate/ rials are being applied. In the automotive and airplane industries many
different plastics find specific utilization because of beauty, strength, oil
and electrical resistance: Their resiliency and strength make them very
useful in the manufacture of safety glass, laminated gears, cams, pulleys,
self-lubricating bearings, plywood, and the like. In .other fields where
the plastic cannot be used itself, it is employed in combination with
metals, as in the manufacture of steering wheels and plastic-covered
dashboards. These combinations develop the best properties of each
material.
1 LEWIS, SQUIRES, and BROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and
Amorphous Materials," pp. 140-147, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942.
766
CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
767
In the electrical industries, molded and laminated organic plastics

are of real value as solid insulating materials because of their good electrical properties and relatively high mechanical strength. The phenolic
resins are used in most of the parts operating under ordinary voltage
conditions. For very high frequencies and severe voltage gradients,
polystyrene has more desirable characteristics and rivals the best inorganic
insulators now available. The civil engineer's investigation of stress
analysis has been greatly improved by the aid of transparent plastics that
show distortion under stress. By building structural models out of
fabricated plastics and by using movie film (plain or color), the effects of
applied stress and strain can be studied advantageously for the improvement of structural design. Organic plastics have entered into competition
with the older materials for construction in the chemical process industries. Such plastic materials 1 are inherently resistant to corrosive gases,
liquids, and chemicals, and they are being used in the form of tubing and
piping, plain or laminated piping, tanks, absorption towers, etc.
In the field of the decorative arts plastics have unlimited scope. They
have been used to "dress up" all types of articles by eliminating harsh
contours and by imparting almost any color combination conceivable.
Classification. Plastics may be classified in various ways. On the
basis of raw materials they may be simply grouped as synthetic resins,
cellulose derivative plastics, natural resins, and protein products. A
raw-material classification2 shows two main groups of synthetic resins:
(1) those derived from coal tar and (2) those utilizing products of noncoal-tar origin. Group (2) may be further subdivided into (a) plastics
based on cellulose and plant products, (b) those d~rived primarily from
the hydrocarbons of petroleum, natural gas, and acetylene, (c) the urea
resins, and (d) those derived from rubber and alkyl chlorides.
Plastics and resins can best be arranged according to their broad
ge.neral application into thermosetting, thermoplastic, oil-soluble, and
protein products, as presented in Table 1. This arrangement parallels
chemical behavior. Plastics and resins may be formed as a result of (1)
condensation or polymerization reactions, (2) plasticization of cellulose
esters and ethers, and (3) interactio)1 of protein materials with formaldehyde. In general, tne synthetic resins of the thermoplastic type are
formed by polymeriz,ation, and the synthetic resins of the thermosetting
type are formed by condensation and polymerization. Proper reaction
conditions of time, temperature, catalysts, and concentration of reactants
influence the molecular weight which directly affects the physical proper1 BRUNER and WAY~E, Industrial Plastics, Chern. Eng., 60 (7), 193 (1953); cf.
section on plastics in Annual Review of Materials of Construction, October issue,
Ind. En.l/. Chern.
2 ESSELEN and BACO,N, Raw Materials of the Plastics Industry, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
30, 125 (JU38).
768
PLASTICS
ties of the resin. The cellulose derivatives are thermoplastic mat.erials

because of the inherent properties of the long-chain linear molecular
structure of cellulose.
The thermosetting resins are obtained from fusible intermediates
which, under the influence of heat, pressure, and a catalyst, undergo
TABLE
1.
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF SYNTHETIC RESINS AN!) PLASTWS
1. Thermosetting resins (condensation and polymerization):

Phenolics or phenol (cresol)-aldehyde resins, as Bakelite, Durez, Hesinox, Haveg,
Catalin, Formica, Indur
Amino-aldehyde or urea-formaldehyde resins, as Plaskon, BeetIc; also Illclarnincformaldehyde resins
Alkyd or glyceryl-phthalate resins, as Glyptal, Rezyl, Beckosol, Dlllux
Epoxy r.esins, as Epon, Araldite
Polyester (unsaturated) and allyl resins
Silicone resins
2. Thermoplastic resins (including cellulose derivatives):
Cellulose derivatives:
Cellulose nitrate with camphor, as Celluloid, Pyralin, Nitron
Cellulose acetates, as Lumarith, Kodapak, Tenite, Plastacele
Cellulose propionates, as Forticel
Cellulose acetate-blltyrates, as Tenite II
Ethyl cellulose, as Ethocel
Polymer resins (polymerization):
Polyethylene and poly-fluoroethylene, as Polythene, Teflon, K~l-F
Acrylate or polyacrylates, as Plexiglas, Lucite, Acryloid
Vinyls or polyvinyl resins, as Vinylite, Gelva, Butacitc, Koroscal, Alvar
Polyvinylidine resin, as saran
Styrenes or polystyrene resins, as Styron, Lustrex
Coumarone and indene resins, as Cumar, Nevindene
Polyamides, as nylon (condensation and polymerization)
3. Oil-soluble or modified resins:
Modified alkyds, as oil-soluble ltezyl
Modified phenolics, as Albersols, Amberol, Lewisol
Ester gum (rosin ester of glycerine)
4. Protein substances:
Casein-formaldehyde, as Galalith, Ameroid, Galorn
Zein (corn protein)-formaldehyde
Soybean protein-formaldehyde
/
,
chemical changes of condensation and polymerizatio_n to form a rigid

final shape which is unaffected by heat or solvents. The molded articles,
after setting and curing in the molds, may be removed hot without
warping. The degree of resistance to heat and solvents may be modified
by the addition of materials that cause structural changes. The thermosetting resins owe their heat-resisting properties to a cross-linked structure-a thr~-dimensional molecule.
The thermoplastic resins frequently are obtained from substituted
derivatives of ethylene which can be made to polymerize under the
influence of heat and catalysts. These materials are softcned by heat
HISTORICAL AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS TYPES
7?9
and affected by certain solvents. When molded, they must be cooled

in the mold before discharging so that no warping occurs. A notable
feature of these resins is the ability of their scrap or rejects to be reworked
along with new material. The structure of the thermoplastic resins is
that of a linear or string molecule. Under thermoplastic materials should
be included the cellulose derivatives, chiefly plasticized esters and ethers.
These compositions, like the synthetic thermoplastic resins, are softened
by heat. However, the degree of softening can be controlled by tho
amount of plasticizer added. The scrap can be reworked also.
Another class of resins becoming more important each year are the
modified or oil-soluble resins. These are frequently placed as a subclass
under thermoplastic resins. Normally, the phenol-formaldehyde type of
resins or glyceryl-phthalate resins are not soluble or dispersible in fatty
oils to make suitable protective surface coatings. If, during the processing operations, a para-substituted phenol is incorporated with the
phenol and formaldehyde, then the normal resin is modified to form an
oil-soluble material that may be heat-hardened by the addition and use
of metal resinates. The para-substituted phenol prevents cross linking
of the polymer chains. Straight-chain polymers are usually soluble in
oils or other solvents; cross-linked polymers are very insoluble. These
resins offer a very wide variety of protective surface coatings that are
very hard, nonporous, elastic, and unaffected by heat or the usual
solvents.
Protein resins are obtained by treating various protein materials with
formaldehyde. This treatment causes a hardening of the protein to form
a plastic material and also converts the protein int~ a material that is
not subject to putrefaction. The exact nature of the chemical changes
involved is not known definitely. The outstanding characteristic of this
type of plastic is its easily polished surface.
H~storical and General Description of Various Types. Even though
plastic materials had been known for almost 100 years, the industry
was not well established until the early part of this century. Numerous
investigators studied the phenomena of polymerization and condensation
for resin formation, bu't L. H. Baekeland was the first man to develop
scientific control and t9 produce commercial phenolic resins (1909). His
discovery stimulated tremendously the search for new plastics and
resulted in an industry which produced in 1953 almost 3 billion pounds of
synthetic resins (see Table 2 for a tabulation of the general properties of
the principal plastics). '
Cellulose nitrate, or pyroxylin, plasticized with camphor and introduced as Celluloid, was' the first synthetic pill-stic of industrial significance. l
Even though it is a material hazardous to handle, readily decomposed by
heat, and unstablc to sUlIlight in the unpiglllented form, it has lllauy
I
Symposium, Ct'Il111vtic and CClllllvtic l;ltttilic~, ind. Ell fl. Chcm., 37, 226 (l!).15).
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HISTORICAL AND GENERAl, DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS TYPER
771
unique propert.ies whieh long made it. t.he best t.hermoplastic material
available for many purposes. Even though the newer thermoplastics
have many advantages over pyroxylin, it has shown a steady increa,se
in production. Cellulose nitrate was discovered about the middle of the
nineteenth century and was first used as a plastic base in 1869 by John
Wesley Hyatt while searching for an ivory substitute.
Cellulose acetate was prepared in 1865 but the first mention in the
literature of a plastic from this material did not appear until 1903. ,In
1906, Miles showed that the triester could be partly hydrolyzed to give
an acetone-soluble material with better properties than the triesteI'. No
great commercial progress was made until the outbreak of the First W o,rld
War, when a nonflammable lacquer was used for safe airplane wing
coatings. Since 1929 cellulose acetate plastics have been keen competitors
with the other plastic materials. The use of propionic, butyric, and other
fatty acids higher in the series than acetic acid for esterifying cellulose
has also been investigated. In 1938, the Tennessee Eastman Corporation
brought out a cellulose acetate-butyrate molding compound which is
superior in many respects to cellulose acetate. Its applications result from
its combination of toughness and resistance to weathering.
Cellulose' ethers were initially made and proposed as industrially useful
products in 1912 in Germany, Austria, and France. Ethyl cellulose was
the first to be manufactured commercially. Others similarly available are
methyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, and
sodium cellulose sulfate (see Chap. 32).
The first commercial synthetic resin, the phenol-forriuildehyde condensation and polymerization product, was described/ and patented by
Baekeland in 1909' in the United States. In 1872, Baeyer had reported
that reactions between phenols and aldehydes led to resin formation,
but no products of commercial value were obtained until the work of
Baekeland. He was the first to control this reaction scientifically. The
original Bakelite Company was organized in 1910 and merged with the
Condensite Company and the Redmanol Chemical Products Company in
1922 to form the Bakelite Corporation, now a unit of the Carbide a,nd
Carbon Chemicals Corporation. After the expiration of the original basic
patents in 1926 and 1927, many new companies were formed to make
phenolic resins. Furfural is being used in place of formaldehyde giving
improved corrosion resistance. When resorcinol replaces phenol, there
results a superior adhesive for shipbuilding and aviation-construction
industries.
Urea-formaldehyde resinous molding compound first appeared on .~he
United States market1in 1929, although the condensation of urea with
formaldehyde to form resinous products was discovered in 1897. Their
1 BAEKELAND, Insolubili Products of Phenol and Formaldehyde, U.S. Pats. 942699,
942700,942808, 942809 (1909).
772
PLASTICS
introduction extended unlimit.ed color possii>iliti('s to the fi('ld of thermosettin!!; plastics. The first product. was a transparent sheet for glass
replacement, but was impractical because of a tendency to crack spontaneously. Research revealed that this cracking could be controlled by
the addition of a hygroscopic filler such as wood flour, bleached pulp, or
a-cellulose. This yielded a molding composition which could be formed
into stable articles.
The acrylic-type resins are another example of a synthetic plastic
known to chemists for many years, but only available in quantity through
present-day industrial research. The polymerization of acrylic acid
derivatives was noted as early as 1872, but Rahm did much of the fundamental work on the synthesis and polymerization of the acrylic acid
derivatives. In 1931 the Rahm and Haas Company began limited
production of acrylates. Methyl methacrylate resin was introduced by
them in 1936 in transparent sheet form (Plexiglas) and by the Du Pont
Company in 1937 in both the sheet and the molding compound under the
trade name Lucite. The polymers of acrylic and methylacrylic acid
derivatives are characterized by such important properties as colorless
transparency, adhesive qualities, elasticity and stability to light, moderate
heat, and weathering and as a result have many applications.
Polyvinyl resins have been known for over 100 years;,however their
commercial development is recent. The most. important resins industrially
are polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, copolymers of vinyl chloride
and vinyl ac~tate, and the polyvinyl acetals. Not until 1917 was the
polymerization of vinyl acetate in the presence of peroxide recorded.
Ostromislensky described the preparation of vinyl chloride in 1927, the
same year that polyvinyl acetate appeared commercially in Germany.
The vinyl acetals, formed by alcoholizing polyvinyl acetate and condensing with aldehydes, were patented in 1934. Polyvinylidene ch~oride, .
another resin related to this group, was marketed by the Dow Chemical
Company under the name saran in 1939 and this has found extensive uses.
Polystyrene is one of the oldest synthetic resins. It was first prepared
in 1839. Successful commercial production of this plastic material was
begun by the Dow Chemical Company ,about 1937. Several styrenederivatives and copolymers were introduced during the Second W orId
War which had better I heat resistance and impact strength than polystyrene yet retained its excellent electrical characteristics. As an example,
an excellent high-impact-strength plastic is obtained by copolymerizing
a high proportion of styrene with butadiene and then blending this with
natural or synthetic rubber.
M elamine-jormaldehyde relnns were first made in 1939 by the American
Cyanamid Company, although melamine was first. synt.hesized in 1834.
Melamine molding compounds, widely used for tableware, are anot,her
successful member of the amino plastics.
Hl::lTOHICAL AND GENEUAL DESCRIPTION O~' VARIOUS 'l'YPES
r,
,773
Nylon,l best known as a fiber and the most widely used of the polyamides, is also an important plastic because of it,s low density, slow
hurning rate, toughness, flexibility, abrasion resistance, and high ten~ile
strength in oriented monofilaments. Other polyamide resins for use in
protective coatings are made by General Mills, Inc., by the condensatIon
of ethylenediamine or diethylenetriamine with a mixture of dimcrized
and trimerized vegetable-oil fatty acids, e.g., linoleic acid.
Alkyd resins, used extensively in synthetic surface coatings (see Chap.
24), result from the interaction of polybasic acids and polyhydric alcohols.2 Unless modified by the addition of drying oils or fatty aCids
derived from such oils, they are unsuitable for use in surface coatings.
In 1942, allyl resins were introduced which are polyesters with unsaturated ethylenic groups built into them. These unsaturated polyesters
undergo a true polymerization in which combination of the monomers
occurs through carbon-carbon bonding. The unsaturation is introduced
by the use of an unsaturated acid, such as maleic, or an unsaturated
alcohol, such as allyl.
Silicone resins were first made available commercially in 1943 by the
Dow Corning Corporation. These resins presented a revolutionary
advance in'the electrical field because of their resistance to heat and low
water absorption, combined with excellent electrical insulating properties.
Polyethylene is the simplest member of the large group of thermoplastic
resins which are formed by the polymerization of compounds containing
an unsaturated bond between two carbon atoms. After several years of
development, quantity production was begun in 1943. In 1946 polytetrafiuoroethylene was made available under the trade name Teflon. 'It
is inert to all types of chemicals except molten alkali metals. It can be
molded only by special techniques, but by replacing one fluorine atom with
chlorine, monochlorotrifluoroethylene polymer is obtained that has good
moldability, general inertness, and high and low temperature resistance.
Epoxy resins based on ethylene oxide or its homologs or derivatives arc
relatively new. Carbowax, made by the polymerization of ethylene
uxide, was the earliest commercial product. Resins made by condensatioll
uf epichlorhydrin with bisphenol A [2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propane]
have been marketed since 1948 under various trade names. Their major
applications are in the field of protective coatings and adhesives which
cure at room temperatures.
Cast phenolic resins' were introduced about 1929 by the American
Catalin Corporation, but it was not until about 1932 that any great
production developed. These cast resins offer a wider range of colors th~ll
I,
t
2
WILI"IAMS, How Washington Works, Chern. Eng., 56 (9), 118 (1948).

ANON., Phthalin AnhYilridc, Chem. Eng., 59 (9), 208 (1952), a pieture How I5h:p-ct;
ANON., Maleic Anhydride, Chem. Eng., 60 (7), 2~8 (1953), a pictured How I5hcct;
HAINES, Resin and Paint Productioll, Ind. ElI!l. Chern., 46, 2010 (1954).
.
774
;PLASTICS
is possible with the regular phenolic resins wherein the reaction is carried
further and destroys or masks pastel shades.
Uses and Economics. The uses to which plastics are put depend upon
the properties of the various molding compositions. The most important
of the multitudinous applications are listed under the manufacture of each
type of plastic.
Table 3 shows the relative cost of the various plastics, Tables 4 and 5
TABLE 3. RESINS CLASSIFIED BY COSTS
Average sales price per lb. of net resin
Type
1937
Cast phenolic ........... .
Tar acid.resins ......... "
For molding .... " ., .. .
For laminating ........ .
For coatings .......... .
Alkyd .................. .
Urea ................... .
Vinyl. .................
Acrylate b............... .
Polystyrene ............. .
Polyethylene ............ .
Silicone resins ........... .
Nylon ................. .
1954
$0.41
$0.26
0.18
0.13
0.17
0.20
0.45
O.til)
1.66
0.72
0.30
0.24
0.41
0.70
0.31
0.44
3.25
~.60
"U.S. Tariff Commission, "Synthetic Resins," Report 131, 1938; "Synthetic

Organic Chemicals, 1954."
bIn 1938, acrylate molding powder was $0.85 per pound and the cast resin was
$1.25 per pound.
the United States production, and Table 6 the estimated consumptIOn for
some major resins. Plastics represeht one of the fastest-growing industrie:,;
in the United States.
Raw Materials. l The plastics industry has grown so rapidly that the
industries supplying the basic and intermediate raw materials have been
unable to keep pace with it because of lack of sufficient, ready raw materials and, process equipment. These basic and intermediate raw materials
come from all parts of the nation-mines, forests, farms, quarries, paper
and textile mills, cotton plantations, and natural gas and petroleum
1 RAYNOLDS, Inter-relationship of Plastics and Chemicals, Chem. & Met. Eng., 61
(3), 109 (1944), very informative; ESSELEN and BACON, op. cit.; WEITH, Plastics, Ind.
En(J,. Chem.~ 31, 557 (1939); OTT, Cellulose Derivatives as Basic Materials for Plastics,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 1641 (1940); SWALLEN, Zein, A New Industrial Protein, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 33, 394 (1941); SWEENEY and ARNOLD, Plastics from Agricultural
Ml\terials, Iowa Eng. Expt. Sea. Bull. 154, 1942.
775
PLASTICS, PRODUCTION, AND SALES

TABLE
4.
SYNTHETIC PLASTICS AND RESINH,
lTNI'I'EIl S1'ATES PRODUCTION
AND SALES
Sales,
1954
Production
Material
Coumarone-indene and petroleum polyml'rs

Phenolic and other tar-acid resins ..........
Molding materials. ....................
Bonding and adhesive resins............
Prorective-eoating resins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resins for all other uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phthalic alkyd resins .....................
For protective coatings b . . . . .
For other usesb . . . . . . .
Styrene and styrene-derivative resins. . . . . .
Molding materials.....................
Protective-eoating resins...............
All other uses.........................
Nonbenzenoid alkyd resins (maleic, fumaric)
Rosin ~nd terpene adduct resins. . . . . . . . . . .
Rosin esters ............ , . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .
Silicone resins.. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. ..
Ureaandmelamineresins ................
Textile treating and coating ....... " . . .
Paper treating and coating.............
Bondingandadhesive..................
Protective coating..... .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . .
Other uses, including molding. . . . . . . . . . .
Vinyl and vinyl copolymer resins..........
Film (under 0.01 gage).................
Sheeting (0.01 gage and over) . . . . . . . . . . .
Molding and extrusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Textile, paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flooring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protective coatings .... i . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .
Adhesives ............ ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Other uses....... . . . ..... . .. . . . . ... ...
Total.. ................................
1941
1,000
lb.
.......
J!)5:i
1,000Ih.
1954
1,000Ih.
Quantity
1,000 lb.
216.462
392.089
171,833
145,378
21,644
26. 631
128,:~6a
205,986
206,349
2.472
458,037
309,20-\
80,420
68,,416
9,474
53.411
6,940
55,705
1,705
34,849
244,633
38,640
19,672
98.697
21,603
66,041
514,282
.......
68,818
54,708
146, 505
48,395
34,497
. ., . . . , "
.........
23,372
'" . . .. ......... ..........
28 1462
....... ......... .......... 109,431
437 ,800 2,776,627 2,827,803 2,496,597
210,8:i8
206,645 219,359
484,942 433,678
224,364 182,135
177,652 173,461
28,210
22,970
34,484
26, 145
:i90 , 527 382,367
410,062 . ..... . . .
8,883 . . . . . .. . .
507,962 481,037
324,157 325,910
84,247
83,215
99,555
71,910
75,973
71 ,234
10,430
6,945
56,271
56,867
2,558
1 ,851
257,310 265,193
39,579
44,352
22,121
20,567
96,192105,125
30,364
27,839
69,060
67,311
515,873 523,605
......... .........
. . . . . . . .. .........
. ...... " .........
. ...... " .........
. ...... " .........
a "Synthetic Organic Chemicals," (published annual~y), U.S. Tariff Commission;

see original tabulations for many more and individua~ details.
b Includes nonbenzenoip alkyds.
776
TART,Fl
5.
CELLULOSE PLASTICS, UNITFlD STATFlS PRODUCTION"
Material
Production
i953
Production
1954
Cellulose plastics, total. ...................

Cellulose acetate and mixed esters ........
Sheets, under 0.003 gage ..............
Sheets, 0.003 gage and over ............
All other sheets, rods, tubes ...........
Molding and extrusion matElrials .......
Nitro-eellulose sheets, rods, tubes .........
All other cellulose plasticsb . . . .
128,1l6:{
115,094
17,472
14,058
5,809
77,695
7,597
6,272
12:~, 224
112, am;
17,785
12,239
5,34:{
5, 26f;
5,5(;2
"Syntlwtic Organic Clwmieals," (publish(',1 annually), U.S. Tariff COlllmission

Includes ethyl cellulose and other cellulosic material.
TABLE
6.
ESTIMATED CONSUMPTION OF MAJOR RESINS"
(~lillions
76,56:~
of pounds)
Rpsin
Hl47
1953
1957
Acrylics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alkyds (molding)b ............ .
Cellulose pthers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ethyl cellulose ............... .
Epoxy resins ................ .
Fluorocarbons ............... .
Melamines.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Petroleum resins ........ .
Phenolics.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polyesters.. ...... . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polyethylene... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polystyrene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Silicones .................... .
Ureas ................... : . . .
Vinyls.......................
30
80
5
11:3
5
10
120
15
125
7
45
lOU
17
294
4
15
Il!l
10
55
17:1
4Ga
27
120
451
I:W
.~
80
161
180
480
200
650
60
50n
700
15
280
700
.. John Walsh, Arthm D. Little, Inc., and Cher.: E~g. News, 32, 4614 (1954).
b Alkyds for paints not included but approximate 360,000,000 lb. a year.
fields. The coal mines and petroleum supply the basic needs for phenol,
formaldehyde, dyes, solvents, maleic and phthalic anhydrides, and many
other organic chemicals. The forests supply the lumber for wood-flour
fillers and! for some few chemicals. The farms are the basis for lactic acid
from milk or corn sugar, bean meal from soy plants, glycerine from fatty
oils, and the like. The quarries supply asbestos and other mineral fillcrs,
limestone for calcium carbide, and ultimately for acetylcne and vin:yl
7:77
RA W MATERIALS
resins. The paper and textile mills provide paper products and fabrics for
laminated plastics. The cotton plantations grow cotton and linters for
cellulose esters and ethers. The natural gas and petroleum fields furnish
hydrocarbons and other chemicals for resins, solvents, asphalts, and
very many industries.
Plastics are made from molding compositions which are prepared frolll
two or more of the following raw-material groups:
Binder. This is usually a resin or cellulose derivative.
TABLE
7.
Organic origin
Cr,A,;sIFICATION OF FILLERS
Inorganic or':y;n
Mineral fillers:
Cellulosic:
Asbestos
Wood flour
Powdered mil'a
Cotton
Silicate clays, talc, kie,;clgu:hr
a-Cellulose
Paper pulp
Barites
Shredded textilcti
Whiting
Bagasse, corn hu>;k~, seed hulls,
Pumice, emery
etc.
Zinc and lead oxides
Cadmium and barium sulfitic,;
Carbonaceou,; :
Powdered metals:
Graphite
Carbon black
Iron
Lead
Miscellaneous:
Copper
Aluminum
Powdered rubber
Plasticizers
/
Ii
Filler. Cellulose, wood flour, cotton fiber, asbestos, mica, glass fibers,
or fabrics may be added .to increase strength. These are classified in
Table 7.
Plasticizer. Plasticizers are added to vary the properties of the cellulose
derivatives and certain other thermoplastic resins to produce tough and
resilient products. These plasticizers may be camphor, esters of phthalic,
adipic, phosphoric, lauric, oleic, ricinoleic, sebacic, stearic and other stable
and low-volatility acids. The phosphate esters are fire retardants. Table 8
presents statistics for the 'principal plasticizers. The average percentage
of plasticizers used was: over 10 per cent of the weight of finished products.
In certain plastics th~ percentage of plasticizers greatly exceeds this
I
average.
Dyes and Pigments. The dyes used vary in resistance to sunlight and to
the plastic binder.
Catalyst. The thermosetting resins may use either an aci<;l or basic
catalyst depending upon the desired properties, while the resins of the
vinyl group may use peroxides to initiate the pulymerization of the
monomers.
778
PLASTICS
Lubricants. Lubricants, such as stearates and other metallic soaps, are

used particularly in cold-molding compounds to facilitate the molding
operation.
TABLE
8.
PLASTICIZERS, UNITED STATES PRODUCTION"
Production
Chemical
Total. ........................
Tricresyl phosphateb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Triphenyl phosphate .............
Dibutyl phthalate ................
Diethyl phthalate ................
Dioctyl phthalates ...............
Octyl-decyl phthalate ............
Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate ..........
Diisooctyl adipate ...............
Lauric acid esters ................
Butyl oleate .....................
Glyceryl trioleate ................
Ricinoleic, acetylricinoleic esters ...
Di(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate ..... '.' ..
Dibutyl sebacate .................
Butyl stearate ...................
Sales
1953
1,000 lb.
1954
1,000 lb.
1954
Value
per lb.
292,898
22,109
7,418
23,208
17,584
84,813
8,678
3,497
1,511
113
1,372
3,214
4,572
2,498
2,186
2,417
300,674
23,847
6,426-:19,876
15,999
88,924
10,061)
2,710
884
55
0.31
0.32
0.36
0.27
0.25
{I.3!)
0.32
0.43
0.45
0.38
.......
4,054
0.27
4,076
1,950
3,647
0.64
0.70
0.21
II "Synthetic Organic Chemicals," (published annually), U.S. Tariff Commission.

See original report for many lesser production figures omitted in above tabulation but
included in total.
b Includes motor-fuel additive.
THERMOSETTING RESINS
Phenolic Resins. Phenolic resins comprise molding resins, casting

resin.s, and the manufacture of laminates, adhesives, and surface coatings.
They may be made from almost any phenolic body and an aldehyde.
Phenol-formaldehyde resins constitute by far the greatest proportion,
but phenol-furfural, resorcinol-formaldehyde, and similar resins are also
included in this group. The product obtained depends primarily on the
concentration and chemical nature of the reactants, the nature and
concentration of the catalyst used, the temperature and reaction time,
and the modifying agents, fillers, and extenders.
A large proportion of phenolic resins goes into the manufacture off
molding materials (see Table 4), since this process is best adapted for the
large-scale production of thermosetting plastic articles of various shapes
PHENOI,le RESINS
7791
and designs. Phenoli~ reRinR may be made by either the "wet" or the.
"dry" process. The latter employs paraformaldehyde or similar aldehydeproducing solid products. Because of higher cost it is little used except'1
when transparent or light-colored resins are desired. The "wet" process
is generally carried out in two stages as it gives more uniform results and'
is more easily controlled than the one-stage process.
The molding-type phenolic resins are of the "two-step" variety.! AI\
acid catalyst is used for the reaction of a formaldehyde with excess phenoL
For a Tvpical Molding

Phenol
FOrmaldehyde
Wood ffour
Compound:
42 lb.
27 lb.
52 lb.
HeJ<o.
3.1 lb.}
.
0.1 lb. Per 190 lb. finished
Block dve (N'9"Osin) 1.3 lb. molding compound
CCI Stearate
0.7 tb
H"~4
FIG. 1. Flow sheet of molding compound of the phenol-formaldehyde type.
The resulting thermoplastic resin is later mixed with more aldehyde in

the presence of a basic catalyst such as hexamethylenetetramine, known
in this industry as hexa. Figure 1 and the following description show the
coordinated sequences of unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr')
for the production of this type of resin.
The phenol and formaldehyde are placed in the reaction kettle with 'the
catalyst (sulfuric acid) and heated 3 or 4 hr. at a temperature of 285 to 325F.
(Pr.).
During the condensation, reaction water is eliminated and forms the upper
of two layers. This water of reaction is removed under vacuum without the
I
addition of heat (Op.).
The warm, dehydrated, viscous r~sin is run out of the kettle into shallow
trays and allowed to cool J1nd harden. The cooled, brittle resin is crushed, finely
ground, and becomes the resin binder for molding phenolic resins (Op.).
The crushed and grourid resin is blended with the catalyst or activator
(hexamethylenetetramine, "hexa") (Op.).
1
CALLAHAM, Modern Plant Makes Phenolic Resins at Springfield, Chem., & Met.
Eng" 48 (6), 88 (1941); Chem. & Met. Eng., 46,'519 (1939), pictured flow sheet;
Spray Drying Speeds Resin Production, Chem. Inds., 54, 54 (1944); CARSWELL,
"Phenoplasts, Their Structure, Properties, and Chemical Technology," Interscience
Publishers, Inc., New York, .1947.
ANON.,
780
PJ,ASTJCS
Phenolic molding compounrls are molded primarily in coml)J"cRRion and transfer

molds. The powder, mixed with fillers, luhrieunt, and plasticizers, is further
reacted on steam-heated rolls, cooled, and ground (Pr.). In compression molding
the powder is placed in hardened steel molds under a temperature of 270 to
360F. and at pressur~s from 2,000 to 5,000 lb. per sq. in. (Op. and Pr.).
In transfer molding the thermosetting material is subject to heat and pressure
in an outside chamber from where it is forced by means of a plunger into a closed
mold where curing takes place (Op. and Pr.). Electronic preheating (high-frequency electrostatic field outside the process) of the molding powders as such
or in the form of pellets, prior to mold loading, helps achieve a more rapid cure
with less pressure as it promotes the flow of material in the mold cavity (Op.).
The final chemical polymerization reaction, or cure, which takes place in the
mold to transform the powder into a rigid, infusible shape, requires 30 sec. to
10 or 12 min. depending on the class of the molding powder and the size and
shape of the finished article.
The probable reaction and constitution of the resin by Bender. and reported in an article by Butler l are given on page 781.
Cast phenolics differ from phenolic molding compositions in the fact
that no pressure is required to make the composition flow. Cast phenolic
Phenol
Formaldehyde. 37 '10
Causlic sod,,! 100 ~
lactic acid. 507.
1.000
1.750
25
135
lb. }
Ib.
Ib
lb'
.
To produce 1,600-I.b~5 ~b
of opaque cast phenolic .
reSln;for tnanslucent reSin
odd 130lb 9 lyce r i n e, increasing
yield to 1,730-1.800 Ib
FIG. 2. Flow sheet for cast phenol-form!'-ldehyde type resin.
products are generally more costly than the molded varieties which are
susceptible to large-scale production methods. Cast phenolics are easily
machined. They are usually produced iIi the form of rods, sheets, and
tubes, and are used particularly where a ;elatively small quantity of
articles possessing different shapes is required such as specialty buttons,
buckles, jewelry, and art objects. The phenol and formaldehyde with a
basic catalyst (usually sodium or potassium hydroxide) are placed in.a
nickel or stainless-steel reaction kettle and heated from the boiling point
to as lo~ as 160F. for a period of 10 min. to 3 hr. The longer time at the
lower temperature permits better control (see Fig. 2). The heat of
i
BUTLER,
Phenol Resins and Resin Emulsions, Am. Dyestuff Reptr., 32, 128
(1943);' cf. KIRK and OTHMER. op. cit., for more detailed information; CARSWF:I.I., op.
cit., pp. 17,..44.
PHENOLIC RESINS
reaction liberates 159 B.t.u. per lb. of reactants. I Hence it is necessary at

certain phases of the reaction to cool by means of water ill the jacket.
During the reaction, water separates as the upper layer, and th\) mixture
PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE
REACTIONS: CONDENSATIONS AND POLYMERIZATIONS
Phenol> 1 : formaldehyde 1
Any catalyst but generally acid
A fusible resin (two-step)
Formula: a chain polyphenol
61h
Formaldehyde > 1: phenol 1

Any catalyst but generally alkaline
Makes first a fusible resin
Formula: a chain polyphenol-alconol
]j-o~::~ Q- -~~
-COH
1
HCH
I
OH
n-l
Heated with alkali

(one step)
Alcohol groups are removed
Makes an infusible resin
Formula: a cross-linked polyphenol
OH
Ho-r-OH
-r-OI
I
-~
-OH / H
n-l
---~>-(lH
~LOH
-r-(i-OH
H
~COH
/1
H H
n-1
darkens slightly and in:creases in viscosity. The degree of reaction is controlled by means of time, temperature, pH readings, and viscosity determinations. During the, removal of about 75 per cent of the water uncler
vacuum, the resin becbmes sirupy. At the ,proper time while the resin is
still hydrophilic, an organic acid (lactic acid, phthalic anhydride, or
maleic acid) is added, to neutralize the rcsin and to clarify the color. 'If
1" Plastics
Catalog," p. U5 (W13).
782
PLASTICS
the resin is still hydrophilic, after neutralization the now four-component

resin should not separate from the remaining water when cooled to 75F.
If a translucent resin is desired, glycerine is added to the four-component
resin after the lactic acid addition on the basis of 130 lb. per 1,000 lb. of
phenol. Before the final dehydration of the resin, plasticizers, pigments,
and colors are added to the kettle and mixed with the resin. Dehydration
is effected under vacuum at a resin temperature not in excess of 165 to
175F., and the hot resin is withdrawn and poured into preheated lead
molds. The final reaction and hardening take place by curing the resin
in the molds at 185F. for periods of 3 to 10 days. The curing ovens are
heated with steam under precise temperature control.
Nickel
~__,,,,,,,,,,,,,"~~~~on
Urea
formald_h)d~
"12 Lb.
42 lb.
ClIulo,e fmu
Curing as-n1; lubricant and dy'
40 Lb.} To produc 100 Lb.

1.8 Lb. Molding compound
FIG. 3. Flow oheet of molding compound of the urea-formaldehyde type.
Amino-aldehyde Resins and Plastics.' Urea-formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde condensates are the commercially important amino
resins. Other resins in this family utilize sulfonamides, aniline, and thiourea.
The simplest condensates are the methylolureas or methylolmelamines.
A typical low-stage resin is formed when urea is mixed with formaldehyde
as shown in Fig. 3. Ammonia is adqed to control the pH (7.6 to 8). The
reaction may be written as follows:
NHCH~H
NH2
'"C=O + CH 20
.
NH2/
/
-+ 0=0
'"NH2
Some dimethylol urea, HOH 2CNHCONHCH 20H, js formed. These

water-soluble, water-white intermediates are employed in admixture
with some form of cellulose before the final reaction and curing to _an
infusible, insoluble product. A suitable catalyst and a controlled temperature are also needed.
1 POWERS, Phenol, Urea- and Melamine-formaldehyde Plastics, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
46, 1063 (1953); O'CONNOR, Highlights in Production of Melamine and Urea Resins,
Chern. Eng., 66 (12), 88 (1949).
THERMOPLASTICS BASF.D ON CF.LT,lTr,OSF.
783
Melamine-formaldehyde resins are made in much the same way, but.

since melamine is not readily soluble in water or formalin at room temperature, heating to about 80C. is usually
employed for methylol compounds. Adhesive
resins are usually carried somewhat further
than the methylol stage and are offered as
sirups or dry powders. The fields of applications for these resins include paper manufacture, textile treating, in adhesives, in molding, and in enamels and lacquers.
Silicone! resins are composed of a network of
silicon and oxygen atoms with hydrocarbon radicals attached ~o the
silicon. The excellent thermal and water-repellent properties have led to
the development of silicone resins and varnishes. These resins filled with
glass fibers, mica, or asbestos are employed as electrical insulation. As
electric-motor insulation the silicone resins have withstood temperatures
of 390 to 590F. alternating with periods of complete saturation with
moist.ure for t.housands of hours of operat.ion.
THERMOPLASTICS BASED ON CELLULOSE
Cellulose is generally pictured as being composed of a chain of glucosidic units represented by the formula:
H-C
f /~
HOCH
HO-C-CH
I I
HCOR
""/
C-H
bI
It is composed of long chains of these units which may number 3,000 to

3,500. These elongated chains and the reactions of the cellulosic polyhydric alcohol are responsible for the formation of tough, flexible, cellulosic
plastics. The properties I of the cellulose derivatives depend upon the
substituent groups, the amount of substitution, the type of pretreatment,
and the degree of degradation of the long chains into shorter lengths.
I
Chapter 39 considers manufacture and structure.
784
Cellulose Ester Plastics. l Cellulose plastics are usually solid or colloidal

solutions of esters in plasticizers. The esters are made by esterifying
purified, pretreated cellulose with appropriate acids and acid anhydrides
in the presence of catalysts under controlled temperature. Both inorganic
and organic esters are available commercially. The most important are
the nitrate, acetate, and a mixed acetate-butyrate. Flow sheets for the
production of cellulose nitrates are given in Fig. 3 of Chap. 22. See Table 5
for statistics of these plastics.
Fully nitrated cellulose is unsuited for a plastic base because of its
explosive character. Hence there is made a partly nitrated product with a
nitrogen content of about 10.7 to 11.2 per cent. This cellulose nitrate
is placed in large kneading mixers with solvents and plasticizers and
thoroughly mixed. The standard plasticizer is camphor, first used by
Hyatt in 18G8. The compounded mixture is then strained under hydraulic
pressure and mixed on rolls with coloring agents. The material is pressed
into blocks. Finally, the plastic is made into sheets, strips, rods, or tubes,
seasoned to remove the resjdual solvent, and poHshed by pressjng under
low heat. Some of the outstanding properties of cellulose nitrate include
toughness, water resistance, ease of fabrication, ease of cementing, clarity,
and colorability. Typical uses include drawing instruments, covering for
airplane propellers, wet-cell battery cases, fountain-pen barrels, buttons,
handles, and dresser sets.
Cellulose Acetate. Fully acetylated cellulose is partly hydrolyzed to
give an acetone-soluble product, which is usually between the di- and
tri-ester. This hydrolysis takes place in aqueous organic acids in the
presence of a catalyst under controlled time and temperature. These
cellulose organic esters are precipitated in a large volume of water,
washed, filtered, and dried under controlled conditions of temperature
and humidity. The esters are mixed with, plasticizers, dyes, and pigments and processed in various ways depending upon the form of plastic
desired (see ,Fig. 8, Chap. 34).
These plastics may be fabricated by_ compression molding, injection
molding, or ,continuous extrusion. COl!1pression molding involves a
temperature of 290 to 350F. and a pressure of -2,000 to 5,000 lb. per
sq. in. The, material is cooled in the mold under pressure so that it can
be handled without deformation when it is discharged from the mold.
In injection molding, the material is heated to the temperature at which
it will low easily under a high applie_d pressure. The hot plastic is forced
into a Gold mold and the finished piece may be discharged from the mold
immediately without further cooling.
The important properties of cellulose acetate include mechanical
strength, impact resistance, transparency, colorability, fabricating versatility, moldability, and high dielectric strength. Some of its uses are as
1
See" Modern Plastics Encyclopedia," BreRkin Publications, Inc., New York, 191';4.
ACRYLIC RESINS AND PLASTICS
785
automobile steering wheels, airplane cockpit closures, electrical 'appliances, protective goggles, dials, control boards, and musical instruments.
Some of the noteworthy properties of cellulose acetate-butyrate are low
moisture absorption, high dimensional stability, excellent weathering
resistance, high impact strength, availability in colors, and improved
finish. This plastic is used for telephones, automobile steering wheels,
knife handles, and whistles.
Ethyl Cellulose Plastics. The base of these plastics is ethyl cellulose,
a cellulose ether in which ethyl groups have replaced the hydrogen of the
hydroxyl group. Commercial ethyl cellulose contains between 2.4 and 2.5
ethoxy groups per glucoside unit of the cellulose chain. The ethers are
made by treating cellulose, such as wood pulp or cotton linters, with a
concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide. The alkali cellulose formed
is alkylated with such agents as ethyl chloride or ethyl sulfate. The
alkylation must be carried out under carefully controlled conditions to
prevent degradation of the cellulose chain and destruction of the alkylating agent. After the reaction is complete, the excess reagents are
easily washed out. The ether is purified by washing it free from soluble
materials. Ethyl cellulose plastics may be molded in any manner or
machined. Some of the outstanding properties are unusually good lowtemperature flexibility and toughness, wide range of compatibility,
stability to heat, thermoplasticity, and electrical resistance. It is often
used for communication and flashlight housings, tool cabinets, molded
covers for bowling pins, and refrigerator breaker strips.
/
THERMOPLASTIC RESINS
Acrylic Resins and Plastics.! Methyl and ethyl acrylate and methyl,
ethyl, and butyl methacrylate monomers are manufactured in large
tonnages (Table 4). The procedures and reactions for methyl acrylate
and methyl methacrylate are shown in Fig. 4. These esters are polymerized under the influence of heat, light, or peroxides. The polymerization reaction is exothermic (8 cal. per gram for methyl ester). The
polymerization may be: car~ied out en masse as in castings, in suspension
as in molding powdets, in emulsion, and in solution. The molecular
weights of the polymeric esters vary with the conditions of manufacture,
such as temperature, II catalyst, catalyst concentration, and monomer
concentration. The molecular weight decreases as temperature and
catalyst concentration are increased. Th polymers become less brittle,
tougher, and more ext~nsible as the molecular weight increases.
Cast and molded acrylic parts are widely used because of their clarity,
brilliance, ease of forming, strength, and light weight (about half that
()f plate glass). Among: their applications are cockpit canopies, gun turrets,
1 POltTER,
New Process for Acrylic Re!!ins, Chern. Eng., 54 (4), 102 (1945).
786
PLASTICS
spray shields for boats, signs, wall partitions, and decorative items of
many sorts. Emulsions are widely applied as textile finishes, leather
finishes, and base coats for rubberized surfaces. Solution polymers in
volatile solvents find use as special adhesives.
FIG. 5. Vinyl-resins flow sheet.
Vinyl Resins. 2 The polyvinyl resins are synthetic materials made from
compounds having the vinyl (-CH-CH 2) group. The most important
members of this class are polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride, and the
copolymer of the acetate and the chloride that combines the best properties of each one. Figure 5 illustrates the methods for preparing polyvinyl resins.
I
Vinyl acetate is a clear liquid the formation of which may be expressed:
CH
III
CH
+ HOOCCH
Hg CH=CH 2
---+ I
'
salt O.OCCHa
A flow sheet for this reaction is given in Chap. 39, Fig. 2. A copper salt is
added to the monomer to prevent premature polymerization. This may
1 LEE, "Materials of Construction for Chemical Process Industries," McGraw-Hill
Book, Company, Inc., New York, '1950, p. 292, flow sheet using molding powder.
ATLAS and ARIES, Vinyl Resins as Consumers of C.H. and C.H" Chem. Eng.,
64 (3), 101 (1947); RUEBENSAAL, Vinyl Resins, Chern. Eng., 57 (12), 102 (1950);
LEE, Vinyl Resins, Chem. Eng., 53 (8), 120 (1946); Chem. Eng., 56 (8), 100 (1949);
ScHILDXNECXT, Vinyl Type Polymers, Chem. Eng. News, 31, 4516 (1953).
787
VINYL RESINS
be left behind by distillation. The monomer, a catalyst such as acetyl

peroxide, and a solvent are placed in an autoclave, and some heat is
applied. After a short induction period the polymerization begins and
is allowed to proceed to a predetermined limit. Then the unreacted
monomer and the solvent are removed. The polymer is a linear-chain
compound which can be formulated in part as follows:
The dried polymer is ground and becomes the resin binder for molding
compositions or a base for adhesives.
Under normal conditions, vinyl chloride is a gas that boils at -14C.
It may be made by the following reactions:
HC==CH
+ HCl
CH 2=CH 2
HgCl.
100-200 0
+ Cl
->
CICH=CH 2 ;
t::..H = -23,000 cal. per mole
CICH 2 CH 2 Cl
Alkali
---->
300-600C.
CICH=CH 2
(1)
(2)
The monomeric vinyl chloride, like the vinyl acetate, is polymerized in an

.autoclave using a peroxide catalyst to give a polymer with a linear-chain
molecule as follows:
-CH-- -CII 2
I
Cl
Usually but not always this resiu is plasticized for use, whereas the
polyvinyl acetate mayor may not be plasticized.
A resin of more importance and wider use than either of the preceding
is the copolymer of vinyl acetate and vinyl chloride. The monomers of
both acetate and chloride are mixed with a solvent and catalyst and
polymerized in an autoclave to yield a copolymer which might be represented in part as follows:
-CH-CH2-CH-CH2-CH-CH2-CH-CR2-
Cl
81
OOCCR a
Cl
Although the acetate to chloride ratio can be varied over wide limits to
give resinous products suitable for a great variety of applications, the
more important copolymkrs at present contain a preponderance of the
chloride.
Hard resins are th08e containing 95 per cent or more of polyvinyl
chloride. Soft resins contairi 1)2 per cent or less of polyvinyl chloride and
788
PLASTICS
are used principally in the coating industry. Hard resins are used for
almost every plastic use.
The properties of the preceding resins are closely associated with their
average molecular weight and with the relative quantities of the polymers
that make up the resin. For each ester type, the tensile and impact
strengths, abrasion resistance, and viscosity in solution increase with
higher molecular weights. The water absorption, refractive index, hardness, and electrical properties remain almost constant.
Examples of copolymerized vinyl acetate-vinyl chloride to show how
the average molecular weight is varied to suit a particular application
are listed as follows:
TABLE 9. MOLECULAR WEIGHTS OF VINYL COPOLYMEI\S
Average
molecular
weight
Use
9,000. . . . . . . . .. Surface-coating resin

10,000.......... Resin for calendar-coating paper or injection molding
12,500 .......... Compression molding
15,500. . . . . . . . .. Stiff sheet stock
21,000. . . . . . . . .. Highly plasticized sheet and extruded wire coatings
22,000 .......... Textile fiber
Some outstanding properties and uses of these vinyl resins may be

listed as follows:
1. Vinyl acetate-dear, adhesive, nontoxic, zero acid number, odorless and
tasteless; used for molding compounds, adhesives, and plastic woods. Largest
use is for productio of polyvinyl alcohol. r
2. Vinyl chloride-resistant to water and chemicals, tough, nontoxic, odorless
and tasteless; used for cable coverings, coated fabrics, tank linings, and as a
rubber substitute.
'
3. Copolymerized IlCIltate-chloride-nonwarping, nonshrinking, tough, strong,
rigid, resistant to chemicals, nontoxic, odorless and tasteless, available in colors;
/ used for souJld records,',1loor tile, pen parts, cable covering, beltl! and suspenders,
raincoats, watch straps, and radio dials.
'
Vinyl Alcohol and Acetal Resins. Th~se resins are made from polyvinyl acetate which is first reacted with aJcohol to yield polyvinyl alcohol
and then condensed with aldehydes to give a group of resins (or acetals),
as shown in Fig. 5. The polyvinyl actltate is reacted with alcohol under
controlled ~onditions by a trace of eit4~r acid or alkali which replaces the
acetY;1 groups with hydroxyl groups to yield polyvinyl alcohol.
-CH-CH.-CH-CH,.6.00CH.
6.0COH.
+2ROH
-CH-CH.-CH-CH.6H
6H
_
+ 20HaCOsR
789
VINYLIDENE CHLORIDE RESINS
This method of preparation is used because polyvinyl alcohol cannot be

prepared by direct polymerization as the monomer is an unknown compound. Vinyl alcohol, CH 2=CHOH, is the enol form of acetaldehyde,
CHaCHO, and is not stable. Polyvinyl alcohol is a unique plastic because
it is plasticized by water and is completely soluble in an excess of water.l
Polyvinyl alcohol reacts with an aldehyde under the influence of heat
and in the presence of an acid catalyst, such as sulfuric or hydrochloric
acid, and the result is a typical acetal. The polyvinyl butyral i! shown
as follows:
-CH-CH2-CH-CHr-
I
H
-CH-CHr-CH-CHr-
6-cH-6
I
H
baH7
In like manner, the corresponding formal and acetal are illustrated:

-CH-CHr-CH-CHr-
-CH-CHr-CH-CHr-
LCH-6
O-CH-O
~ Formal
Ha
Acetal
In actual commercial production, the hydrolysis and condensation reactions are never carried to completion because it has been found that the
presence of residual acetyl and hydroxyl groups gives the resins some
better properties.
The polyvinyl butyrai2 is usually extruded as a sheet for the interlayer
for safety glass. Some of the polyvinyl acetals can be compressionmolded at temperatures from 100 to 130C. and injection-molded at
temperatures froin 170 to 190C. The polyvinyl formals can be molded
by either compression or injection, depending on the softening point.
Vinylidene Chloride Resins. 3 This class of resins was introduced in
1940 and may be formed by the polymerization of the monomeric
vinylidene chloride,. CH 2=rCCI 2 These resins may be represented in
part as
H
Cl H
Cl H
Cl H
Cl
---6---6-6-6-6-6-6-6I I I I I I I I
H
I
Cl H
Cl H
Cl H
Cl
PEIERLS, Polyvinyl Alcohol Plastics, Modern Plastics, 18 (6), 53 (1941) .

ANON., Shawnigan Ups Polyvinyl Butyral, Chem. Eng., 61 (2), 122 (1954), a
pictured flow sheet on p. 34{).
a CI. KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit.
1
790
PLASTW::>'
or, the monomer may be copolymerized with vinyl chloride to give a new'
product represented as follows:
H
Cl H
Cl H
Cl H
Cl H
Cl
-- 6-6-6-6-6-6-6-6-6-6I I I I I I I I I I
H H H
Cl H
Cl H
Cl H H
The resins formed by copolymerization range from a flexible material

having a softening point of about 70C. to a hard, thermoplastic solid
with a softening point of 180C. Their higher softening point indicates
a greater degree of crystalline character. If the fibrous crystals are not
oriented, the vinylidene chloride resin has a tensile strength of 8,000
lb. per sq. in., which is an ordinary value. However, if the crystals are
oriented by drawing, the tensile strength may be increased to about
60,000 lb. per sq. in. These resins may be fabricated by compression or
injection molding or extrusion with the use of specially developed techniques and equipment to get accurate control of properties and shapes.
Some noteworthy properties of these resins are high tensile strength,
high fatigue and abrasion resistance, toughness, resistance to water and
chemicals, nonflammability, high dielectric strength, ease. of machining,
and colorability. They are used for subway car seats, chair seats, fish
leaders, and corrosion-resistant pipe.
Styrene Resins. Monomeric styrene is made by the pyrolysis of
ethylbenzene, which is synthesized from ethylene and benzene. I The
factors that affect the polymerization of the monomer are the temperature
and the purity of the styrene. Polymerization at moderate temperatures
without catalysts produces resins which are of high average molecular
weight and which impart high viscosity to their solutions. If the temperature is increased and catalysts such as b~nzoyl peroxide, oxygen, or
stannic chloride are added, the ayerage molecular weight and viscosity
tend to decrease.
.
It appears highly probable that the mechanism of the polymerization
of styrene and other monomelic vinyl derivatives may occur in at leas~
three steps: chain initiation, chain propagation, aDd chain termination,
and that the second step is very rapid compared to the first and the last.
In the light of recent investigations the configuration of the polymer is
thought to be in the following head-to-tail form:
o0
-CH-CH~CH-CH~
For flow sheets for ethyl benzene and styrene, see Chap. 36, Figs. 5 and 6.
791
POLYETHYLENE
The molecular weight of commercial styrene resin is around 100,000,

much higher than usual commercial resins. Some of the outstanding
properties which make this the most popular resin of all are low specific
gravity, high index of refraction, lack of color, excellent chemical and
water resistance, dimensional stability, good molded finish and electrical
properties, and transparency.
Polyethylene. I It is estimated that around 120,000,000 lb, of polyethylene are made annually (Table 6). It is most difficult to manufacture,
although the equation for its polymerization looks .simple:
nCH 2
= CH 2
2,000 atm., 200C.
Oxygen and/or peroxides
-(CH 2-CH 2) ..-
The polymer is not a perfectly linear product. About every fifty carbon
atoms there is a branched carbon atom; much less frequently there is a
branched ethyl group. The small amount of oxygen present, :necessary
but critical, can act as a cross-linking agent. At room temperature or
lower, polyethylene is about two-thirds crystalline and one-third amorphous. The branching and occasional cross linkage are believed to be
responsible for the amorphous properties which help account for the
inherent flexibility of the product. Polyethylene is not compatible with
conventional plasticizers. The conditions for polymerizing ethylene are
not at all typical. Gaseous ethylene of high purity but containing a
small amount of catalyst may be passed at high velocity through a highpressure tube at from 1,000 to 2,000 atm. and at about 200C. Conversion
per pass is low, from 15 to 25 per cent, and polymer formed may dissolve
in the compressed, unreacted ethylene gas.
Polyethylene is the fastest-growing polymer currently produced.
Because' of its excellent electrical properties, low power loss, and low
moisture absorption it is used for coaxial cables. Film uses are advantageous because of low density, high flexibility without plasticizers, high
resilience t high tear strength, and good chemical resistance. It is very
suitable for squeeze bottles (150,000,000 in 1953), strips, and coatings.
In Germany a new low-pressure catalytic process for ethylene high
polymers has been developed by Karl Ziegler. This process gives promise
of producing these extremely interesting and fast-growing polymers at
perhaps half the prie of the present high-pressure procedure. The lowpressure process probably operates at atmospheric pressure and at around
60 to 70C. and employs a metal alkyl catalyst, which may be triethylenealuminum. Furthermore, low-purity ethylene can be polYIlJ.erized to
straight-chain macromolecules that may also be useful in fiber form.
In polyfluoroethylene polymers such.as Teflon and Fluorothene or
Kel-F, the hydrogen atoms of polyethylene are replaced by halogen and
1
GOLDING,
BRAGE,
2153553(1939).
:private rommunication;
SCWLDKNECHT,
op. cit.;
U.S.
Pat.
792
PLASTICS
there is little if any branching. At least 25 different halogenated compounds have been homopolymerized or copolymerized, but these are the
only two of present commercial importance. Teflon, polytetrafluproethylene,
is prepared from a monomer with a boiling point of -76C. and this
polymer is the least thermoplastic of all the vinyl-type polymers and has
no melting point or stage when the polymer is liquid. It is comparatively
expensive and difficult to fabricate; thus it finds use where its superior
inertness and temperature resistance preclude use of less expensive
products. Kel-F and Fluorothene are obtained from chlorotrifluoroethylene by a very slow polymerization.
F F
[F F ]
F F Zn
nC1C-CCI-> nFC=CCI-> -C-C-F F
F CI n
Freon
Chlorotrifluoroethylene
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene
In resistance to solvents amI extremes of temperature, these polymers are

second only to Teflon.
Coumarone-Indene Resins. Coumarone and indene occur in the
150 to 200C. fraction which is obtained from coal-tar light oils recovered
from by-product coking operations. These compounds are polymerized
with concentrated sulfuric acid. The formulas of the two monomers are
as follows:
OJ OJ
Coumarone
Indene
The polymerization is assumed to be a chain reaction to give polymers .

of the following general patterns:
H'CQ.
H H
Polycoumarone
HH
Polyindene
Regulation of the polymerization conditions produces resins from a

viscous semifluid state to I} hard, brittle solid. When these resins are
hy~rogenated in the presence of catalysts, a series of so-called cyclo-,
paraffin resins are obtained which are more compatible wit\! waxes and
aliphatic hydrocarbons than are the regular coumarone-indehe polymers.
These hydrogenated resins are much lighter in color than the regular
LIGNIN PLASTICS
793
resins, varying from a pale straw to water white. Some important properties of these resins are acid, alcohol, alkali, brine, and water resistance,
high electrical breakdown, low power factor, neutral reaction, thermoplasticity, nonsaponifiability, low specific gravity, low viscosity in solution, and compatability with waxes, natural resins and derivatives,
synthetic resins, rubber, and bitumens. They are used for rubber compounding, mastic floor tile, protective coatings, and transcription records.
MISCELLANEOUS PLASTICS
Shellac Compositions. l Shellac is obtained from a resinous material

secreted by an insect, Laccifer lacca Kerr, which is native to India. The
insect produces the raw lac from glands located in its skin. The resin
is a solid solution of several chemical compounds having similar structures. The lac consists of two materials: a hard and a soft resin. Shellac
is a unique plastic resin because it shows properties of both thermoplastic
and thermosetting resins. Heat curing increases the mechanical and
electrical strength. The resin is compatible with phenolic resins so that
a wide variety of molding compositions can be made.
Compositions are softened on steam tables at 225 to 250F. They
are molded by compression molding at temperatures from 250 to 275F.
and pressures from 1,000 to 3,500 lb. per sq. in. The molds must be
cooled to 90 to 120F. before the pressure is released. Injection molding
at 230F. can be carried out on a 1- or 2-min .. cycle for many' pieces.
Some noteworthy properties of shellac composition~ are low dielectric
constant, high dielectric strength, arcing resistance, adhesion, hardness,
high gloss, resilience, low thermal conductivity, ease of molding, ability
to wet fillers, and oil resistance when cured. These compositions find
use in phonograph records, protective coatings, adhesives, and electrical
insulation.
I
Lignin Plastics. Lignin plastics 2 are made from woody materials.
Lignin is the binding material for the cellulose in live plants and in a few
plastics. The lignin bond of the woody material is released by the action
of high-pressure steam 'which so activates the lignin that it can be used
as a plastic binder'. W 09d chips are charged into suitable containers and
treated with steam up: to 1,200 lb. per sq. in. for -Ii period of seconds.
Normally the time cycle, including the filling and emptying of these containers, is about 1 min.' In this time the lignin is softened by the sudden
high temperature. Wh~n the chips are suddenly released to atmospheric
pressure, they are exploded by the high internal pressure into a mass of
fibers and fiber bundles, which still contain ,the natural coating of lignin.
These fibers are formed into mats under pressures from 50 to 300 lb. per
"Plastics Catalog," p. i168 (1943).
"Plastics Catalog," pp'. 190,300 (1943), pictured flow sheet.
794
PLASTICS
sq. in. and at a temperature of about 180C. The product is usually

cured at a pressure of 1,.'500 lb. per sq. in. and a temperature of 175C.
The only plasticizer needed is about 4 per cent moisture \\'hil'h is present
at the usual humidities. The curir g is very rapid.
MANUFACTURE OF LAMINATES
Laminated plastics! are made largely from the thermosetting class of

resins with fibrous fillers such as paper, cotton fabric, and asbestos. The
resins and fillers may be consolidated by heat and pressure into dense,
infusible, insoluble materials in the form of flat sheets, rods, angles, and
piping. The resins are applied in 'the form of solutions in solvents .such
as alcohol or water. The phenol-formaldehyde type is dissolved in
alcohol, and the urea-formaldehyde type is dissolved in water.
The resins are employed as varnishes with the fillers dipped or passed
continuously through the solution so that all fibers are impregnated with
resin and solvent. Gentle heat removes the solvent as the sheet is dried
to the proper degree for partial polymerization to take place. The degree
of drying is carefully controlled he cause too dry a material is brittle and an
insufficiently dried material flows too readily during pressing.
Laminated products can be made in a variety of. colors with or without
printed designs and inlays. For plain effects a .colored sheet is used with
a backing. If designs or inlays are desired, .th~ top sheet has the designs
printed on with special urea inks. This printed sheet is dipped in the
varnish solution and dried to the proper degree, and the various layers
are consolidated under heat and pressure to form infusible, insoluble
products. In making decorative inlays of metal or colored laminated
plastics, the cut and designs are laid out on the surface of a sheet and
pressed down into it to a point where they are level with the surface.
The surface of a laminated sheet is determined by that of the steel press
plate. For a glossy finish on the sheet the steel plate has a mirror surface.
For a satin finish, the plate has a satin surface. Leather finishes or special
9Ilised designs are made with the use of carefully engraved plates.
The laminated sheets should be cured and codled in the mold. If the
laminated sheets were removed from the mold while hot, the residual
solvent in the varnish on the partly dried sheets would flash and cause
blisters and surface irregularities. The curing time varies. with the thickness of the material and its type. Urea laminates require about 2 hr.
of curing time while the phenolic laminates require less time. The maximum temperll-ture is about 270F.
Decorative laminates! are harder than marhle and will stand a great
deal of wear. They are chemically inert, and will not spot with fruit acids,
1
Pictured flow sheet, Chern. ,(; Met. Eng., 47, 18:3 (1040).
SELECTED REFERENCES
795
alcohol or other solvents, or mild alkalies. The decorative laminates with

the best and most stable colors are made with urea varnishes as pigment
carriers. As the phenolic resins have a greater tendency to yellow with
age, delicate colors cannot be used. Outstanding properties of decorative
laminates are depth of color, durability, resistance to stains and cigarette burns, beauty of surface, chemical inertness, and resistance to
discolorations.
Typical uses are for furniture tops, wall coverings, doors, elevator cab
interiors, inlaid mural designs, telephone booths, counter tops and paneling, refrigerator door backs, translucent lighting fixtures, signs and
displays, instruments and dials, translucent Venetian blinds, and architectural lights. Industrial laminates include gears, cams, bearings, rayon
buckets, gaskets, coils, bushings, etc., where laminated plastics have
several predominant characteristics that make them the ideal materials
to be used. Such advantages are a high ratio of strength to weight,
resilience or low modulus of elasticity, lightness in weight, resistance to
corrosion, and low heat conductivity and machinability. These properties are permanent at normal humidities and temperatures.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Nauth, Raymond, "The Chemistry and Technology of Plastics," Reinhold Publishing
Meyer, K. H., translated by L. E. R. Picken, "Natural and Synthetic High Polymers,"
2d ed., Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1950. /
Simonds, H. R., A. J. Weith, and M. H. Bigelow, "Handbook of Plastics," 2d ed.,
mout, E. R., H. Mark, and W. P. Hohenstein, "Monomers," Interscience Publishers,
Clapp, W. H., and D. S. Clark, "Engineering Materials and Processes,'" 2d ed.,
,International Textbook Company, Scranton, 1'a., 1949.
Engel, H. C., C. B. Hemming, and H. R. Merriman, "Structural Plastics," McUrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Perry, T. D., "Modern Plywood," 2d ed., Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York,
1948.
Houwink, R., "Fundamentals of Synthetic Polymer Technology," Elsevier Press,
Inc., Houston, Tex" 1952.
Morrell, R. S., and H. M. Langton, editors, "Synthetic Resins and Allied Plastics,"
Oxford University Pre,ss, New York, 1951.
Vale, C. P., "Aminoplastit:;s," Cleaver-Hume Press, Ltd., London, 1950.
Robitschek, P., and A. Lewin, "Phenolic Resins," British Book Centre, New York,
1950.
Carswell, T. S., "Phenoplasts, Their Structure, Properties, and Chemical Technology,"
Intarscience Publishl'rs, Inc., New York, 1947.
Buttrey, D. N., "Cellulose Plastics," Intl'rscience'Publishers, Inc., New York, 1947.
Schildknecht, C. E., "Vinyl and Related Polymers," .John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
Y9rk, 1952.
'
Buttrey, D. N., "Plasticizers," Illtcrscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1950.
796
PLASTICS
Doolittle, A. K., "The Technology of Solvents and Plasticizers," John Wiley & Sons,
The Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1953.
.
Modern Plastics, monthly trade journal, Breskin Publications, Inc., New York.
"Modern Plastics Encyclopedia and Engineer's Handbook," Breskin Publications,
"Technical Data on Plastics," 4th ed., Manufacturing Chemists Association, Washington, 1952.
"Plastics Engineering Handbook of the Society of the Plastics Industry," Reinhold
CHAPTER
36
Rubber is one of the most useful substances in the world today. Were
it or allied substances removed entirely from our lives, technical civilization would be plunged into another Dark Age. The modern systems of
communication and transportation would be greatly restricted and whole
branches of business would disappear. Yet this product has not always
been with us, for it was only in 1839 that the process of vulcanization
was discovered, which made possible the successful manufacture and
application of rubber.
In its real sense rubber is the product of the tree Hevea brasiliensis
which originated in Brazil, whence it was transplanted to Malaya,
Indonesia, Ceylon" and other places. A number of other plants yield
rubbery products. Chemical evidence indicates that the structure unit
of the rubber univalent molecule is the C 6Hs group which is able to add
two univalent groups:
CHa
-CHr-C=CH-CHrMost synthetic resilient materials are polymerized from different base

chemical or chemicals and consequently are not rubber in the narrow
conventional sense. However, these products are popularly called synthetic
rubber. This chapter will be divided into two divisions: natural and
synthetic rubber.
NATURAL RUBBER
Historical.! Altho\lgh at an early date the natives of southeastern

Asia knew of rubber prepared from the juice of a tree, it was from the
New World that Europeans received their knowledge of rubber. As early
as 1736 an effort to introduce rubber into Europe failed. Joseph Priestley,
the noted chemist, is credited with giving rubber its name. In 1770 he
wrote of a curious substance which had the ability "to rub from paper
the marks of a black lead pencil." Until Charles Goodyear perfected the
1 DINSMORE,
Rubber Chemistry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 795 (1951).

797
798
NATURAL AND "YNTHl'lTIC RUDDER
process of vulcanization, rubber goods were very unsatisfactory. Vulcanization is the process of combining rubber and sulfur under the influence
of heat and pressure to change the rubber to an elastic, strong, non plastic,
and non tacky material. As a result of this, demand grew as ditl the need
for a good, economical supply. The original source was from many wild
species, but practically all the rubber used today comes from the tree
Hevea brasilien-sis ~hich originated in the Amaz.on section of South
America.
Uses and Economics. In 1955 the United States consumed approximately 635,000 long tons of natural rubber and 895,000 long tons of
synthetic rubber. World consumption was 2,895,000 long tons of which
1,837,000 long tons was natural. The rubber industry with sales in
excess of 5 billion dollars is a large consumer' of .raw materials. One
year's consumption of a few of the raw materials amounts to:
Material
Short tons
Material
Short tons
Asphalt ................... .
Barytes ................... .
Carbon black .............. .
Clay, kaolin ............... .
33,288
14,000
537,273
240,982
Mica, ground ............. .

Sulfur ... , ............... ,..
Talc .....................
Zinc oxide ............ , ... .
5,126
75,000
64,4076,
72,77;1
In addition to these raw materials sizable quantities of lime, litharge,

lithopone, antioxidants, accelerators, carbon dioxide, colors, mold
lubricants, and deodorants are consumed.
MANUFACTURE
Rubber is a coherent, elastic solid obtained from a milky liquid known

as latex, which, not to be confused with sap,; occurs in a wide variety
of tropical plants. The rubber is usually coagulated to remove the .excess
water in the latex before shipment to the consuming countries, where the
vulcanization and fabrication take place.
/
Chemically, rubber, or coagulated latex, is a polymerized hydrocarbon,
of which the structural unit is the isoprene' radical which is able to add
two univalent groups. The molecular weight of raw rubber is lower than
that of fresh latex, but may be as high as 460,000. 1 Though resistant to a
great many chemicals, rubber is soluble in certain hydrocarbon solvents
and in some of their derivatives, examples of both being pentane, benzene,
chloroform, ether, carbon disulfide, gasoline, and lubricating Qils. Ordinary
crude rubber is insoluble in water but, with prolonged contact, it takes,
up idrge quantities of this substance. Rubber is practically incompressible,
hut its shape is easily changed under pressure. The practical importance
1
KIRK
and
OTHII!ER, op.
cit., 11, pp. 810ff.
799
of rubber is due to its physical properties-primarily its ability to return

to its original shape when distorted plus abrasion resistance, softness,'
toughness, elasticity, impermeability, adhesion, and electric resistance.
The word elastic does not fully describe the most important property of
rubber since thermoplastics also have elasticity but do not have the
ability to return to practically the original shape or dimension.
Raw Materials. The rubber of commerce is almost entirely the product
of the tropical tree H evea brasiliensis. The latex from this tree is a milky
fluid which, without the addition of preservatives, soon becomes putrid
and partly solidifies, i.e., coagulates. Many other plants also produce
latex, but latex-bearing plants of the cold and temperate zones are
characterized by their small rubber content and only a few of those of the
tropics contain sufficient quantities to warrant their commercial exploitation. On the whole, rubber is produced in a belt limited to within 15
degrees of the equator.
The latex l is obtained from the trees and sent to a plantation factory
for treatment before shipment. It is diluted with water and the. foreign
matter allowed to settle. The diluted latex is coagulated with formic acid
or sometimes acetic acid whereupon the coagulum rises to the ~urface as
a white, doughy material. This is milled to remove most of the :moisture.
Milled rubber may be smoked before shipment, or it may be milled very
thin in creping machines and shipped as crepe sheets. Some products
(rubber adhesives, rubber yarns and threads, surgical gloves, foam rubber,
etc.) require the use of uncoagulated latex. Caustic soda, formaldehyde,
or ammonia, usually the latter, is added to the raw latex to prevent
coagulation during the period of transportation to the factory.
Manufacturing Procedures. 2 Rubber, in the natural state, is much
too plastic and not sufficiently elastic to be very useful. Thus, essentially,
the manufacture consists of vulcanization to impart elasticity and reduce
plasticity. Other ingredients are added for various purposes: to prevent
oxidation, to impart abrasion resistance, and the like.
Methods for rubber fabrication utilize appropriate sequences from the
following procedures: (1) mastication of the rubber by mechanical
action, (2) addition of compounding ingredients by further mechanical
working, (3) sheeting out the rubber compound or extruding it in some
special cross-sectional shape, (4) impregnation of fabric with rubber
compound by calendering or by dipping of forms into rubber solution,
(5) assembly of thes unvulcanized materials into the approximate shape
of the finished article, (6) vulcanization by means of heat and pressure or
at room temperature in the presence of chemicals for a controlled and
definite period of time.
1
MURPHY,
(1952).
2 See
KIRK
Recent Progress in Latex Technology, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 756

and
OTHMER,
op. cit., Vol. 11, pp. 927.ff.
800
The making of automobile tires l illustrates these methods for rubber

fabrication. Figure I gives the essential features and may be divided
into the following unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
The crude rubber. after being cut and heated (Op.). is masticated or broken
down in the Gordon plasticator (Pr.). Plantation rubber is high in viscosity
which is reduced in the plasticator or the mixer where the relatively high
temperatures cause a breaking up of the larger rubber molecules into shorter
ones (Pr.). GRS. now called SBR (Styrenebutadiene rubber). is normally
made to an appreciably lower viscosity and may not need to be premasticated.
Following this. master batches are made and blended in a Banbury mixer
(Fig. 2) wherein the rubber is compounded (q.v.) according to the planned-for
use (Op.). In natural rubber compounding. the ingredients which make
possible the chemicai reaction known as vulcanization (Pr.) are zinc oxide.
a fatty acid (e.g. stearic acid) and the vulcanizing agent. which usually is
sulfur or sulfur-bearing complex organic compounds together with accelerators.
The addition of carbon black. mineral fillers. softeners. antioxidants. etc.. is
primarily aimed at the end-product requirements (Op.). The carbon black
imparts toughness and improves abrasion resistance.
Cruderubb,r\
Reclai'm
Carbon b/Qct.Zincoxid.
Sul-rur.,tr.
Tub. Manufacture
Anti-o~idont
Crude rubber
RecJaimed robber
F'abric
Carbon black
Antio.idant
Acc.ler-ator
Zinc oxide 0.6 lb. }

0.5 lb. Per st"nd,,1"(l
1.02 Ib.
automobile tire
Steam
120.1,1>.
Sulfur
Softeners
FIG. I. Flow sheet for rubber tubes and tires. Rolltype mIxIng mills are being
largely replaced by Banburys. Calenders are now of four rolls. Extruding machines
are employed also for tread and sidewalls as well as for tubes.
From the Banbury mixer the rubber gOl:!S through a sheet-out mill (Op.)
and the products therefrom are the various _types of mixed stock. For certain
rubber compounds. the initial master batches are further compounded in a
second Banbury or on rolls with additional ingredients to furnish the needed
mixed stocks for the actual tire manufacture (Op.). According to the nature
of the tire to be manufactured. the appropriate mixed stocks (rubber
compounds) are warmed up. extruded for treads and sidewalls or calendered
on previously rubber-dipped cords or fabrics of rayon. nylon. or cotton for
the bias-cut cord "plies" (Op.). Parts for the tire manufacture are: rubberc~ated steel beads. green treads. sidewalls. latex-dipped and skim-coated
impregnated tirecord fabric (for white-wall tires. particularly made products
I KIRK and OTHMER.
op. cit.
11, pp. 810 If.
801
RUBBER COMPOUNDING
are needed). All are assembled on a revolvable collapsible metal building

drum (Op.), a special machine on which the parts for the tire are combined
into a hollow cylinder. These cylinders are dusted and formed around a bag
into a doughnutshaped product (Op.) which is taken to curing presses for
vulcanization and final molding (Pr.). These two procedures may be carried
out together in the new Bag-o.matic presses. The vulcanized (or cured) tire
has .the bag removed, is painted and inspected (Op.).
Inner tubes l are made by extruding a continuous tube of compounded

butyl rubber, cutting this into proper lengths, applying a prefabricated
valve, and splicing the tube ends together to form a ring. After the tube
is inflated to stretch it into a doughnut shape, it is vulcanized in a
curing mold.
Rubber Compounding. Raw rubber, as such, has few commercial
applications. The few exceptions would include crepe-rubber shoe soles,
FIG. 2 Banbury mixer for

compounding and blending
rubber.
/
rubber cements, adhesives, and masking tapes. By far the greatest part
of rubber must be modified, usually by vulcanization with other additions. Each rubber article2 requires individual compounding formulas,
ingredient~, and handling. Successful compounding is very complicated
and depends mainly .upon three considerations: (I) the use requirements of the item to :be made; (2) the processing methods which can,
or must, be used to make the article, namely, mixing, extruding,
calendering, coating, ~uilding, metal adhesion; and (3) cost. The following list (by no means complete) of materials that are in general use
gives some idea of the complexity of the rubber-compounding problem.
1 BUCKLEY et al., Utilization of Butyl Rubber'in Automotive Inner Tubes, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 42, 2407 (1950).

2 GARVEY, The Compounder in the Rubber Industry, Ind. Eng. Chern., 44, 796
(1952); KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 892-945.
802
Elastomers. "Hot" polymerized styrene-butadiene copolymers (usually

designated SBR 1000, etc.); "cold" polymerized styrene-butadiene copolymers
(usually designated SBR 1500, etc.); butyl rubber. natural rubber. reclaim.
nitrile rubber. neoprenes. vinylpyridine-butadiene copolymers. and polyester
urethanes. Of these elastomers. the polymers and copolymers of butadiene
have a general similarity to natural rubber in compounding. Since these
elastomers are by far the most used, the rest of this list will be limited to
the rubber chemicals commonly needed for their compounding.
Vulcanizing Agents. Sulfur, sulfur monochloride. selenium, tellurium,
thiuram disulfidd; polysulfide polymers.
Vulcanization Accelerators. 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole, benzothizolyl disulfide,
zinc diethyldithiocarbamate, tetramethylthiuram disulfide, tetramethylthiuram
monosulfide, 1, 3-diphenyl-guanidine, N-cyclohexyl-2-benzothialOle sulfinamide
(Santocure).
Accelerator Activators. Zinc oxide, stearic acid, litharge, magnesium oxide,
amines, amine soaps.
Retarders. Salicylic acid, benzoic acid. phthalic anhydride.
Antioxidants. N-Phenyl-2-naphthylamine, alkylated diphenylamine, and
acetone-diphenylamine reaction product (B-L-E).
Antiozonants. N, NI_dioctyl-p-phenylenediamine, 6-ethyoxy-l, 2-dihydro- 2,
2, 4-trimethylquinoline and nickel dibutyl-dithiocarbamate.
Pigments. Carbon black, zinc oxide, certain clays, calcium carbonate, titanium
dioxide, color pigments.
Softeners and Extenders. Petroleum products, pine tars and resins, coal-tar
fractions.
Waxes. Certain petroleum waxes.
Blowing Agents. Sodium or ammonium bicarbonate, diazoaminobenzene,
dinitrosopentamethylenetetramine.
Chemical Plasticizers. 2-Naphthalenethiol, bis(o-benzaminophenyl)-disulfide,
mixed xylenethiols" zinc, salt of xylenethiols.
Softeners (and processing. plasticizing, solvent proofing. reinforcing and
extending). Many oils and chemicals.
The simplest compound for vulcanizing would be natural rubber with,

the essential sulfur added. The amount of sulfur used for soft-rubber goods
is generally from 0.5. to 4 per cent. For semihard stocks, such as are used
in tire beads, -25 to 35 per ce~t sulfur is common. Hard-rubber (ebonite)
articles are made by vulcanizing rubber with 40 to 50 per cent of sulfur.,
The inclusion of certain metal oxides (zinc oxide is most used) increase~
the vulcanization rate with slight improvement in the physical properties.
However, better aging p!,"operties, production of nonblooming co~pounds,
. and better physical properties in general result from lower sulfur ratios.
To achieve this, organic accelerators plus metal oxides are used to increase
the rate of cure. Most accelerators require fatty acids and zinc oxide
for their efficient functioning. Sometimes the naturally occurring fatty
acids in rubber suffice, but generally stearic acid must be added, es-
LATEX
803
pecially in those formulas contammg part or all SBR. The quality of

a finished rubber article depends to a great extent on satisfactory vulcanization or cure. Curing takes place more rapidly the higher the
temperature. However, degradation of the organic rubber also occurs at
elevated temperatures and thick sections of rubber require long times to
heat uniformly throughout. These factors and others limit curing temperatures to the range from room temperature to 340F. for most manufacturing operations. In addition antioxidants are employed which still
further retard the deterioration of natural rubber due to oxidation.
Many antioxidants are also effective in stabilizing synthetic: rubbers
(principally the butadiene polymers) at the time of preparation, and
when thus used are called stabilizers. Pigments are finely divided
powders which are often loosely classified as reinforcing agents or fillers.
The most important pigment is carbon black (see Chap. 9), which
imparts toughness and improves the abrasion resistance. With certain exceptions, i.e., fine-particle zinc oxides, fine precipitated calcium carbonates, certain clays, and fine magnesium carbonates, most nonblacks
function primarily as fillers or diluents.
Energy Hequirements. As the mastication of rubber generates a
large quantity of heat, the rolls of the compounding mill must be tooled
to dissipate this heat. Energy must be supplied in the form of power to
operate the mill and to run the calender and the extruding machines.
Latex. l Over hal( the natural latex imported (86,478 long tons in
1955) is converted into foam rubber. In 1955, 81,203 long tons of latices
were manufactured. This figure includes the sizable' quantities of neoprene and other speciality latices. 2
1 Symposium, Latex, bId. Eng. Chem., 44, 756 ,(1952).

2 Ct. ZWICKER, Latices of Flexible Synthetic Polymers, Ind. Eng. Chern." 44, 774
(1952); HOWLAND, et al"/ Synthetic Rubber Latex Developments, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
44, 762; D'IANNI et al., Butadiene-Styrene Resinous Copolymers, Ind. Eng'. Chern.,
43, 319 (1951).
804
In latex fabrication, whether it be natural or synthetic, the compounding ingredients must be brought into aqueous solution or dispersion for
the water-insoluble materials. Liquid emulsions are made through the
addition of emulsifying agents followed by high-speeu agitation or the
employment of a colloid mill or homogenizer. Solids may be dispersed in
various kinds of ball, pebble, and colloid mills. Foams are mostly produced
by mechanical means, although chemical sponge may be made by incorporating heat-sensitive blowing agents in the latex. In making cushions
and mattresses, the compounded latex is frothed by air and a gelling
agent (i.e., sodium fluosilicate) is introduced. The mixture is poured into
a mold where it gels, then is cured, washed, and dried. Electrodeposition,
which was used for forming items such as gloves and toys, has been
replaced by coagulant deposition. In the Anode process, a coagulant, such
as solutions of polyvalent metal salts, is placed on the form. This is
dipped in the compounded latex for a dwell time which determines the
thickness of the deposit. In the other process the form is first dipped into
the compounded latex and next into the chemical coagulant for gelling.
Drying, where the compound is spread on a surface or poured into a mold,
is limited to fabric coating, films, and adhesives where the water can be
readily and quickly removed by evaporation. Drying can be accelerated
by the use' of a porous form whereby the water is absorbed.
Reclaimed Rubber.! To illustrate the importance of reclaimed rubber,
for years the proportion of reclaimed rubber 90nsumed to the total new
rubber employed has run around 20 per cent. In 1955, reclaimed-rubber
consumption, both natural and synthetic, wa~ 312,781 long tons. About
t:wo-thirds of all reclaim produced is used in automobiles in tires, tubes,
floor mats, battery boxes, tire-repair materials, and radiator hose.
Around 85 per cent of the scrap rubber reclaimed is automotive tires.
The fundamental chemistry of rubber reclaiming is very complex'
because of the composition of the scrap. According to Hader and Ie Beau,
"The reclaiming process causes the predominant scission of the rubber
hydrocarbon molecule, followed by a smaller amount of recombination
of chain fragments as the time of reclaiming progresses. The net result
is a considerable increase in plasticity. However, the structure of SBR .
causes at first much scission of its molecules which, as the time of reclaiming proceeds, is soon' overshadowed by extensive recombination, reSUlting
in a progressive and extraordinary hardening of thi~ polymer." Since it
is practically and economically impossible to segregate the natural from
the synthetics, the reclaiming must be interrupted after a short time
while scission predominates in the SBR and neutral reclaiming agents
must be used which prevent heat hardening of the SBR. Not only does
the elastomer content of the scrap vary, but likewise does the large
number of compounding ingredients originally used.
I HADER and LE BEAU, Rubber Reclaiming, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 250 (1951);
"R.eclaimed Rubber," Rubber Reclaimers Association, Inc., New York, 1947.
BALL,
RESINS FROM Rl,'BBER
805
The four principal reclaiming processes are the digester process and
those called the pan, Reclaimator, or Lancaster-Banbury process. The
digester process is depicted in Fig. 3. The scrap is prepared by mechanical shredding. Bead wires are removed by an operator; ferrous tramp
metal by a magnetic pulley. The scrap may be reground before it is
carged into a steam-heated digester. A normal charge may consist of
about 5,000 lb. of scrap and about 10,000 lb. of dilute zinc chloridecalcium chloride solution.
Reclaiming (softener) oils and chemicals are blended into the solution
during the warming process. Other chemicals are employed for synthetic
rubber and in general include alkylated-phenol sulfides, aromatic mercaptans, and amino compounds. For natural rubber, the reclaiming
"oils" may be crude solvent naphtha, dipentene, coal tars, and pine tar
oil. After some hours at elevated temperature and pressure, the batch is
discharged and washed for removal of water-soluble impurities. The stock
is dewatered, dried, and compounded. Any natural rubber is defibered,
desulfurized, and devulcanized by a single heating with dilute ,caustic
soda.
The pan or the mixer process is the oldest of the four. Herein scrap
rubber is gr.ound up and put into a pan, with or without reclaiming
agents, and is subjected to steam pressure followed by breaking and
refining. The Reclaimator process involves taking 30- or 40-mesh ground
rubber from the air separation process, mixing with reclaiming agents,
and passing through an extrusion-type machine where it is subjected to
heat and pressure followed by refining. The Lancaster-Banbury process
uses a specially built B~nbury with close clearances and running at high
speed (45-50 r.p.m.) wherein the scrap can be made into reclaimed rubber, but sometimes it is necessary to add load to generate friction heat
during the processing. The batch from the Banbury can be refined until
smooth.
,"
Resins from Rubber. Although natural rubber is commonly considered to be a relatively inert material, it may be made to react with
a wide variety of chemicals.
Chlorinated rubber (Parlon) is much employed for the manufacture of
806
various kinds of paints and finishes, inks, paper coatings, textile finishes,
and adhesives. The rubber is chlorinated in solution, usually with carbon
tetrachloride or a mixture of hexachloroethane and carbon tetrachloride
as the solvent. The rEllls:tion takes place in a vessel provided with a reflux
condenser at a temperature of 80 to 1000C. 1 When approximately 65 per
cent chlorine has been absorbed, further addition is cut off and heating
continued until no more hydrogen chloride is evolved. The final product
is isolated by precipitation in ethyl alcohol and is highly resistant to a
wide variety of chemicals.
Cyclorubbers (Pliolite) require a very high grade of low-protein-content
rubber which is milled on a cold mill for increased solubility. The milled
rubber is dissolved in benzene or chloroform and the viscous cement is
charged to a jacketed reactor provided with reflux. A catalyst, such as
anhydrous stannic chloride or titanium chloride, is added which yields a
molecular addition compound. The degree of cyclization is controlled by
the time and conditiop.s of reaction; therefore, products representing
various degrees of cyclization are available. The reaction.is terminated
by the action of alcohol or water which decomposes the addition compound to yield the final cyclorubber. It is employed in the manufacture
of adhesives, paper coatings, wax modifiers, printing inks, rubber products, and paints.
Rubber hydrochloride is made by passing dry hydrogen chloride into a
6 per cent rubber cement until the required degree (about 30 per cent)
of hydrochlorination has been achieved. After neutralization with
ammonia or soda ash, the product is steam-distilled to remove volatiles
(benzene). The product is then broken into small pieces, washed with
water, and vacuum-dried at about 160F. Film, the only available form,
,is made by dissolving the reaction mass in chloroform (5 per cent solution).
Photochemical inhibitor, plasticizers, colors, and modifiers are added to
the solution. The compound is filtered and cast onto a suitable surface to
form the film, known as Pliofilm. It is used for packaging a wide variety
of products including textile items, paper products, and foodstuffs,
particularly red meats.
SYNTHETIC RUBBER
The term synthetic rubber applies to that group of high polymers

which possess, to the same or lesser extent, the physical properties of
natural rubber (Table 1). Some prefer to call these polymers elastomers,
but the term synthetic rubber continues in popular usage. These materials are employed by the rubber industry both as substitutes for and
supplements to natural rubber. Properties of certain of the synthetics,
s~ch as oil and gas resistance, dictate their use in many applications for
which natural rubber or its synthetic counterpart is not suitable.
1 Ct. LEE, How Rubber Is Chlorinated, Chern. & Met. Eng., 46, 456 (1939).
807
CONSUMPTION OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER
Historical. I As early as 1860 investigations for rubber substitutes

began. The Germans manufactured a poor-quality "methyl rubber" from
2, 3-dimethylbutadiene during the First World War. Between the wars
research in the United States was directed more toward synthetics with
special properties than for a natural-rubber replacement as was the case
in Europe. The first rubberlike materials (early 1930's) to be used on
a commercial scale here were the reaction products of ethylene dichTABLE I. UNITED STATES CONSUMPTION OF SYNTHETIC RUBBERa
Year
1941
1943
1945
1949
1953
1954
1955
IGR-S on SBR
227
182,259
724,859
299,420
624,181
500.345
741.997
Butyl
Neoprene
.....
1,373
52,378
50,855
77,826
61,464
53.991
5,692
33,603
45,672
31,753
65,900
57.203
72.876
N Type
2,464
14,487
7,871
8,827
16.929
17.715
26.035
Total
8,383
231,722
693,580
390,885
784.836
636.727
894.899
a New supply. All figures are in long tons.
loride and 'sodium polysulfide known as Thiokols. Neoprene, butyl rubber, and the nitrile rubbers were all introduced in the 1930's except for
butyl (1940). In 1941, the government synthetic rubber program began.
The general-purpose polymer decided upon was 'a copolymer prepared
from a charge ratio of 75 per cent butadiene and 25 per cent styrene,
formerly known as GR-S.2
The growth of this industry was phenomenal, as is illustrated by Table
1. Since the war, the new developments have been "cold" rubber, oil
master-batched polymers, high-abrasion furnace blacks, and various new
elastomers and high polymers.
MANUFACTURE
The manufacture of synthetic rubbers involves three problems: the

economical production of the raw materials, the actual polymerization,
and the compounding. The manufacture of the various types of SBR
requires tonnage.s of butadiene and styrene that before were unavailable.
Table 2 gives the more important types of rubbers with their polymerbuilding units.
Raw Materials. Ab6ut 90 per cent of the butadiene3 produced is used
in SBR. Nitrile rubbers are the next largest consumer (2 per cent). The
1 DINSMORE, op. cit., p. SOO.
2 GR-S is the abbreviation for government rubber from styrene. Now SBR.
3 TRACY, Butadiene, Chrrn. Eng. News, 31. 2666 (1953); FROLICH and MORRELL,
Butadiene. Chern. Eng. News, 21. 1138 (1943); ANON., How to Make Butadiene. Chern.
Eng., 61. (9), 306 (1954), a pictured flow sheet.
808
remainder is consumed as an alternate raw material for nylon, for latex

paints and other protective coatings, and for resins. Total installed
butadiene capacity in 1954 was 852,000 short tons a year, of which 215,000
tons were from alcohol, the rest based on the cheaper petroleum. Actual
TABLE
2.
CLASSIFICATION OF RUllBER AND RUllBERLIKE PRODUCTS
Raw materials
Latex from
Hevea tree
Butadiene
styrene
Isobutylene
isoprene
Polymer unit
-CH.-C=CH-CH.-
Trade names
Natural rubber
CH.
-CH,-CH=CH-CH.-CH,-CH- GRS, now SBR
I
Buna S (Ger.)
C.H.
CH,
CH,
Butyl
-cH,-6-CHr-6-CH-CH.6Ha
Chloroprene
-CH.-C~CH-CH2-
Neoprene
61
Butadiene +
acrylonitrile
-CH,-CH==CH-CH,-CH.-CH- N type
Buna N (Ger.)
6N
B~taprene (Firestone)
Hycar (Goodrich)
Chemigum (Goodyear)
Paracril (U.S. Rubber)
Sodium polysul- -CH2-CH.-S-SThiokols (polymer unit
depicted is Type A
fide + organic
~ ~
dichloride
made from sodium
tetrasulfide and ethylene dichloride)
CH,
CH.
CH.
DimethyJSilicone rubbers
siloxane
-~i-O-~i-O-~i-O6Ha
6Ha
'bHa
NOTE: In the case of copolymers, the polymer unit as given above is onlyapproximate as it is usual to have a smaller amount of the second constituent than the molecular equivalent structurally depicted above. There 'are several varieties of each of tlip
representative synthetics depicted above.
Second World War plants for butadiene were constructed for the following
processes: (1) catalytic dehydrogenation of butenes, (2) thermal cracking,
(3) dehydrogenation of n-butane, (4) production from ethyl alcohol, (5)'
chlorination of butenes (minor, wartime only), and (6) prorluction from
acetaldehyde by aldol condensation (never commercial). Production of
butad'iene from ethyl alcohol is not competitive costwise with butadiene
from hydrocarbon-conversion processes, although alcohol-conversion
plants require less capital. For alcohol plants the primary feed was a
RA W MATERIALS
809
mixture of acetaldehyde and ethyl alcohol, the former having been

produced by the dehydrogenation of the latter over copper- or silvercontaining catalyst.
The catalytic dehydrogenation of butenes from cracking to butadiene is
the largest source and is described in this chapter in connection with
dehydrogenation of n-butane.
Thermal cracking! may be done either in tubular furnaces with Bteam
aB the diluent or in regenerative Btoves or furnaceB. Preferred feedstocks
are heavy naphthas and gas oils. Contact times in the cracking zone
(temperature above 1200F.) must be a few seconds or less to prevent
decomposition of butadiene and other unsaturated compounds. The
steam helps to maintain low partial pressures of the reactive hydrocarbons produced, thereby minimizing their conversion, largely by
polymerization reactions, to less valuable materials. The operation may
be conducted in a cyclic manner, cracking for 3 min., followed by a 3-min.
reheat period during which fuel is burned within the cracking zone. The
butadiene yield amounts to about 3.5 weight per cent on naphtha cracked.
By-product recovery of benzene, naphthalene, and isoprene is necessary
for the thermal-cracking processes to compete economically.
The dehydrogenation of n-butane to butenes is endothermic, the heat of
reaction amounting to about 32.2 kg.-cal. per mole of butane.
C 4H!o p CH 2=CHCH 2CH a + CH aCH=CHCH 3
p CH 2=CH-CH=CH 2 (
+H
2)
The best catalysts are compositions containing alumina and chromia,

although these are very sensitive to steam. The thermodynamics of this
reversible dehydrogenation reaction indicate that, at pressures close to
atmospheric, temperatures above lOOOF. are necessary to obtain commercially practical conversions. A successful process 2 includes (see Fig.
4): (1) Dehydrogenation of n-butane to 1 butene and cis- and trans2-butene. (2) Separation of butenes from unconverted n-butane and
other conversion produ~ts by a combination of fractionation and extractive distillation with acetone or aqueous furfural. n-Butane is recycled
to (1). (3) Dehydrogenation of mixed butenes from (2) to butadiene
using an iron oxide catalyst and regenerating or removing carbon by
water-gas reaction. (4). Separation and purification of butadiene from
(3) by extractive distillation with cuprous ammonium acetate (Fig. 4)
or aqueous furfural, the unconverted butenes being recycled to (3).
1 BUELL and BOATRIGHT: Furfural Extractive Distillation for Separation and Purification of C, Hydrocarbons, Ind. Eng. Chern., 39, 695 (1947).
2 ANON., Butadiene, Pitured flow sheet, Chern. Eng., 61 (9), 306 (1954); ANON.,
Petrochemical Processes, Petroleum Refiner, 32 (11), 148-151; HACHMUTH and, HANSON,
Butane Dehydrogenation,Chem. Eng. Progr., 44 (6), 421 (1948); HANSON and HAYS,
Chern. Eng. Progr., 44 (6), 431 (1948); pilot-plant yields of 80 per cent of butenes
from butane.
810
Superheated steam is employed to obtain low butene partial pressure

and to supply necessary heat for reaction. All the hydrocarbon-conversion processes yield products in which butadiene is mixed with other
closely boiling hydrocarbons. Ordinary fractionation alone is incapable of
separating butadiene of the necessary purity (98 per cent) from these
mixtures. The most useful method is an extractive distillation with
aqueous cuprous ammonium acetate or furfural as the selective solvent.
Here the slightly polar solvent markedly alters the relative volatilities
of the hydrocarbon constituents. The solubility of hydrocarbon in this
Ammonia
f,.,llonofor
lton oil (heo", polymers)
-FIG. 4. Flow sheet for butadiene from purified butenes (acetone )lsed for extractive
'removal of butane, and sulfuric acid for polymerizing and withdrawing isobutenes,
prior to butene dehydrogenation to butadiene). See Chem. Eng;, 61 (9), 306 (1954)
for further details and a pictured flow sheet.
type of solution increases with degree of unsaturationj for example,

butadiene is one to five times more soluble than the closely boiling
butenes. With this degree of selectivity, it is possible to design concentration units operating under a wide variety of conditions.
'
In 1954, 352,000 tons of styrene l were produced making it the most
important cyclic intermediate in q~antity of output. Styrene is employed
as an ingredient of SBR rubber and as a polymer and copolymer plastic
material. Another use is in synthetic coatings and in styrenated
drying oils and resins. A generalized flow sheet oj the Dow process is
illustrated by Figs. 5 and 6. It may be divided into three parts: (1)
alkylating with ethylene and benzene to ethylbenzene, (2) dehydrogenating the purified ethylbenzene to crude styrene, and (3) separatIng
1 MITCHELL, The Dow Process for Styrene Production, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem.
Engr8., 42, 293 (1946); ANON., Styrene by Dow Process, Chen. Eng., 61 (2), 160
(1944); SMITH, Los Angeles Styrene Plant, Chem. Eng. Progr., 43 (4), 152 (1947);
G:itOGGINS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., p. 889, McGraw-H~l
Book Company, 1ne., New York, 1952, for more elaborate process for ethylbenzene;
BUNDY, R. H., and R. F. BOYER, "Styrene, Its Polymers, Copolymers and Derivatives," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1952.
811
ETHYLBENZENE
and recovering the styrene monomer from unreacted ethylbenzene and

by-product benzene-toluene by vacuum distillation.
CH=CH 2
-H. at 800 C.
(Catalyst)
In the first step ethyl chloride provides hydrogen chloride which

acts as a catalyst activator for the aluminum chloride. All the reactants
Residue
Polyolkyl still
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for ethylbenzene.
must be dry and of high purity. The alkylation by-products, polyalkyl

benzenes, are removed to avoid formation of polyfunctional, highly
reactive products during dehydrogenation.
In the dehydrogenation reaction, the addition of superheated steam
forces the reaction to th~ right because it: (1) reduces'partial pressure of
components to about 0.:1 atm.; (2) supplies heat for the endothermic
reaction; (3) minimizes undesirable side reactions; (4) removes carbon
deposits from the catalyst by the water-gas reaction; and (5) controls the
temperature, thus remo;ving the necessity of heating the ethylbenzene
with attendant possibility of coking. Vacuum distillation is employed
for product purification~ A small amount or'elemental sulfur acts as an
inhibitor. The temperature must not exceed 190F. for the concentrated
monomer. Seventy actual plates are used for separation; the pressure
812
drop is about 4 mm. per plate. p-Tert-butyl-catechol (20 p.p.m.) is

added to the purified styrene (99.9 per cent) as an inhibitor. The presence
of trace impurities may give premature polymerization or too much
inhibition. After chilling to 68F., the styrene is loaded into tank cars.
In 1954 the production of acrylonitrile amounted to 63,107,000 lb. This
chemical is a basel for acrylic fibers, oil-resistant rubber, plastics, and soil
Fractionating
column
Styrene
Residue for
use os fuel
Toluene
Benzene
column
column
Ethylbenzene columns
FIG. 6. Styrene from ethylbenzene by Dow process.
conditioners. In 1945, virtually all the acrylonitrile made went into

rubber and plastics, while by 1954, only about 20 per cent was thus used.
Acrylonitrile may be made by the dehydration of ethylene cyanohydrin,
which may be prepared by adding hydrogen cyanide to ethylene oxide
or by treating ethylene chlorohydrin with sodium cyanide.
CH~CH2
+ HCN",
'" /
CH 2- - C H 2
6H
tl
+ NaCN
'
.
CHr-CH 2CN
I-
-H 0
--~
(Catalyst)
CH 2=CHCN
Acrylonitrile
OH
Acrylonitrile may also be prepared by what is known as the natural-gas

route. Natural gas is partially oxidized to acetylene which is reacted with
hydrogen cyanide to form acrylonitrile. The hydrogen cyanide is also
prepared from methane by reacting it with ammonia.
Chloroprene, 2-chloro-1,3~butadiene, is made in the following manner:2
f WEITH, Acrylonitrile, Chern. Eng. News, 31, 2763 (1953).
NIEUWLAND and VOGT, "The Chemistry of Acetylene" pp. 160.11'., Reinhold

2
813
POLYMERIZATION
Acetylene is polymerized to vinyl-acetylene in a horizontally agitated

copper vessel at 55 to 65C. The catalyst is a weak ammonium chloride.
solution of cuprous and potassium chlorides. The reactor gas is passed
through a condenser to remove the water and fractionated into reaction
products. The vinyl-acetylene is treated with cold, aqueous hydrochloric
acid at 35 tc 45C. The catalyst is an aqueous solution of cuprous chloride.
2CH=CH
Cat-
CH=C-CH=CH 2
Acetylene alyst
Vinyl-acetylene
HCI
CH 2=CCI-CH=CH 2
Chloroprene
nCH 2=CCI-CH=CH 2 polymerizes to (-CH 2-CCl=CH-CHr-) ..

Chloroprene
Neoprene
I sobutylene is obtained from petroleum (see Chap. 37).

Polymerization. The synthetic rubbers made from chloroprene and
silicone are true polymers, i.e., the final molecule is composed of many
small molecules added together with none of the original atoms of the
monomer eliminated in the process. The various types of SBR and
nitrile rubbers are copolymers from two raw materials. An example of
condensation polymers is the polysulfide rubbers. Here the chlorine of the
hydrocarbon and the sodium of the sulfide complex do not appear in the
polymer. Polymerizations of the butadiene-styrene type may be carried
out by one of two methods: bulk and emulsion. The bulk method, which
consists of combining the monomers with a suitable catalyst (such as
sodium) and with or without a diluent, was used by the Germans for the
Buna varieties.' Emulsion polymerization, described below, is used in the
United States.
/
GR-S. During the years 1942 to 1945, almost all the GR-S (now called
SBR) produced was based on the following recipe:
Parts
Parts
Potassium per sulfate (initiator of polymerization) ..

Butadiene ...... 75
Dodecyl mercaptan (modifier regulating molecular
Styrene ......... 25
weight of polymer) ............................
Water .......... 180
Soap flakes: .....
5.0 :Hydroquinone (stopper) ........................
IPhenyl-2-naphthylamine (stabilizer) .............
0.3
0.3
0.1
l.25
A detailed description of the layout and operations is given by Soday.2

The polymerization reaction took place principally as a batch process in
autoclaves at a temperature of 50C. (122F.), though later continuous
processing was introduced. A 75 per cent conversion was obtained in 12
REBB, et ai., Synthetic Rubber Polymerizati~n Practices, Ind. Eng. Chem., M,

724 (1952).
Preparation and Properties of GR-S, Trans. Am. Inat. Chem. Engr8., 42, 647
(1942); ct. 1st ed. of this book, pp. 789-792.
1
814
to 15 hr. when the polymerization was stopped by adding hydroquinone.

Unreacted monomers were removed; the butadiene by flash stripping,
the styrene by steam stripping under reduced pressure. The stabilizer
was added to the stripped latex. Isolation of the polymer was effected by
coagulation with aluminum sulfate or by first creaming with brine and
then coagulating with aqueous sulfuric acid. The polymer crumbs, after
drying, were compressed into bales. Polymerization times were reduced
by improving monomer purity and the soap emulsifiers.
An important development in synthetic rubber was the discovery that
lower polymerization temperatures improved the quality of the product.
Cold-rubber production was made possible by the discovery of redox
initiation, which permits practical polymerization rates at low temperatures. Redox polymerization can be described as the chemically controlled
production of free radicals in the presence of the monomers by action
between a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent. Most present production
processes utilize an organic hydroperoxide, which is decomposed by a
ferrous iron compl_ex, producing free radicals and ferric iron. The free
radicals initiate chain polymerization of the butadiene and styrene.
Reducing sugars or certain other reducing agents may be used to regenerate the ferrous iron. Beginning in 1948 when 30,000 long tons of "cold"
rubber were made commercially, production has increased until now over
75 per cent of the SBR is made in this way.
Figure 7 illustrates the main steps for the continuous manufacture l
of low-temperature SBR.~ This flow sheet may be brok~n down into the
following coordinated sequences of unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
Butadiene, received by tank car or pipe line, is given a dilute caustic wash to
remove the polymerization inhibitor of the raw monomer (Pr.). No attempt is
made to remove the inhibitor from styrene prior to use.
The emulsifier is prepared by making a dilute soap-water solution plus
small amounts of caustic and electrolyte (Op.).
The activator is prepared by mixing ferrous sulfate and potassium pyrophosphate solutions and aging the mixture at an elevated temperature (PT.).
Butadiene, styrene, emulsifier, part of the charge water, activator solution,

and tertiary mercaptans (chain modifying agents) are charged to the first of
the 12 glass-lined reactors'at the same time after passing through a cooler (Op.).
The initiator (cumene hydroperoxide or diisopropylbenzene monohydroperoxide or p-menthane hydroperoxide) is added last along with the rest of the
1 SHEARON, et al., Low Temperature Manufacture of Chemical Rubber, Ind. Eng.
Chern., 40, 769 (1948); quantities, flow sheets, and 47 references; HOWLAND, et al.,
Polymerization of GR-S at Low' Temperatures, Ind. Eng. Chern., 46, 1304 (1953),
new!formulas; PRYOR, et al., Reaction Times for Polymerization of Cold GR-S, Ind.
Eng. Chern., 46, 1311 (1953). ANON., Cold Rubber, Chem. Eng., 67 (4), 176 (1950),
pictured How sheet.
COLD RUBBER
charge water to ensure that the reaction does not begin at a temperature abqve
41F. (Op.).
The reaction temperature is controlled by cooled brine or by direct Freon
or ammonia evaporation in internal reactor coils (at 15F.). The amount of
coolant necessary to maintain each reactor at 41F. is controlled separately
(Op.).
Copolymerization to attain a 60 per cent conversion is carried on under controlled conditions for approximately 5 to 14 hr. (Pr.).
Wt. per cent

Butadiene
Styrene
Toto' water
Potassium rosin soap
Detergent (Triton)
Na.PD. 12H20
NaOH
71.
29.
) 80.
4.5
0.1
0.5
0.03
Wt. per cent
K.P.0 7
0.20
FeSO,7H.0
P-Menthane
0.18
hydroperoxi de
0.08
Tert mercaptans
N- Phenyl -2-naphthylamine (antioxidant)
0.18
1.25
(SBR) FIG. 7. Flow sheet for' cold rubber. P pump, C coolers, A

12 polymerization kettles in series, kept at 41F. by cork insulation and by cooling. Most
plants now cream in a trough, mounted on top of coagulator.
The copolymerization piass with the excess of reactants is dropped into a cold
blowdown tank and the shortstop agent (reaction arrester) is added simultaneously (Op.). The glass-lined, steel blowdown tanks have a 7,500-gal. capacity.
The latex therein is us~ally heated with sparge steam to the desired temperature and to generate sufficient pressure (20 lb. per sq. in.) to transfer the
contents to the recovery system (Op.).
Unreacted butadiene IS removed in two successive horizontal flash tanks (Op.).
Excess styrene is steam-stripped under vaccum (Op.).
Antioxidant is added to the stripped latex which is pumped to the finishing
area (Op.).
The stripped latex is creamed with a diluted solution of rock salt (Ca and
816
Mg salts removed) and coagulated with H 2S0 4 All three ingredients are fed
through a pump into the coagulating tank (Op.).
The coagulum passes through an automatic overflow to a holding tank and
then to a vibrating screen for dewatering (Op.). Sulfuric acid is added to the
f;erum from the screen to bring the pH to 1.8 to 2.0 and recycled to the coagulating
tank (Op.).
The crumb rubber is reslurried with fresh water, filtered, shredded, dried,
weighed, and baled (Op.).
Oil-extended ' SBR represents another new development, where more

rubber hydrocarbon can be made from a given amount of base polymer
at lower cost. Commercially available in 1951, by 1953 oil-extended SBR
accounted for 18 per cent of the market. Practically all of it is used for
tires. 111 the unvulcanized state regular SBR is considered to be composed of long, zigzag polymer chains with relatively few cross linkages.
Soft lower polymers between the chains act as internal lubricants for
successful processing. When" cold" rubber is polymerized to high molecular weights, very small amounts of lower polymers are present. Oil,
emulsified with soap and water, is added to the stripped latex to cut the
viscosity back to a workable range. In effect, the oil replaces the lower
polymers as an internal lubricant. This is known as master batching.
After coagulation, the material is dried and baled as usual. The two
SBR oil master batches currently produced are: 25 parts of oil to 100
of polymer or 37.5 parts of oil to 100 of polymer. The oils are special cuts
of standard petroleum-refinery feedstocks. This oil master batch gives
a cheap polymer with fairly good physical properties.
Neoprene. 2 Reactions by which this first of the successful synthetic
rubbers is made are as follows:

2CH=:=CH
Cat-
Acetylene alyst
HCI
CH=:=C-CH=CH 2 ~ CR 2=CCI-CH=CH 2
Vinyl-acetylene
Chloro'prene-
nCH 2=CCI-CH=CH 2 polymerizes to (-eRr-CCl

Chloroprene
CH-CH 2- ) ..
Neoprene
The cWoroprene is emulsified in water with a sodium rosin soap and is

polymerized by the action of potassium persulfate. A modifying agent is
used to make the polymer more plastic. Dry neoprene is isolated from
the latex by the continuous coagulation of a polymer film on a freeze
drum followed by washing and drying. The dry polymer is cut into ropelike sections and bagged .. N eoprene is supplied in both dry polymer
(nine kinds) and latex (seven kinds). It is vulcanized with metallic
oxides, MgO and ZnO, and is compounded with special accelerators,
antioxidants, softeners, and ,fillers. The uses for neoprene parallel those
for ,natural and SBR rubber, but neoprene costs more. Therefore, it is
used where there is need for resistance to deterioration by oils, solvents,
1
ANON., Do Oil and Rubber Mix? Chern. Eng. News, 32, 1553 (1954).
ANON., Neoprene, Chern. & Met. Eng., 61 (1), 130 (1944), 11 pictured flow sheet.
817
BUTYL RUBBER
and many chemicals, and to degradation by sunlight, ozone, weather, or

heat. Typical applications include protective jackets over electric wire
and cable, hoses, and conveyer belting. The latices are employed as
adhesives, in coated fabrics, in foam sponge, and as a wet-strength
additive to paper.
Butyl Rubber.l Butyl rubber is the best for automobile inner tubes. It
also has many industrial applications because of its excellent physical
and chemical properties and also because of its low price as compared
with other types of synthetic rubber. Butyl rubber is a copolymer of
isobutylene and isoprene (1 to 3 per cent). Butyl has less than 3 per cent
of the unsaturation of natural rubber with consequent high chemical
and heat resistance. The proper ratios of isobutylene and isoprene are
dissolved in methyl chloride and cooled to the reaction temperature
(-95C.). The Friedel-Crafts catalyst, also dissolved in methyl chloride,
is added and the polymerization takes place. The reaction is continuous
and crumbs of the product are filtered and dried to obtain the crude
butyl polymer. Butyl is compounded and vulcanized by the same general
method as natural rubber except for special precautions required by its
low unsaturation. Unlike natural rubber additional sulfur will not increase
the hardness of butyl. Carbon black and softeners are used to adjust
hardness.
Nitrile Rubbers. Another'important class of special synthetic rubbers
consists of copolymers of butadiene and acrylonitrile. Nitrile rubbers
exhibit exceptional solvent resistance with minimum loss of low-temperature flexibility. Properties of these copolymers can be varied at will by
changing the monomer ratio. Most of the commercial polymers contain
from 20 to 40 per cent acrylonitrile. In recent years the cold-rubber
process has been carried over to the nitrile rubbers. Polymerization at.
5C. results in polymers with improved tensile strength and increased
solubility in aromatic hydrocarbons which leads to improved compounding. Nitrile rubbers are used in the manufacture of hose and belting, wire
insulation, automobile parts, and textile equipment.
Polysulfide Rubbers: 2 Thiokols are prepared by the condensation
polymerization of an ~lkaline polysulfide with a suitable dihalide:
xNaS4Na
Sodium tetrasulfide
xCICH 2CH 2 Cl ~ (CH 2 CH2S 4)z

Ethylene dichloride
Thiokol Type A
+ 2xNaCI
Other sodium polysulfrdes are also reacted with other dihalides; methylene, ethylene, al).d propylene dichloride, glycerol dichlorohydrin,
dichloroethyl ether, dichloroethyl formal, and triglycol dichloride. PolyI,
Butyl Rubber, Chern. & Met. Eng., 60 (7), 102 (1943), a pictured flow sheet;
McNAMEE, Butyl Rubber, Chern. Eng., 61 (10), 238 (1954).
2 FETTES and JORCZAK, Polysulfide Polymers, Ind. Eng. Chem., 42, 2217 (1950);
Polysulfide Liquid Polymers, Ind. Eng. Chern., 43, 324 (1951).
1
LEE,
818
sulfide polymers are supplied as crude rubbers, water dispersions, and

liquid polymers. They are much used for tank linings for petroleum
storage, building and calking putties, solid cements and special sealants,
to name but a few of their.,specialized applications.
Silicone Rubbers and Other Special Synthetics. l Silicone rubbers constitute one of the newest classes of rubberlike polymers. These exhibit
unique physical and chemical properties. Chemically they are specially
prepared polymers of purified dimethyl siloxane in which the reaction is
controlled to give linear chains of several thousand units. The unique
properties of silicone polymers are partially explained by the fact that
the bond energy of the silicone-oxygen linkage is about 1.5 times as
strong as the C-C linkage in hydrocarbon polymers. Although the
polymer is saturated it can be vulcanized by heating with a source of
free radicals such as benzoyl peroxide. It is assumed the free radicals
derived from benzoyl peroxide remove H2 atoms from the polymer
molecules. The unsatisfied valences on the polymer molecules then give
rise to cross linkage which results in a vulcanized product. The outstanding characteristic of silicone rubbers is their very broad useful
temperature range (from -100 to +500F.). In this range flexibility,
resilience, and tensile strength are retained to an amazing degree. Because
of their expense, silicone polymers are normally employed where their
unique properties justify. They are of great value in 'many aircraft
applications such as jet-engine components, ducting, gaskets, seals, and
diaphragms.
Polymers of acrylic acid esters may vary from hard plastics to soft,
waxy polymers, depending upon the specific ester employed. Esters from
alcohols of intermediate molecular weight, such as the ethyl and butyl
esters, yield rubbery products known as acrylic rubbers. As a class these
possess good flex resistance, resistance to hot oils and air up to 350F.,
.unlimited oxygen resistance, and low permeability to gases. Polyester
rubbers are a new type of condensation polymer of interest as a vulcanizable polymeric plasticizer for coatings and proofing in admixture with
other materials such 'as pQlyvinyl formal, nitro-cellulose, and cellulose
acetate. An example is CheInigum SL, 8. polyester-diisocyanate polymer.
Hypalon S-2 is prepared by the chlorination of polyethylene to 25 to 30
per cent chlorine content. This is reacted with sulfur dioxide to introduce a
number of sulfonyl chloride groups along the polymer chain:
(-CH.-CH.-) ..
+ C1. + 80.-> -CH.-CH.-CH-CH.---CH.-CH-
6l
JO.Cl
This material has special properties for mechanical goods. Saran is

probably an internally plasticized copolymer of vinylidene chloride. It
is vulcanized with amines in the absence of sulfur compounds. Saran
1
Kllut and OTHMEB, 01'. cU., Vol. 12, p. 393.
SELECTED REFERENCES
8UI
possesses outstanding chemical resistance, excellent abrasion resistance,

and fair electrical properties. Tank linings are all important outlet.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Barron, Harry, "Modern Rubber Chemistry," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
New York, 1948.
Moakes, R. C. W., and W. C. Wake, "Rubber Technology," Butterworths Scientific
Publications, London, 1951.
Barron, Harry, "Modern Synthetic Rubbers," 3d ed., Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London,
1949.
Whitley, G. S., editor, C. C. Davis, and R. F. Dunbrook, "Synthetic Rubber,"
Marchionna, Frederick, "Butalastic Polymers," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1946.
Marchionna, Frederick, "Latex and Rubber Derivatives," Vols. II, III, Abstracts
through January, 1937, Rubber Age, New York.
Houwink, R., editor; "Elastomers and Plastomers," 3 vols., Elsevier Press, Inc.,
Houston, Tex., 1948-1950.
Burton, W. E., "Engineering with Rubber," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1949.
Rogers, S. S., editor, "The Vanderbilt Rubber Ha.ndbook," 9th ed., R. T. Vanderbilt
Company, New York, 1948.
Ball, J. M., "Reclaimed Rubber," Rubber Recla.imers Association, Inc., New York,
1947.
Kirk, R. E., and D. F. Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," The Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1947-1956.
Dawson, T. R., and B. D. Porritt, "Rubber: Physical and Chemical Properties,"
Research Association of B;itish Rubber Manufacturers, Qroydon, England, 1935;
compiled from 300,000 references.
Boundy, R. H., and R. F. Boyer, "Styrene," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1952.
India Rubber World, monthly periodical, Bill Brothers Publishing Corporation, New
York.
RUQber Age, monthly periodical, Palmerton Publishing Company, Inc., East Stroudsburg, Pa.
Rubber Chemistry & Technology, quarterly. Division of Rubber Chemistry, American
Chemical Society, Lancaster, Pa.
Davis, Carroll C., and J:ohn T. Blake, "Chemistry and. Technology of Rubber,"
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1937. Contains 3,000 references.
Symposium, Rubber, Ind,. Eng. Chem., 43, 315 (1951). Symposium, Low Temperature Rubber, Ind. Eng. Chern., 41, i553 (1949). Symposium, Elastomers, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 44, 696 (1952).
Rubber Statistical Bulletin, monthly, Rubber Age, New York.
I
CHAPTER
37
America is indeed fortunate in her petroleum situation. She stands

at the head of other nations in her resources of crude pet.roleum, in her
transportation of petroleum products, and in her refineries for processing
crude petroleum into products of greater usefulness. If we except the
primary production of food and clothing from our soils, there is no organic
industry more important to modern technical civilization than the
petroleum industry.
Initially, the refining of petroleum involved the simple fractionation of
the constituents already present in the crude oil. This was the easiest
approach, and it was lucky that the first crude oil discovered in Pennsylvania was adapted to such an operation. However, as-markets were
developed for more specialized products and as new fields supplying more
varied crude oil were discovered, it was necessary and economical to use
chemical reactions to change the molecular structure of the compounds
initially present in the crude, thus opening up greatly enlarged and more
adaptable markets to the petroleum industry.
For the manufacture of very many chemicals from carbon black and
ammonia through ethyl alcohol and glycol to synthetic rubber, man-made
fibers and plastics, the petroleum industry is providing the cheapest raw
materials. Although the petroleum industry: is finding it economical to
import more and more crude oil, it is not at all likely that the use of
petroleum products as chemical raw materials will be curtailed. Rather,when in the many decades ahead, the _cost of petroleum products as
liquid fuels for heat and power become comparatively enhanced, shale _
oil and coal can be processed.
The petroleum industry in its desig!1, operation, development, sales,
and executive branches has become the largest employer of chemical
engineers. This has been particularly true recently because the simple
distillations of the earlier years have been generally replaced by complicated: refining procedures which involve numerous unit pliysical'
operations and unit chemical processes, frequently of great complexity
and large size. This industry is so interrelated and so technical in all its
branches that the trained engineer is a necessity. He should not become
too narrow in his view as the petroleum industry is reaching ,out into
820
ORIGIN
821
many other ehemieal fields, supplying "aw materials, or using other

~hemi~als. Thus chemical engineers within the petroleum industry should
know something of other fields to be most efficient whether in operating,
constructing, or designing work.
Historical.' It seems hardly believable that the petroleum industry
has grown so rapidly and so extensively from the first skimming of
petroleum seepages by the Indians for a medicinal or rubbing oil or the
first modern petroleum well drilled near Titusville, Pa., by Colonel Drake
in 1859 to the tremendous industry now flourishing, not only in the
United States but throughout the world. This development has gone
through a great many market changes. At first, the chief petroleum
product sold was kerosene for illuminating purposes. Now kerosene is
of secondary importance in comparison with the tremendous consumption
of gasoline occasioned by the growth of the internal-combustion engine
and its application to transportation or to power, in the air, on our roads,
in our factories, and on our farms. The synthesis of many chemicals
out of petroleum raw materials is the outstanding characteristic of the
broad chemical and allied industries.
Chemical engineering owes a great deal to the discovery and application of engineering principles in distillation, heat transfer, fluid flow, and
the like by the petroleum engineers in the designing, building, and operating of their refineries. At first their almost universally used equipment was a batch still. Here a relatively small amount, or batch, of
crude petroleum was pumped into a horizontal direct-fired cylindrical
vessel provided with a condenser. The various constituents of the petroleum were distilled and condensed, the lightest coming over first and
leaving behind in the still a residuum of tar or heavy lubricating oil. This
has been supplanted almost entirely by the modern continuous pipe still,
as will be exemplified by the flow sheets presented in this chapter.
qrigin.2 There have been many organic theories of the origin of petroleum, some emphasizing a vegetable or animal background, others a
close relationship to coal, while certain of these theories lay stress on how
any organic matter of either background could be transformed into
petroleum products. There seems to be general agreement that petroleum
has been formed from :organic matter of near-shore marine deposits in an
environment deficient ~n oxygen; and associated with the sediments later
on solidified into the rocks: limestones, dolOInites, shales, or sandstones.
\
EGLOFF and ALEXANDER, Petroleum Chemistry, Ind. Eng. Chem., 43, 809 (1951),
excellent historical article.
2 C/. ILLING, LIND, TRAt;;K, BROOKS, and HOBSON, in DUNSTAN, NASH, BROOKS, and
TIZARD, "Science of Pet~oleum," Vol. 1, pp. 32':56, Oxford University Press, New
York, 1938. This large many-volume publication on petroleum is a monumental work
and should be freely consulted by anyone interested in petroleum; Petroleum Symposium, Ind. Eng. Chern., 44, 2556-2577 (1952), 4 articles on origin.
1
822
The concentration of the organic matter may not have been high in the
original deposition, but petroleum has migrated and gathered in places
most favorable to its retention, such as porous sandstone in domes
protected by oil-impervious strata or against sealed faults in the sediments. Brooksl points out, referring to this organic matter, that "the
proteins and soluble carbohydrates are undoubtedly quickly destroyed
in the initial processes of decay or bacterial action . . . . Fatty oils are
relatively resistant to bacterial action . . . . Fatty oils (or acids) are
probably the chief source material from which petroleum has been
derived."
Exploration. At one time the drilling for petroleum was a hit-or:..miss
affair and in such cases about lout of 300 of the "wiIacat"2 wells struck
oil. However, by employing skilled geologists who have studied the
origin and occurrence of petroleum, as well as geophysicists, who are
expert in the use of very delicate instruments to determine something
about the geological conditions under the earth's surface, the drilling of
wells has become so vastly improv'ed that in 1951, 1 out of 5.3 of the new
wells yields oil or gas. The geologist early recoghized that petroleum
occurred in oil pools caught in the anticlinal folds of sedimentary rocks.
The success of the oil geologist 3 has been due to the correlation of a
great deal of experience and data. This includes the study of cores from
all types of wells and the accurate observation of surface indication,
coupled with newer geophysical exploratory procedures, many of which
have been developed and perfected by the scientific staffs of the oil
companies.
By the use of very sensitive instruments, the geophysicists can determine the likelihood of the occurrence of domes and deposits at considerable distances in the earth. The top of the arch of an anticline, or a
dome, has, by virtue of compression, a greater specific gravity than the
surrounding rocks, as shown by Fig. 1, whichdepicts the various strata
surrounding oil-bearing rock or sand. Oil and salt deposits also have a
different (lower) specific gravity than the accompanying rocks. These
variations are measured by very delicate gravity instruments which
! record changes in the gravity constant g. :The plotting of these results
gives us a gravimetric ~rvey. Other methods of foreasting such anticlines include the exploding of dynamite charges at selected intervals with
special instruments located at various points to measure and time the
1
"Science of Petroleum," Vol. 1, p. 52;
KIRK
and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 10; pp.
97-109. 52 references and detailed discussion.
A "wildcat" is a well whose location is determined without resorting to scientific

exploration :of any kind, especially in a previously untested area.
3 See "Science of Petroleum," particularly pp. 270-397, for numerous articles by
experts in this field. See also HAGER, "Practical Oil Geology," 6th ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951; and SCHNACXE and DRAKE, "Oil for the
World," Harper & Brothers, New York, 1950.
PROJ)UC'fION STA'l'ISTICS
823
reflected \\ave initiated by the explosion. This results in a seismic survey.

Other methods are also used, such as a determination of the electrical
conductivity of the earth or the magnetic conditions. These two methcds
du not seem to be so successful as the gravimetric and seismic surveys.
All these studies lead to the drilling of a test well which, if successful,
frequently opens up a new oil field.
,
I
I
I
I
I
'- - - - - - - - - -- 011 bearing porous rock or sand - - - --- - _____ ..l

FIG. 1. Oil trapped in nature's reservoir. (Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.)
PToduction Statistics. The world's production of petroleum from 1857

to January" 1952, aggregated about 74 billion barrels,' of which the
fields in the United States are producing now approximately 51 per cent,
as shown in Table 1. TherE_! is no industry that publishes more extensive
statistical data than the petroleum industry,2 through the American
Petroleum Institute wherein the refiners, producers, and marketers have
banded themselves together for presenting such data to the public.
Table 2 gives a comp~rison of the total quantities of important refined
products in the United'States for the years 1945-1953.
In the petroleum field a barrel holds 42 gal.
Petroleum Facts andiFigureR," American Petroleum Institute, New York, published every few years, 11th ed., 322 pp., 1955. This is a most unusual volume on
statistics presenting the industry from the point of view of utilization, production,
refining, transportation, marketing, prices, anq taxation. The facts are shown in
tablcs. The U.!::!. Bureau of Mines also publishes generalized statistics on this industry.
1
I"
824
Reserves and Raw Materials. Estimates of oil reserves are only of an

approximate nature. However, it should be apparent that some idea,
although far from exact, of the available reserves of essential milleralspetroleum included-is of vital importance in mapping their de~elopment
TABLE
1.
WORLD CRUDE-OIL PRODUCTION, BY REGIONS AND COUNTlUES,

BY YEARSn
(Thousands of barrels of 42 U.S. gal.)

Country
1\)53
North America:
United States ............... 2,35\),\I\)8
Canada ..... .... .... , .....
80,862
l\fexico .............. , ......
73,178
Others .....................
22,361
Total .................... 2,536,399
South America:
Venezuela ............... '"
644,244
Others .....................
89,972
Total. ....... , ...........
734,216
Burope:
U.S.S.R. (Rtu!sia) ...........
364,900.
Others .....................
87,822
Total. ...................
452.722
Africa:
Egypt ......................
16,499
Other ......................
875
Total ....................
17,374
:
ran .......................
9,390
Iraq ................ ..... .
2l0,672
Kuwait ....................
314,593
Indonesia ...................
76,898
Sarawak ...................
36,855
Saudi Arabia ................
308;295
Others .....................
49,793
TotaL ................... 1,006,496
World total. .................. 4,747,207
Per cent United States ... : .....
50
Q
1\)52
l\l47
Hl45
2,291,997
61,103
77 ,275
21,294
2,451,669
1,856,987
7,692
56,284
20,821
1,941,784
1,713,655
8,483
43,547
21,244
1,786,929
660,254
84,883
745,137
434,905
62,160
497,065
32'3, l56
62, 1\)\)
322,400
82,188
404,588
187,463
48,853
236,316
148,\)53
49,038
197,991
16,464
1,106
17,570
8,627
21
8,648
9,400
26
9,432
10,100
140,799
154,998
35,834
16,225
8,020
12,970
89,852
20,361
338,260
.3,022,075
64.45
130,526
35,112
27~,433
62,495
38,300
301,861
50,378
,877,366
4,498,057
51
385,355
7,600
2,100
21,311
18,439
2l5,088
2,594,798
66.04
"Minerals Yearbook."
and the future trend ot the related industries. The following statements
apply only to proved I oil,reserves and leave out of consideration the
volume of alternate total oil reserves. It should be llf)ted that up to 80
per cent of the petroleum stored underground can be economically
1 By proved reserves is meant the oil that is in known and proved filllds and recoverable by present production methods.
825
RESERVES AND RAW MAT}<,RIALS
brought to the surface, that although practically all the natural gas can be
recovered and utilized, in actual practice some oil is wasted. Proved
reserves of the world in ,January, 1951, were estimated at somewhat under
104 billion barrels, of which the proved reserves in the United States
amounted to 27}i billion barrels. 1 2
In discussing oil reserves, emphasis should be placed on improved
technique in the operation of oil wells. The concern of early operators with
efficient methods of extraction and with the quantity of oil that ultimately would be left unrecovered in the reservoir sands, after the wells
TABLE 2. PRODUCTION OF PETROl,EUM PRODUCTS IN UNITED STATES
REFINERIES, BY YEARS
(Thousands of harrels)
Product
1953
Finished gasoline ................ 1,259,040

Kerosene .......................
129,751
Distillate fuel oil.. ..............
532,221
Residual fuel oil.. ...............
449,979
Lubricants ......................
52,545
Wax, thousands of lb ............ 1,393,840
Coke, thousands of short tons., ...
4,310
Asphalt, thousands of short tons ..
13,170
Still gas, million cu. ft ...........
368,400
All other finished products ........
42,397
"Minerals Yearbook."
1952
1951
1945
1,189,781
132,300
521,264
454,784
55,600
1,212,680
3.622
12,780
342,990
1,140,843
135,742
475,801
469,3ii
61,489
1.347,920
3,795
12,055
346,658
46,346
ii4,460
81,024
249,224
469,492
41,867
817,880,
2,023
7,127
372,449
21,76(;
45,2~4
/
no longer could be operated profitably, was noticeably secondary.

Ashburner, in 1887, estimated that wasteful producing operations in
Pennsylvania and New York oil fields would leave ultimately eight to
nine times as much of the original oil in the sands as would be recovered. a
Laboratory experiments indicate that if early New York and Pennsylvania operators had been able to produce their oil in an economical
manner, by methods now considered efficient, 2 to 2Y2 times more oil
than was withdrawn from the sands might have been recovered by
natural flow and pumping. 4
The key to the problem is proper conservation and use of reservoir
Details are given in "iPetroleum Facts and Figures," op. cit., especially p. 236.
Western Hemisphere Oil Study Committee, "Petroleum in the Western Hemisphere," 183 pp., Independent Petroleum Association of America, Tulsa, Okla., 1952.
This is an optimistic reMrt with many tables and charts.
a ASHBURNER, Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining
Met. Engrs., 16, 1915 (181m.
MUSKAT, WYCHOFF, ,BOTSET, and MERES, Flow of Gas-liquid Mixtures through
Sands, Trans. Ant. Inst. Mining Met. Engr8., 123,69 (1937).
I
826
energy.' Oil is underlain by water under high head in the extraneous

parts of the reservoir systems of most oil fields and overlain with gas, as
diagrammatically shown by Fig. 1. The energy available to produce oil
is represented by the head of water and the pressure of tbe gas 'acting on
the oil. If the withdrawal of oil from the reservoir is at a sufficiently
low rate,2 entrance of meteoric water at the outcrops and expansion of
large water supplies already present tends to maintain the pressure head
and supply the necessary energy.
An extremely important method of conservation is the return of
natural gas to the oil wells. As an example, in the Sugarland, Tex.,
field, reintroduction of or cycling with gas at a pressure of 1,400 lb. per
sq. in. and a slower rate of production are expected to recover twice as
much as would have been recovered under older methods of producing oil
(a net recovery of 70 per cent of the original store).3 Air mixed with the
gas has certain disadvantages because it tends to deteriorate slightly the
quality of the oil produced.
Water-fiooding methods are responsible for the recovery of millions
of barrels of oil that former production practices left in the reservoir
sands. Water is usually introduced in a central well and allowed to
extend gradually outward as an expanding circle to drive oil to surrounding wells. "Water flooding is estimated to have' established a
recoverable reserve of approximately 600,000,000 bbl. of oil in the
Bradford-Allegheny district that never could have been obtained by
customary methods of production.'"
For years oil wells drilled into hard limestone formations have been
"shot" with nitro-glycerine because the resulting fissures and fractures
increased the drainage of oil and gas into the well. Today, almost every
well drilled into a limestone formation has the drainage channels enlarged
by treatment with inhibited hydrochloric acid; sometimes in dense limestone the action of the nitro-glycerine is followed by acid treatment.
This acid treatment has transformed many apparently nonproductive
wells into rich producers. In the Illinois basin,6 frequently wells drilled'
into oolitic limestone failed to show any oil until acid treatment was
1 MILLER and SHEA, Gains in Oil and Gas 'Production Refining and Utilization
Technology, pp. 5ff., Tecli. Paper 3, National Resources Pla.'nning Board, 1941.
SCHNACKE and DRAKE, op. cit., p. 50.
S MILLER and LINDSLY, Report on Petroleum Development and Production, Hearing on H.R. 441, 73d Cong., Recess, 1934, pt. II, p. 1207.
MILLER and SHEA, op. cit.; STEIDLE, Some Basic Problems in the Conserva!ion
and Future Production of Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil, Oil Weekly, p. 22, June 18,
1934.
,6 MILLER and SHEA, Report on Recent Progress in Petroleum Development and
Production, p. 369, Petroleum Investigation (U.S. Congress, House of Representatives), Hearings on H.R. 290 and H.R. 7372 R, 76th Cong., 1939.
EARNINGS AND INVESTM:E)NT
827
used. This acid treatment has become so important that it has now been
given to about 10,000 wells in the carbonate rock (limestone and dolomite)
regions of Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Kentucky, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas,
and Louisiana. For this purpose more than 25,000,000 gal. l of hydrochloric acid, containing an inhibitor to prevent corrosive action on iron,
are consumed yearly.
The movement of oil in underground reservoirs is closely connected
to the viscosity and surface tension of the oil. These in tum are related
to the amount of gas dissolved in the oil. All this is a very practical
application of Henry's law,2 which states t.hat at constant temperature,
a liquid will dissolve the weight of a gas that is proportional to its pressure.
Transportation. In the United States a great pipe-line transportation
system moves a tremendous tonnage of petroleum and natural gas. The
pipe line has reached its maximum application east of the Rocky Mountains, where trunk lines, branch lines, and pumping stations form an
extremely complex system. The pipe line is the only economical method
yet discovered of transporting natural gas. At regular intervals pressurebooster stations are located, using a small part of the gas to drive gas
engines connected to compressors.
In 1950,3 the United States possessed 128,589 miles of petroleum pipe
lines, and 314,480 miles of natural-gas lines. Of this latter total, 172,270
miles were employed in distributing the gas with the remainder or
142,210 miles in gathering and transmitting.
Tank ships are the "water pipe lines" that cop-nect remote oil fields
with the refineries and markets. As an efficient and cheap means of
bulk transportation, particularly over long distances, they are cheaper
than the pipe line on land. The refined products of the industry are
transported by an occasional special pipe line and by thousands of tank
cars and motor tank trucks. Huge steel or concrete reservoirs holding
100,000 bbl. or more are employed for the storage of petroleum and its
products. Despite a tremendous potential fire hazard, the loss through
fire is among the smallest of industrial fire losses, owing to care, forethought, and many automatic protective devices.
Earnings and Investment. Contrary to the popular conception of
petroleum as "liquid gold," the total income of the industry has been
moderate. Such profits as have accrued have been more the reward of
1 KIESSLING, ROGERS, 'et m., "Technology, Employment and Output per Man in
Petroleum and Natural Gas Production," p. 150, Work Projects Administration,
National Research Project in cooperation with U.S. Bureau of Mines, Report E-1O,
July, 1939.
I
This matter is well treated with references to the original literature on pp. 17-25
of MILl.ER and SHEA., Gains in Oil and Gas Production, etc.
3 Petroleum Facts and' Figures," pp. 160, 166.
828
business enterprise and sound research than of good fortune. In the

5 years from 1946 to 1950, the annual rate of return on net worth avera.ged
15.8 per cent,! in comparison with 15.94 per cent from the manufacturing
industries. The large investment in the petroleum field is summarized
in Table 3. The subdivisions of this tabulation show the varied nature of
this extensive business.
TABLE 3. SUMMARY
OF
CAPITAL EXPENDITURES BY UNITED STATES

OIL INDUSTRY
(Millions of dollars)
1951
Production_~..."._.,....................
2,350
1,913
TranspOrtation ....... 1.
315
390
Refining ....... '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303
846
25
Fertiliz~r~~ chemicals ...... '.' .............. !
66
Marketmg . , , , ....... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
370
268
149
Othf,)r .............. ; ..................... 1___6_6__ I_---:-...,--:--_i
Total ................ , . .. . . . . . . .... . . . . .
4,014
2,948
Facilities outside the United States........ . .
605
323'
3,271
Grand total. ............ '" ..... " . . . . .
4,619
Yearly
average
1946--1950
1,220
283
359
23
218
43
2,147
328
2,475
"Petroleum Facts and Figures."

b Estimated.
CONSTITUENTS OF PETROLEUM, INCLUDING PETROLEUM GASES
Crude petroleum is made up of hundreds of different individual chemicals from methane to aspha.lt. Although most of the constituents are
hydrocarbons (83 to 87 per cent of carbon and '11 to 15 per cent hydrogen),
the ultimate analyses indicate the presence in small quantities of nitrogen
(0 to 0.5 per cent), sulfur (0 to 6 per cent), and oxygen (0 to 3.5 percent).2 .
In recent decades, m~ch detailed work has been carried out by M. R.
Fenske at Pennsylvania State College and by F. D. Rossini and coworkers'
cooperating with American Petroleum Institute 3 to determine the actual
constituents of petroleum. The results have been published in the current
I "Petroleum Facts and Figures," p. 233; c/. COQUERON, "Financial Analysis of
30 Oil Companies for 1952," Chase National Bank, New York, 1953.
'See NELSON, "Petroleum Refinery Engineering," 3d ed., p. 11 et seq., McGrawHi]l Book Company, bc., New'York, 1949, for tables and many references.
a ROSSINI, Hydrocarbons in Petroleum, Chem. Eng. News, 25, 231 (1947); nOSSINI
and MAla, Composition of Petroleum, "Progress in Petroleum Technology," p. 334,
American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951.
CONSTITUENTS OF PETROl,RUM, INCLUDING PETROLF.UM GASES
829'
literature but have been excellently summarized by Sweeney,! Sachanen,2,

and Nelson. 3
The hydrocarbons may be divided into two chemical classes:
1. Open-chain or Aliphatic Compounds, comprising:
n-Parajfin Series, C"H 2n+2. This series of hydrocarbons comprises a'
larger fraction of most petroleums than any of the other individual
classes. Important members are, with volume percentage occurrence in
crudes from Ponca, Okla., East Texas, and Bradford: n-hexane (2 per
cent) and n-heptane (2.5, 1.7,2.5 per cent). The n-paraffins predominate
in most straight-run gasolines.
Isoparajfin Series, C"H 2n+2. The branched-chain compounds are very
desirable and are frequently manufactured by hydroforming, alkylation"
and isomerization (see page 843). Naturally occurring members are:
2- and 3-methylpentanes (0.8, 1.5, 0.9 per cent), 2,3-dimethylpentane,
and 2-methylhexane (1.2, 1.3, 1.3 per cent), in crudes from Ponca, East
Texas, and Bradford.
Olefin Series, C"H2". This series is not present or exists in very small
quantities. Cracking processes produce large amounts of oIefins. Olefin~
a~e very useful because of their excellent antiknock properties and chemical reactivity. The olefins are the most important class of compounds
chemically derived from petroleum for the making of other products also
by chemical processing or conversion. Examples of pure lower member~
are: ethylene, propylene, and butylene. In cracked gasolines and i~
residual products are many of the higher members of the series.
2. Ring Compounds, comprising:
/
N aphthene Series, C ..Hi ... This series, which has the same type formula
as the olefin series, differs in that its members are completely saturated.
It is the second most abundantly occurring series of compounds in most
crudes. Members are: methylcyclopentane (0.95, 1.3, 0.5 per cent);
cyclohexane (0.78, 0.66, 0.64 per cent), dimethyl cyclopentanes (1.75,
2.0, 1.0 per cent), methylcyclohexane (1.8, 2.4, 2.0 per cent) in crudes
from Ponca, East T~xas, and Bradford. These naphthenes predominate
in most gas oils and lubricating oils from all types of crudes. These ar(_l
also present in residual products.
Aromatic or Benzefl,e Series, C ..H 2.._ 6 Although, .only small amounts of
aromatic compounds are present in most petroleums, the Borneo and
Sumatra crudes contain relatively large amounts. These compounds ,are
produced by chernidal processing and, like the olefins, have high anti1 SWEENEY, Petroleum and Its Products, 24th Annual Priestley Lecture, Pennsylvania State Collel1;e, 195.0, splendid charts and tables.
2 SACHANEN, "The Chemical Constituents 'of Petroleum," Reinhold Publishing
Company, New York, 1!l45; KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 1.0, p. 93.
I NELSON, op. cit., p. 11 et seq.
830
knock qualities. Members are benzene (0.15, 0.07, 0.06 per cent), toluene
(0.5, 0.6, 0.5 per cent), ethylbenzene (0.18, 0.2, 0.9 per cent), xylenes
(0.9, 1.1, 1.0 per cent) in crudes from Ponca, East Texas, and Bradford.
Petroleum crudes are characterized by variability in composition. Yet
these must be evaluated 1 before they can be refined. Over the years it has
become usual to divide the crudes into three "bases":
1. Paraffin Base. These crudes consist primarily of open-chain compounds, and furnish low-octane-number straight-run gasoline and excellent but waxy lubricating-oil stocks.
2. Intermediate Base. These crudes contain large quantities of both
paraffinic and naphthenic compounds and furnish medium-grade straightrun gasolines and lUbricating oils. Both wax and asphalt are found in
these oils.
3. Naphthene Base. These crudes contain a high percentage of cyclic
(naphthenic) compounds and furnish relatively high octane-number
straight-run gasoline. The lubricating-oil fractions must be solventrefined. Asphalt is present.
Petroleum products 2 have long been divided into salable cuts by
fractionation in the refining operations. This is a separation by boiling
ranges. Indeed, the natural separation that takes place when the petroleum leaves its underground reservoirs, into natural gas and ordinary
crude, is based on the same principle. Such refinery fractions may be
classified roughly as follows:
Natural (or casing-head) gasoline

and natural gas.
Light distillates.
Motor gasolines.
Solvent naphthas.
Kerosene.
Light heating oils.
Intermediate distillates.
Heavy fuel oils.
Diesel oils.
Gas oils.
Heavy distillates.
Heavy mineral oils (medicinal).
Heavy flotation oils.
Waxes (candles, sealing, paper treating, insulating).
Lubricating oils (large range).
Residues. .
Lubricating oils.
. Fuel oils.
Petrolatum.
Road oiis.1
Asphalts.
Coke.
Natural gas occurs as accumulations in underground, porous reservoirs

either with or without petroleum oiL Though natural gas has been
known for centuries, not until the early 1800's was it first discovered in
.
,
11ifELSON and BUTHOD in KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 10, 114 (1953). See this
reference to the mOTe exact "chlU'acterization factor," NELSON, op. cit., p. 86.
2 C/. Table Ill, Sllmmary of Petroleum Products-Their Composition, Properties
and Uses, in KIRK IJ,nd OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 10, pp. 164-175, excellent details with
references.
NATURAL GASOLINE
831
the United States; since that time it has become one of this country's'
great industries. While some natural gas was early wasted, it is now being
conserved and legislation has been enacted prohibiting the stripping of
"wet" gas for its small gasoline content and then wasting the gas. 'The,
total marketed production of natural gas in the United States is over 5,
thousand billion cubic feet. The present annual consumption of natural
gas in the United States is valued at more than $350,000,000 at the:
wells. Natural gas is composed chiefly of hydrocarbons of the paraffin
series from methane up to pentane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sometimef\
helium, but few if any unsaturated hydrocarbons. The most important
products obtained from natural gas are fuel, natural gasoline, liquefied
petroleum gas, carbon black, helium, hydrogen, and petrochemicals.
Natural Gasoline. Gasoline extracted from natural gas is differentiated
from straight-run or refinery gasoline (which is distilled from crude oil):
by the term natural or casing-head gasoline. The recovery of natural
gasoline from natural gas has given us a highly volatile gasoline for.
blending into a motor fuel, particularly for easy starting in cold weather.
In 1953, the United States produced 239,000,000 bb1. of natural-gas
liquids of which 111,000,000 bbl. represented liquefied petroleum gases.
When crude oil is forced from a well by the pressure of the natural gas,
some of its lighter components are vaporized into the gas. Consequently,
the composition and characteristics of the recovered natural gasoline are
determined by the composition of the oil. The first commercial process
for the recovery of natural gasoline was by means of compression cooling.
Later, the natural gas was passed through adsorption towers containing
activated carbon, but today the natural gasoline IS absorbed by a lowboiling gas oil which is then heated and stripped of the gasoline by steam.
Some of the recent plants combine compression and absorption. The
recovered gasoline is "stabilized" or fractionated under pressure to
remove the light, high-vapor-pressure components which comprise
usually 10 to 30 per cent of the raw gasoline, as shown in Fig. 2.1 The
primary use of natural gasoline is for blending with refinery products to
make motor fuel. Natural gasoline plants are now producing by isomerization large quantiti~s Qf pure isobutane and isopentane for alkylation
with light olefins as ~thylene, propylene, or butylene to furnish aviation
gasoline. Similarly, from natural gasoline stabilizers, propane and butane
are available. See Petrochemicals, this chapter.
Cracked or Rejiner;y Gases. Natural gas is particularly devoid of unsaturated hydrocarbons and hydrogen; these compounds are, however,
present in the crack{ld gases of refineries. 2 Because of the large quantities
of unsaturated and hence chemically reactive hydrocarbons produced by
cracking processes, the: oil industry is n~w developing along the line of
1
cit., pp. 361, 717, analyses.

are given ill PERRY, op. cit., p. 2366.
NELSON, op.
2 Analyses
832
synthe~is.
The olefin hydrocarbons of these cracked gases are used in thc

manufacture of polymerized and alkylated gasoline, antifreezes, explosives, solvents, medicinals, fumigants, resins, synthetic rubber, and
many other products. When olefins are not available in sufficient amounts,
they are made by dehydrogenation of paraffins.
Liquefied Petroleum Gases! (L.P.G.). Light hydrocarbons such as
propane and butane, which are produced as a by-product from natural
gasoline are now finding wide use as "bottled" or liquefied petroleum
ga~ for domestic gas and heating, for city gas, as well as for direct motor
A 'Accumulafor fonk
Natural gas (150lb.pressure)
Absorption oil recirculotion per doy
Steam
20,000,000 cu. ftC]

/
150,000 9"1.
r"
60000 Ib
Per 24hr.day, producing
Water. .
200'000 gol.
10,000 gal. gasoline
ElectriCIty
20 kW.hc
:
Direct labor
42 m(ln~hr:
.
Loss appf1!<.6(/al per 1,000(Jal(J(l50line produced (/Jylrema It ClJenowe/h,Bur.lfines ~ lIz;r 1o.26!).
FIG. 2. Natural gas<;>line obtained by absorption and compreSsion. (Courtesy of BurrellMase Engineering Comllany.)
fuel in special services (farm and other tractors, trucks, buses). There
are now 7,500,000 domestic and rural customers for these products. An
increasing amount, probably now arquild 20 per cent, is used for manufacture of petroleum chemicals. Some of the ,gas is for transportation.
Since the heating value of the pure gas is so high, it is often mixed with
an inert gas before using. Liquefied p'etroleum gases are competitive with
many types of fuel in present use. Bottled gas is used by many rural
I dwellers, who are too far from any gas mains, ~or cooking, lighting, heating water, and gas refrigeration.
PRODUCTS OF REFINING
",-' Light Distillates. These embrace naphthas and refined oils, aviation
gasoline, motor gasoline, petroleum solvents, and kerosene. Gasoline is
the most iinportant of these; it is the 1fWst important petroleum product.
I
NELSON, op. cit., p. 708, CARNEY, Natural Gas Liquids, in "Progress in Petroleum
Technology," pp. 251-261, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951,
references.
I
INTERMEDIATE DISTILLATES
833
With the advent of high-compression motors, the tendency of a fuel to

knock, or detonate violently (thought to be due to autoignitioll of part
of the compressed charge in front of the flame), has become increasingly
important. Certain substances such as lead tetraethyP and iron carbonyP tend to prevent knocking. Octane n1lmber is the percentage of
isooctane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) in a mixture with normal heptane,
which as a sample fuel will give the same knocking characteristics as the
gasoline in question. Aviation gasoline with an octane number of 100 or
even higher is composed of about one-third alkylate derived from isobutane and gaseous olefins, blended with catalytical cracked gasoline
and suitable crude distillate to which several cubic centimeters of tetraethyllead per gallon are added to reduce knocking tend~ncy. The amount
of sulfur that can be safely allowed in gasoline is a controversial question.
Quantities as high as 0.2 per cent will not cause serious corrosion; the
quantity of sulfur is usually limited by state regulation to 0.1 per cent.
Sulfur in low percentage markedly reduces the effect of tetraethyl lead
in increasing the octane number. The color of a gasoline indicates little
about iti> quality. Dy~",3 ay~ y~qu;':r~d in \~ad~d ga",olin~. Th~n oi\-"Bo\ubl",
dyes also mask the off-white color of cracked gasoline. The term naphtha
refers to any light oil product having properties intermediate between
gasoline and kerosene. Naphthas are extensively used as commercial
solvents in paints and for dry cleaning. Kerosene is commonly consumed
as a fuel and for illuminating purposes. Light heating oils are employed
as fuel in home furnaces.
Intermediate Distillates. These include gas oil, heavy furnace oil
(domestic), cracking stock, Diesel fuel oil, absorber oil, and distillates
cracked and reformed to produce needed gasoline of ~dequate quality.
Often distillates are blended with heavy tar to reduce the viscosity of the
tar so that it can be marketed as a fuel oil. Certain speci!Ll heavy naphthas
are, used to reduce the viscosity of asphalt so that it can ,be readily applied
as road oil; such material is known as cutback asphalt. Originally, gas oil
was widely used for enriching artificial gas, but today most of it is used as
a f,uel or cracked intQ gasoline. Diesel fuel is a specilil grade of gas oil
which has become a m,ost important specialty in recent years. The proper
viscosity of Diesel fuel is very essential and should be' held within rigid
limits. Distillates may also be used as vehicles forinsecticides.
Heavy distillates furnish lubricating oils (also from residues), heavy
oils for various purposes, and waxes. Of the 2,469 million barrels of crude
1 MIDCLEY, Tetraethyl;Lead, Ind. Eng. Chern., 17,827 (1925), EDGAR, Tetraethyl
Lead, in "Progress in P~troleum Technology," pp. 221-234, American Chemical
Society, Washington, D.C., 1951, tables and properties.
I
Used in Germany.
I
3 EGLOFF, et al., Dyes to Reduce Loss in Acid Treatment, Oil:Gas J., 29 (42), 133
(1931).
834
oil run to stills in 1951, there were produced 61 million barrels of lubricating oils. The field of lubricating oils' is too broad to permit a complete
discussion of it here. The S.A.E.2 has greatly assisted in. classifying oils
by introducing a number system based on viscosity and change in
viscosity with temperature (viscosity index). Such tests as flash point,
viscosity, pour point, emulsibility, and resistance to sludging are useful
in determining the application to which an oil may be put. Solvent
extraction (Figs. 5 to 7) and chemical treatment have long been important
operations to upgrade lubricants. The performance of most lubricants
has been improved by use of additives (0.001 to 25 per cent or more) such
as antioxidants, detergents, extreme-pressure agents, and antifoam
compounds.
Paraffin wax is first obtained as crude scale wax. This may be refined
by separating into several narrow-melting fractions by "sweating" and
progressive crystallizations. Refined wax is finished by acid (sulfuric)
treatment and percolation through an absorbent clay such as the Attapulgus variety.
Residues include asphalt, fuel-oil residual, greases, coke, petrolatum.
These are merely by-products or residues from the regular refining
processes. Petroleum coke is used commercially for electrodes, in the
manufacture of calcium carbide, in paints, and in the ceramics industry.
Asphalt,3 also of great importance, finds employment as a paving or
roofing material or for waterproofing structures. The properties of
asphalt may be markedly altered by heating it to a high. temperature and
partly oxidi~ing it by blowing air through it. Such material is more
viscous and less resilient than ordinary asphalt, is known as oxidized
asphalt, and is widely used in the manufacture of roofing and for grouting.
Very hard asphalt finds some use as a briquetting binder.
Greases constitute a large group of different materials and may be
grouped into three classes:
1. Mixtures of mineral oil and solid lubricants.

2. Blends of waxes,. fats, resin oils, and pitches.
3. Soap-thickened mineral oils.
PETROLEUM CHEMICALS, OR PETROCHEMICALS
Petroleum chemicals are derived from petroleum products and natural

gas in increasing amounts. Examples of these are ammonia (Chap. 20),
carbon black (Chap. 9), butadiene and styrene (Chap. 36) and over a
1 NELSON, up. cit., very many tables and references, fine presentation, see index,
PIGOTT and AMBROSE, Petroleum Lubricants, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology,"
pp. 235-245, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951,35 references.
Society of Automotive Engineers.
I HUGHES and HARDMAN, Asphalts and Waxes, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," pp. 262-277, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951, with 128
references,
PETROLEUM CHEMICALS, OR PETROCHEMICALS
835
thousand inorganic and organic chemicals. 1 While these petrochemicals

amount now to only between 1 and 2 per cent of the total products of
the petroleum industry, they are an increasingly important proportion
of the raw materials throughout the chemical process industries., Already
it has been estimated that petroleum products, including refinery and
natural gas, supply over 25 per cent of the raw materials for the entire
2000
3800
1\
l~
v:
\
\ /
\/
1500
~-
I'
-
~-
~,~
}1
/
01000
c
~
:i
,/
/'
500
~
1945
FIG.
wcol """
e o~\
~e~
~1~1
L
y
~
~~V
e
f>,cf>,C etl
I,C oCl
~'?' corban tet~'hlo,;de-h

Glycerol
1950
y
L
A
./~q
le~e g ~ ~~J
~L
Et~j
tO~~ 'd
./
I--
'6e~
1955
3. Total production of major aliphaticB. (Courte8Y of Petroleum Refiner.)
chemical industry and 50 per cent of organic chemicals. As petrochemicals

are growing at the rate of 14 per cent a year in comparison with 10 per
cent for the other diVisions of the chemical industry, it has been predicted that in the not too distant future petroleum will furnish about 50
per cent of the raw materials for the entire chemical industry. In this case,
there will be required up to 5 per cent of the products of the petroleum
industry, including her,ein the necessary fuel.
Figure 3 indicates the production of the major aliphatic cheinicals of
which all or a substantial part are based on petroleum. As is well known,
1 KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 10, p. 177 (1953), see Table III, pp. 202-209.
where over 250 most important commercial petroleum chemicals are listed with proceSl\
for manufacture and chief use.
836
THE PETROl,F.UM INDUSTRY
the basic paraffins are not very reactive chemically. These are converted
by various chemical reactions: (1) pyrolysis and dehydrogenation into
unsaturated compounds such as olefins or even acetylene; (2) isomerization into isobutane and the like; (3) nitration into nitroparaffins; (4)
chlorination into chloro-derivatives; and (5) oxidation into aldehydes,
alcohols, and acids, etc. To better present these petrochemicals, they
are classified according to this chemical conversion or unit process, thus
following the normal procedure in this book.
MANUFACTURE OR REFINING
The general characteristic of petroleum refining has been a most

unusually economical processing of crudes to consumer products. It
seems hardly possible that the average price received by refiners for
gasoline is around 12 cents per gallon. The difference between what the
consumer pays and what the refiner receives is caused by taxation and
the expense of retailing.
The refining or manufacturing of petroleum products and of petroleum
chemicals involves two major branches-physical changes or separation
operations and chemical changes or conversion processes. l
The initial refining embraced separation by distillation, 'Which involves
the unit operations of fluid flow, heat transfer, and distillation. Indeed
the necessity of studying these manufacturing aspects in the petroleum
field was a great stimulation to the development of this 'phase of chemical
engineering. These purely physical separations were early supplemented
by chemical conversions in the further refining of petroleum products.
But the great stimulation to the employment of chemical change in the
manufacture of petroleum products came with the growing consumption
of gasoline in excess of that supplied by separation distillation~ This
situation, developing after 1912, forced the' application of pyrolysis to
petroleum products wherein, by what the industry calls cracking, the.
long molecules were broken down into smaller ones suitable for gasoline.
Although cracking, thermal and catalytic, is still the most important
chemical change taking place in the petrol~um industry, yet in recent'
years, to meet the demands for better gasoline, or for alcohol, acetone,
or various chemicals from petroleum, other chemical changes have been
applied on a large scale. Among these we may list alkylation, isomerization, polymerization, hydrogenation, hydroforming, and dehydrogenation (see Unit Processes),
1 Cf, SWEENEY, "Petroleum and Its Products," op. cit., Chap. 3, p. 1. Sweeney calls
both branches "processes" but it seemed better to name one "operations" and the
other "processes"; NELSON, op. cit., Chaps. 20, 21, 22, classifies these conversion
processes under thermal cracking and decomposition processes, rebuilding hydrocarbons and catalytic cracking. These might also be called unit orocesses.
SEPARATION OPERATIONS
837
It is a long step from the initial shell-still topping' gasoline and other
like products from the crude, to the modern c!)ntinuous complicated
refinery wherein 200,000 bbl. or more per day of crude, day in and day
out, enter the manufacturing equipment by way of the pipe stills and are
separated in the continuous bubble-cap towers into the various constituents from gas through petrochemicals, gasoline, kerosene, gas oil,
lubricating oil, down to fuel oil, residuums, or tars. Such refineries are
also equipped to carryon most of the secondary treatments in a continuous manner. Naturally each individual treatment depends op. the
type of crude oil processed. Furthermore, procedures var:y with market
demand. With modern increased demand for gasoline, manufacturing
procedures naturally are adapted to obtain a maximum yield of gasoline.
Energy Changes. The energy changes involved in petroleum refining
are both mechanical and chemical. Some of the unit processes are exothermic reactions though most are endothermic. In addition to the heat 2
that must be supplied for cracking, distillation, and the other processes,
large amounts of mechanical energy are needed for pumping, compr~ssing
gases, and the like.
Separation Operations. In theory, the unit operations of oil refining
are fairly simple; in actual practice they are quite complicated. The
typical refinery consists of one or more units called stills which include a
furnace, an oil heater of the tube type, a bubble tower, steam strippers,
heat-exchlJ.nge equipment, coolers and condensers; working storage tanks
at the unit; batch agitators or continuous closed-tank units for treating
the products to remove deleterious compounds of sulfur and give acceptable color; filters; blending and mixing tanks for loading; a piping system
for the receipt of crude oil; pumps for the transfer of oils and for loading
and shipping products; storage tanks for crude-oil supply and finished
product; a vapor-recovery system and many auxiliaries. A power plant
for.generation of steam and perhaps electric power and light should also
be includec;l. In the operation of this large entity, heat, energy, and
material balances are of utmost importance in keeping a rigid control
upon all steps in the processing of the oil.
In presenting the separation branch of refining, this can be broken
down into the ordinary unit operations, as follows:
1 Topping involves the simple distillation of the more highly volatile materials, or
what may be called tops, from the crude oil.
2 The following referehces bear on this subject: NELSON, op. cit., pp. 573-576, for
heats of cracking; p. 686, for typical calculations of heat balances; GRUSE and
STEVENS, "The Chemical,Technology of Petroleum," 2d ed., pp. 432ff., for thermodynamic data for petrole~lIn hydroearbons; pp. 21'off., for latent heats of evaporation
and specific heats, McGraw-Hili Hook Company, Inc., New York, 1942; PERRY, op
cit., pp. 567-576, 225-227, for distillation data and spccific heats; "Science of Petroleum," Vol. 2, p. 1256.
838
Fluid Flow. l The petroleum engineer has turned to the comprehensive

literature on fld flow of water and suitably revised this information for
petroleum. Two important differences between oil and water should be
recognized: oils exhibit wide change of viscosity with temperature and
wide range of viscosity, and they are sensitive to heat.
Heat Transfer. 2 The solution of this problem is somewhat complicated because of lack of complete data. In general, the use of empirical
results will be desirable. Equipment should be cleaned regularly to
maintain satisfactory heat transfer and to remove fouling which frequently greatly reduces the transfer rates. The large quantities of cooling
water used generally make cooling towers and water-treating equipment
essential.
Distillation. 8 This ranks with heat transfer as being among the more
important of unit operations. The older operations of batch distillation
have now been almost entirely superseded by continuous ones. The
present system involves heating the crude by pumping it through tubes
placed inside a furnace (tube still) and then allowing it to vaporize in a
fractionating column, which is tapped at several points allowing continuous side draw of the various boiling "fractions" or products. The
residuum withdrawn from the bottom of the column may be subjected
to a vacuum or steam distillation. Figure 4 is a schematic drawing of
a modem refining group showing the separation of the crude into the
various fractions and the subsequent treatment of each fraction. Several
products are removed from the crude tower as shown. The kerosene and
naphtha fractions contain small amounts of imperfectly separated
straight-run gasoline of blgher volatility than the main fraction. These
are removed in strippers (short columns containing only a few plates)
by blowing in steam. The gasoline vaporizes out the top of the stripper
and is returned to the crhde tower.
Absorption. 4 Absorption is generally used to separate a higher-boiling
constituent from other components of a system of vapors and gases.
Usually the absorption medium is a special gas-oil cut. Absorption is
widely employed for the recovery of natural gasoline from well gas and for
the recovery of vapors given off from storage tanks. The absorbed
products are recovered by fractionating or steam stripping.
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 369-412; NELSON, op. cit., pp. 339-357~
PERRY, op. cit., pp. 455-498; NELSON, op. cit., pp. 471-565, 489-495, for fouling
factors.
I PERRY, op. cit., haS an entire section on distillation, pp. 561-660. This sho~ld be
consulted for many references to literature, presentation of fundamental principles,
and applications. NELSON, op. cit., pp. 377-470; BRADLEY and LAKE, Petroleum Dis-,
tillation, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," pp. 199-209, American Chemical
Society, Washington, D.C., 1951, diagrams, azeotropic and extraction distillation,
59 references.
4 PERRY, op. cit., pp. 667-711; NELSON, op. cit., pp. 711-750.
1
SEPARATION OPERATIONS
839
Adsorption.! Adsorption is employed for about the same purpose as

absorption; in the process just mentioned natural gasoline may be
separated from the natural gas by adsorption on charcoal. Adsorption
is also used to remove undesirable colors from lubricating oil, usually
with activated clay.
Filtration. 2 Filtration after chilling is the usual method for removal
of wax from wax distiliate. The mixture of wax and adhering oil obtained
Straight ,run 9O,olin,
from the press is frozen and allowed to warm slowly so the oil drains
(sweats) from the cake, thus further purifying the wax. "Contact"
filtration, involving the use of clay, is the common method of purification
of oils; decolorization takes place at the same time. (This is an adsorption
phenomenon. )
Extraction. This involves the removal of a component from a liquid
by means of the solvent action of another liquid. The procedure of
selective extraction by means of solvents is important in the further
refining of lubricating oils. An example is the production of toluene by
extraction from a specially processed petroleum. Low viscosity-index
1 PERRY,
gasoline);
op. cit., pp. 1886-916, especially pp. 889-896 (clays), 906-907 (natural
op. cit., pp. 265-267, 288-293.
op. cit., pp. 964'-992, especially p. 987; NEf.RoN, op. cit., pp. 288-290.
NELSON,
'PERRY,
840
hydrocarbons, unstable sludges, and some colored materials may he

removed in this way from lubricating oil. Usually the extraction is
countercurrent. Two problems are involved: obtainment of solution
equilibriums and separation of the two immiscible phases.
Figure 5 shows a typical solvent refining process for lubricating oil.
The oil is mixed with the solvent or solvents in an extractor or column.
L~=::::::::::=:.JSolvenfSteam
('ree wafer
J.-------------- Solvent Refining Process----------*----- Solvent-Wcoter-

----..j
Separation
Key: AcRaffinate OInel solvent; e Solvent extract OInol wOlter; C=SoIvent saturortecl with water
D Water satur"tecl with soivent
FIG. 5. Typical solvent-refining process employing furfural and provided with solventwater separation and recovery.
If a proper solvent! has been chosen, the mixture separates into two layers.
./ one rich in solvent and containing the dissolved impurities (extract);
the other containing little solvent and most of the desirable high-viscosity
oil (raffinate). This latter consists largely of naphthenic-type compounds
and wax. Dewaxing by propane or methyl ethyl ketone (MEl<) follows
the selective solvent separation of Fig. 5. Sometimes deasphalting is in
the sequence (Fig. 7).
The procedure as shown in Figs. 5 or 6 involves the following unit
operations when furfural is thl;) solvent:
I NELSON, ap. cit., pp. 298-318; GESTEIt, SolvC'nt Extraction in the Petroleum Industry, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," pp. 177-)\)8, AnH'ri('an Chf-mical
Society, Washington, D.C., 19~1, excellent; TREYBAJ" "Liquid Extraction," McGrawHill Book Company, Inc" New York, 1951.
LUBE OIL REFINING
841
Continuous countercurrent extraction of the lubricating stock with furfural

at temperatures between 130 and 280F., depending on the oil used; provided
with suitable heat exchangers.
Continuous separation of raffinate fraction from extract fraction.
Recovery of solvent (furfural) by vacuum evaporation from raffinate or
refined oil.
Stripping by steam distillation of small amounts of remaining solvent from
refined oil, giving wet furfural or water solution of furfural.
Recovery of solvent (furfural) from extract by atmospheric and by pressure
distillations, this wet solvent (furfural) being the main recovery; fractionation
leaves dry solvent behind and ready for reuse.
Stripping by steam of small amounts of solvent left in extra.ct, furnishing
wet solvent or water solution of solvent.
Final stripping of solvent from combined aqueous solutions. The overhead
is chilled, and the solvent is conducted to fractionator.
Key: --liquid flo", lines,
------V"por flow lines
FIG. 7. Flow sheet for lube oil deasphalting-Kellogg tower process.
When furfural is used, the solvent is recirculated through the system

as many as fifteen times each day and with the very small solvent loss
of less than 0.03 per cent of solvent circulation.
Other solvents frequently used are liquid sulfur dioxide, propane and
cresylic acid, dichloro-ethyl, ether, phenol, and nitro-benzene. 1 Solvents
are also widely employed for removing the wax from lubricants and thus
lowering the pour point. 2 Figures 6, 7, and 8 present typical lubricatingoil purifications.
.
Conversion Processes. Petroleum offers such a fertile field for chemical
synthesis both for gasoline and for petrochemicals that it is difficult to
list all the conversion o~ unit processes that may be applied to this raw
material. Even now" about 70% of U.S. crude is subjected to conversion
processing."3 .Much stu(iy has been given to the fundamentals of these
chemical 4 changes as ~pplied to petroleum raw materials. Schmerling
1 NELSON, op. cit., pp .. 298-318, 756, 760.
ANON., Solvent Dewaxing of Lubricants, Chem. & Met. Eng., 48 (10), 106 (1941),
pictured flow sheet employing methylethylketone and benzene.
SWEENEY, op. cit., Chap. 3, p. 2.
'
SCHMERLING, LOUIS, The l\fechanism of the Reactions of Aliphatic Hydrocarbons,
J. Chem. Educ., 28, 562 (1951), 48 references; "Progress in Petroleum Technology,"
American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951.
842
makes a division into reactions in "presence of acid type catalysts," and

"those which occur thermally or are induced by peroxides." The former
are explained by a carbonium mechanism and the latter by free radicals.

The following examples are a few of the more important basic reactions: l
1. Cracking or Pyrolysis (see Figs. 9 to 14):
C7HwC16H30,C7H16 ~ C 7H 16
Heavy gas oil
+CH
Gasoline
12
:CH 2
Gasoline
(antiknock)
+C
H 2S :CH 2
Recycle stock
.2. Polymerization (see. Figs. 15 and 16):
CCC
~eat andi
I
I
C-C=C + C-C=G pressure C-C-C-C=C + C-C-C=C-C
Unsatura.~d
or catalyst
I
I
11
short chams
CCC
C
82
Longer chains
18
per cent
per cent
3. Alkylation 2 (see Fig. 17):

Unsaturated
e:wmple:
catalyst
isosaturated ~ saturated branched chain, for
1 GRUSE and STEVENS, op. cit., Chap. 3, Group Reactions in Petroleum Oils and
Derived By-products, p. 646; "Progress in Petroleum Technology," American Chemical Society, Washington, D.d., 1951, excellent collection of papers and various
au'thors.
I MURPHREE, War Developments in the Petroleum Industry, Ind. Eng. Chern., 35,
626 (1943).
843,
CONVERSION PROCESSES
Catalytic alkylation.
C
c_6-c_c_c
C=C_C-C
6 6
+ c_c-c
I-Butylene
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane
or "isooctane"
lsobutane
+ c-c-c
c_c=c
c_c_Lc_c
66
Isobutylene Isobutane
c_c-c_c-c
666
Thermal alkylation.
c=c
I
+ c_c-c ---+ C-C_C_C
Ethylene
lsobutane
2,2-Dimethylbutane
or neohexane
4. Hydrogenation:
I
H.
I
C_G-C=C-C----~C-C_C_C_C
r
r
Catalyst
r
CCC
Diiaobutylene
Isooctane
5. Chlorination:
C 6H12
Pentanes
+ Cb ---+ C H n CI + HCI
6
Chloro-pentanes
6. I8omerization:
C-C_C_C
Strai~ht
cham
r
C
~ c_6-c
AlCIs
Branched
chain
844
THE PETROT,EUM INDUSTRY
7. Hydroforming or Aromatization:
HaC
H 2C-CH2
"'"C /
"'"CH
"'"
HC=CH
2 Heat and HC /
catalyst
'\.
H 2C-CH2
Methylcyclohexane
"'"C/
CHa
+ 3H
HC-CH
Toluene
CHa
Heated with
CHaCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CHa ----~
n-Heptane
Or.O. on AhO.
+ 4H
Toluene
8. EsteT't'jication and Hydration:
C 2H 4 + H 2S0 4 ~ C 2H&OHOS0 2 + (C 2H.0)2S02

C 2H&OHOS02 + (C 2H.hOS02 + aqua
~ H 2S0 4 dil. + C 2H&OH + C 2H.OC2H 6
Cracking or Pyrolysis. Cracking I (pyrolysis) is the process of converting
large molecules into smaller ones by the application of heat and! or
catalysts. Olefins always are formed. A significant amount of polymerization of these smaller molecules occurs, and some carbon is formed.
Nelson summarizes the reactions:
Charge stock .............. , .................... C7H16,CI6Hao,C7H16

1
Heavy gas oil
Cracked stock ............ C 7H IS + C H H 2S :CH 2 +
C SHI2:CH2
Gasoline + Recycle + Gasoline (antiknock)
stock
More cracking .......... C2Hs + (C 4H s:CH 2 + CSHIS + CsH 12 :CH 2) +
Gas +
Gasoline
CH 2:CH'CH:CH'CH a + C 2H,
Gum-forming materials
Gas
Polymerization ........ C 2 Rs + (C 4Hs:CR2 + C SRI8) + C 12R 22 + C 2 H,
Gas
Gasoline
Tar or
Gas
recycle
These equations are highly simplified examples of this process, for the
original molecule may be broken at anyone of the carbon-carbon bonds
and usually with carbon formation. Thus, in cracking one pure compound"
such as tetradecane, several products (heptane, heptene, hexane, octane,
1 GRUSE and STEVENS, op.' cit., Chap. 10, p. 354; NELSON, op. cit., Chap. 20, pp.
566ff.; Chap. 22, pp. 667ff., many references, tables, flow shcl'ts; many important
articles in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951.
CONVERSION PROCESSES
845
butane, butenes, carbon, etc.) are formed. In cracking the mixture of

compounds occurring in petroleum the number of possible products is so
great that the representation of the process by simple equations is
impossible.
The heat of decomposition' of petroleum is difficult, if not impossible,
to calculate accurately, owing to the lack of necessary data. In the
cracking reaction, if large amounts of gas are produced, the heat of
decomposition is endothermic and relatively high. Also, the heat of
reaction is often lower than theoretical owing to the exothermic reforming
of some of the cracked products.
"The cracking process," according to Egloff,2 "is the greatest force
for conservation that has been developed in the oil industry." Cracking
is of two kinds: thermal and catalytic. In the early days of thermal
cracking, gas oil was used as the charging stock. More recent technological developments have advanced the technique of cracking, making
possible its adaptation to a wide range of materials from naphthas to
heavy crude residuums. In the combination distillation-cracking unit,
crude oil from the storage tanks is separated into various fractions directly
and the resulting fractions are cracked in continuous operations. Selective
cracking operations with a high degree of flexibility have been made
possible by catalytic cracking and by thermal cracking, this latter using
multiple heating coils and cracking under temperatures ranging from
900 to 1100F. and pressures from 600 to over 1,000 lb. per sq. in. Today,
total gasoline ,yields of 70 to 85 per cent 3 are obtained from the crude oil
with approximately one-half of the country's gasoline produced by
cracking. See Fig. 4 for generalized relationships of cracking in the
petroleum industry.
Catalytic cracking has the advantage of being able to produce gasoline
of high quality from almost any crude oil in equipment subject to careful
control and operated at low pressure and hence at comparatively lower
cost. Catalytic gasolines also have these desirable characteristics:
excellent response to tetraethyllead, low in gum formers and in corrosive
sulfur compounds with uniform octane rating over the boiling range of
the gasoline. Marshall Sittig writes, 4 "Catalytic cracking represents the
largest single stride in, the development of refining processes that the
1 NELSON,
calculations.
op. cit., p.
573,
discusses this subject and gives examples of typical
300 Years of Qil, Ind. Eng. Chem., 27, 648 (1935).

op. cit., pp; 96, 97, 99, presents a tabulation of the gasoline content of
many domestic crudes, PPi,576ff., p. 595 for cracking yields.
(SITTIG, Catalytic Cracking Techniques, in Review Reprint of Petroleum Refiner,
Gulf Publishing Co., Hotiston, Tex., 1952, 545 references and many diagrams and
tables. See this excellent summary for all phases of catalytic cracki~g.
EGLOFF,
3 NELSON,
846
petroleum industry has ever made." Sachanen 1 states that catalytic

cracking has these advantages over thermal cracking:
1. More selective cracking and less light end products.
More olefin isomerization-both of olefin bonds and carbon skeletons.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
More controllable saturation of double bonds.

Greater production of aromatics.
Less diolefin production.
Relatively more coke.
Greater a.bility to tolerate high sulfur feed stocks.
The flu~dized catalytic cracking process employs a finely divided solid

catalyst made by aerating the ground powder of an alumina-silica gel.
Grid
gas oilfeed
9. Fluid catalytic-cracking unit. White areaa represent fresh or regenerated

catalyst. [Courtesy Standard Oil Company (N.J.).]
FIG.
This is maintained at aJl times as a simulated fluid by suspension in the

reacting vapors or in the regenerating air. A high degree of turbulence is
necessary throughout the system t o ensure a uniform suspension. Under
these conditions the solid catalyst flows similarly to a liquid and exerts a
like pressure. Because of the even distribution of the catalyst and because
of its high specific heat in relation to the vapors reacting, the entire
cracking reaction can be maintained at a remarkably exact temperature.
Separation of the catalyst from gases or vapors after the reaction and
regeneration processes is largely by means of cyclone separators. Coke
1 S ACHA.NEN, "Conversion of Petroleum," 2d ed., Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1948 (as summarized by Sittig).
FLUIDIZED CATALYTIC CRACKINO
847
and tar are formed on the catalyst by the cracking. These are burned
from the catalyst with air during the regeneration part of the cycle.
Both cracking and regenerative cycles are continuous.
The fluid catalytic cracking process has been put into operation by the
Esso Standard Oil Company on a very large scale. This procedure operates
Fro. 10. Recent "cat" cracker at Linden, N.J . The two veaaela at right are catalyst
hoppers (storage) and the large vellll8l in the center is the regenerator. The reaction
and the fractionating tower are behind the visible elements. [Courtesy of Standard
Oil Co. (N.J.).]
at a pressure of about 20 lb. gage and at a temperature of from 850 to

lOOOF. It produces a high-octane gasoline. This fluid catalytic cracking
is illustrated by the flow diagram of Fig. 9 and the picture of Fig. 10.
The flow diagram of Fig. 9 includes the cracking or pyrolysis under the
control of the fluid catalyst of the heavy gas oil and may be broken
down into the following coordinated series of unit phy&ical operations
(Op.) and unit cJaemicdl corwersionB or proce88e8 (Pr.):
848
The heavy gas oil feed is preheated in a conventional tube furnace (Op.).
This preheated oil is vaporized by injection into the strea m of the hot (1 100F .)
regenerated finely divided catalyst (Op.).
The mixture of the vapors and catalyst (1 to 7) BolVs up into the reactor where
the cracking reactions take place (Pr.). The oil vapors rise through the "boiling "
bed of catalyst.
The cracked vapors are carried overhead through cyclones to remove the
catalyst, on to the primary fractionator (Op.).
From the primary fractionator, the products as listed in Fig. 9 are separated
in the conventional way, with the slurry recycle returned t o reactor (Op.).
In the reactor the spent catalyst, deactivated by a carbonaceous coating
("coke " ), falls to the bottom and Bows to t he regenerator aided by air (Op.).
In the regenerator the carbon and tar are burned off, with the flue gases passi ng
out through cyclones (Pr. and Op.). The heat from the combustion of the carbonaceous matter raises the temperature of the regenerated catalyst to over
lOOOF.
The regenerated catalyst falls through appropriate pipe to enter at the start
of the continuous cycle (Op.).
This fluid catalytic process is contributing a valuahle principle to the

chemical industry. The use of a large amount of turbulent solid capable
Notes and Key: Three catalyst chambers used ins teo Gl of two as shown . No. 1 is shown
On run and No.2 bein\] regenerated by burning off coke with compreSsed hot air. Dashed
lines indicate open connec.tions during phose shown . Dotteol lines snow purge c.onnections.
IJiJ is sys~em for purging oil vapor from chombers pri or to r egenera+ion. ~ is system
for purgln9 waste 9as from chambers after rege nerot ion .
FIG. 11. Flow sheet for catalytic cracking-Houdry process.
of absorbing much heat in the reaction mass greatly aids in the elimination of temperature variations and hot spots. If no catalytic action is
desired, an inert, powdered solid 1 may be used.
Other catalytic cracking 2 processes should be mentioned: the Hotulry
(see Fig. 11), using a fixed base catalyst and the 1'hermofor catalytic
1 This principle may be applied to the control of organic oxidations that are inclined to proceed to where the oxidation is a combustion. Sl'rTIG, op. cit., p. 139 with
30 references.
2 Sl'rrlG, op. cit., p. 111 et seq.; flow sheets in " Process Handhook," Gulf Puhlishing
Co., Houston, Tex., 1952; ANON ., Packaged TCC Unit, f!he m. Eng. 69 (1), 210
(1952), pictmed flow sheet.
'
849
CATALYTIC CRACKING
cracking (T.C.C.) (Fig. 12), employing a flowing bead-type p.atalyst.

The catalysts are aluminum silicates, either clay or artificial. Both
produce high-quality gasoline or base stock for blending with alkylate,
toluene, or cumene to aviation gasoline. The Thermofor units are economical in small sizes (1 ,000 bbl. per day) . In many instances where t he
Thermofor units are installed for first-pass cracking to produce butylenes
and gasoline, this gasoline is recracked over Houdry units for producing
Key:-+--,Clay type or bea" catalyst; - -, Other f low lines
FIG. 12. Flow sheet for catalytic cracking-Thcrmofor continuous rnwkillg

process.
01'
T.C.C.
FIG. 13. Universal Oil Products two-coil selective cracking unit.
final aviation or high-octane base stock. The Houdriflow l has versatile

application to furnish high-octane gasoline by catalytic cracking in
moving bed with regenerator below reactors and provided with mechanical lift. Cycloversion is also detailed by Sittig. The estimate is made by
Sittig that by 1960 the catalytic cracking capacity of the United States
will be 5,100,000 bbl. per day.
Figures 13 and 14 show the Universal Oil Products two-coil selective
thermal cracking process. The charging stock is topped or reduced crude
[crude from which the lighter fractions down to gas oil have been removed
by distillation (see Fig. 4)J. The topped crude is charged to a fractionating
tower which is heated by vapors from the flash chamber. The lighter part
of the charge is thus vaporized but not enough heat is present to carry
I Description and flow sheet in "Process Handbook," Gulf Pu blishing Co., Houston,
Tex., 1952; flow sheet, p. 10; 81'1"1'10, p. 91 et Beq., p. 111 for cycloversion.
850
it out of the top of the column. These vapors of light oil are condensed
above the trap tray and are sent to the heating furnace. The heavy oil
fraction of the charge is removed from the bottom of the tower and also
sent to the heating furnace.
FIG. 14. Universa.l Oil Products two-coil selective cracking unit.
The furnace has two coil,s: one to heat the light oil and the other to
heat the heavy oil. The heavy oil is easier to crack but, because it bas
not been vaporized, it contains tars and other materials that tend to form
coke and clog the furnace. ThuB the heavy-oil coil of the furnace is not
operated at BO high a temperature as the light-oil coil and it is 80 constructed as to permit easier cleaning.
851
POLYMERIZATION
The heated and partly cracked material from both coils is combined
and sent to a downflow reaction chamber for the completion of the cracking or pyrolysis. This is simply a large tower and most of the coke produced by the cracking operation is deposited in it. Several chambers are
used in practice, though Fig. 13 shows only one. When a chamber becomes
filled with coke, the heated material is sent from the furnace to another
tower while the first one is being cleaned.
The cracked material, which has lost most of its coke, is piped t o the
flash chamber where the pressure is reduced. This reduction in pressure
causes the lighter portions to vaporize from the residuum which is
removed at the bottom. The vapors next flow to the bottom of the
fractionating tower where their heat is used to separate the charging stock.
The vapors that reach the top of the column are condensed and consist
of gasoline containing dissolved gas. Part of the vapor is heavier t han
gasoline and condenses near the top of the column. This is called furnace
di8tillate. Any material too heavy to reach either of these levels in t he
column is sent back to the cracking furnace.
Reforming. Reforming involves both cracking and isomerization.
Straight-run gasoline and light naphthas usually have very low octane
numbers. By sending these fractions to a reforming unit and giving them
a light" crack" their octane number may be increased. This upgrading
is probably due primarily to the production of olefins and the formation
of lower-molecular-weight compounds, which, as a general rule, have
higher octane numbers. Some isomerization (conversion of straight-chain
compounds to branched-chain compounds) also takes place.
Polymerization. 1 Rapid progress has been made in the development of
polymerization processes for converting by-product hydrocarbon gases
produced in cracking into liquid hydrocarbons suitable for use as highoctane motor and aviation fuels and for petrochemicals, e.g. , C l2 tetramer
for detergents. To combine gases or highly volatile liquids by polymerization to form heavier fractions, the combining fractions must be unsaturated. The hydrocarbon gases from cracking stills, particularly t he
olefins, have been the foundation of polymerization. The following
equation is typical of polymerization reactions. Propylene, normal
butylene, and isobutylene are the olefins usually polymerized.
CH 3
CHa
CHa
2CH 3- C=CH 2 ---. CH 3-C-CH 2- r=CH 2 ---.
CHa
180butylene
Diisobu tylene
Tetramer or
T etrapropylene
(mixed isomers)
1 MASCHWITZ and HENDERSON, Polymerization of Hydrocarbon Gases to Motor

Fuels, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," p. 83, American Chemical Society
Washington, D.C., 1951
852
Vapor-phase cracking produces considerable quantities of unsaturated

gases; hence polymerization units are often operated in conjunction with
this type of cracking. Thermal polymerization is practical only for largescale operations because of the difficulty of obtaining good heat control
in small-sized units, whereas catalytic polymerization is practical on both
FIG. 15. Flow sheet for polymer gasoline-Pure Oil thermal process.
foretiflery
gas system
FIG. 16. Catalytic polymerization process-chamber type. (Courtesy of Universal"

Oil Products Co.)
a large and a small scale and is furthermore adaptable to combination

with reforming to incr,ease the quality of the gasoline (see Fig. 15).
Figure 16 shows the essential steps in a catalytic polymerization
process, which is quite simple and consists of passing the preheated
unsaturated gases through towers containing the granular catalyst in
beds at 350 to 425F. and at 250 to 1,200 lb. per sq. in. Temperature
control is secured by introducing recycle light hydrocarbons, low in
olefins, to reactor inlets a~d as a "quench" between catalyst beds. A
catalyst frequently employed is a "solid phosphoric acid," i.e., a silicaphosphate. Until recently the catalyst had to be regenerated at frequent
intervals by burning off the carbonaceous deposits, but new developments
ALKYLATION PROCESSES
853
have greatly increased the active life of the catalyst and now regeneration
is seldom necessary.
Alkylation. Alkylation l processes are exothermic and are fundamentally
similar to polymerization but differ in that only part of the charging stock
need be unsaturated. It is based on the reactivity of the tertiary carbon
of the isobutane with olefins such as propylene, butylenes, and amylflnes.
The product" alkylate" is a mixture of saturated, stable isoparaffins
Contactar
Settler stripper
charge drum
Acid
HF stripper
Oeisobutanizer
Oepropanizer
Rerun column
,;
Ught a/ky/ate
Butane
FIG. 17. Flow sheet for "HF' alkylation. (CollT!P'lI ()f Unil1PTsal Oil Prodllrts Co,)
distilling in the gasoline range, which hecomes the principal component of

many high-octane gasolines.
Alkylation with liquid hydrogen fluoride is illustrated hy the ~flow
sheet of Fig. 17. Here the acid can be used repeatedly and offers no aciddisposal problem. Ratio of acid to hydrocarbon in the contactor is 2 to 1.
The temperature range is cheaply maintained as no refrigeration is
necessary, being from. 60 to lOOF. The simplified reaction is as given
under the unit process of alkylation with a 5- to 10-fold excess of isobutane
over the butylenes to minimize realkylation of the primary alkylate.
The anhydrous hydrofluoric acid, when dirty, is easily regenerated; by
distillation from heavy alkylate. Sufficient pressure is required oli the
system to keep the reactants in the liquid phase. Corrosion is low . The
separated isobutane i~ recycled.
1 For ethylbenzene flow sheet see Chap. 36; MRSTIK, SMITH, and PINKERTON,
Alkylation of Isobutane, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," p. 97, American
Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951. ANON., Sulfuric Acid Alkylation, Chem.
Eng., 58 (9), 212 (1951).
854
THE PETROr.EUM INDUSTRY
Hydrogenation. ' Hydrogen is added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon

under high pressure and temperature in the presence of a catalyst to
produce a more fully saturated product. Exceedingly high yields of
gasoline or of lubricating oils with a high viscosity index, low carbon
residue, and high resistance to oxidation can be obtained by hydrogenating heavy oils. The entire result is q.n upgrading of the products. The
adoption of hydrogenation has not been too general owing to high initial
cost of plant and equipment,2 but it is economical and very useful in
specialized procedures. It will be employed more and more in the future
though probably not for lubricating oils, which are being manufactured
more suitably by solvent extraction. The diisobutylene obtained by
polymerization of isobutylene is frequently hydrogenated to secure a more
suitable aviation blending agent. The Bergius process, originated in
Germany, for the production of oils by hydrogenation of coal finds extensive use in Europe, where petroleum is unavailable or very expensive and
coal is cheap. It has been tried in this country only on a semiworks
scale. The synthesis of a motor fuel from carbon monoxide and hydrogen is a hydrogenation process which has been industrialized in Germany
as the Fischer-Tropsch process 3 to make Synthol. It is not expected that
this process will be economical in America for many years.
Chlorination. Both olefins and paraffins may be chlorinated to yield
valuable products. Ethylene dichloride, prepared by the reaction of
ethylene and chlorine, is used in conjunction with tetraethyl lead in
"ethyl" gasoline. Ethyl chloride is important as the raw material in
the manufacture of tetraethyl lead. Ohloro-pentanes are the basis for
the Sharples process for synthetic amyl alcohols.
18omerization. 4 This unit, or conversion process has become of the
utmost importance to furnish the isobutane need for making" alkylate"
as a basis for aviation gasoline (see Alkylation). The reaction may be'
formulated:
OHa
OHaOH 2 OH2OH2 ~ eHaemOHa
n-Butane
If!obutane
1 Dehydrogenation to furnish styrene and butadiene are presented with flow sheets
in Chap. 36.
MURPHREE, BROWN, and GOHR, Hydrogenation of Petroleum, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
32, 1203 (1940); 31, 1083 (1939).
3 FISCHER, ROELEN, and FEIST, Synthesis of Gasoline by the Fischer-Tropsch
Process, Petroleum Refiner, 22 (12), 97 (1943); 23 (2), 112 (1944). This presents_a good
review with many references;, GROGGINS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis,"
4th ed., p. 587, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
EGLOFF, HULLA, and KOMAREWSKY, "Isomerization of Pure Hydrocarbons,"
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1942; ANON., Liquid-phase Isomerization, Petroleum Refiner, 23 (2), 61 (1944); GUNNERS, Isomerization, "Progress in
Petroleum Technology," p. 109, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951.
t855
AROMATIZATION PROCESSES
This equilibrium reaction is accelerated by AlC1 3 promoted by HCl, both

in the anhydrous form. At 250F. and under about 300 lb. pressure, a
conversion of 45 to 55 per cent is attained commercially. Ninety..;~ight
per cent of the butane charged is recovered as such or as isobutane. Being
in the anhydrous state, the reaction can be carried out in steel equipment.
The tertiary carbon atom formed by the isomerization is very reac;tive
~~~.
Hydration to Alcohols. l When 35 to 95 per cent ethylene is passed into

concentrated (98 per cent) sulfuric acid, the latter retains the hydrocarbon as the esters, ethyl and diethyl sulfuric acid, which by dilution
* af
Product contains Some n-butane which is normally segregated in distillation section'
the alkylation plant and returned for further isomerization
FIG. 18. Flow sheet for isomerization of butane--Shell catalytic process.
and heat can be hydrolyzed to ethyl alcohol with varying amount,s of

ether. The alcohol may then be distilled off and the acid concentrated
and reused. See Fig. 19 and also Chap. 31 where comparison is made for
fermentation alcohol.
/
C H + H S0 --+ C H HSO. + (C H )2S0.
+ (C H hS04 + (aqua) --+ C H 0H + H S0 4 (aqua)
+ C H 0Q H&
2
C 2H 6HS0 4
Virtually all the isopropyl alcohol used is made in this fashion from
propylene. Recently the catalytic hydration of ethylene in the vapor
phase has become of increasing significance.
Hydr%rming or Aromatization. Aromatization may be linked with
cyclization and is accompanied by much coke formation on the catalyst.
If carried out under partial hydrogen pressure, this coke making is
much decreased. This process involving catalytic dehydrogenation in
presence of hydrogen is known as hydr%rming. The reactions given
under this subhead Under Unit Processes are probably more complicated.
This process was of vital importance during the Second W orId War: for
1 "Science of Petroleum," p. 2803; ANON., Spirit of the Times, Petroleum Refiner,
23 (1), 101 (1944), pictured flow diagram; ANON., "Petrochemical Process Handbook,"
Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex., 1953; cf. Petroleum Refiner, 32 (11), 126 (1QQ3)
856
TH~
P~THOL~UM
INDUSTRY
the making of toluene for explosives, a very large amount being produced
in this fashion. 1
The best example of hydroforming and aromatizatioll is the Platforming
process 2 depicted in Fig. 20. It was developed by Universal Oil Products
Company as an "economical commercial method of upgrading thc octanc
ratings of straight run, natural and thermally cracked gasolines, and for
producing large quantities of benzene, toluene, xylencs and other aromatic
~Recycle OICOho/~ _ _ _4-_--'~=-""''''-+-
Alcohol
cotumn
Steam
Waste
FIG. 19. Flow sheet for ethyl alcohol and ether; (Courtesy of Petroleum Refiner.)
hydrocarbons for use in chemical manufacture and in aviation fuel."

The name comes from the fact that this process uses fixed-bed AhOa
catalyst containing 0.25 'per eent platinum. This catalyst has a long life
without regeneration. The process operates as an example of a specIalized
hydroforming process whereby the reactions take place in the presence
of recirculated hydrogen. The feed must be carefully prepared to get the
best results and is usually a naphtha cut. The steps depicted in Fig. 20
may be resolved into the following unit pftysical operations and unit
chemical conversions or processes:
I
The naphtha feed is prepared in a prefractionator (Op.).

The charge is mixed with the hydrogen and introduced into the feed preheate:t:
where the temperature is raised (Op.).
1 SMITH and MOORE, Hydroforming; A New R~fining Process, Chem. & Met. Eng.,
48 (4), 77 (1941); TRUSTY, Petroleum as a Source of the Aromatic Hydrocarbons,
Petroleum Refiner, 22 (4), 95 (1943); MURPHREE, op. cit., p. 625, flolV shect; SITTIG,
op.'cit., p. 116.
2 SITTIG, op. cit., p. 116, references; HAENSEI. and STERBA, Comparison of Platforming and Thermal Reforming, in "l'rogrcss in Petroleum Technology," p. 60,
American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1U51; ANON., l'latforming, CheNt.
Eng., 69 (5), 242 (1\152), picturcd flow sheet.
PLATFORMING
857
The hot-feed naphtha vapors with re~ycle h~'drogen are ronourtecl through
the four catalyst-containing reactors' in series with an interheating for each
reactor (Op. and Pr.). The temperature is 850 to 950F. at from 200 to 1,000 lb.
per sq. in. gage.
The reactions that take place are essentially as follows (Pr.):
1. Isomerization of alkyl cyclopentanes to cyrlohexanes.
2. Dehydrogenation of cyclohexanes to aromatics.
3. Dehydrocyclization of paraffins to aromatirs.
4. Hydrocracking of paraffins and naphthenes.
5. Hydrogenation of olefins.
6. Isomerization of paraffins.
7. Desuifurization (quoted from Universal Oil Products Company).
From the reactor the prOdll(t~ lIrc cooled in heat interehalll!;er~ (Op.) (not
shown in Fig. 20).
FIG. 20. Flo\\' sheet for platforming. (Courtesy of Universal Oil Products Co.)
From the ex~hanger a 90 pel' rent hydrogen is obtained, compresseo, ann

recycleo (Op.). The main proouct is fm~tionateo 01' stabilized after having the
temperature reducerl to the proper point in heat exchangers and conducted into
a bubble-cap column (Op.), or stabilizer from which the overhead may be uSf!d
as fuel.
The product is the s~abilizerl "platformate" which may be used as a high.:.
octane gasoline or further fractionated into its constituents, e.g., t.o furnis4
benzene, toluene, and xYlenes.
Oxidation. l The oxi~ation reaction in petroleum gives more troubles

than useful products, ,forming as it does gums and resins that interfere
with the employment of gasolines, particularly those which contain
unsaturated bodies. However, some serviceable products are obtained
from petroleum by ox~dation, e.g., formaldehyde by restricted oxidation of
natural gas. Much study is also being directed toward making fatty
acids 2 from paraffins.
1 GRUSE and STEVE~S, op. cit., pp. 119-138, 653.
PARDU~ and KUCHINKA, Reaction Rates in the Liquid-phase Oxidation of Paraffins, Petroleum Hefiner, 22 (11), 140 (1943).
858
The Celanese Corporation has installed several plants for the controlled oxidation l of propane and butane to a number of organic acids,
aldehydes, and alcohols, such as acetic acid, acetic anhydride (about
1,500,000 lb. per week), vinyl acetate (about 600,000 lb. per week),
acetaldehyde, acetone, methanol, propionic, and butyric acids.
Chemical Treatment. Some type of chemical treatment to remove or
alter the constitution of impurities in petroleum products is usually
necessary to produce marketable material. 2 Depending upon the particular treatment used, one or more of the following purposes are achieved:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Improvement of color.
Improvement of odor.
Removal of sulfur.
Removal of gums.
Improvement of stability to light and air.
Of these, removal of sulfur or improvement of stability usually ,are the

factors governing the treatment employed.
Strong sulfuric acid is widely used to produce water-white products
but it has the great disadvantage of also dissolving or reacting with
valuable olefins. (See Fig. 2 of Cp.ap. 19 for recovery of sulfuric acid
from the spent sludge acid.)
I
Several processes are available for the alteration of objectionable sulfur and the consequent improvement in odor.3 The doctor treatment is
probably used more extensively than any other. This process consists of
agitating the oil with an alkaline solution of sodium plumbite and a small
amount of sulfur. The sulfur .co~pounds usually found in oils are mercaptans. These give the material a disagreeable odor and cause corrosion.
Doctor converts mercaptans to lead sulfide and comparatively harmless
disulfides.
2RSH + Na2Pb02 -> (RS)2:Pb + 2NaOH
(R8)2Pb + S _-> R 2S 2 + PbS
Catalytic methods for desulfurization are modem developments and are

becoming increasingly important.
, '
1 For flow sheets and outlines, see "Petrochemicals Process Handbook," p. 144,
Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex., 1953; for earlier pictured flow sheet (McCarthy
Oil Co.), ANON., Organics from Natural Gas, Chem. Eng., 66 (1), 132 (1949).
2 MASON, BENT, and MCC~LLOUGH, Naphtha Treating "Pays Its Way," Petroleum
Refiner, 20, 432 (1941); for a fundamental presentation of this subject, see Chap. 8
in GRUSE and STEVENS, op. cit.
3 HAPP:EiL, CAULEY, and KELLY, Critical Analysis of Sweetening Processes and
Mercaptan Removal, Petroleum Refiner, 21, 406 (1942); RYAN, Influence of Sulfur
Compounds on Octane Number and Lead Susceptibility of Gasoline, Ind. Eng. Chem"
34,824 (1942); NELSON, op. cit., p. 257; TAIT, Desuifurization, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," p. 151, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951.
859
RESEARCH
It is now common practice to add antioxidants to prevent formation

of gums rather than to remove them chemically. Among the antigumming
materials used are a-naphthol, substituted catechols, cresols, benzylp-aminophenols, and certain wood-tar and coal-tar fractions.
Research. The petroleum industry has been characterized by continuous improvement based upon research 2 and a willingness to replace
antiquated equipment or old processes by more modern ones. This
development went through two phases-the first, wherein the '#nit
operations of distillation, heat transfer, fluid flow, and the like, were
subjected to accurate study and experimentation, resulting in the carrying
through of these operations with greater efficiency and consequently less
cost. Investigations of these unit operations are naturally being continued. However, the second phase 3 of research in this field applies to
the study of chemical changes involving petroleum raw materials or
petroleum products. The industrial application of these we recognize
as unit processes or conversion processes. Weare right in the midst of this
aspect of the development of the petroleum industry. It has yielded rich
returns and is certain to yield even more products of greater usefulness
'-iIi~the future. Synthetic rubber is an example.
longer can petroleum companies be satisfied simply to separate
into salable fractions the various products as they occur in petroleum.
To maintain a competitive and well-rounded position many petroleum
compounds must be chemically altered to obtain products of greater
u~efulness or value. Each year is showing a higher percentage of petroleum
saies arising from the action of chemical change on petroleum raw
materials. Indeed the petroleum industry has become one of the qlost
Li important sources for cheap raw. materials for the entire chemical industry.
Such chemical change will be more marked in the future than it has been
in the past.
The present sound technical position has all come about through the
,~ wise dependence of the petroleum executives upon research in the very
broadest meaning of, this term, protected by patents cOIJering the public
disclosure of new discoveries. Robert E. Wilson states,4 "Oil industry
,,~ research expenditures are now well over $100,000,000 a year-about :five
times the amount spCilnt on petroleum research in 1940."
l
'No
GRUSE and STEVENS, op. cit., p. 132.

BROOKS, 'Petroleum Research and Wars, Ind. Eng. Chem., 34, 798 (1942); FITZGERALD, Mobilizing Pettoleum Hydrocarbons, Chem. & Met. Eng., 49 (3), 83 (IQ42).
3 Many divide petroleum development into three phases: the first pertaining
largely to the physical operation of distillation, the second characterized by cracking,
and the third distinguished by the many other chemical processes or reactions that
are being applied industrially in this field.
Scope of Symposium, in "Progress in Petroleum Technology," p. 1, American
Chemical Society, Wasliington, D.C., 1951. Covers many phases of results of petroleum research.
,1
860
SELECTED REFERENCES
Dunstan, A. Eo, A. W. Nash, B. T. Brooks, and Henry Tizard, "Science of Petroleum,"

Oxford University Press, New York, 1938. This large work of five volumes and
supplements is the most thorough covering of this field.
Wilson, R. E., Chairman Symposium "Progress in Petroleum Teehnology," 35 excellent articles, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1951.
Nelson, W. L., "Petroleum Refinery Engineering," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1949.
Van Winkle, Matthew, "Aviation Gasoline Manufacture," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1944.
Gruse, W. A., and D. R. Stevens, "The Chemical Technology of Petroleum,~' 2d ed.,
Ellis, Carleton, "Chemistry of Petroleum Derivatives," 2 vols., Reinhold Publishing
Uren, L. C., "Petroleum Production Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Huntington, R. L., "Natural Gas and Natural Gasoline," McGraw-Hill Bopk Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
Bell, H. S., "Oil Shales and Shale Oils," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York,
1948.
Sachanen, A. N., "Conversion of Petroleum," 2d ed., Reinhold PublishingCorporation, New York, 1948.
Egloff, Gustav, and George Hulla, "Alkylation of Alkanes," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1948.
Goldstein, R. F., "The Petroleum Chemicals Industry," E. & F. N. Spon:r.td.,
London, 1949.
Weil, B. H., and J. C. Lane, "Synthetic Petroleum from the Synthine Process,"
Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1948.
Sage, B. H., and W. N. Lacey, "Thermodynamic Properties of the Lighter Paraffin
Hydrocarbons and Nitrogen," American Petroleum Institute, New York, 1950.
Brooks, B. T., C. E. Boord, S. S. Kurtz, and. L. Schmerling, "The Chemistry of
Petroleum Hydrocarbons," 3 vols., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York,
1954.
Garner, F. H., and E. B. Evans, edited by George Sell, "Reviews of Petroleum
Technology," 13th vol., 1951, Institute of Petroleum, London, 1953.
Jones, P. J., "Petroleum Production," 5 vols., Reinhold Publishing Corporation, Ne~
York, 1946-1948.
Hart, W. B., "Industrial Waste Disposal for Petroleum Refineries and Allied Plants,"
Petroleum Processing, Cleveland, Ohio, 19.47.
"Petroleum Fa"t.~ ~,nrl. FigUl es," 11th cd., American Petroleum Institute, 1954, biyearly statistical report.
Petroleum Processing, monthly periodical, National Petroleum Publishing Company,
Cleveland, Ohio.
Petroleum Engineer, monthly periodical, The Petroleum Engineer Publishing Company, Dallas, Tex.
Petroleum Refiner, monthly periodical, The Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex.
"Process, Handbook Section" and "The Refinery Catalog"; these yearly publications
I
are indispensable in this industry, the first including about 80 flow sheets with
diagrams, pictures, and descriptions; and the second presenting the various types
of equipment used, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex.
Industrial Ullil Engineering Chemistry, American Chpmical Society, Washington, D.C.
This monthly periodical contains much of the fundamental work in petroleum.
CHAPTER
38
INTERMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR APPLICATION
Coal has been called the black diarriond. The analogy is true Inot
only because both consist of carbon but because from both we get a rainbow of colors, one from the effect of light and the other from the action of
various chemicals. The purpose of this chapter is to follow through the
manifold chemical and engineering changes that transform coal and even
petroleum by the action of many other chemicals into literally a coat of a
thousand hues. The 1,000-0dd commercial dyes that we use bring grace
and variety in what would otherwise be a drab world. Furthermore, the
enti~e dye industry. throws a protective mantle over many another
industry and even over a wise scheme of national preparedness.
Because of the way in which dyes are connected with or enter into so
many other phases of our industrial life we have learned to view the
industry as. an essential one. It took the First W orId War to convince
America and some other nations of this fact. Prior to 1914, Germany
made a very large proportion of the dyes used throughout the world;
indeed, propaganda insisted that only on the banks of the Rhine could
dyes be made economically and of a high quality. However, since the
derangement of industrial life by the cutting off of German dyes beginning in 1914 and since the realization of the connection between the raw
materials of the dye industry and a wise program of national preparedness, many of the important nations have endeavored to build up within
their own borders and from their own basic materials a self-contained dye
industry. If we run our mind's eye across a portion of our industrial
life, we shall see how the dyes enter in. Consider clotq_ing, drapes and
wall coverings, paints and varnishes, and many other industries. In
these, dyes act to make a great many products salable. We could go
around in gray hom~spun, live in unpainted houses, and keep the sun
out with unbleached or undyed curtains, but much of the attractiveness
of our modern civiiization would disappear. We would live literally
in a colorless world. 'one dollar's worth of dyes makes salable about $100
worth of other products, such as textiles, hats, carpets, leathers, {laints,
varnishes, inks, paper, feathers, furs, and many others. Hence the 137
million dollars' worth of dyes sold in 1954 are essential to the sale of about
861
862
INTJnRMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR APPLICATION
15 billion dollars from these various industries, giving employment to

around 2 million men and women.
This is not the whole story. The First World War demonstrated
how closely the chemical industry and, in particular, the dye industry
were connected with the system of national preparedness. The raw
materials, which in times of peace enter into the making of intermediates
that are changed into dyes, in many instances are the basis of our high
explosives in time of war. This is true of benzene and toluene which
furnish dyes or such explosives as picric acid, tetryl, and T.N.T. Likewise the acids that are used in times of peace to make dyes are absolutely
essential to make the nitro-derivatives which are such an important division of explosives. And finally, much of the plant and many of the
trained personnel who in times of peace make dyes, can be transferred
in any emergency to the making of explosives or to serve as the nucleus
for rapid expansion of such materials.
In 1914 we imported 90 per cent of our dyes. Our position then could
be represented as in the accompanyIng table.
TABLE
1.
SUMMARY OF DYES,
Dyes made .. , , , , , ' , , , ..... , ... , ...

Dyes imported ..... , . ," ... , .... , ... ,
1914
Employees
Firms
manufacturing
528
".
"
Pounds
6,619,729
45,950,895
This does not represent the real picture for, while not belittling the
excellent work tha~ the 7 American firms accomplished, it is a fact that
many of the necessary intermediates were being imported from Germany, .
Switzerland, or even from England, The dye industry had been struggling for 50 years to establish itself here in the United States. Many
courageous souls had tried to break in and a few succeeded. When
importations were stopped in the summer of 1914, the country became
panicky over the dye shortage. The dark corners of warehouses were.
searched for abandoned kegs of dyes; even the floors" were scraped and
extracted. Simultaneously, the chemical industry took up the challenge.
Thanks to the skill of American chemists, the versatility of American
engineers, and the confidence of American businessmen, the establishment of a permanent dye industry in America rapidly took shape. Indeed,
before the ending of the war in 1918, a good start had been made; The
country had learned its les~on and both parties in Congress supported a
wise temporary tariff to encourage the further development leading to the
independence of America in dyes and intermediates, In 1920 the scales
had been reversed; America was then manufacturing over 90 per cent
863
of the dyes needed for domestic consumption out of American intermediates and American raw materials. This accomplishment was not the
complete story for, although some products were still being import~d,
certain largely consumed dyes, as sulfur black and indigo, were beIng
made on such a large scale and so cheaply that they entered world
markets in competition with products made in Germany and Switzerland.
These exports in value and in tonnage exceeded the imports. The present
situation regarding intermediate and dye production in America is
summarized in Table 2, which includes medicinals, flavors, perfumes, and
plastics-resins, etc., for the reason that these, as well as dyes, are frequently based on the same or analogous intermediates. More details
about dyes are included in Tables 6 and 7.
The question may well be asked, what do American-made dyes cost?
Ordinary competition based on improved and cheaper manufacture has
brought the price down so that the consumer pays less for his dyes than
he once did. This is a real and lasting accomplishment.
But, although the dyestuff industry is now an American one and dyes
are more economical to the consumer, what about quality? Are American
dyes as good as those that were imported from Germany? The answer is
an emphatic yes. Most of the dyes made in America are chemical compounds identical to those that were made years ago and are still being
made on the banks of the Rhine. Competition in America has in certain
instances increased the purity and the strength of the commercially
sold dyes. The American dye industry has not been content simply to
copy what the rest of the world has done but has pioneered in bringing
out new processes for old dyes and intermediates and improved equipment for the cheaper manufacture of both. Indeed many new processes
for old products have been developed, together with much new machinery
for carrying out the reactions, and also new intermediates and many new
dyes with numerous improved properties.
Following the Second World War, much information has become
available regarding recent German dye accomplishments, largely through
FIAT and BIOS reports and German microfilms (see Literature References at end of this chapter). This has stimulated considerable imitative
investigations, parti~ularly in the field of new anthraquinone vat dyes,
which supplements the usual adaptation to American needs of the many
textile dyes discovered in Germany, Switzerland, and England, both
after the First World War and before.
This satisfactory :state has been accomplished only by continuous
research both in the fundamental chemistry involved and in the chemical
engineering necessary to commercialize these reactions on an economic
scale. Such research; has been and is still being carried on. All our large
dye factories have well-equipped laboratories and pilot plants either for
improving old processes or for developing new. There is no chemical
864

TABLE
2.
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS: SUMMARY OF UNITED STA'rES
PRODUCTIOX OF INTERMEDIATES AND FINISHED PRODUCTS, WITH SALES

FOR MAIN GROUPS
(Production and sales in thousands of pounds; sales value in thousands of dollars)
Product
Production, grand total .............

Sales, grand total. ..................
Salcs value, grand total. ............
Organic chemicals, cyclic:
Production, total .................
Sales, total. .....................
Sales value, total. ................
Organic ch!'micals, acyelic:
Production, total. ................
Sales, total. .....................
Sales value, total. ................
Intermediates:
Production ......................
Dyes:
Production ......................
Toners and lakes:
Prod uction ......................
Medicinals:
Production, cyclic .. , ... , . , .. , , ...
Production, acyclic ... , . , . , .......
Flavor and perfume materials:
Production, cyclic .... , . , .........
Production, acyclic .... , .. , .......
Plastic and resin materials:
Production, cyclic ................
Production, acyclic ...............
Rubber-processing chemicals:
Production, acyclic ...... , ........
Elastomers or synthetic ruhbcT1;:
Production, acyclic .............. ,
Plasticizers:
l'roduction, cyclic ...... , .........
Production, acyclic ...............
Surface-activc agents:
Production, acyclic., ..... , .... , , .
}'esticides and other agricultural
chemicals:
~)roduction, acyclic .... , ..... ',' ...
~hscellancous :
Production, aeyclic ...............
1934-1938 1948-1952
average
.......
average
1953
1954
22,390,675 2(),128,545 28,444,749
., ..... 11 ,930,716 15,636,993 15,732,303

....
2,943,868 4,030,357 3,977,444
.......
7,070,171 9,637,093 9,173,954

4,462,820 6,072,460 5',764,463
) ,552,971 2,011,311 1,970,452
.......
.......
.......
15,320,504 19,491,452 10,270,793

7,467,896 9,564,533 9,967,840
1,390,897 2,019,046 2,006,992
462,614
3,494,976 4,698,585 4,613,869
'"
102,528
166,640
165,806
142,982
.......
42,271
44,'056
39,840
11 ,596
44,444
8,520
53,003
15,582
49,262
16,662
16,801
8,520
18,458
13,147
21,663
13,437
.......
4,041
.......
102,644
.......
......
o.
0_
.......
1,175,713 1,605,447 1,588,180

804,664 1,171,180 1,239,623
121,532
23,252
109,865
20,057
1,Q(\O,050 1,414,944
543,406
376,520
973,249
461,713
94,569
16,673
......
.... , ..
162,100
58,955
223,810
69,088
227,618
73,056
...... ,
.......
344,002
239,002
594,089
327,505
640,222
385,614
..., ....
.......
256,679
33,085
297,054
58,899
357,533
61',741
.......
.......
402,309
409,157
202,812
13,773,525 17,267,127 16,998,930
4 "Syuthetic Organic Chemicals," U.S. Tariff Commission (published annually). This

reference gives many morc details pertaining to production, sales, and sales values.
865
industry other than that making synthetic organic chemicals that plows
back into research such a large proportion of its sales. The actual expenditure for such research is shown in Table 3.
RAW MATERIALS
TABLE
3.
RESEARCH IN THE SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRYCOSTS, SALARIES, NUMBERa b
Total reported cost of research

Year
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
Technically Salaries paid

Companies
trained reresearch
reporting,
search workworkers,
number
ers, number
1,000
313
301
303
338
335
353
381
363
388
7,527
8,707
9,114
8,916
10,529
9,984
12,203
12,208
13,474
35,791
41,571
46,346
51,521
56,619
67,376
76,701
83,694
94,432
Within the plant

Gross
1,000
73,376
90,640
98,729
105,333
115,191
149,607
194,993
210,035
236,524
Net
1,000
e
69,412
87,825
95,417
106,580
111,374
144,784
186,503
199,829
221,842
Outside the
plant
1,000
4,249
4,600
4,594
4,996
6,648
6,724
9,603
7,951
9,238
"Synthetic Organic Chemicals," 1955, p. 171, U.S. Tariff Commission.

See this book, 1st ed., p. 840, for costs in coal-tar products 1928-1940.
e The net cost figure is obtained by deducting from gross cost the credits for salable
products obtained in course of research.
a
Raw Materials. The dye industry draws upon every division of the
chemical industry for the multiplicity of raw materials needed to make
its finished products. However, the backbone of the raw material sequence
may be represented in one line:
Coal---+ coal tar ---+ crudes ---+ intermediates ---+ dyes
Figures Z and 7 in Chap. 6 illustrate the making of the main initial
products out of coal ~nd coal tar. The so-called crudes are really not
crude materials. They were 50 years ago, but the skill of the modern
chemical engineer has made them, even though sold in large quantities at low prices, almost chemically pure. The name crude still persists and applies to the five hydrocarbons obtained by distillation and
crystallization from coal tar. We might better call them the coal-tar
dye hydrocarbons.
COAL-TAR DYE HYDROCARBONS
I
Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Naphthalene
Anthracene
866
In developing the dye industry, America' had to manufacture these

various hydrocarbons not only of sufficient purity but also in adequate
tonnage. This enhanced demand was a tremendous incentive to increasing
the installation of co-product coke ovens and the disappearing of the old
wasteful beehive ovens. The obtaining of coke in this manner not only
provided basic raw materials for the dye and other industries but also
increased greatly the value of the products derived from coal. In recent
years, the production of aromatic hydrocarbons from petroleum has been
increasing at a very rapid rate, as the following tabulation indicates:
Aromatic
hydrocarbon
Benzene ..........
Toluene ..........
Xylene ...........
Production from petroleum,

millions of lb.
1953
1954
462
836
749
674
890
726
Increased
per cent
46
6
-3
These large amounts are mostly produced by cyclization and/or dehydrogenation reactions in catalytic reforming or hydroforming plants.
r norganic Chemicals. Dyes and intermediates are very heavy consumers
of inorganic as well as organic chemicals. The use of these chemicals in
the making of dyes and intermediates has frequently been the stimulus
for improved processes by virtue of greatly increased demand. This is well
exemplified in the development of the contact process for the manufacture of oleum, which came as a further extension of the catalytic
oxidation of 80 2 to 80 3, brought about by the need for 80 3 as an oxidizing
agent in the old process for conve,rting naphthalene to phthalic anhydride,
giving as a by-product sulfur dioxide. Similarly, there is a great demand
for chloro-derivatives such as chloro-benzene requiring large tonnages of
chlorine. A surprising quantity of inorganic chemicals is frequently
required to make 1 lb. of the finished dye, it being estimated that, for
some of the anthraquinone dyes, up to 75 lb. of such chemicals are
required to make 1 lb. of the finished product. Dyes and intermediates
consume in general the following chemicals on a large scale:
Acids: Nitric, sulfuric, mixed, hydrochloric, acetic, formic, etc.;
Alkalies: Caustic soda, sop.a ash, ammonia, slaked lime, quicklime, limestone
(calcium carbonate), caustic potash, and alkylamines.

Salts: Salt (NaCI), sodium sulfate (various forms), sodium nitrite, sodium
sulfide, sodium cyanide, copper sulfate, potassium chloride, aluminum chloride,
sodium hydrosulfite etc.
Miscellaneous: Chlorine, bromine, iodinc, hydrogen, alcohol, methanol, formaldehyde, iron, sulfur, ctc.
UNIT OPERATIONS, UNIT PROCESSES, ENERGY CHANGES
867
INTERMEDIATES
The intermediates are the building stones out of which dyes are
directly constructed, just as our houses are made out of brick, wood,
mortar, plaster, or steel, except that chemical reactions are used, to
connect one intermediate with another in manufacturing a dye. Thus
we find the producing of intermediates, economically and in a pure form,
to be the very foundation of the dye industry, and the reduction that has
come in the last 10 or 15 years in the cost of dyes is due very largely to
the lowering of the cost of making pure intermediates. In America this
has been achieved through research leading to higher yields in the chemical reactions and to improved chemical engineering when commercializing
these reactions. The wise management of our dye factories, stimulated
by competition, has directed the study of all the important phases of our
factory procedures from which have come lowered labor charges, increased
yields, and more uniformity of product, together with enlarged production. This has required the development of improved apparatus in
many cases and the courageous discarding of any outmoded plant.
The census of intermediates, taken by the U.S. Tariff Commission,
shows that in 1954 there were produced in the United States 4,614,000,000
lb. of cyclic intermediates or 2 per cent more than for 1953. Table 4
lists the important intermediates. Some intermediates such as /3-naphthol
are made in a preponderating quantity by one company and hence cannot
have the quantity manufactured disclosed. However, many of the cyclic
intermediates in Table 4 are not used at all, or to only a minor degree, to
build dyes. For instance, part of the acetanilide, aniline, phenol, alid
salicylic acid enter the medicinal field. But most of the phenol is consumed by plastics and resins, while practically all the dodecyl-benzene
becomes a raw material for detergents. Much chlorobenzene and 0- and
p-dichlorobenzenes are used for insecticides. Cyclohexane is a raw
material for nylon. Phthalic anhydride is much consumed in the plastips
and surface coating fields. Styrene enters plastics and rubber. The dye
industry used the intermediates first, but these are now also the buildi~g
stones for much of the organic chemicals consumed by the public and
summarized in Table 2.
Unit Operations, Unit Processes, Energy Changes. These factor!) for
the intermediate and dye industry are so important that, particularly for
the intermediates, a presentation under each main unit process will be
made as a logical and technical one. Thereunder will be described! the
energy changes and any particular unit operation involved in the manufacture, such as specilH mixing or filtration.
1 A more detailed presentation, particularly of the chemical and thermal aspects
of unit processes as applied to intermediates and many other similar compounds, is
given in GROGGINS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., McGraw-Hill
868

TABLE 4. PRODUCTION O~' IMPORTANT CYCLIC INTERMEDIATES
Intermediate
Acetanilide, tech ........................................ .

N -Acetylsulfanilyl chloride ............................... .
I-Amino-anthraquinone and salt .......................... .
2-Amino-anthraquinone and salt .......................... .
6-Amino-l,3-naphthalene-disulfonic acid (Amino I acid) ...... .
2-Amino-1-naphthalene-sulfonic acid (Tobias acid) ........... .
8-Amino-1-naphthol-3,6-disulfonic acid (H acid) Na salt ...... .
Aniline ................................................ .
1-Anthraquinone-sulfonic acid ............................ .
7-Benz(de)anthracen-7-one (Benzanthrone) ........ " .. , .... .
Benzidine hydrochloride and sulfate ....................... .
o-Benzoyl-benzoic acid ................................... .
m-Chloro-aniline ........................................ .
Chloro-benzene ......................................... .
1-Chloro-2,4-dinitro-benzene (Dinitro-chloro-benzene) ....... .
a-ChIaro-toluene (Benzyl chloride) ........................ .
Cresols, total. .......................................... .
Cresylic acid, refined, total. .............................. .
Cyclohexane ............................................ .
0-Dichloro-benzene ...................................... .
p-Dichloro-benzene ...................................... .
3,3'-Dichloro-benzidine base and salts ..................... .
2,4-Dichloro-phenol ..................................... .
4,4'-Dinitro-2,2'-stilbene-disulfonic acid ................... .
Dodecyl-benzenes ....................................... .
3-Hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid (B.O.N.) ..................... ,
Metanilic acid (m-amino-benzene-sulfonic acid) ............. .
Naphthionic acid Na salt ................................ .
2-Naphthol-3,6-di~ulfonic acid ........................... .
2-Naphthol-6,8-disulfonic acid (G acid) .................... .
Nitro-benzene ................... '....................... .
m- and p-Nitro-benzoic acids .......... ,............ '...... .
5-Nitro-o-toluene-sulfonic acid ............................ .
2-Nitro-p-toluidine (NH. = 1) ............................ .
Nonyl-phenol. .......................................... .
Phenol. ............................ : ................... .
Phenyl-acetic acid (a-Toluic acid), potassium salt .. : . .' ...... .
Phenyl-acetonitrile (a- Tolunlt~ile) ......................... .
0- and p-Phenylene-diamines ............................. .
Phenyl-glycine, K and Na salts ......... : ................. .
Phthalic anhydride .................... '.' ................ .
Pic"olines ............... '................................ .
Quinizarin ... , ......................................... .
Salicylic acid, tech. sales . ........ 1
Styrene ............................. " .................. .
1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-benzene .............................. .
Toluene-2,4-diamine ..................................... .
1953,
1,000 lb.
1954,
1,000 lb.
4,468
3,775
1,174
1,095
1,152
3,286
2,437
113,487
3,011
1,900
1,413
6,970
1,065
377,184
4,695
10,491
18,757
50,647
299,578
26,230
59,289
1,086
15,436
1,147
297,286
3,571
1,114
1,222
1,198
1,075
148,048
1,178
2.025
1,963
4,448
382,423
2,306
1,030
1,058
5,545
226,646
1,264
1,408
3,140
2.868
621
857
1,263
3,825
2,227
97,349
1,636
1,450
1,277
5,180
798,433
8,948
1,217
367,947
4,150
11,545
22,036
47,894
216,619
23,890
51,871
923
17,215
861
357,781
3,428
780
1,133
1,119
1,508
122,545
1,582
2,170
9,196
417,503
2,041
1,513
3,625
253,847
963
1,198
15,053
703,169
5,124
1,627
"Synthetic Organic Chemicals," U.S. Tariff Commission (published annually).
869
NITRATION
Nitration
Nitration is one of the most important of the unit processes operated

for the manufacture of intermediates and dyes. In the industry very
few nitro-groups appear in the final product, the nitro-radical being
usually reduced to the very reactive amine or subjected to other changes.
However, the nitration is frequently the initial side entrance into the
aromatic ring whether of benzene or more complicated rings.
A typical nitration may be expressed conventionally as follows:
RH
+ HN0 (H S04) ~ RN0 + H 0 + (H S0 4);

3
flH = -15,000 to -35,000 cal.
Although the usual nitrating acids are nitric or mixed acid, the actual
nitrating agent is believed to be the nitronium ion, NOt which is formed
as follows:
In mixed acid:
HNO a + 2H~04 ~ NOt
+ 2HS04" + H 0+
3
In nitric acid:
2HNO a ~ H 2 NOt + NO a
H 2NOt ~ NOt + H 20
Removal of the water favors the nitration reaction by shifting the
equilibrium to the right. In case of mixed acid the sulfuric effects this
removal by what is expressed as the dehydrating value of the sulf~rie
acid (D.V.S.). Following Groggins (op. cit.), the following equation
is used:
actual 100 per cent sulfuric acid
DVS =
. ..
water present in reactants + water formed by nitratiol1
Experiments have indicated what D.V.S. is needed for a given nitration
but it varies from 2.0 to as high as 12 for technical nitrations. Much
heat is evolved by the nitration itself as well as by the absorption by the
sulfuric acid of the water split out, but the specific heat of the sulfuric
acid enables some of ,this heat to be absorbed. As the higher nitrocompounds may be explosive, a certain amount of precaution is necessary
in handling this reaction so as to keep it always under control. Nitric
acid is also a powerful oxidizing agent, and this action must be minimized
as much as possible by keeping temperatures as low as possible.
The equipment used :varies from acidproof stoneware, or large nitraiors
constructed of acidprbof brick when using 40 0 or 42 0 nitric acid, to
cast-iron or stainless-s,teel nitrators when employing mixed acid; but in
every case the unit operations of heat transfer and of mixing should be
most carefully considered. The nitration unit process is applied to the
870
making of a number of intermediates among which those in the following

list are important.
NITRATION UNIT PROCESS IN MANUFACTURE OF INTERMEDIATES
Chloro-2,4-dinitro-benzene, from chloro-benzene through 0- and p-chloro-nitro-benzene, by strong mixed acid

0- and p-Chloro-nitro-benzene, from chloro-benzene by mixed acid. Separate by
distillation and crystallization
m-Dinitro-benzene, from benzene through nitro-benzene by strong mixed acid
l,4-Dichloro-2-nitro-benzene from p-dichloro-benzene by mixed acid
p-Nitro-acetanilide and p-nitro-aniline, from acetanilide by cold mixed acid nitration.
Hydrolysis furnishes p-nitro-aniline
Nitro-benzene, from benzene by mixed acid
",-Nitro-naphthalene," from naphthalene by mixed acid
0- and p-Nitro-phenol, from phenol by nitric acid or mixed acid. Separate by steam
distillation
0- and p-Nitro-toluene, from toluene by mixed acid at moderate temperature to lessen
oxidation. Separate by distillation and crystallization
m-Nitro-p-toluiciine, from acyl-p-toluidine by mixed acid at low temperature
G
For further consideration of ",-nitro-naphthalene, see Chap. 39.
Example of Technical Nitration. Nitro-benzene is and has been one

of the most important intermediates in the dye field, and between 25,000
Hitroben2:e-ne
Benzene
Mixed acid
tHH,S~.
NO
11,0
Sodium carbonate
tiS lb.
Pow<>r('lbtotal cost)
Labor('!.tj1tal cost)
Overhead l'r. tota I cost)
\]~B
\~
(442 Ib:
Aniline
Nitrobenzene,
P..r ton
'20 lb. Nitrobpnzene
31
2.4
83
~30'r.)
2.7801~)
Iron orings
32001b.
250lb Por ton Aniline
Hel
Power('!'owtal cost)
M
labor('l.:t9tal cost)
ao
Overheadt'rototal cost) 40
*~n equlVolentomount of aniline solt molh.,.(iquor
FIG. 1. FJow sheet for nitro-benzene and aniline.
and 30,000 tons &.re manufactured yearly. Out of it are made aniline,
benzidine, metanilic acid (sulfonation and reduction), as well as dinitrobenzene and many dyes such as nigrosines and magenta. Nitro-benzene is
also consumed in large amounts as an industrial solvent. As the flow
sheet in Fig. 1 indicates, nitro-benzene is made by the direct nitration of
benzene, !using mixed acid, ~ccording to the following reaction:
Qa'H 6
1
+ HNOa(H zS0
4)
-+
CaH 6NO z + H 2 0 (H 2S0 4) i

AH
-27,000 cal,1
For mononitration of benzene, and particularly for a continuous process, cf.

op. cit., pp. 59-67.
GaOGGINS,
AMINATJON BY REDUCTION
871
This procedure is carried out in cast-iron nitrators arranged with

efficient cooling devices to remove the heat of reaction and to keep the
procedure under control. In the smaller nitrators a jacket of cooling
water will suffice, but for the modern large nitrator taking, for instance,
over 1,000 gal. of benzene, it is necessary to supplement the jacket by
other means of cooling.!
These additional devices consist of the insertion in the body of the
nitrator of water-cooled cast-iron tubes, as indicated in Fig. 1, or the use
of steel coils, as in the Hough or Buffalo nitrator. When employing
steel coils, because of the greater chance of leakage through a weld, or by
reason of corrosion, the water should be sucked through the cooling
coils. In case of leakage the acid will enter into the coils and will not
do the harm that water would cause if introduced into the nitration
mixture under pressure. An electric conductivity automatic indicating
device can be easily installed on the exit line of the cooling water to ring
an alarm and to light a red lamp whenever any acid is in the exit cooling
water. Much of the nitro-benzene is used for further synthesis an<;l can
us,!ally be separated from the spent acid and simply given several water
washes. If it is to be sold in the pure form, for instance, as oil of myrbane
as a cheap perfume in the soap industry, it should be distilled.
Amination by Reduction
The amino group is an exceedingly important one,for dyes as it is the
one changed to the azo chromophore or alkylated. This amino radical
is also one of the chief auxochromes. It is made by the reduction of a
nitro-derivative or recently, in special cases, by ammonolysis (page 874).
The agents employed are iron and an acid catalyst, zinc and an alkali,
sodium sulfide or polysulfide, with a scattering of less important reagents.
The list on page 873 presents some of the aminations particularly pertaining to intermediates. In this and similar lists in this section, a bare
indication is given of the process for manufacture. Amines also are made
by catalytic hydrogenation and by ammonolysis. Liquid and vapor-phase
catalytic hydrogenations have become quite important large-scale industrial methods 2 for production of naphthylamines and of aniline, and of
reduction of nitro-benzene to hydrazo-benzene, and of p-nitro-phenol to
p-amino-phenol. More details for those intermediates, not fully treated
here, can be found in the books on intermediates in the references at the
1 As the size of a given lequipment increases, a jacket becomes proportionately less
effective, owing to the increase in the contents according to the cube of the corresponding dimension, while the jacket area increases by only the square of the corresponding dimension .
U.S. Pats. 2194938(1940), 2233128(1941), 2233139(1941), FIAT Rept. 649; U.S.
Pat. 2105321(1938).
872
end of this chapter. The generalized reaction is
However, for many of our technical aminations by reduction, a better

expression would be
The energy of these reactions is exothermic and so large (see Aniline)

that much thought must be given to efficient heat transfer.
The equipment to commercialize these chemical changes is frequently
I:t highly specialiJ!.ed apparatus, as the reducer for aniline. In other cases,
particularly when dealing with nonvolatile products like m-phenylenediamine, a simple well-ventilated wooden vat performs satisfactorily.
However, it should have an efficient sweep stirrer located near the bottom
to keep the iron in suspension.
Example of Technical Amination by Reduction. A niline. 1 This intermediate has been of such great importance that frequently we hear the
dyes spoken of as aniline dyes. 2 Aniline itself is made by iron reduction of
nitro-benzene, by ammonolysis (page 875) of chI oro-benzene, or by
vapor-phase hydrogenation of nitro-benzene. 3 A flow sheet exemplifying
the iron reduction is included in Fig. 1. The reduction can be summarized:
AH = -508,000 cal. 4
In the reduction, as in many other processes, the chemical reactions are

much more complicated. These changes can probably be formulated
with the sequences listed as follows:
I For further details in making aniline see GROGGINS, "Aniline and Its Derivatives,"
D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1921; GROGGINS, "Unit Processes in
Organic Synthesis," Chaps. 1 and 2.
2 It is essential from a manufacturing or research viewpoint to know just how many
and what dyes are derived from aniline, or any other intermediate. To supply this
information the following book was written: SHREVE, "Dyes Classified by Intermediates,". Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1922. The book also serves
as a dictionary for the various n~mes of the intermediates, as both their chemical and
trivial names are arranged alphabetically.
Flow sheet, GROG GINS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," p. 133.
Further consideration of the heat of reaction of aniline manufacture is given in
GnoGGINs, op. cit., pp. 94, 120.
EXAMPLES OF TECHNICAL AMINATION BY REDUCTION
873
FeCit
+ 2H 20 ----+ Fe(OHh + H2
FeCI.
C H 6N0 2 + 3Fe + 4H 20 ----+ C H6NH2 + 3Fe(OHh
C H6NH2 + H2O-~ C H6NH 0H ~ C6H5NHt + OHFeCh ~ Fe++ + 2CI2C 6H6NHt + 20H- + Fe++ + 2CI- ~ 2CeH 6NH CI + Fe(OHh
C H6NH CI ~ C lhNHt + CI2C6H6NHt + 2CI- + 2Fe(OHh + 2Fe ~ 2C H6NH2 + FeCl 2
+ Fe 04 + 3H
Fe
Note that the iron ends up as the ferroso-ferric oxide. If too little iron is
used, the analysis indicates a greater proportion of ferrous iron present,
probably as ferrous hydroxide. In actually conducting this reduction on
a technical and hence a large scale, it is easy to observe that the chemical
change proceeds in stages, for instance, where hydrogen is evolved and
when the iron swells owing to hydroxide formation. Such a breakdown
into steps is frequently observed when running chemical reactions on a
large scale. The iron used for reduction should be cast-iron turnings
(or powdered iron) free from oil and nonferrous metals.
AMINATION
BY
REDUCTION AS UNIT PROCESS IN MANUFACTURE

OF INTERMEDIATES
p-Amino-acetanilide (Acetyl-p-phenylene-diamine), from p-nitro-acetanilide by iron

and acetic acid under 60C.
a-Amino-anthraquinone, from a-nitro-anthraquinone by Na.S solution; or by ammonolysis of a-anthraquinone-sulfonic acid
p-Amino-phenol, from nitroso-phenol by aqueous Na 2S; or from p-nitro-phenol from
p-nitro-chloro-benzene
o-Amino-phenol-p-sulfonic acid, from o-nitro-phenol-p-sulfonic acid by Na 2S following
8ulfonation, nitration, and hydrolysis of chloro-benzene
Aniline, from nitro-benzene by iron and a little dilute HCI
Chloro-toluidine-sulfonic acids, from chloro-toluene-sulfonic acids by nitration and
subsequent iron reduction'
Diamino-stilbene-disulfonic acid, from dinitro-stilbene-disulfonate by alkaline zinc
reduction
Diamino-anthraquinone, from corresponding dinitro- or aminonitro-anthraquinone
by reduction, or fro,m corresponding dichloro-, disulfo-, or dihydroxy-anthraquinone by ammonolysis
2,5-Dichloro-aniline and sulfonic acid, from 1,4-dichloro-2-nitro-benzene by iron and
a little aqueous HCI.,ISulfonation
Dianisidine by rearrangement of hydrazoanisole, from o-nitro-anisole by alkaline
zinc reduction in alcoholic solution, followed by acid rearrangement
Benzidine by rearrange~ent of hydrazobenzene, from nitro-benzene by alkaline
reduction by Fe or Zn, followed by acid rearrangement
Tolidine by rearrangement of hydrazotoluene, from o-nitro-toluene by alkaline reduction by Zn followed by acid rearrangement
'For chloro-toluidine~sulfonic acids, cf. VENKATARAMAN, "The Chemistry of
Synthetic Dyes," p. 175, 2 vols., Academic p~~ss. Inc., New York, 1952.
874
Metanilic acid, from nitro-benzene-m-sulfonic acid, following oleum sulfonation of

nitro-benzene
a-Naphthylamine, from a-nitro-naphthalene by iron and a little dilute HCI
m-Nitro-aniline, from dinitro-benzene by hot aqueous sodium polysulfide
m-Phenylenediamine, from dinitro-benzene by iron and a little dilute HCI
n-Phenylenediamine, from p-nitro-aniline by iron and a little dilute HCI, boiling at
the end
Picramic acid, from picric acid by hot sodium polysulfide solution
Toluidines, from nitro-toluenes by iron and a little dilute HCI
m-Tolylenediamine (or Toluene-2,4-diamine), from 2,4-dinitro-toluene by iron and a
little dilute HCI
Xylidines, from nitro-xylenes by iron and a little dilute HCI
Amination by Ammonolysis
This unit process has been used for a long time to make fj-naphthylamine but its extension to aniline and p-nitro-aniline is fairly recent. It
functions by reacting, usually at elevated temperatures and in autoclaves,
with large excess of aqueous ammonia sometimes in the presence of
sulfites (Bucherer 1 reaction). With the present low cost of ammonia
this method of amination has a much more favorable position. Thl.' agent
used is ammonia or a substituted ammonia which replaces a number of
different groups: -CI, -OR, or -S03R. This unit process is particularly
useful when labilizing groups are present in the ortho or para positions in
respect to the halogen as in the following ammonolysis reactions:
ChC 6H 3N0 2
NH, (aqua)
CIN0 2 C 6H 3NR2
1,4-Dichloro-2-nitro-benzene
4-Chloro-2-nitro-aniline
NH, (aqua)
ChC 6H 4N0 2
NR 2 C 6H 4NR 2
l-Chloro-4-nitro-benzene
p-Nitro-aniline
The ammonia is used as aqua-ammonia in large excess, four to ten times.

theory. Frequently catalysts help speed up the chemical change. As
such a large excess of ammonia is necessary for good yields, an efficient
recovery system is required to keep costs low. Here then is an excellent
example of the unit operation of distillation.
The equipment required to commercialize, this unit process is almost;
always some type of agitated pressure vessel made out of ammoniaresisting metal, such' as all iron even to the valv~s. Fortunately the
all-iron valves, fittings, pumps, and other equipment previously developed
for ammonia ice machines are available at low cost for amination by
ammonolysis. 2
Technical Example. Aniline. The reactions involved in the making
of aniline through ammonolysis may be expressed as follows:
op. cit., pp. 80-81, 89.
For all these unit processes, reference should be made to GROGGINS, op. cit., in
which are specific chapters covering the details of each unit process.
1 VENKATAaAMAN,
875
ANILINE
OCI
+ 2NH3 (aqua) -
ONH2
+ NHa + H 20 O C I + H 2 N O + NH 3OCI
Cu 20
+ NH.CI (soln.)
(1)
+ NH.CI
(2)
O N H O + NH.Cl
OOH
+ 2NH.CI- Cu Ch + 2NH3 + H 20
2
(3)
(4)
These reactions l are carried out using about 4 moles of aqueous 28 to 30

per cent ammonia, first at 180C. and then for a few hours at 210 to
220C. under constant agitation. The pressure rises to about 750 lb.
Reaction (1) is the desired one, and with the 4 or 5 moles of 28 to 30
per cent NH3 the formation of phenol [reaction (2)] is to aniline as 1 :20.
By the use of higher concentrations of ammonia this ratio can be reduced
to 1 :50, but this larger excess is too costly. The active catalyst is cuprous
chloride but by introduction of cuprous oxide (about 1/10 mole) the
cuprous chloride is formed and the disadvantageous concentration of
NH.CI reduced simultaneously. Agitation is secured in a clever manner
by the use of.horizontal rotating autoclaves. 2 Conversion is about 90 per
cent to aniline which can be raised by greatly prolonging the time of
reaction, but this is uneconomical.
The products are recovered by blowing off the free ammonia through
the recovery and condensing system and separating the oily layer ,from
the aqueous one. The oily layer contains some ammonia, chloro-benzene,
aniline, phenol, and diphenylaInine, and these are separated by distillation, using normally an alkali, CaO, to hold back the phenol. The aqueous
layer is treated with lime to liberate the ammonia and then dis,tilled to
recover ammonia and small amounts of chloro-benzene, aniline, and
phenol. The copper compound is filtered off and used again. This process
gives,an excellent grade of aniline.
AmNATION BY AMMONOLYSIS IN MANUFACTURE OF INTERMEDIATES
p..Amino-anthraquinone, from chIoro-anthraquinone by excess of 28 per cent aqueous

ammonia at 200C. in a stirred autoclave, or from p..anthraquinone-sulfonate by
excess ammonia water
Aniline, from chIoro-benzene by excess 28 per cent aqueous ammonia at 200C. and
900 lb. pressure, in presence of Cu 20
p..Naphthylamine, from p-naphthol by excess of 28 per cent ammonia aided by
ammonium sulfite, at 150C. in a stirred autoclave
2-Naphthylamine-l-sulfonic acid (Tobias acid) from 2-naphthol-l-sulfonic acid by
excess ammonia water and ammonium sulfite at 150C. in an autoclave
2-Naphthylamine-6-sulfobic acid (Broenner's acid), from sodium salt of 2-naphthol-6sulfonic acid (Schaeffer's acid) by 28 per cent NHa at 180C. in an autoclave
1
I
C/. GROGGINS, op. cit:, p. 392.

These are pictured in Chem. 111118.,
'6, 690 (1940).
876
2-Naphthylamine-6, 8-disulfonic acid (amino-G acid) from 2-naphthol-G, 8-disulronate

by heating with ammonia and sodium bisulfite in an autoclave
p-Nitro-aniline from p-chloro-nitro-benzene by excess of 28 per cent aqueous ammonia
at 170C. and 500 lb. pressure
Phthalimide, from molten phthalic anhydride by gaseous NH. at 240C.
Halogenation
The use of halogenation and chlorination in particular to effect entrance
into a hydrocarbon ring, or other compound, and thus to make a more
reactive derivative, is becoming of increasing importance in the field
of intermediates as well as in all organic chemistry. The agent used is
generally dried chlorine gas with or without a catalyst, though other
agents like HCI may be necessary for a specific reaction. The chlorination proceeds (1) by addition to an unsaturated bond, (2) by substitution
for hydrogen, or (3) by replacement of another group such as -OR or
-SOaH. Examples are
+ HCI
CH 2=CR 2
CsRs
CO
+ Cl
SOaNa
a X)
Anhydrous
FeCI.
2
A h d
n y rous
CH aCR 2 Cl
CsH~CI
+ HCI
CO
+6HC1+N'CIO,~a
CO
(1)
(2)
Cl
X)
CO
+ 4NaCI + 3R SO,
2
(3)
Reaction (3) proceeds in hot dilute aqueous solution. In certain of

halogenation reactions much heat is liberated and must be removed
(cf. chI oro-benzene).
.
The equipment necessary is much simplified if anhydrous conditions
are called for, as frequently happens. Under: these circumstances steel
is very satisfactory unless iron and iron compounds exert a disadvantageous effect, when enameled steel or earthenware is used. Nickel is also
employed in some special cases.
Technical Example. phloro-benzene is a very important intermediate
particularly for sulfur colors. It is also employed as a solvent and to make
many other products such as aniline, phenol, chloro-nitro-benzene and
chloro-dinitro-benzene, and o-aminophenol-p-sulfonic acid. Table 4.
indicates production of 184,000 tons in 1954.
ChI oro-benzene is manufactured by passing dry chlorine through
benzene in iron or lead-lin'ed iron vessels, using ferric chloride as a
catalyst. The reaction is as follows:
CsHs
+ Cl
FeCla
2
~ CsR~CI
+ HCI
877
SULFONATION
The react.ion rate of monochlorinat.ion is approximately 8.5 times' that of

dichlorinatioll, so some dichloro-benzene is allVays formed. Much heat
is generated and, if monochloro-benzene is the preferred product, the
temperature should be kept at not over 40 to 60C., by circulating and
cooling the benzene-chloro-benzene mixture. The hydrochloric acid
escaping is washed free of chlorine by benzene and absorbed in water for
sale. The products of chlorination are distilled to separate the benzene
and chloro-benzene, leaving the dichloro-benzenes (ortho and para) In
the still residue.
HALOGENATION AS A UNIT PROCESS IN MANUFACTURE OF INTERMEDIATES
Chloro-acetic acid, from glacial acetic acid by passing in chlorine at 100C. in presenc p
of red phosphorus
Chloro-benzene, from benzene by action of CI. in presence of iron at 50--60C.
p-Dichloro-benzene, from benzene or chiaro-benzene by action of CI. in presence of
iron at 50--60C.
.
2,6-Dichloro-benzaldehyde, from o-nitro-toluene through ring chlorination by CI.
furnishing 2-chloro-6-nitro-toluene (40 per cent) and 4-chloro-6-nitro-toluene
(60 per cent). These are separated and the 2,6-isomer is subjected to reduction,
diazotization, and the Sandmeyer reaction giving 2,6-dichloro-toluene, which
upon side-chain chlorination furnishes 2,6-dichloro-benzal chloride which hydrolyzes to 2,6-dichloro-benzaldehyde
Suifonation
This is one of the most widely employed of the chemical changes to
effect variation in properties such as to introduce greater solubility or to
make a hydrocarbon more reactive for the purpose of further synthesis.
The fundamental chemistry has been carefully studied 2 and many data
are available in the literature. Frequently isomers are formed and the
cost of a process will be high unless application can be found for the
principal isomers produced. The agents employed are various strengths
of 80 3 in water from 66Be. sulfuric acid or even weaker, to the strongest
oleums. However, for special cases, sulfite and chloro-sulfonic acid are
very useful. As in nitrations, care should be taken to avoid oxidations
by not having temperatures or concentrations too high. Excessive :concentrations also form sulfones.
The reaction may be expressed as follows:
However, recent studies 3 indicate that an ion such as H0 38+ is the

I
Compt. rend., 170, 1309 (1920).

2 See volumes by VENKATARAMAN, DAVIDSON, GROGGINS, REVERDIN and
~CHWAI,BE, and WWHELHAUS in the references at end of this chapter.
3 GROGGINS, op cit., p. 313.
1
BOURIO:-.1,
FULDA,
878
active sulfonating agent when sulfuric acid is used:
0/ +<~H~O<fH~[O-foHr~(TJI +R<
H
Depending on what product is being sulfonated there is a critical concentration of sulfuric acid below which sulfonation ceases.' Therefore,
the removal of the water formed is important. The energy of the reaction
is exothermic but its removal is often not required, since many sulfonations proceed best at elevated temperatures.
The equipment 2 for most sulfonations 'is fairly simple, consisting of
cast-iron vessels provided with an efficient agitator, vent, condenser, and
usually a jacket for heating by steam or circulating hot oil. The list
on page 880 outlines some of the important industrial sulfonations.
Technical Examples. Benzene-sulfonate is a step in the manufacture
of phenol by the sulfonation process. Improvements in this procedure
have kept this process competitive with the making of phenol through
chloro-benzene. The reaction is as follows:
When the concentration of the sulfuric acid drops below 78 per cent H 2S04
(the rest being water), the sulfonating action ceases. At onetime, sufficient
strong sulfuric acid was used to absorb the water and keep up the concentration. This, however, was a costly procedure, not only wasting
sulfuric acid but causing expensive separation of the benzene-sulfonic
acid. At present, the water formed is remoied by passing benzene vapor
through the sulfonation product" thus removing the water by a reverse
steam distillation. The ratio of benzene required may be calculated from
the formula: 3
Weight of benzene 9 weight of water X
molecular weight of benzene X vapor pressure of benzene
molecular weight of water X vapor pressure of water
The vapor pressure of the benzene and the water (in presence of sulfuric
Ibuf, pp. 302, 313, 320--324.
SHREVE, Equipment for Nitration and Sulfonation, Ind. Eng. Chem., 24, 1344
(1932).
Derived from Avogadro's law which states that, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, equal volumes of perfect gases contain the same number of
molecules. Ct. GROGGINS, "Aniline and Its Derivatives," p. 24.
1
879
PHENOL
acid) must be at that temperature at which the sum of the t.wo vapor
pressures equals the pressure on the system.!
When the water is removed from the sulfonation to keep the acid concentration above 78 per cent H 2S04, the sulfonation proceeds until only
a few per cent of free sulfuric acid is present which is then directly
neutralized to form the sodium salt in conformance with the flow sheet
of Fig. 2. The rest of this flow sheet is commented upon under Hydrolysis (page 881).
Some
Na, SO.
for MAIHRUCTIOHS:
sale
~H
H, _
SO , _
_
or
+H,O
Benzol (purel
2000 lb.
Sulfuric: ocid (6GoBe.) 2,800 lb.

Caustic soda
3,400 lb.
50 No
No (0
""'''''3
0
OH.
_ NoaH
OH '5feom
H'SO
_
-'_
50,orCO,
+CO,+H,O orSO,
+Na,SO.
+Na,SO.
4000 lb.
Na,SO.
Steom
Electric.ify 80 kw.-hr.
Direct lobor
40 man-hr.
Per ton ot phenol
FIG. 2. Phenol flow sheet-sulfonation process.
The 1- and 2-naphthalene-sulfonic acids are formed simultaneously by

the sulfonation of naphthalene. They must be separated if they are to
be used for the preparation of pure naphthols. This is a difficult procedure. However, the alpha acid can be hydrolyzed 2 to naphthalene
and this is distilled out by passing dry steam into the mixed sulfonation
mass at around 160C., leaving behind pure beta acid suitable for hydrolysis or fusion to make /1-naphthol.
The usual sulfonation products 3 are mo!"e complicated to handle than
those just cited, and are illustrated by the examples listed on page 880.
The various sulfonic derivatives are frequently difficult to separate from
their isomers. The following tabulation gives some of the properties
employed for separations or isolations:
1 Cj. TYRER, U.S. Pat. 1210725(1917), GUYOT, Chimie & industrie, 2, 879 (1919);
ZAKHAROV, J. Chern. Ind., U.S.S.R., 6, 1648 (1929).
2 SHREVE, /i-Naphthol, ;Color Trade J., 14, 42 (1924); c/. MASTERS, U.S. Pat.
1922813(1933); GROGGINS, op. cit., pp. 271-273, 330, 691; I-Naphthalene-sulfonic
acid is the principal isomer formed when the suifonation is carried out at around
I
60C.
3 For more details regarding suifonation see the chapter under this heading in
GROGGINS, op. cit., and the books in the Selected References by FIERz..DAVID and
BLANGEY, REVERDIN and FULDA, and WICHELHAUS. Also see ULLMANN, "Enzyklopaedie
der technischen Chemie," 3d ed., Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1951.
880
1. Variation in the solubilities of the potassium salts.

2. Variation in the solubilities of the calcium or barium or metal salts.
3. Differences in the solubilities of the sulfonic acids themselves in water or
acids or other media.
4. Differences in solubilities of the sodium sulfonic salts in presence of a
sodium salt such as sodium chloride, sulfate, nitrate, or acetate.
5. Difference in properties of derivatives such as sulfonchlorides or amides.
SULFONATION UNIT PROCESS IN MANUFACTURE OF INTERMEDIATES
l-Amino-2-naphthol-4-sulfonic acid (1,2,4 acid), from I-nitroso-2-naphthol by joint

reducing and sulfonating action of sodium bisulfite
Benzene-sulfonic acid, by passing hot benzene vapor through sulfuric acid until all
sulfuric acid reacted
p-Naphthalene-sulfonic acid, from naphthalene and 66Be. sulfuric acid at 160C.; the
a-isomer simultaneously formed is hydrolyzed to naphthalene and removed by
passing in steam
Naphthionic acid, from a-naphthylamine sulfate by baking at 170-180C.
2-Naphthol-6-sulfonic acid (Shaeffer's acid), from ,B-naphthol by 98 per cent sulfuric
acid at 100C., and separation from the 2:8 acid (Croceine acid) formed simultaneously
2-Naphthol-3,6-disulfonic acid (R acid), from fl-naphthol by excess sulfuric acid at low
temperatures and separation from G acid
2-Naphthol-6,8-disulfonic acid (G acid), from ,B-naphthol by excess sulfuric acid at
elevated temperature and separation from R acid
I-Naphthylamine-5-sulfonic acid (Laurent's acid) and I-naphthylamine-8-sulfonic
acid from naphthalene by low-temperature sulfonation to the alpha acid, followed
by nitration to the two isomers, reduction by iron, and separation
2-Naphthylamine-5,7-disulfonic acid, from ,B-naphthylamine by oleum sulfonation
2-Naphthylamine-6,8-disulfonic and 2-naphthylamine-5,7-disulfonic acids by sulfonation of .B-naphthylamine, first with monohydrate followed by 60 per cent oleum.
These acids are separated and fused with NaOH to give, respectively, gamma acid
(NOS:286) and J acid (NOS:257)
I-NaphthylamiIie-3,6,8-trisulfonic acid (Koch acid), from naphthalene by trisulfonation with oleum, followed by nitration and iron reduction
p-Nitro-toluene-o-sulfonic .acid, from p-nitro-toluene by oleum
Hydrolysis
In the manufacture of intermediates the phase of hydrolysis employed

is usually alkaline fu~ion to replace an ':"_SOsH group by -OH. However, this unit process is also operated to replace -CI, particularly in
making phenol. The agent generally used is caustic soda, though other
alkalies, acids, or plain water are of industrial importance. The reaction
may be formulated as follows:
ArSOaNa (or ArCI)
+ 2NaOH ~ ArONa + Na SOs + H 0

2
(or NaCI
+ H 0)
2
The energy involved is exothermic in many instances. In phenol from

chloro-benzene. the heat evolved maintains the reaction temperature.
PHENOL
881
The equipment required is generally either open cast-iron fusion pots

heated by gas or closed cast-iron or welded steel autoclaves. Especially
in alkaline fusions some loss is experienced from oxidation to tars at the
temperatures employed, '300 to 325C.
Technical Examples. Phenol is manufactured l by the following reactions:
Sulfonation Process:
3ooC.
C6H&SOaNa + 2NaOH ----+ C 6H&ONa + Na 2SOa + H 20

C 6H&ONa + CO 2 (or S02) + H 20 ----+ C 6H&OH + NaHCOa (or
NaHS0 3)
Chloro-benzene Process (Liquid Phase):
360C.
CsH,Cl + 2NaOH ----+ C6H50Na + NaCI + H 20

C 6H,ONa + HCl ----+ C 6H 50H + NaCI
2C 6H,OH
~ C 6H 50C 6 H6 + H 20
Catalytic Vapor Phase (or Regenerative Process) :
C 6H6
.230C.
+ HCl + 72'0 2 ----+ C6H,Cl + H 20 (exothermic)

425C.
~ C 6H,OH + HCI (endothermic)
The older or sulfonation process has held its own competitively, largely
because of improvements in procedure such as described under Sulfonation (page 879). Figure 2 outlines the technical steps. It should be
noted that either Na 2C0 3 or Na 2SOa is used to make the C 6 H 680 3Na,
and that either the CO 2 or 80 2 is employed in the acidifiers to liberate or
"spring" the phenol. Generally a little diluted H 2S0 4 is necessary to
finish the acidification. The fusion is frequently carried out in open
cast-iron fusion pots or those with sheet-iron removable covers.
The chloro-benzene hydrolysis 2 proceeds according to Fig. 3 by pumping a mixture of chlorQ-benzene and dilute caustic soda through a steel
pipe heat exchanger, a reactor, and then through the heat exchanger for
cooling. The reactor temperature is about 360C. and the pressure
5,000 lb. per sq. in. The heat of reaction after the initial start is sufficient to maintain the d:Csired temperature by the use of an efficient heat
exchanger. This process affords an excellent application of the unit
operations of high pressure, pumping, and heat transfer at high pressure.
See Oxidation for the new cumene,hydroperoride process.
HALE and BRl'rroN, Development of Synthetic Phenol from Benzene Halides,
Ind. Eng. CMm., 20, 114 (1928); HALE and BRITTON, U.S. Pat. 1607618(1926);
BIUTTON, U.S. Pat. 1824867(1937); GRISWOLD, U.S. Pat. 1833485(1931); BRITTON,
U.S. Pat. 1959283(1934); GROGGINS, crp. cit., pp. 693-701.
1
882
Note Small ",uantities of copper and sodium oleate are used 0& cotalysls
Caustic Soda
120 lb.} To produce 100 lb. Phenol
Chi oro benz en..
132 lb.
and some Diphenvl oxide"
./1'no D. P.o. is dl'slrpd, add 0.1 mol.. w/~h reactanfs
FIG.
~""""'Reaction:
Solid
llnes represent
3. Phenol flow sheet-chloro-benzene process.
C.Ho ... HCl ... ~a.-C.H.Ct 1"H,0

liQuidS" dashed
+-Rl'OCliOn
lines. vapors and 03'Ses. Hel gas from (a) plus benZene vapor
ften colUJW" (b)
and air are heated in vapor superheater te) and fIlix.ed in (d), then passed thrOl,lgh air<ooled chlorinator (e) lCu-Fe
eatalyst). The resulting chlorobenzene mixture is condensed in
anCi (0) (and benzene recovered in the tail oasScrubber). disti lied in (h) and the ctJi;:'1 sent. with fI'Iake-"H) "ater. to scrubber (I) where the mixture extracts the
Jlhenol from the hydrolysis step and recovers Hel for return to (a). The yapor Mixture of ctJi!Fl.
and HfJ frOI
(i) passes to washer U) where the ptlenol is extracted If'l water. flowlnoJ to extractor (kl. and a mixture of CeHe;Ct
a.nd
i$ vaporized for hydrolysis. The phenol in the water o;olution' is extracted in rnake-ur ber,lene in (k). the
(n
C8'itPt
"'ater
c:ruQe
(II)
recirculating to U)
[theflol.
The
(Slo.z caUlyst)
<:cmDletin~
and tne benzene ...phenol mixture flowing to fractionUing colur.,n (b~ for lieplJration of the
CdftFl Md
for conver.. icn
vapor frCJ'l U)pas"i throu:;Jh heat exchanger {I).va[lClr SU['lprheater

to
Cd'tPH.
the product
returnin~ throu~h
eltchanger (I)
,tel. and
to scrubber
hydrolyz~r
0).
thus
tne cycle.
FIG. 4. Phenol flow sheet-vapor-phase regenerative process.
In order to repress the accumulation of diphenyloxide, about 1/10 mole

is added with the reactants.
The regenerative or catalytic vapor-phase process is based on the patents assigned to Raschig.' This procedure has been described and pictured
in the literature. 2 It presents some very interesting engineering problems,
particularly as to the handling of hot Hel in the presence of steam and air~
I
U.S. Pats. 1963761, 2009023, and 2035917 (1935).

New Synthetic Phenol Plant, Ind. Eng. Chem., News Ed., 18, 921 (HI40);
OLIVE, Chem. & Met. Eng., 47, 770 (1940); 47, 789, pictured flow sheet; 46, 222 (1939);
GROGGINS, op. cit., pp. 697-700, detailed description.
1 RASCHIG,
t ANON.,
883
HYDROLYSIS EXAMPLES
The conversions are low and require much recircuiation. Figure 4 shows
the sequences of unit operations and unit processes that represent the commercialization of the basic chemical changes.
TABLE 5. PHENOL PRODUCTION, SYNTHETIC AND NATURALo
Year
Thousand lb.
Year
Thousand lb.
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
115,047
146,125
194,967
202,000
205,100
203,829
265,269
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
297,338
224,544
312,107
338,429
337,761
382,433
417,503
o "Synthetic Organic Chemicals," U.S. Tariff Commission. In 1953, 25,596,000 lb.

were natural phenol, from coal tar, and petroleum.
Phenol is used for a great variety of products: dyes, plastics,

explosives, medicines, and perfumes. Its economic position is shown by
the production figures of Table 5.
f3-N aphthol is made somewhat similarly to the phenol sulfonation
process. The conditions for the hydroly~is (alkali fusion) of the 2-naphthalenesulfonate are given in the references under Sulfonation.
HYDROLYSIS (OR IN MANY INSTANCES "ALKALI FUSION") IN MANUFACTURE OF
INTERMEDIATES
/
1-Amino-8-naphthol-3,6-disulfonic acid (H acid), from 1-naphthylamine-3,6,8-trisulfonic acid by caustic-soda fusion in an autoclave
2-Amino-5-naphthol-7-sulfonic acid (J acfd) , from 2-naphthylamine-5,7-disulfonic
acid by caustic-soda fusion in an autoclave
2-Amino-8-naphthol-6-sulfonic acid (gamma acid), from 2-naphthylamine-6,8-disultonic acid by caustic-soda fusion in an autoclave
1,5-Dihydroxyanthraquinone (anthrarufin), from anthraquinone-1,5-disulfonic acid
by milk of lime under pressure
1,8-Dihydroxynaphthalene-3,6-disulfonic acid (chromotropic acid), from 1-naphthol3,6,8-trisulfonic acid by caustic-soda fusion at 200C.
2,4-Dinitro-phenol, from chloro-2,4-dinitro-benzene by boiling with soda-ash solution
i3-Naphthol, from purified p,-naphthalenesulionate (naphthalene and hot sulfuric acid)
by caustic-soda fusion
a-Naphthol, from purified, a-naphthalenesulfonate (naphthalene and cold sulfuric
acid) by caustic-soda fusion, or from a-naphthylamine
1-Naphthol-4-sulfonic acid (Nevile-Winther's acid) from sodium naphthionate by
heating with NH,HSO. (Bucherer reaction)
p-Nitro-aniline, from p-nitro-acetanilide, by boiling with caustic-soda solution
()- or p-Nitro-phenol, from~ or p-chloro-nitro-benzene by hot dilute NaOH solution
Phenol from benzene-sulfonate by caustic-soda fusion at 320C.
Phenol from chloro-benzene by caustic-soda solution at 3600., 5,000 lb. pressure
Phenol from chloro-benzene by H 20 at 425C.
884
INTERMlllDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR APPLlCATION
Oxidation
Oxidation is controlled or tempered combustion and is one of the very

useful unit processes for the entire organic technology. The cheapest
agent is air, but oxygen is sometimes employed. For liquid-phase reactions a great many oxidizing agents are in industrial use, such as nitric
acid permanganates, pyrolusite dichromates, chromic anhydrides, hypochlorites, chlorates, lead peroxide, and hydrogen peroxide. Water and
carbon dioxide and many other oxidized substances are the by-products
of the main oxidation.
When charcoal or carbon (amorphous) changes to carbon dioxide,
.t::.H = -96,500 ca1. 1 per g.-mole and when hydrogen burns to H 20
(gaseous),.t::.H = -57,800 cal. per g.-mole. These energy changes, although
the basis of combustion, frequently accompany our controHed oxidation,
as in the making of phthalic anhydride (page 885) and maleic acid. In
most oxidations, even when the formation of CO 2 and H 20 can be repressed, the energy change is exothermic and large. This entails particular
care in the design and construction of the equipment so as to ensure
efficient heat transfer and to prevent the controlled oxidation from
becoming a combustion.
Technical Example. Phthalic anhydride has become one of our most
important intermediates. It is used in making directly a number of
dyes such as eosin, rhodamines, erythrosin, quinoline yellow, copper
phthalocyanine, and phenolphthalein, but it is of more value as a step in
manufacturing anthraquinone and anthraquinone derivatives by condensation (Friedel-Crafts) procedure (page 890), where it has opened
up the entire anthraquinone vat dyes to the American market at reasonable prices. Figure 5 presents the production and price trends. These
products are consumed also in industries other than dyes, as in making
resins and plasticizers. Phthalic anhydride and phenol are two among
many intermediates whose consumption has expanded far beyond dyes.
The present process for phthalic anhydride 2 is a controlled catalytic
air oxidation of naphthalene.
, C=O
CO
+ 4~~2 _V_,_O.----t ( ' (

4O<H60"C.
""/0'+ 2C0 2 + 2H20

~
C=O
For barbon, the equivalent in B.t.u. per pound = 14,400; for hydrogen, 52,OO()
1 lb.
DOWNS, Oxidation of Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32, 1294 (1940),
bibliography; CONOVER, &onomics of Catalytic Oxidation in the Vapor Phase, Ind.
Eng. Chem., 32, 1298 (1940), flow sheet; ANON., Petroleum Refiner, 32 (10), 162-163
(1953).
1
B.t.u. from
885
PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE
350
70
300
60
250
.
~
'S
% self-consvmed
~
150
:i
100
50
/I/nit value
I-IJ
\1/ '
,
Prodvction_
I:
I'
r-.
1\
: 1\
I
II
?=
1.... 1.-- ~
o
1922 24
26
28
30
32
i
40.fI
..,
II
a.
30
I/'
1.,1-"" 1'1 ..
~ ~ ~!"..,j ' .... I

\If 1\1/ \ I~ _\[7
50
'.j
,I~ If'
1Ir-..II
20
a.
10
34
FIG. 5. Phthalic anhydride drops from 1922 level of 35 cents per pound to 19.5 in 1955.
Prirnary
alr
_,Air- cooled
"'/
/ mercury
/
Secondary
air -
condensers
Pump:
Boiling -mercury
cafalyflc
~-~
converfer
Cooler
(dew point control)
Vaporiz~r
for
hydrocarbon
FIG.
Catalytic converter
for o)<idation step
6. General layout for phthalic anhydride process using Downs reactor.
Here Ml = -5,460 B.t.u. per lb. naphthalene oxidized. If naphthalene

is burned completely to CO 2 and H 20, 18,000 B.t.u. per lb. of naphthalene
are liberated. Actually, when manufacturing phthalic anhydride by this
process, an exothermic reaction of from 6,000 to more than 10,000 B.t.u.
per lb. of naphthalene, is observed, owing to a certain amount of complete
cQmbustion that always occurs.
886
This process, with a suitable catalyst, was discovered by Gibbs and

Conover.! It was also necessary to work out efficient equipment to
remove the great amount of heat liberated and to keep the temperature
within the favorable narrow limits. One of the successful devices is that
patented by Downs 2 and depicted in principle in Figs. 6 and 7. It consists of square tubes (to increase surface in relation to volume) carrying
the V205 catalyst, surrounded by mercury. This mercury by its boiling
Condenser
Wareror
steBrn
Air plus vapor

to be freated
/""Soilinq Ilquicl
Catalyst
moss - __
'_---:oI'lo!I-
Treafed voporai'r rn"x fure
FIG. 7. Apparatus for removal of reaction heat by boiling of a liquid. (Afier Marek and
Hahn.)
removes the heat of reaction, and the hot mercury vapor preheats the
entering naphthalene vapor and then passes on to the condenser. In the
Downs reactor the temp~rature is nicely controlled by raising or lowering
/ the boiling point of mercury by the raising. and lowering of the pressure
of an inert gas (nitrogen) on the mercury boiling and condensing system.
Other heat-transfer media have been proposed, such as sulfur, diphenyl,
diphenyl oxide, mercury amalgams, and mixed nitrate-nitrite. 3 The
products from the reaction are rapidly cooled to about 125C. (approximately the dew point of phthalic anhydride) and are then sublimed 4 into
1 U.S. Pat. 1285217(1918).
U.S. Pat. 1604739(1926). Also DOWNS, U.S. Pats. 1374020, 1373021(1921);
1789809(1931); and 1873876(1932).
KIRST, NAGLE, and CASTNER, A New Heat Transfer Medium for High Temperatures, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs., 36, 371 (1940).
Cf. PERRY, op. cit., pp. 1474-1476.
&87
ALKYLATION
large chambers or towers in which the phthalic anhydride condenses: in

needle crystals. The contact time is 0.6 sec.
Phenol is also being made by oxidizing cumene 1 as shown in the follqwing reactions:
CH,
-CH(CH')'
O
Cumene or
isopropylbenzene
Air
25 per cent
conversion
265F.
O-t-O-OH H.SO, diluted

tH.
Cumenehydroperoxide
heat, pressure
Phenol
CH
+6~'o
O
OH
bH.
Acetone
OXIDATION UNIT PROCESS IN MANUFACTURE OF INTERMEDIATES

Anthranilic acid, from phthalimide by alkaline hypochlorite
Anthraquinone, from anthracene by chromic acid
1,4-Dihydroxy-anthraquinone (quinizarin), from anthraquinone by sulfuric acid oxidation in presence of boric acid
Dinitro-stilbene-disulfonic acid, from p-nitro-toluene by sulfonation and alkaline
NaOCI oxidation
Phthalic anhydride, from naphthalene by air oxidation at 425C. in presence of vanadium pentoxide
Dihydroxy-dibenzanthrone from dibenzanthrone by MnO. in concentrated H.flO.
(anthraquinone vat dyes)
Alkylation
Although alkylation of a hydroxyl is used occasionally in the dye field

to reduce solubility of phenol derivatives, its most extensive application
in commercial dyes is that of producing, with oxygen alkylated products,
dyeings that do not change their shade when exposed to dilute alkalies
or acids. An outstanding example is the conversion of dihydroxy-dibenzanthrone to anthraquinone Vat Jade Green (C.l. 1101) byalkylation 2
with dimethyl sulfate or the methyl ester of ,a-toluene-sulfonic acid.
Alkylation is also used in alkylating amines. The agents 3 employed are
exceedingly varied but an alcohol such as methanol, or an alkyl halide,
or a dialkyl sulfate 'or the methyl ester of p-toluene-sulfonic acid i'l
frequently employed.
The equipment used quite often requires pressure. to keep the reactants
in the desired liquid state. Such an autoclave is depicted in Fig. 8.
For autoclaves of small size, jackets are frequently convenient for heating;
in the larger sizes an interior coil, such as shown in this figure, enables
more heating surface to be available than would be possible from a jacket.
1 ANON., Phenol {romj.Cumene, Petroleum Refiner, 32 (11), 154 (1953); "Petrochemical Process Handbook," p. 154, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex., flow sheet
and description.
VENKATARAMAN, op. cit., p. 969; see footnote, p. 873.
3 See GROGGINS, op. cit., pp. 796ff., on Alkylation by Shreve.
888
"".ion Welded loci,
FIG. 8. A complete autoclave installation engineered by Blaw-Knox.
Furthermore, it is advantageous to have the corrosion concentrated on

the more easily replaceable coil than on the more expensive shell.
/
Technical Example. Dimethyl-aniline is employed extensively in the
manufacture of a number of triarylmethane dyes. It is prepared according to the following reaction:
Aniline, with a considerable excess of methanol and a little sulfuric acid,

is heated i,n an autoclave, such as shown in Fig. 8, at around 200C. for
5 or 6 hr., the pressure rising to 525 or 550 lb. The product can be tested
by noting any rise in temperature when mixed with acetic anhydride, to
ascertain if any monomethylaniline is still present. If .monomethyl is
low or absent, the alkylation product can be discharged under its own
pressure through a cooling coil, neutralized, and vacuum-distilled.
CONDENSATION AND ADDITION REACTIONS (FRI EDEL-CRAFTS)
889
FIG. 9. Dyestuffs intermediate still, showing gage and chart controls, at the dye works
of E . I . du Pont de Nemours and Co., Deepwater Point, N. J. (Courtesy of Du Pont.)
ALKYLATION UNIT PROCESS IN MANUFACTURE OF I NTE R MEDIATES
Benzyl-ethyl-aniline (and sulfonic acid), from ethyl-aniline and benzyl chloride

Diethyl-aniline, from aniline, ethyl alcohol, and a little HCI in an autoclave, or from
aniline and diethyl sulfate
Dimethyl-aniline, from aniline, methanol, and a little sulfuric acid at 200C. in an
autoclave
o-Nitro-anisole, from o-chloro-nitro-benzene by methanol and caustic soda
Condensation and Addition Reactions (Friedel-Crafts)
The list on the next page gives only a few products that are manufactured in any considerable tonnage, but these unit processes are used in
the making of a. great many different chemicals. Three of the intermediates
listed in the table are, however, the basis of some of our most useful vat
dyes. The agent employed in this reaction is usually an acid anhydride or
an acid chloride, catalyzed by aluminum chloride. Typical examples
involve the making of p-chloro-benzoyl-benzoic acid and ~-chloro
anthraquinone according to the following reactions :
890
Addition to Furnish p-Chloro-benzoyl-benzoic Acid:
Condensation or Ring Closure to Furnish fJ-Chloro-anthraquinone:
co
(X
"'U 0/ X)
CO
~
H so
1 Heat
CO
6H
Cl
+H0
2
"-
CO
Typical equipment necessary to carry out these reactions and that of the
following ring closure is sketched in Fig. 14, page 919, where are listed the
approximate conditions and proportions. The industrial significanM of
these reactions coupled with the ring closure to make anthraquinone or
anthraquinone derivatives as the basis for the fast vat dyes for cotton
cannot be overestimated. Without these processes the manufacture of
vat dyes would be much more costly, as the American tar distillers do not
produce cheap anthracene.
ADDITION AND CONDENSATION UNIT PROCESSES IN MANUFACTURE
OF INTERMEDIATES
Benzanthrone, from naphthalene, benzoyl chloride, and AlCI. to a-benzoyl-naphthalene to benz anthrone (benzanthrone is also condensed from anthranol and
glycerine by aid of sulfuric acid-preferred commercial procedure)
Benzoylbenzoic acid, from phthalic anhydride, benzene, and aluminum chloride
p-Chloro-benzoylbenzoic acid, from phthalic anhydride, chloro-benzene, and aluminum chloride
'
p-Methyl-benzoylbenzoic acid (for 2-methyl-anthraquinone), from phthalic anhydride,
toluene, and aluminum chloride
3-Hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid anilide, from 3-hydroxY-2-naphthoic acid and aniline
Phenyl-glycine, from aniline and chloro-acetic acid
Phenyl-l-naphthylamine-8-sulfonic acid, from I-naphthylamine-8-sulfonic acid, aniline, and aniline hydrochloride by heating in an autoclave
Tettamethyldiamino-benzophenone (Michler's ketone), from dimethyl-aniline (2
moles) and phosgene
T'ltramethyldiamino-diphenylmethane, from dimethyl-aniline (2 moles) and formaldehyde in presence of hydrochloric acid
8l
! "8
~
til
~..co
~
Z
""
891
892
INTERMEDlA'rES, DYES, AND THEIR APPLICATION
Miscellaneous Unit Processes

The following list presents, in outline, a selection of the most important
intermediates that have not been included in the unit processes considered in this section. DetaIls on their manufacture can be readily
obtained from the references under Intermediates at the end of this
chapter.
VARIOUS MISCELLANEOUS UNIT PROCESSES IN MANUFACTURE OF INTERMEDIATES
Acylation:
Acetanilide, from aniline by heating with glacial acetic acid
Acetyl-p-toluidine, from p-toluidine by heating with glacial acetic acid
Carboxylation:
3-Hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, from dry sodium ti-naphtholate and CO. under pressure at 200C. (see Salicylic Acid)
Salicylic acid, from dry sodium phenate and CO. under pressure and at 140C.
See Fig. 8, Chap. 39 for flow sheet
Miscellaneous:
Aminoazo-toluene (and sulfonate), from o-toluidine to diazoamino-toluene, and
molecular rearn.. ngement
Anthraquinone (ring closure), from o-benzoylbenzoic acid by sulfuric acid
Benzoic acid, from phthalic acid by decarboxylation
2-Chloro-anthraquinone (ring closure), from p-chloro-benzoylbenzoic acid by sulfuric acid
Phenyl-glycine from aniline, formaldehyde, and sodium cyanide'
Anthrimides from amino-anthraquinones containing halogen in alpha position
(anthraquinone vat dyes)
Dibenzanthrone from benz anthrone (anthraquinone vat dyes)
Bcnzoylation of amino-anthraquinones (anthraquinone vat dyes)
Arylamination of chloro- (or bromo-) anthraquinones containing alpha halogen
atoms (anthraquinone vat dyes)
DYES
Many of us have a feeling of bewilderment when we view the complicated chemical formula representing a typical dye. However, if we recall
the analogy between our houses and our dye:;; and view the dyes, as well.
as the houses, as being built out of simpler materials put together in an
orderly fashion, these' complicated structures become much simplified.
As the architect changes the period or style of a house by varying the use
of the same fundamental materials, wood, brick, stone, and steel, so the
chemist makes different dyes by varying the chemical reactions to which
he subjects the same intermediates. The dyes are built up out of more
than 500 intermediates by 'a dozen or so important unit processes that
unite one or more of these intermediates into a new chemical individual
which, if it has the right structure, becomes a dye.
1 VI!:NKATARAMAN,
op. cit., p. 1014.
CA USE OF COLOR
893
Figures 10 to 12 present a tabular outline of the sequences in the

procedures from the basic coal-tar hydrocarbons through the intermediates to a number of characteristic dyes, all by subjecting fi~st the
hydrocarbons and then the intermediates to the chemical changes (unit
processes when commercially applied). This chapter includes a number
of typical intermediates and dyes, and in their presentation the chmical
changes necessary for their fabrication are given. l Attention is called
to the names of the dyes in Figs. 10 to 12 as being both chemical and the
most used commercial designations. The dyes are classified both chemically (by structure) and by application (by use).
I
Cause of Color. A certain amount of unsaturation in the dye mo.lecule
with part of it at least in the form of aromatic rings combined with 'the
quinoid structure of a minimum complexity usually lays the foun~ation
of the molecules that we recognize as dyes. Much has been correlated
between chemical structure and color,2 and the earlier conceptiod~ promulgated by the dye chemists in this field are still helpful. W ~ may
write the equation
Dye = chromogen
+ auxochrome
The chromogen is an aromatic body containing a group called a c~romo

phore. By derivation, chromophore means color-gi!ler and is represented
by such chemical radicals as the following:
1. The nitroso group: -NO (or N-0H)
2. The nitro group: -N02 (or =NO'OH)
3. The azo group: -N=N-
4. The ethylene group: )C=e<

5.
The carbonyl group: )C=O
6. The carbon-nitrogen groups:)c
NH and -CH=N-
7. The sulfur groups: )C=8 and ) c - s - s - c (

1 From the selected references at the end of this chapter further details an bc
obtained, particularly fo~ the intermediates from the volumes by GROGGINS, DAVIDSON, or CAIN, and for t(le dyes from the books by VENKATARAMAN, LUBS, ROWE,
SCHULTZ, ann GEORGIEVics. NOTE: When this book is used as a college text, .an excellent assignment would1be to have the students fill in the necessary chemical changes
in Figs. 10 to 12. "C.l." followed by a number refers to ROWE, "Color Index and
Supplement," Society, of Dyers and Colourists, Bradford, Yorkshire, 1924, 1928;
here dyes are numbered serially.
WATSON, "Colour arid Its Relation to Chemical Constitution," Longmans, IGreen
& Co., Inc., New York, 1918. For the various theories of color see the introductIon to
GEORGIEVICS and GRANDMOUGIN, "A Textbook of Dye Chemistry." Scott, Greenwood
and Son, London, 1920; and Chap. 8 of VENKATARAMAN (many references); KIRK and
OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 4.
894
Such groups add color to the simpler aromatic bodies by causing displacement of, or an appearance of, absorbent bands in the visible spectrum.
These chromophores are so important that we chemically classify many
of our dyes by the chief chromophore that they contain. These chromophore groups are capable of reduction and, if this is carried out, the cqlor
frequently disappears, probably owing to the removal of electron resonance. Close packing of unsaturation, as conjugation, also ten.ds toward
color. Thus even the hydrocarbon dimethylfulvene:
'
"
/
1 '"
HC=CH
CH 3
c=c
H =CH/
CHa
has an orange color. Although it may be colored, a chromogen may lack

the chemical affinities necessary to make the color adhere to the textile
fiber. Thus assistant groups, or auxochromes, are needed, which are
usually salt-forming groups such as -NH2, -OR, their derivatives, or
the solubilizing radicals -COOH or -SOaR. These auxochromes,
chromophores, and chromogens win be very apparent by following the
classification of dyes, but the assisting radicals such as -OH, -NH2,
-SOaR, and -COOH have usually more influence on placing a dye in a
given use group directed toward dyeing a certain fiber, rather than in a
cheInical structural classification.
None of these color theories fully satisfies all the facts, but the above
have been exceedingly useful in working out new dyes and giving some
understanding of the entire color picture. Probably resonating energy is
of great importance in explaining why chromophores, auxochromes, and
unsaturation cause color. See references on bottom page 893 for adequate treatment of color theories.
Testing of Dyes. In the use of dyes it is of the utmost importance to
know such properties as fastness, solubility, and method of dyeing. l
There are various types of fastness' for dyes, all relative to one another.
It is essential to know, in properly evaluating and applying a dye, its
/ fastness not only to light and washing but also to bleaching, perspiration,
acids, and alkalies, rubbing, sea water, and carbonizing. American-made
dyes are as fast as any others in the world, being .the same chemical
compounds here as abroad.
Classification of Dyes. Dyes are classified from both the cheInical
and the application viewpoints. The manufacturers look at dyes from
1 The books herein referred to; particularly those by ROWE (" Colour Index and
Supplement,") and by KNECHT, RAWSON, and LOWENTHAL give such properties. How-
ever, the yearbooks of the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
present each year the latest methods for testing fastness of dyes together with recent
references to the literature.
r
I
I
I
_ _ z
0C)
895
C)
']~o\)~
"
= ==
"
III
.,
o~
u
z>--<o
==~=
~
~
8
.z_uC)
~
896
897
CLASSIFICATION OF DYES
the chemical aspect and arrange and manufacture them in groups usually
of like unit processes; this frequently brings similar chromophores
together. Thus, dyes that contain the azo chromophore are found manufactured in a building that may be called the azo building. On the other
hand, a similarity in grouping of those that contain the indigoid radical
is found. This very largely parallels the modern unit process way, of
classifying and looking at applied organic reactions. Not only do the
factories arrange dyes in this way but the books presenting the properties
of dyes so classify them, among which we may particularly cite the
volumes by Schultz and by Rowe. 1
In this chapter the various dyes are presented under this cheniical
classification. On the other hand, the users of dyes group them according
to the methods of application. A dyer engaged in coloring silk is particularly interested in the type of dye that gives good results on this fiber and
not specially in dyes that color cotton only. We do not always have 'this
sharp differentiation in application; indeed, we have certain dyes that
are union dyes and will color more than one fiber. There are three b~oad
divisions that we wish to color: those products of vegetable origin, tl,lOse
from animals, and those made artificially. Cotton, linen, and paper' are
of a vegetable nature and essentially consist of cellulose. On the other
hand, the products of animal origin that we wish to dye are much IIlore
reactive and consist of such substances as silk, wool, feathers, fur, and
leather. The artificial fibers consist principally of nylon,2 Dacron, Orlon,
dynel, Acrila,n, and of viscose rayon which latter dyes quite similarlj-i to
cotton, it being also essentially cellulose, and acetate rayon which is' an
ester and requires special dyes. The following are the main types of qyes
in our application classification:
Acetate rayon
Acid
Azoic
Basic
Direct cotton
Lake or pigment
Mordant or chrome
Sulfur or sulfide
Spirit-soluble
Vat
Food
Photographic
Medicinal
Bacteriological
Indicator
'j
The U.S. Tariff CommIssion presents dyes by both the use and the chemical classification. Table 6 'gives the production of the different dyes by
their use.
The acetate 3 rayon dyes are those which have been specially developed
I
See Selected Referenceh at the end of this chapter.

See Chap. 34.
3 VENKATAMARAN, op. cit., Chap. 6; THORPE, "Dietionary of Applied Chemistry,"
4th ed., Longmans, Green ~ Co., Inc., New York, 1937; Vol. 1, 1939. For an excellent
generalized presentation of dyeing, cf. ibid., Vol. 4, Pfl. 120-188; "Rogers' Manual
of Industrial Chemistry," 6t4 ed., D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc, New York, 1942.
However, the standard text in the field of dyeing or dye application is KNECHT, RAwSON, and LOWENTHAL, "Manual of Dyeing," 8th cd" 2 vols., Charles Griffin & Co.,
1
898
to dye cellulose acetate and some of the new synthetic fibers. They may be
broadly divided into two general groups embracing insoluble simple azo
dyes and insoluble amino,.anthraquinone 1 colors, both in a highly dispersed type and consequently capable of penetrating or dyeing the fiber.
Both of these general groups of dyes usually contain the ethanol-amine
TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF UNITED STATES PRODUCTION OF DYES, BY CLASSES
OF ApPLICATION"
Production, 1,000 lb.
Class of application
Average
Average
1934-1938
1947-1951
TotaL .....................
102,527
Acetate rayon ..................

Acid .........................
Azoic ........................
Basic ........................
Direct .......................
Lake and spirit soluble .........
Mordant and chrome ..........
Sulfur ........................
Vat, total. ...................
Indigo .....................
All other ...................
All other coal-tar dyes .........
1,961
13,849
1,077
5,149
25,780
2,765
5,262
16,619
29,234
15,378
13,856
831
1953
1954
187,173
165,806
142,982
7,435
21, i03
8,083
8,654
40,717
5,825
6,776
24,999
60,280
21,614
38,666
3,301
6,263
15,510
6,713
7,981
31,495
6,270
3,844
22,489.
60,957
17,839
43,i18
2,284
5,326
15,783
10,336
6,995
26,142
6,091
4,150
22,608
45,200
11 ,129
34,071
2,351
" "Synthetic Organic Chemicals," U.S. Tariff Commission, Washington (published

annually).
(-NHCH 2 CH 20H) or a similar radical which renders these dyes more

readily dispersible in water and more easily absorbed. Early examples of
the dispersed dyes are the S.R.A. wherein the dispersing agent is sulforicinoleic acid (hence the designation S.R.A.). Until these and similar
special dyes for acetate were developed, the selling of acetate rayon was
/ much handicapped. See basic dyes for the Astrazones.
The acid dyes are used to color animal fibers from acidified solutions,
probably by combining with the amphoteric proteins of such fibers.
Ltd., London, 1925. See ROSE, The Mechanism of Dyeing, Am. Dyestuff Reptr., 31,
204-211 (1942). For a very good summary of dyeing embracing the principal application classes as well as a consideration of the kinetics of dyeing, see LEWIS, SQUIRES,
and BROUGHTON, "Industrial Chemistry of Colloidal and Amorphous Materials," pp.
505-';;18, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1942.
1 ROWE and CHAMBERLAIN, Dyeings on Cellulose Acetate Rayon, J. Soc. Dyers
Colourists, 63, 268 (1937); KARTASCHOFF and FARINE, The Dyeing Phenomena of
Acetate Artificial Silk, Helv. Chim. Acta, 11,813 (1928).
CLASSIFICATION OF DYF,S
899
The acid auxochromic or solubilizing groups, -N0 2 , -SOaR, and

-COOR frequently aided by -OR, are usually present in the acid dye,
whether the fundamental chemical structure be that of the azo, triarylmethane, or anthraquinone complex. These acid dyes are of importance in wool and silk dyeing. Such dyes are somewhat deficient in
fastness to alkalies and soap, though usually possessed of good color
resistance. Examples are Orange II, 151/ and Acid Black lOB, 246 (the
azos), and Acid Alizarine Blue B, 1054 (the anthraquinone) dyes.
Azoic dyes are direct and developed dyes, applied especially on cot~on.
These azoic dyes are essentially colorless azo dye intermediates that are
marketed in four different groups of products: (1) Simple arylamines or
their mineral acid salts (" Color Bases"). These need ice, sodium nitrite,
and mineral acid for diazotization before coupling. (2) Stabilized diazonium compounds ("Fast Salts") which are made by combining
diazotized arylamines with a precipitant, such as zinc chloride. These
are stable products soluble in water and which can be coupled on :the
fiber with a selected component. Either the "Color Base" after .~ia
zotization or the already diazotized Fast Salt" can be reacted by the
user in situ with the same coupling constituent to produce the same dye.
(3) The "Naphtol" group (Du Pont's "Naphthanil") dye by first
impregnating the fiber with a selected coupling component to which 'the
diazotized arylamine is coupled in situ. (4) This group comprises mixtures
of one selected ~riazene (made by combining a diazotized arylamine with
a special type of secondary amine) and one selected "Naphtol," result.ing
in a stabilized specific insoluble azo dye produced in situ by special
printing and acid aging technique. These are marketed as "Rapidogens"
(Du Pont "Diagen" brand) and are exclusively used for printing. I
The azoics are next in importance to the vat dyes which they surpass
in brilliance of shade, particularly in the bright reds.
.
Basic dyes are mostly amino, or substituted amino, derivatives frequently from the triarylmethane or xanthene class but they are app~ied
mostly to paper. Practically all the Auramine, 655, manufactured in
America is consumed In paper dyeing. Some basic dyes, Bismarck Br~wn,
332 and Chrysoidine" 20, are used for leather. Crystal Violet, 681, and
Methyl Violet, 680, a:re mainly employed in typewriter ribbons, carbon
papers, and duplicating inks where also some other basic dyes ,find
I
application. A significant use of spirit-soluble basic dyes is in writing
and printing inks. IIi the sulfonated form some special types of basic
dyes still find a limited application in the dyeing of silk and wool b.ut a
more important utility of these sulfonated forms is their conversiotl to
lakes for printing inks. The special types' of basic dyes, the Astrazones,2
are of interest for dyeing some of the newer synthetic fibers all(~' for
1
Colour Index number, see ROWE, footnote page 893

op. cit., pp. 713, 1174, table.
VENKATARAMAN,
900
INTERMEDIATES, DYF.S, AND THEIR Al'PJ,ICATION
cellulose acetate printing. These have better fastness to light and to

washing than is true of the ordinary basic dyes.
The direct dyes are frequently from the azo class and are used to dye
cotton or the vegetable fibers. Some of them are also employed for
dyeing union goods (cotton and wool, or cotton and silk). As this dyeing
is usually aided by the addition of common salt, or Glauber's salt, to
the dye bath, such dyes have been called salt dyes. The salt decreases the
solubility of the dye and hence causes better exhaustion of it from the
dyeing solution. They are also called substantive colors. Examples are
Direct Blue 2B, 406, Direct Black EW, 581, Direct Brown 3GO, 596,
and many others. A number of direct dyes possessed of free NR2 groups
can be developed on the fiber thus increasing their insolubility and hence
their fastness to washing. This developing is by the processes of diazotizing the free amino group and then coupling with the developer which
may be tJ-naphthol (cf. azo dyes, page 904).
Lake or pigment dyes form insoluble compounds or lakes with salts
of Ca, Ba, Cr, AI, or phosphomolybdic acid. The dye molecule frequently contains -OR or -S03R groups. Such lakes, when ground in
oil or other media, form the pigments of many of our paints and inks.
In this use class fall such dyes as Lithol Red R, 189, Ponceau 2R, 79,
Orange II, 151, and the splendid phthalocyanines (pigments). Some basic
dyes are used for the tinting of paper in a water-dispersed form of phosphomolybdic (or tungstic) acid lakes. Wallpapers are frequently colored
with lakes from basic dyes containing a sulfonic group.
Certain insoluble dyes are widely used in a pure form known as toners
or pigment toners in paints, printing inks, and wallpapers and especially
for the pigment printing method for textiles, employing pigments of the
metal phthalocyanone and other types. The Aridye! (Interchemical
Corp.) products are printing pastes or emulsions containing a modern
heat-hardening resin for anchoring ,the pigment to the fabric. It has been
estimated that 50 per cent of all textile printing, especially for inexpensive
women's dresses, is being carried on by this method.
!
The use of pigments in the "dope" before spinning rayon, acetate, and
synthetic fibers, is growi'ng rapidly and is resulting in excellent colors of
outstanding all-round fastness.
The mordant or chrome dyes are applied principally to wool wherein
by the use of a mordant which may be chromium or less frequently
aluminum or iron, the fastness to light and washing is much increased.
Such dyes contain -OR or -COOH radicals frequently attached to azo
or anthracene (anthraquinon,e) complexes. The mordant dyeing is really
a metallic salt or lake formed in the fiber. Examples are Alizarin, 1027,
Chrome Blue Black U, 202, Gallocyanine, 883, and many others.
The sulfur or sulfide dyes contain a chromophore with sulfur and are
1 VENKATARAMAN,
op. cit., p. 293; Milliand Textilberichte, 1961, 634-638.
MANUFACTURE OF DYES
901
also dyed from a sodium sulfide bath, wherein the sulfur color is reduced
to a colorless or light-colored leuco' derivative. Sulfur dyes are usually
applied on cotton and form a large, low-priced, and useful group, amOl)g
which we find Sulfur Black, 978, as the most extensively sold single dye
(basis dry weight). These dyes furnish dull shades of good fastness to
light, washing, and acids. However, they are very sensitive to bleach .or
chlorine.
The vat dyes, including the long-used indigo, are those whose chemical
structure is such that reduction furnishes an alkali-soluble, "leuco vat"
with which the fiber, generally of vegetable origin such as cotton, is
impregnated. This, upon exposure to air, oxidizes back to the, insoluble
color. Such dyes are of complicated chemical structure such as indanthrenes but furnish dyes of exceptional fastness to light, alkaline washing,
perspiration, and even chlorine. The vat dyes provide the fast-dyed
cotton shirtings and dress goods and, although relatively expensive,
are rapidly increasing in use. The vat dyes are likewise made in a paste
with alkaline hydrosulfite-aldehyde reducing agent, printed on the cloth
and passed through an oxidizing bath of sodium bichromate or perbora~e.
Examples are Indigo, 1177, Indanthrene Blue GCD, 1113, and Anthraquinone Vat Yellow GC, 1095, Anthraquinone Vat Jade Green, 1101,
and Anthraquinone Vat Khaki 2G. Indigo has a unique and very
important use for dyeing wool in extremely heavy (navy blue) shades
where it shows surprisingly good fastness properties. Quite important
also is the use of several thioindigo dyes for the printing of rayon fabric
(mainly for women's dresses) in very bright shades ,with good fastness
properties.
The spirit-soluble or oil-soluble dyes are frequently simple azos pr
triarylmethane bases or anthraquinones used to color oils, waxes, varnishes, shoe dressings, lipsticks, and gasoline. Food dyes are of various
structures, selected and tested for harmlessness and employed in coloring
foods, candies, and confections. The photographic, medicinal, bacteriological, and indicator dyes are highly specialized products of relatively
small sales volume but of fundamental importance in the maintenance of
our national economy.
Manufacture of Dyes
The very distinguish~d and pioneering English chemist, Sir William

Henry Perkin, is the father of the synthetic organic chemical dyes. 2 Not
1 ZERWECK, Angew. Che~., 60, 141-147 (1948kfor discussion of constitution of
sulfur dyes and chemical reactions.
An authoritative, logical, and readable presentation of this industry is in the
booklet by ROWE, "Two Lectures on the Development of the Chemistry of CommElrcial Synthetic Dyes (1856-1938)," Institute of Chemistry, London, 1939.
902
only did he discover! the first practical synthetic aniline dye, Mauve,
which is made of toluidine, containing aniline, by oxidation, but he
organized with his father and brother a company to make synthetic dyes,
designed and built the equipment to manufacture Mauve and other dyes,
and went out into the dyeing establishments to show how to apply his
products. In the early years, from 1856 on, Perkin was the dye industry.
After 17 years of success, he sold out to enjoy a life of research and
investigation. In the meanwhile the Germans took up the dye industry
and rapidly became the leaders in the field until 1914, when the Americans,
English, and other nations intensively cultivated this line of manufacture
as an essential industry.
Industrially there are used now in the United States pver 1,000 different dyes of which 500 are made in appreciable tonnage,2 some, such as
Sulfur Black, Sulfur Blue, Sulfur Brown, Indigo, Direct Black EW, and
.Developed Black BH, amounting in production to more than 1,000 tons
annually for each.
To present some of the outstanding dyes we shall arrange them by the
chemical (or chromophore) classification, such as nitro, nitroso, azo dyes,
but include also the application designation. Dyes have entered the
markets of the world with a variety of names jor the same chemical individual. Such are listed in the inde~es and tabulations of a number of
/ books. 3 The usual name adopted here is that appearing in the annual
1 Perkin's first patent for, a synthetic dye was taken out Aug. 26, 1856, English
Pat. 1984(1856). Initially his yields on Mauve, or as he early called it, Aniline
Purple, were only 5 per cent.
"Synthetic Organic Chemicals, U.S. Production and Sales," U.S. Tariff Commission, Government Printing Office, WaShington, yearly. This report of production
and sales of dyes, intermediates, and other organic chemicals should be in the hands
of everyone interested in this field, as it supplies most up-to-date statistics on the
entire organIc field. Not only are current tonnages available, but trends are seen
by comparison of different years. This pamphlet for 1953 contains (Table C, p. 116)
a very useful "Glossary of Synonymous Names of Cyclic Intermediates."
3 ROWE, op. cit.; SCHULTZ, "Farbstofftabellen," 7th ed., Akademische VerlagsgesellBchaft m.b.H., Leipzig, 1936. These two volumes have the commercial dyes numbered
NITRO DYES
903
reports of the U.S. Tariff Commission to which is added the C.1. number
definitely to distinguish a specific chemical compound among the many
names under which it may be marketed.
.
The commercial names are frequently followed by letters, some .of
which have special designations, among which may be listed:
B
G
R
S
W
L
bluish, BB or 2B, more bluish.

yellowish (gelblich), occasionally greenish.
reddish.
bisulfite compound or sulfonic derivative or dye for silk.
for wool, HW for part wool, WS for wool and silk.
easily soluble (Ui8lich), lake forming, or for linen.
From a manufacturing aspect, dyes fall naturally into their chemidal

classification, which also is identical with that in the tabulations by
Rowe and Schultz (page 902). The presentation will follow this longaccepted arrangement. See Table 7 for production summary by chemical
classification.
NNitroso or Quinone Oxime Dyes. Chromophore: -NO (or
OH). Only two members of this class are listed as produced in America
by the U.S. Tariff Commission: Fast Printing Green, C.1. 2, and Naphthol
Green B, C.l. 5. The latter is an acid dye, is used in wool and pigme~t
dyeing, and is made by the action of nitrous acid on 2-naphthol-6-sulfonlc
acid and conversion to the ferric sodium salt.
Nitro Dyes. Chromophore: -N0 2 The only nitro dye that is reported
as made in the United States is Naphthol Yellow S, C.1. 10, which is a
cheap acirl dye for clear yellow shades on wool and silk, now little used
because of low light stability. It is a dye permitted in foods. Its chemiclJ,l
name is sodium 2,4-dinitro-l-naphthol-7-sulfonateJ. and it is manl,lfactured by sulfonating a-napltthol to I-naphthol-2,7-disulfonic acid or
I-naphthol-2,4,7-trisulfonic acid, and then nitrating, thus replacing one
or two sulfonic groups.
and arranged under the chemical classification with references to patents and other
literature, together with data on properties both. ch,'mical and dyeing, and with
directions for making. SHREVE, "Dyes Classified by Intermediates," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1922, also lists the multitudinous names under which
dyes are sold. The yearbook of the American Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists, Howes Publishing Co., New York, presents such names particularly for
the American manufacture. The list is very extensive, embracing over 150 pages.
904
ONa
Naphthol Yellow S, 10
Na0
SCON
0
2
N0 2
Azo Dyes. Chromophore:! -N N-. This class exemplifies the application of the unit process of diazotization and coupling. Over half of the
dyes of commerce fall within this classification, of various degrees of
TABLE 7. COMPARISON OF UNITED STATES PRODUCTION AND SALES OF DYES,
CHEMICAl, CLASSIFICATION, 1954B
BY
Sales
ProChemical class
duction,
1,000 lb.
Quantity,
1,000 lb.
Value,
$1000
,
Unit
value
per lb.
Total. ......... , '" ...................... 142,982 137,463 160,302 $1.17
Azo .......................................
Anthraquinone Vllt b. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indigoid and thioindigoid ....................
Sulfur or sulfide .............................
Triphenylmethane and diphenylnaphthylmethane .................................
Anthraquinone ................ " " ..........
Stilbene ............... " ....... , ...........
Ketonimine .................................
Pyrazolone .................................
Xanthene ..................................
Thiazole ...................................
Thiazine ........ , ............... '.' .........
Quinoline ..................................
Acridine ......... " .. " ...........' .........
All other' ..................................
52,388
31,128
14,041
22,608
50,3-12
:30,058
1:3,253
22,801
5,599
5,040
2,935
984
1,190
869
434
298
258
130
5,080
3,938
4,961
3,057
973
1,155
678
454
315
248
90
5,140
67,27-1
1.34
-10,387 1.34
6,451 0.49
6,573 0.29
7,925
II ,069
6,276
1,681
2,550
2,387
804
508
762
140
5,515
2.01
2.23
2.05
1.73
2.21
3.52
1.77
1.61
3.07
1.56
1.07
B "Synthetic Organic Chemicals," U.S. Tariff Commission, Washington (published

annually).
b Includes carbazole vat dyes.
, Includes naphthalimide, nitro, nitroso, azine, oxazine, phthalocyanine, and anilbe
black and allied dyes; also includes rubber colors and miscellaneous mixtures. Statis-'
tics for these groups cannot be publifhed separately without disclosing information
received in confidence.
complexity according to' the number of azo groups contained or of the

'assisting or auxochrome groups. Table 7 exhibits the production figures,
indicating that of azo dyes to be 35 per cent of the total. Pursuing the
1
VENKATARAMAN, op. cit., Chaps. 11-15.
905
AZO DYES
chemical classification, we name subgroups under the azo dyes as monoazo, disazo, trisazo, or tetrakisazo dyes, depending upon whether there are
present one, two, three, or four azo groups. And, as we may vary the
chemical skeleton and the number and nature of the auxochrome groups,
we obtain basic or mordant, acid or direct dyes, or indeed members of all
the use classes except vat and sulfur dyes. After the fundamental principles
of the reactions were worked out, following the basic discovery by Peter
Griess l in 1858, literally thousands of azo dyes were made and their
properties investigated. Those which survived are the azo dyes that
possess suitable properties of fastness or ease of dyeing.
Az'o dyes can be made soluble or insoluble as the central rings, or the
auxochromes, are changed. They can be made actually on or in the
fiber,2 or another azo group can be added to an azo dye already on the fiber
(developed colors), or a stabilized diazo derivative can be coupled with a
suitable intermediate, both being on the fiber (stabilized azoics). This
flexibility of formation leads to useful dyes of a great variety of properties.
The fundamental reactions may be expressed as follows:
llNH2
+ HN0 2 + HCI(NaN0 2 + 2HCI) -+ R-Nt CI- + 2H 20
R-Nt CI-
+ HR'OH
Diazonium
chloride
(or HR'NH 2) -+ RN
NR'OH
+ HCI
These two reactions are known as diazotization and coupling. Specifically,

the energy change in diazotizing in aqueous solution and thus forming
diazobenzene hydrochloride may be expressed: 3
tlH
-22,800 caL
For a-naphthylamine subjected to the same reaction, tlH = -24,820 caL

Fortunately for their wide industrial application these reactions can
usually be carried out almost quantitatively,' if the temperature is kept
low: this is done by the use of ice.
There are specific rules for the coupling of an amine or of a phenol to
a diazo body. ~ Generally the diazo solution is to be run into the arylamine, phenol, naphthol, or derivative, though there are some exceptions,
as Chrome Blue Black U exemplified in Fig. 13. With phenols and naphGRIESS, Ann., 106, 123 (1858).
Ice or ingrain or developed colors, now called az0ic8.
CAIN, "Chemistry and ITechnology of the Diazo Compounds," p. 32, Edward
Arnold & Co., London, 1920; cf. SAUNDERS, "Aromatic Diazo Compounds and
Their Technical Applications," ,2d. ed., Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1949.
4 There are a number of; books that present these reactions in various aspecui.
Particularly pertinent is thEl chapter on Diazotiza\ion and Coupling by Woodward
in Groggins "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis." Cf. O'BRIEN, "Factory Practice
in the Manufacture of Azo Dyes," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York,
1924. See also references at'th~ end of this chapter.
~ SAUNDERS, op. cit., Chap. VI; VENKA-TARAMAN, op. cit., pp. 411ff.
1
906
thols the coupling is usually para to the hydroxyl group or, if this position
is occupied, then the ortho place is taken. However, the very important
i3-naphthol couples only once and in the one position. Amines couple less
readily than do phenols; the coupling takes place only in the para position.
Of the diamines the meta derivatives react most easily, the coupling
taking place para to one -NH2 group and ortho to the other. This is
frequently called the Chrysoidine law and is exemplified in the making of
Chrysoidine G, C.1. 20.
NH2
O N t CI-
+ (I
H2
Q-N
N-()NH2HCI
H~
Substituents and pH influence coupling. For instance, H acid,
-0A+-HO
Alkaline
NH2
ACid
H0 3S---W--S OaH
has the position ortho to the -NH2 group activated in ,acid solutions,
and the coupling takes place there, while the activation in alkaline solutions is ortho to the -OH with coupling in this position; thus H acid can
couple twice. The important ammo-naphthol-sulfonic acids, gamma acid
and J acid; can couple only once but the position is influenced also by the
pH. This property is of very great technical importance in governing
the formation of azo derivatives of proper shade and of desired fastness.
Table 8 lists important azo dyes under the azo subclasses and the
application class. This table also gives the intermediates from which
the dye is derived. l Following the rules of coupling just enumerated, the
structure of these dyes can be determined.
The equipment in which azo dyes are manufactured by diazotization
and coupling is quite simple in cOqlparison t,o that used for most other
unit processes. It is exemplified in Fig. 13 depicting the making of
Chrome Blue Black U,' C.1. 202, and consists largely of wooden stirred
tanks of various sizes, wooden plate-and-frame filter presses, drying boxes
wherein on steel carts the dye, previously placed on trays, is dried by
circulating hot air. Sometimes sensitive dyes are dried in vacuum shelf
driers. The milling, mixing, and standardizing of dyes end the manufacturing' sequence. The mills must be so chosen as not to ignite the
sen:sitive dyes. As customers require absolute uniformity in dyes, the'
1 Ci. SHREVE, "Dyes Classified by Intermediates," for extensive tables of dyes
under each constituent intermediate.
AZO DYES
907
mIxmg and standardizing are of utmost importance. The double-cone
dye mixer and blender, sometimes used, has no internal parts to hold
up a dye and performs the mixing and blending in an unusually satisfactory manner.
Among the monoazo dyes, Chrome Blue Black Ul ranks as one of the
important chrome colors on wool for men's wear, particularly as its
various qualities of fastness are very good (fastness to light, acids,
alkalies, carbonizing, ironing, washing, perspiration, etc.). The U.S.
Beta-naphthol
7301b.
errecf solution at50C
Caustic soda 40' 600Ib.l-..=..:....:...:.:_-........--~--,
Water.
40001b.
.~+
_______--,
----...J
Muriatic acid 20 5001b.1-_ _ _ _

Water
5001b.
l2.4 acid paste containing

12001b.
300 0 Ib.
2001b.1-:-.,--~.:;..:n..:,.:..:te:..:.r.~1c~o;:;;o,.;./,:..fo....,.-'/5-D--,C.:;_._:-:-~
100"10 acid
Water
Salt
Ice
Iggg\~
{1000
lb.
CuS04'5H~O
IS lb.
No OH (to neutralize
Mamtain ol15D during dlazofizallon
S'x6'woad vatfor--diazotization and

coupling
-Liquor toseyver
Chrome blue black U

Powdered and stand-
f/H1l-_________..:.=.:.=-=-=:______---Iardized
For sale 35001b.obout

60-85'10 'eld
FIG. 13. Flow sheet for Chrome Blue Black U. Monoazo or chrome dye; batch = 5 lb.
moles.
Tariff Commission reports annual sales of over 700,000 lb. It is sold

for a,low price because of the cheapness of the raw materials and the skiil
of the dyemakers. The two intermediates are 1,2,4 acid (1-amino-2naphthol-4-sulfonic acid) and ,9-naphthol. It might seem easy to make
but in this case the nitrous acid not only diazotizes the -NH2 group but
tends to oxidize the 1,2,4 acid to tars and thus throw off the shade of the
finished dye and decrease the yield. This can be avoided by diazotizing
1-amino-naphthalene-2,4-disulfonic acid and then replacing the 2-sulfonic
acid by -OH through caustic soda, or by diazotizing in the presence of
a zinc salt. 2 However, the oxidizing influence of the nitrous acid is
1 This is C.l. 202 and, like most other dyes, is sold under many names, frequently
one for each manufacturer: Eriochrome Blue Black R (Gy), Calcochrome Blue Black
(CCC), Pontochrome Blue Black R (DuP), Superchrome Blue B Ex (NAC). The
initials in parentheses are those of the manufacturer, e.g., DuP stands for Du Pont.
See also dye lists in the yearbooks of the American Association of Textile Chemists
and Colorists.
, C/., ROWE, op. cit., C.l. 202, where methods and references are given.
908
INTERMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR APPI,ICATION
TAB I.E 8. IMPORTANT Azo DYES

Color
Index
No.
Name and class of dye
Intermediates from
which dye is made
Dye
application
class
Monoazo dyes: containing R-N-N-R'

20
Chrysoidine Y
24
Sudan I
138
Metanil YeJJow
142
Methyl Orange
151
Orange II
202
Chrome Blue Black R
Aniline
m-Phenylenediamine
Aniline
(I-Naphthol
Metanilic acid
Diphenylamine
Sulfanilic acid
Dimethyl-aniline
Sulfanilic acid
(I-Naphthol
l-Amino-2-naphLhol-4sulfonic acid
p-Naphthol
Disazo dyes: containing R-N-N-X-N

246
Acid Black lOB (Naphthol Blue Black)
332
Bismarck Brown 2R
401
Developed Black BH
406
Direct Blue 2B
518
Direct Sky Blue FF
B
SS
A
A'
A
M
N-R'
p-Nitro-aniline
H acid, Aniline
m-Tolylenediamine
(3 moles)
Benzidine
2-Amino-8-naphthol-6sulfonic acid (alk.)
l-Amino-8-naphthol-3,6disulfonic acid (alk.)
Benzidine
l-Amino-8-naphthol-3,6disulfonic acid (alk.) (2
moles)
Dianisidine
l-Amino-8-naphthol-2,4disulfonic acid (alk.) (2
moles)
B
D
Trisazo dyes: containing R--N=N-X-N=N-Y-N=N-R'

593
Direct Green B
Benzidine
Phenol
l-Amino-8-naphthol-3,6disulfonic acid
p-Nitro-aniIine
1 Indicator. NOTE: In this table A stands for acid dye, B for basic dye, D for_direct
dye, M for mordant dye. and SS for spirit-soluble dye.
AZO DYES
9.09
diminished in the presence of a small amount of a copper salt. l The flow

sheet, Fig. 13, follows this procedure 2 and carries out the reaction:
ojH NaNO,~ lro~--:H)

ar
~
+
SOaH
SOaH
1,2,4 acid
SOaNa
Diazo-Oxide
of 1,2,4 acid
+2H~O
N=N
6 + (DONa
OJ
{BlUe alkaline solution

Upon neutralization using
HCl the dye precipitates
out.
jl
,
I
SOaNa
Chrome Blue Black U

!
As in all diazotizations and couplings, tests must be made toward the

end of the reaction. In this case, after stirring for a while, a sample
diluted with an equal volume of distilled water should dissolve and shqw
only a slight excess of nitrous acid when tested with starch iodide paper. a
The diazo oxide of th~"I,2,4 acid is a suspension of b;onze crystals which
can be filtered off. However, this is not usually considered necessary,
and the coupling is carried out next morning after reducing the temperature to 5C. by adding about 1,000 lb. of ice. The coupling is then effected
by running in the sodium naphthol solution slowly over 2 hr. The blue
alk~Iine solution of the dye is preci"pitated the next day with dilu~ed
muriatic acid, testing tOWltrd the end so as to leave the mother liq1.!:or
faintly acid to Congo red test paper. The usual product sold, except for
the higher-priced concentrates, contains salt about equal to the dye
contents.'
From the flow shee~ and current material prices; the cost of the ma1 SAUNDERS, op. cit., p. 7; GEIGY, U.S. Pat. 793743 and English Pat. 10234(1904).
SAUNDERS, op. cit., p. 7; O'BRIEN, op. cit., pp. 151-154.
U.S. Pat. 2160882(1939) by Lubs describes a new method for removal of excess
nitrous acid, using sulfamic acid and thus avoiding side reactions which adversely
affect the purity of the color of the dye.
Most dyes contain salt or sodium sulfate to standardize, since batches will not
come from the plant in ~xactly the same strength. This is adjusted by a harmless
diluent. Very pure dyes are such products as the food, medicinai, or bacteriological
dyes, which are costly compared with the low-priced textile dyes.
910
terials for Chrome Blue Black can be calculated, to which should be

added:
I
Per 100 lb. of

8tandardized dye
Productive labor ........... _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $2.50

Nonproductive labor.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.00
Power and steam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1. 25
Maintenance and repairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1. 55
Supplies...... . . .. .... . .. . .................... .... . .. 0.55
Plant overhead ................................. , .. '"
1.50
$8.35
This figure should be increased by pro rata charges for depreciation,

taxes, insurance, and sales expense. '
Directions for making other dyes can be "found in the references at the
end of this chapter.2 The apparently complicated trisazo dye, Direct
Green B, C.l. 593, is made ~from four intermediates according to the
scheme:
Phenol
Benzl'd'me/ ~
~
H acid
p-Nitro-aniline
The arrows indicate coupling from diazo body to a hydroxy or amino

derivative. The resulting dye formula is
O-N=N-OOH
HO
NH2
-N, N})lN N-ONO.

I
NaOaS
'
SOaNa
Direct Green B
1 A flow sheet with costs for 1,2,4 acid is given on pp. 1111 and 1114 in the chapter
on dyes, by Shreve, in "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry." This dye is sold
so chllaply that even the 1,2,4 acid would have to be manufactured to compete.
S Particularly in ROWE, "Colour Index and Supplement." A flow sheet for C.1.
518, Direct Pure Blue 6B or Diamine Sky Blue FF, is given by Woodward, in GROGGINS, op. cit., p. 170i cf. O'BRIEN, op. cit.
AZO DYES
911
In 1880, the making of an azo dye, Para Red, C.l. 44, right on the fiber
was undertaken. This was done by padding the cotton cloth with 'an
alkaline tJ-naphthol solution, followed by an acid solution of diazotized
p-nitro-aniline. Later the tJ-naphthol was replaced by 3-hydroxy-2naphthoic acid or its anilide (Naphtol AS), to attain more sUbstantivity
and brighter shades of superior fastness. This generalized process enabled
the more soluble constituents to penetrate into the fiber and there to
form the insoluble azo dye. Such procedures are still very importantand
comprise a good share' of those made-on fiber dyes, now known as azoics
(see under Classification of Dyes). Azoic p'rints from diazonium pastes
on "Naphtolated" goods are of wide utility.
This and other azoic procedures require the dyer to be also a dyemaker.
To simplify and to give the dyer an improved line, particularly for
printing on cotton, the stabilized azoics (class 4) have been made. These
are azo dyes and may be defined as "a mixture of a soluble stabilized
aromatic diazo compcmnd and a secondary component with which it can
couple under suitable conditions to form an insoluble colored pigment."2
Among stabilized azoics 3 the Diagens of the Du Pont Company and the
Rapidogens of the General Dyestuffs Corporation are outstanding developments for printing on cotton goods with results of good fastness
and at a reasonable price. The diazo is stabilized by combination with a
secondary amine containing a solubilizing group. This gives a perfectly
stable mixture with Ii. coupling component, usually an arylamide of
3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, as long as in alkaline condition. The constituents'react and form the insoluble azo dye when I}cidified, as exemplified in the reactions shown on page 912.
For years, metallic 4 saits, particularly of chromium and of aluminum,
have been used in making lakes and as mordants, having been initiated
by the Neolin of the Swiss. Crossley and Shafer& of the Calco Chemical
Division of the American Cyanamid Company, have brought out a class
of colors, the metallized dyes, sold under t.he name Calcojast. These dye
wool from acid baths with excellent fastness to washing, milling, ~nd
light. Examples 6 are Calcofast Olive Brown G, Calcofast Orange 4R,
and Calcofast Orange YF made by coupling nitro-diazo-phenols with
1 The U.S. Tariff Commission reported production of Naphtol AS as over 900,000
lb. out of over 6,000,000 for the total azoic group.
LUBS, Stabilized Azoic Colors, Am. Dye8tuff Reptr., 26, 101 (1937); cf. DORMAN,
Naphtol AS Type Dyes, Am. Dye8tuff Reptr., 28, 79 (1939); for nitrosamines., cf.
C.1. 70; WOODWARD, in GROGGlNS, ap. cit., pp. 136-137.
3 LUBS, ap. cit.; DORMAN, ap. cit.; DAHLEN, U.S. Pats. 1968878(1934) and 2008750
(1935); DAHLEN and ZWI~GMEYER, U.S. Pat. 2021911(1935).
VENKATARAMAN, ap. cit., Metal-dye complexes, pp. 534ff., 551ff.
CROSSLEY and SHAFER, U.S. Pats. 2034390(1936), 2086854(1937), 2120799(1938),
2136650(1938), 2213647(1940), 2220396(1940), 2220397(1940).
U.S. Pat. 2120799(1938). Specific examples are given.
912
CI
INTERMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR APPI,ICATION
C H
Diazotized
2,5-dichloroaniline
CI
&,
->
-SOaR
0'-N=N-Z~O'
CI
-W'Cl- + H~-O'
0b
1
COOH
COOH
-SO.H
N -ethyl-5-sulfoanthranilic acid
(stabilizer)
C
COOR
Stahilized "diazo" component,

or triazene
Triazene
Coupling component
3-hydroxy-2-naphtho-o-phenetidide
Q-N~N-tD_oo.rr {X)::NR-O
AB applied to fabric
Rapidogen Orange R
01
Steam +
Acid
QI-N=N---r
-CONH-b
CO-OH
OC.H.
+ stabilizer (discarded)
Bright orange dye on cotton
phenyl-methyl-pyrazolones in weakly metallic salt. The metal used_may

vary over a wide range, or a compination of1metals may be employed
yielding different colors. The metal derivatives are soluble and are a part
of the molecule. The metallized dye is obtained by salting out the reaction
I liquor using common salt up to 25 per cent of the aqueous solution.
Stilbene Dyes. Chromophores: -N N- and =C=C=. These dyes
are sometimes classed with the azo group to which they are closely
related. Although this class of dyes contains an azo chromophore, it is
not made by the diazotization and coupling reactions. These are direct
cotton dyes and the most used example is Direct Yellow R, C.I. 620,
which is made by the action of heat and caustic soda on p-nitro-tolueneo-sulfonic acid (4 moles). These stilbene dyes (C.l. 620-635) are now held
to be mixtures of azo dyes of unknown constitution.!
1 ZIEGLER, -K., FIAT Rev. Ger. Sci., 1939-1946, Part II, p. 27;
Soc. Dyers Colourists, 66 (8). 417.
KNIGHT,
A. H., J.
TRIARYLMETHANE DYES
913
Pyrazolone Dyes. Chromophores: -N N- and =C=C-. These

are also sometimes classed with the azo group. The members are acid
dyes and are usually used on silk and wool, though to some extent for
lakes. The chief member is Tartrazine, C.1. 640, which is made from
dioxytartaric acid and phenylhydrazine-p-sulfonic acid (2 moles). Its
formula is
Na03S O - - N
N-~--~-COONa
HO-C
"'N/
S03Na
Ketonimine Dyes. Chromophore: NH=C=. This small class (2

members) is so close to the next, or triarylmethane dyes, that these two
dyes are frequently grouped with the triarylmethane ones. The members
are Auramine, C.L 655, and its homolog. Auramine is used primarily for
paper dyeing. It is manufactured from dimethyl-aniline (2 moles) and
formaldehyde furnishing 4,4'-bis( dimethy lamino )-dipheny lmethane. Thjs
intermediate upon heating with sulfur, ammonium chloride, and salt to
about 200C. in a current of NHa yields auramine pase which is con..,
verted to the hydrochloride:
/ON(CH3h
HCl'HN=C
.
" ' O N (CH3 h
Auramine
Triarylmethane Dyes. Chromophores: =C NH and =C N-.

However, the cause of color in this class with this complex as the charac-
Ar-LAr
Ar
teristic chemical group, is due to more than the presence of a simple
chromophore. Conjugated bonds, unsaturation, and quinoid arrangement
are all important, but it is the possibility of more than one resonating
form of the entire molecule (including generally the amino auxochromes)
914
that is now held to be responsible for the color.! These dyes are basic ones,
dyeing cotton with tannin mordant, or when sulfonated, acid dyes for
wool and silk. They furnish very beautiful shades but, for the most part,
they are not very fast to light.
Malachite Green, C.1. 657, is the chloride of p,p'-tetramethyldiaminotriphenylcarbinol,2 sold usually as zinc chloride complex. Its formula is
This dye is made by condensation of benzaldehyde and 2 moles of

dimethyl-aniline with the aid of heat and hydrochloric acid. This furnishes tetramethyldiamino-triphenylmethane, called the leuco base, which
is then oxidized by lead peroxide to the dye base, the salt of which is the
commercial dye (either oxalate or zinc double chloride).
Dye base
Many of the triarylmethane dyes are, carried through this same sequence.
Methyl Violet, C.l. 680, is a basic dye, produced in about 1,400,000 lb.
per year and for a wide variety of uses, e.g., on cotton, silk, and paper as
/a self color, in calico and ~ilk printing, in the dyeing of jute, coco fiber,
wood, linen, straw, leather, and in the manufacture of marking and
stamping inks, carbon papers, copying pencils, and lacquers. This dye
is the hydrochloride of pentamethyltriamino-triphenyl-carbinol. It is
made by the oxidation of dimethyl-aIiiline (3 moles) using cupric chloride
in the presence of phenol. One methyl group goes to formaldehyde which
1 LEWIS and CA.LVIN, Color, Chern. Rev., 26, 273 (1939). The influence of alkylation
in color chang~ is tabulated by SHREvE in 3d ed., p. 508, in GROGGINS, "Unit Processes
in O:t;ganic Synthesis."
This is the nomenclature found in the dye books. Chemical Abstracts names these
dyes by the more logical I.U.C. system and would call the dye base of which commercial Malachite Green is a salt, bis(p-<iimethyl-aminophenyl)-phenylmethanol.
915
XANTHENE DYES
supplies the central carbon. ' The function of the phenol in this reaction
is unknown. The Methyl Violet has the formula:
Xanthene Dyes. These dyes usually are derivatives of xanthene.
It is difficult to say what the chromophore is, but the remarks as to the
cause of color in the triaryl group are of value here. These dyes are
quite closely related to the aryl methane ones, and the oxygen bridge can
be viewed as made by the elimination of water from two hydroxyl groups,
ortho to the carbon bridge. The presence of conjugation is characteristic of such chromophores as -C=O or -C N-. The most widely
sold of these dyes is Eosin, C.l. 768, which is tetrabromofluorescein.
Fluorescein is made by condensation of resorcinol (2 moles) and phthalic
anhydride in presence of a dehydrating agent such as zinc chloride. The
formula of Eosin is given below. Eosin is an acid dye for wool and
silk, and also for cotton with a tin or alum mordant. However, its chief
application is to make lakes and for the preparation of ordinary red
writing and stamping inks.
Br
"'0
N&O("(
Br\A_ /
Eosin
C
C.I. 768
Br
0
,1Br
OONa
1 Details of these various processes and the merchandising of the reactions as far
as they are published can be obtained from the references at the end of this chapter.
The "Colour Index and Supplement" and the book by VENKATARAMAN, op. cit. are
the best general references.
916
Thiazole Dyes, or Primuline Dyes. These contain sulfur in the thiazole

ring:
-C-S
II
~c-
-C-N
The chromophores are )C=N- as well as the -8--C= etc., but the
arrangement in conjugated double bonds is of importance. ~hese dyes
are chiefly direct or developed dyes for cotton, though some of them are
union dyes.
Direct Fast Yellow, C.l. 814, is a direct color of excellent properties;
it is also a union dye. It is made by sodium hypochlorite oxidation of
the sodium salt of dehydrothio-p-toluidine-sulfonic acid.
SOaNa
H'U=)G--ONH.
This latter is prepared by heating p-toluidine and sulfur followed by
sulfonation. Direct Fast Yellow has also an azo chromophore, as is
shown by the following structure:
SOsNa
H'CO:)c--C>-N
SOaNa
HacO: '"
C>-
/c-
Azine Dyes. The azine dyes have as a mother substance phenazine:

I
' )C
and ,;e mayI assume as chromophores
N-; but here, as in many
other of these complicated ring systems, resonance is being more and

more looked upon as the basis of color. Indeed in these simpler chromophores like )C=N- the structure contains a "fairly loosely bound
917
THIAZINE DYES
chromophoric electron."l The azine dyes are quite varied in their application. The Nigrosines, C.l. 864 and 865, have annual sales of over
2,600,000 lb. and are used, after jetting with suitable yellow dyes, for
blue-black and black polishes for leather shoes and other leather goods.
Their ultimate constitution is unknown. The nigrosines are also employed
for silk dyeing. They are such good dyes at such reasonable prices, that a
welcome addition is M icrosol Black,2 a black pigment insoluble in water
and substantially insoluble in acetone, alcohols, and hydrocarbons. This
black pigment, which gives a gray upon dilution, is useful for coloring
lacquers, plastics, paints, inks, and emulsions for textile. printing. It is
made by treating spirit-solUble or unsulfonated nigrosine (or induline)
with an oxidizing agent such as manganese dioxide or nitric acid.
Although Safranine, C.l. 841, is not sold so largely as the nigrosines,
its constitution is simple and it may be formulated:
It is made by oxidation by CrOa in acetic acid of equimolecular pro

portions of p-tolylenediamine and o-toluidine to the indamine:
This is then condensed with aniline (or o-toluidine) in the presence of an

oxidant. Safranine is a basic dye and is used largely on cotton mordantl;ld
with tannin and fixed wi~h tartar emetic.
Thiazine Dyes. These have the important member, Methylene Blue,
C.l. 922, which has the formula:
ClThis is a basic dye and is made from dimethyl-aniline.

1 GLASSTONE, "Textbook of Physical Chemistry," p. 573, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1940.
2 FRIESE (American Cyanamid Company). U.S. Pat. 2194423(1940).
918
Sulfur or Sulfide Dyes. 1 These dyes are so complex that very little
is known of their chemical structure. The chromophores present are
::=C-S-C::= and ::=C-S-S-C::= as bridges in complicated molecules. 2
These sulfur dyes are used to dye cotton from a sodium sulfide bath in dull
but full shades of excellent fastness.
Sulfur Black, C.L 978, is the most WIdely sold of all dyes figuring on a
dry basis, the sales amounting to over 11,000 tons annually. It is also a
very low priced product. Sulfur black ,is made from either 2,4-dinitrochloro-benzene or 2,4-dinitro-phenol by refluxing with a polysulfide solution for many hours follQwed by precipitation of the dye by air oxidation.
The demand for sulfur black was responsible for the first plant in America
to produce chloro-benzene, installed about 1915. The time for thionation
in some of these sulfur colors can be much shortened-from days to
hours-by changing the solvent from alcohol or water to a monoalkyl
ether of diethylene glycol. 3
Sulfur Blue and Sulfur Brown are produced to the extent of more than
4,000 tons per year for each while about 2,000 tons of Sulfur Green are
produced. These dyes are also manufactured from a large variety of pure
intermediates by thionation, among which can be named: diphenylamine derivatives, indophenol derivatives, dinitro-naphthalenes, tolylenediamines, and many others. Oxidation with hydrogen peroxide sometimes
brings out a desired shade after thionation. Hydron Blue, C.L 969, is
the product from the carbazole indophenol, using alcoholic polysulfide
as the thionation agent.
Anthraquinone Dyes; Chromophores: =C=O and =C=C= arranged in the anthraquinone complex. The auxochromes are frequently
(1) -OH when the dyes fall into the mordant class like Alizarin, C.L
1027, or (2) -SOaH when we have, for example, the acid dye Acid
Alizarin Blue B, C.L 1054. These dyes have very fast characteristics.
Acid Alizarin Blue has the formula:
'.
HC(2N CO"'oOH OaNa
NaQaS
HO
/'
CO
NH2
and is manufactured by forming the 1,5-dihydroxy-anthraquinone

(anthrarufin) followed by nitration, sulfonation, and reduction.
I
1 VENKATARAMAN, op. cit., Chap. 35, pp. 1059ff.; BIOS, 983; BIOS, 1166; FIAT,
1313, II, III.
'Empirical formulas are variously given as C"H 16N .O.S, or C"H 16 N ,O.S, for
typical sulfur dyes.
3 LUBS and STROUSE, U.S. Pat. 1944250(1934).
919
ANTHRAQUINONE VAT DYES
Anthraquinone Vat Dyes. These are also based on anthraquinone

like the preceding class and have many of the chromophore and the fastness chara~teristics of that class, only accentuated in many instances.
However, these dyes are capable of being reduced to an alkaline soluble
derivative which is called a vat and which oxidizes to the color (thus
resembling the next class or indigo dyes). To make a commercial dye
the reduced or leuco compound must have affinity for the fiber, and the
insoluble dye must adhere firmly.' These necessities are met with in so
many of the members of this class that we have in the vat dyes a rapidly
Phthalic cmhydridtt
Chlorobonzene (80'r.rec~)
Aluminum chloride
H2S04(100 perc<nt)
'2- CIIminoanthraquinon
Nitrobl2nzene *
Al"ltimony pn+Ochloric:lcr
RecoVf>17JCI os omline
or nifrobenZtntJ
1481b.
iOOlb.
\~gg:~:
}'O2.rhJ;;"'roanthro"""",UC< 23Sib.
200 lb. } Indanlhrene
2.~g :~:
7-chloroonth"_inon<
NH 3 (Z6perunt)**
quinone
~~~!;'j~
2 orninoonthraquinone
Caustic po+asn
KN0 3 (or K-chlorate)
200 Ib.
lb.} lndanthrenc blue R.s.No If
~OOO
40 lb.
lncicmthnz:ne blue RS. 100 lb. }

H2 S04 (93%)
1.200 lb. IndQnthrene blue G.C,.o. No. 1113
F. SO,
90 lb.
(aboulllO lb. 100% dye)
CI2
25 lb.
(60'65 lb. 100% dye)
".90%
rPCon'rab/~
FIG. 14. Outline flow sheets for simple vat dyes-many steps omitted.
growing class of colors of remarkable properties of fastness and permanency. Their growth has been greatly stimulated, indeed made possible,
by-the American discovery or commercialization of synthetic phthalic
anhydride from air oxidation of naphthalene, from which synthetic
anthraquinone is manufactured. These vat dyes are employed largely
on cotton and rayon and, to a limited extent, on silk; indeed they furnish
us some of our finest and fastest colored fabrics. Figure 14 summarizes
the flow sheets depicting in outline the sequences from main raw materials
to the following three vat dyes:
1 The basic chemical structure that gives to an anthraquinone or indigoid dye
the vat dyeing characteristics is usually the presence of two CO groups which on
reduction give alkali-soluble C(OH) groups.
The almost invariably used reducing agent is sodium hydrosulfite, Na 2S20"
employed for solutions; br the formaldehyde compound, formaldehyde sulfoxalate
employed for printing. The reaction may be expressed:
Na 2S20, + 2NaOH + H 20 = Na2SO, + Na 2SO, + 2H2 (on the dye)

Recently Lubs has patented in U.S. Pat. 2164930(1939) the usc of the hydrogen
peroxide oxidation product/of thiourea for the same purpose.
920
NH
/V-NH
HN-C(J) HNCl=C(J)
CO
((
C
((CO"'-(T-Cl
Co,.
Anthraquinone Vat Blue RS or

Indanthrene Blue RS,
C.1. 1106
CO
CO
Anthraquinone Vat Blue QCD or

Indanthrene Blue QCD,
C.1. 1113
CO
(( X)_fI
!-cc X)
C
CO
Anthraquinone Vat Yellow or

Indanthrene Yellow G,
C.1. 1118, or
FJavanthrone
These dyes all need p-amino-anthraquinone as an essential intermediate,

proceeding by an oxidizing condensation to the dyes. Indanthrene Blue
GCD is a chlorination product, and has superior fastness properties
because of this.
Another example of these very fast and stable vat dyes is Anthraquinone Vat Dark Blue BO; C.l. 1099 (also sold as Hydroform Deep Blue
:aOA as well as under other names), which has the structur~:
0:
This is a very compact molecule, consisting very largely of carbon

(nearly 90 per cent) and possessing great stability. It is made by caustic-
ANTHRAQUINONE VAT DYES
921
potash fusion from benzanthrone.
0C0u
The benzanthrone is manufactured by condensation from anthranol and

glycerine under the influence of sulfuric acid, and the anthranol in turn
from anthraquinone by reduction with sulfuric acid and iron (or copper).
The anthraquinone vat dyes because of their superior fastness, especially on cotton, are becoming both relatively and tonnagewise more
important every year. They are gradually supplanting dyes of less
superior qualities; for example, in the Second World War most of the
khaki uniforms were vat-dyed and exhibited practically no fading against
light and washing in striking contrast to the bad fading of the sulfurdyed cotton uniforms of the First World War. At present the anthraquinone vats of Table 7 are produced to more than 31,000,000 lb. To
these should be added 4,000,000 lb. of anthraquinone vats of "ungrouped" dyes, i.e., those not classified. This makes a total for these dyes
of 35,000,000 lb., or 25 per cent of the total yearly dye production.
The 18,000,000-lb. plant of Ciba States, Ltd., at Toms River, N.J., with
a normal producing capacity of 4,000,000 lb. of anthraquinone vat dyes,
has been pictured and described. l The 'reference gives the fullest details
ever published of any vat dye, including diagrammatic flow sheet material
requirements, yields, reactions, and chemical engineering details to
produce anthraquinone Vat Brown BR.;2 from 1,4-diamino-anthraquinone
and l-chioro-anthraquinone through the trianthrimide.
0=
OHN-
II
=0
-NHO
I II
0;0 u/)
o
Anthraquinone Vat Brown BR

1 BRADLEY and KRONOWETT, Anthraquinone Vat Dyes, Ind. Eng. Chern., 46, 1146
(1954).
VENKATARAMAN, op. cit., p. 906; see this reterence for other such dyes, e.g.,
Anthraquinone Khaki 20.
922
Anthraquinone Vat Jade Green, C.l. 1101, was produced in the largest
amount in 1953 of any anthraquinone vat dye, thi~ amounting to 6,000,000
lb. of 6 per cent paste at an average value of $.89 per lb.
Indigoid Dyes. The remarks that headed the vat-dyes section pertain
largely to this chemical class also, except that the members of this class
are derivatives of indigo or thioindigo.
co
CC>~(X)
s
CO
Thiointligo, 1207
These dyes fall in the vat use classification and are applied principally
on cotton. A very large tonnage of indigo is manufactured each year.
Recently this has amounted to about 11,000 tons annually of 20 per cent
paste. When the Oriental export business was flourishing, production
up to 15,000 tons was made. Indigo was first a naturally cultivated dye,
but the German chemists worked out a profitable synthesis for indigo,
though only after spending over $6,000,000 in research and development.
However, this was a profitable venture for them as their synthetic indigo
was more uniform and much cheaper than that previously grown on
1,500,000 acres, principally in India.
Indigo,l C.l. 1177, itself is a water-insoluble blue dye of good properties,
largely used on cotton and rayon, but sometimes on silk. Indigo has
become quite important in dyeing full shades of navy blue on wool for
uniform cloth of good fastness. When dyeing, it is reduced by hydrosulfite to make the alkali-soluble leuco derivative or to make indigo white.
Indigo white
1 VENKATARAMAN,
op.
cit.,
CHAP.
33.
923
INDIGOID DYES
Figure 15 gives an outline flow sheet for the manufacture of indigo by

several sequences from aniline, which is the present commercial starting
1,750 lb.oniline (net)
575 lb. So,

1,200 lb. No, So,
1,330 lb. formalin

840 lb. NoCN
Hydrolysis. at 90-100 dog.
C.wlth:
490 lb. KOH lin dil. soln.
400 lb. NoOH
1,775 lb. aniline

}
472 lb. chloroocelic acid
~ ~
E",
~'O
l~
'\; E.
0 ~
Sodamick __
'll~
1.250 lb. Fe CI, Aq.
:t~ ~ht
E
~ ~'%
d"ling
~-& ollf>r .
Neutralize with:
SOO lb. KOH 1 in soln.
J!.
<
400 lb. NoOHj
i{OH~(=~(K,NO)
(recOY~n>d)
No OH
"
~lli)ave
,
1~ro ~
Sodium
2.400 Ib.
Ammonia
m:~}
Note: Y1ekts 80-82% on aniline: I<OH. NoOH. NI6

FIG.
Pt>r ton Indigo 100'70 or

5 tons 2070 paste>
~",d
and
~used
15. Outline flow sheet for indigo.
point for the intermediate product, phenyl-glycine. The following reactions summarize the chemical changes involved in this flow sheet Ccf.
also Fig. 12).
Indoxyl Using Sodum Amide:

ONH'CH'COO
m
a
NaNH,
NaOH
KOH
22Q--240C.
(i-NH)
l~co
K}
CH 2 + Na OH
(+ NHa from NaNH 2)
Indoxyl Using Metallic Sodium:
NH-CH2Cc)O{~a
Na --> O-NH)
NaOH
CH 2
KOH
-CO
up to 300C.
+ Na
}Oll
Although, apparently, the sodium amide or the metallic sodium does not
enter into the reaction,
these two reagents and the mixed N aOH and
I
.
KOH maintain the. necessary fluxing and anhydrous cundition for the
dehydrating ring closure to proceed with good yields. The use of the
mixeu Na, K salt of phenyl-glycine and of mixed NaOH, KOH gives lower
fusion points with consequent lower temperatures and enhanced yields.
924
Phenyl-glycine by Chloro-acetic Acid:

NH2 + CICH2COOH ---+ ONH'CH2'COOH
Aniline
Chloro-acetic
acid
NHCH2COOH
+ HCI
Phenyl-glycine
+ ~a}OH ---+ ONHCHCOO{~a
Phenyl-glycine
Mixed Na, K salt
Phenyl-glycine by Formaldehyde and Sod1:um Cyanide:

H 2CO
+ NaHSO a 50-80C.
Formaldehyde
~
",----/NH.
Sodium
bisulfite
50-75C. ~
+ HOCH.SO.ONa ---~
",----/NH.CH.SO,Na + HIO
Aniline
Formaldehydebisulfite
",----/NH.CH.SO.Na
An iline
formaldehyde
bisulfite
H 2C(OH)S020Na
Formaldehyde-bisulfite
NH'CH2'CN
Phenyl-glycinenitrile
.Aniline-formaldehyde-bisulfite
+ NaCN 80C.~
~ "'----/ NHCH.CN + Na.SO.
Sodium
cyanide
Ph()nyl-glycinenitrile
Sodium
sulfit()
+ 2H20 + {~~JIH 70 to boiling

ONH'CH2COO{~a + H 20 + NHa
Mixed Na, K salt of phenyl-glycine
Phthalocyanine ' Dyes and Pigments. Figure 17 represents the structure of copper phthalocyanine. This group contains a new chromophore of
great complexity, or more likely a new arrangement of the simpler
chromophores : =C-N- and =C=C= . Here again, it may be that
resonance will be shown to be the fundamental cause of the color. In
copper phthalocyanine four isoindole units are linked by four nitrogen
atoms and one copper atom to furnish a complicated ring structure which,
however, may be viewed as somewhat similar to the basic ring system of
chlorophyll. This ring system and its derivatives show remarkable
stability2 to light, water, chemicals, and even heat. They sublime unchanged at 550C. Because of this stability, their insolubility in water,
and the intensity and beauty of their color, these phthalocyanines are
1 DAHLEN, T he Phthalocyanines, Ind. Eng. Chern., 31, 839 (1939). This article
includes a bibliography of the work, gives patents, and describes the fundamental
and enlightening studies of R. P. Linstead of England. For more det ails (107 references)
cf. VEN KATARAMAN, op. cit., Chap. 37.
, SCH WARZ, T he Phthalocyanines Are Faster Than Anything in Color Produced
So Far, Am. Dyestuff Reptr., 29, 7 (1940).
PBTBALOCYANINIl DYIl8 AND PIGMENTS
925
FlO. 16. A dye worker at Du Pont's Chamber Worke, Deepwater Point, N.J., is shown
placing dye cake in trays for drying, after the cake has been removed from a filter
press. After grinding, testing, and standardizing, the product is ready for shipping.
(COUM1I 01 Du Pont.)
of particular applicability to the pigment and paint fields. Three of

these blue-green pigments have become important commercially : The
metal-free phthalocyanine is sold as Monaatral Fast Blue GS powder
(Du Pont) and also as aqueous pastes and dispersions. T he copper
derivative is merchandised as a practically pure powder as Monastral Fast
Blue BSN powder.
The copper phthalocyanine is highly chlorinated and is then sold as
Monaatral Fast Green GS powder and modifications. It has about 14
chlorine atoms per phthalocyanine unit. These dyes are only of t he
blue and green shades, but they supply a long-felt want for pigments of
their excellent properties. They were discovered accidentally as an
impurity in the manufacture of phthalimide. They are sold as pigments,
or insoluble but highly dispersed colors, in printing inks, artists' colors,
926
H
H
~C-C"
HC
"
CH
C=C/
N=C1
~"
HC
1
HC
1......
C=C
~C/
H
"N~
:...../11
....:....
C--C
.....
C--C
)N-7:~+-N(
I ....
C=C
C--N
....
.....
/
N=C
CH
II
........
/~
~
....
C--N
CH
"C~
H
I I
C=C
H(~C-C~
)CH
FIG. 17. Copper phthalocyanine structure. (After Dahlen.)
paints, lacquers, enamels, coated textiles, paper, linoleum, and rubber.

We may summarize' their manufacture according to the following
equation:
4
O=
CN
CN
Phthalonitrile
180-250
+ Cu
Copper
Structure as in Fig. 17
Phthalocyanine (Copper)
Natural Organic Dyes. For centuries these have been of the utmost
importance. We have all heard of Tyrian purple of the ancients. It
/was extracted from mollusks. growing on the-shore of the Mediterranean.
It is, however, a dye, 6,6'-dibromo-indigo, of,the following formulation:
'CO
(Y
B~
NH
""C=C/
/
NH
'-(lBr
CO
Tyrian Purple, 1248

Other procedures are available, such as heating the phthalonitrile with cuprous
chloride, or probably better by reacting phthalic anhydride and urea in presence of
cupric chloride. The crude reaction product is not suitable for dye use and must
be dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid and reprecipitated by dilution with water
to obtain the physical and chemical form suitable for dyes. C/. DAHLEN, op. cit.
1
INORGANIC COLORING MATTERS
927
It could be made synthetically but we have other and better products to

take its place.
This replacement of the natural, or, as they have been called, vegetable,
dyes, by their duplicates synthetically made in our factories or by better
and more cheaply made products is quite the usual thing. However,
logwood,l C.l. 1246, in the form of chips and extract of the wood of the tree
growing in Central America, has survived competition and is used extensively to give black and blue-black colors on wool and silk, mordanted
with chromium or other metals. To a lesser extent fustic, cutch, and
cochineal are also employed.
Inorganic Coloring Matters. There are a great many inorganic chemicals that are used as pigments. These were considered under paints (Chap.
24). However, khaki shades are prepared on ducks, drills, canvas,
particularly for tents, cots, and such out-of-door use by soaking the
cotton cloth in a solution of ferrous sulfate or ferrous acetate. The iron is
converted into the hydroxide, either by an alkali or by drying, and is then
oxidized by a bleaching powder solution to the darker ferric condition.
SELECTED REFERENCES
The following list, mostly of books, embraces the most pertinent rl'ferences to.
dyes and intermediates. As this is an old industry, books published a number of years
ago are still of much value.
Intermediate8:
Barnett, E. deB., "Anthracene and Anthraquinone," D. Van Nostrand Company,

Cain, J. C., "Manufacture of Intermediate Products for Dyes," The Macmillan Company, New York, 1919.
Davidson, A., "Intermediates for Dyestuffs," Ernest Benn, Ltd., London, 1926.
Frank, G. H., "The Manufacture of Intermediates and Dyes, An Introduction to
Works Practice," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
Groggins, P. H., "Aniline and Its Derivatives," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.
New York, 1924.
- - - , editor, "Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," '4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Houben, J., and W. Fischer, "Das Anthracen und die Anthrachinone," Georg Thieme
Verlag, Leipzig, 1929.
Reverdin, F., and H. Fulda, "Tabellarische Uebersicht der Naphthalinderivate,"
Basel, 1894.
Schwalbe, C., "Benzol-tabellen," Verlagsbuchhandlung Gebriider Borntraeger,
Berlin, 1903.
Shreve, R. Norris, "Dy'es Classified by Intermediates," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1922.
Wichelhaus, H., "Suifurieren, Alkalischmelze der Sulfosauren," Otto Spamer, Leipzig,
1911.
1 TISDALE,
Natural DYElwoods, Chem. Ind8., 49, 784-786 (1942).
928
INTERMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR ApPLICATION
Dyes:
Lubs, H. A., et al., "The Chemistry of Synthetic Dyea and Pigments," Reinhold
Venkataraman, K., "The Chemistry of Synthetic Dyes," Academic Press, Inc., New
York, 1952.
etc., The Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, 1950.
BIOS (British Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee) Reports, British Information
Services, 30 Rockefeller Plaza, New York,
FIAT (Field Information Agency, Technical) Reports, Office of Technical Services,
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington. (Write for list, but Lubs, et al., includes
discussion of both BIOS and FIAT reports).
Bucherer, H. T., "Lehrbuch der Farbenchemie," Otto Spamer, Leipzig, 1914.
Cain, J. C., "Chemistry and Technology of the Diazo Compounds," Edward Arnold
& Co., London, 1920.
- - - , "The Manufacture of Dyes," Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1922.
Fierz-David, H. E., and L. Blangey, "The Fundamental Processes of Dye Chemistry,"
from 5th Austrian ed., Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1949.
Georgievics, G ..von, and E. Grandmougin, "A Textbook of Dye Chemistry," Scott,
Greenwood and Son, London, 1920.
Green, A. G., "Landmarks in Evolution of the Dye Industry," Jubilee Issue of
Society of Dyers & Colourists, Bradford, Yorkshire, 1934.
Hantsch, A., and G. Reddelien, "Die Diazoverbindune;cn," Springer-Verlag OHG,
Berlin, 1921.
Heumann, K., "Die Anilinfarben und ihre Fabrikation," Vieweg-Verlag, Brunswick,
Germany, 1906.
'
Hewitt, J. T., "Synthetic Coloring Matters: Dyestuffs Derived from Pyridine,
Quinoline, Acridine and Xanthene," Longmans, Green and Company, New
York, 1922.
- - - , "Synthetic Coloring Matters: Azine and Oxa~ine Dyestuffs," Longmans,
Green & Co., Inc., New York, 1918.
Lange, Otto, "Die Schwefelfarbstoffe, ihre Herstellung und Verwendung," Otto
Spamer, Leipzig, 1925.
Mayer, Fritz, "Chemie der organischen Farbstoffe," Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin,
1934.
O'Brien, W. B., "Factory Practice in the Manufacture of Azo Dyes," Chemical
Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1924.
Rose, R. E., Growth of the Dyestuffs Industry, J. Chem. Educ., 3 (9), 973 (1926).
~we, F. M., "Colour Index and. Supplement," Society of Dyers ltnd Colourists,
Bradford, Yorkshire, 1924 and 1928.
- - - , Two lectures on the development of chemistry of commercial synthetic dyes
(1856-1938), Institute of Chemistry, London, 1938.
Saunders, K. H., "Aromatic Diazo Compounds and Their Technical Applications,"
2d ed., Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1949.
Thorpe, J. F., "Dictionary of Applied Chemistry," 4th ed., Longmans, Green &
Co., Inc., New York, 1937-.
Truttwin, H., "Enzyklopiidie der 'Kupenfarbstoffe," Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin:
1920.
I
,
Ullmann', Fritz, "Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 3d cd., Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1951.
SELECTED REFERENCES
929
Patents:
Doyle, Aida M., "Digest of Patents, Coal Tar Dyes and Allied Compounds," Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1925.
Fierz-David, H. E., and Max Dorn, "Fortschritte der Teerfarbenfabrikation und
verwandter Industriezweige," Springcr-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1927.
Friedlander, P., "Fortschritte der Teerfarbenfabrikation," Springer-Verlag OHG,
Berlin, 1910.
Lange, Otto, "Die Zwischenprodukte der Teerfarbenfabrikation," Otto Spamcr,
Leipzig, 1920.
'Vinther, Adolf, "Zusammcnstcllullg der Patents auf dcm Ucbietc der orgallischcn
Chemie," Alfred Topelmann, Gicssen, lU08 and U)10, 3 vols.
Miscellaneous:
Knecht, E., C. Rawson, and R. Lowcnthal, "Manual of Dycing," 8th ed., Charles
Griffin & Co., Ltd., London, 1925.
Whittaker, C. M., "Testing of Dyestuffs in thc Laboratory," Heywood and Co.,
Ltd., London, 1920.
- - - , and C. C. Wilcock, "Dycing with Coal Tar Dyestuffs," 5th ed., Bailliere,
Tindall, & Cox, London, 1950.
Technical Manual and Yearhook, American Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists, Howes Publishing Co., New York. This is a Ycry excellcnt annual
classified listing of articlcs and books pertaining to textilcs and dyes.
I,
CHAPTER
39
ORGANIC CHEMICALS, NOT OTHERWISE CL;\,SSIFIED
All in all, the manufacture of the various synthetic organic chemicals

is the fastest growing and the most complex of all of the divisions of the
chemical industry. Special phases of organic chemicals are presented
under the respective industries as, for instance, in Chap. 38 pertaining
to intermediates and dyes, in Chap. 37 including many organics based'
upon petroleum, and in Chap. 27 embracing perfumes and the flavoring
industries. This chapter includes those organic chemicals which do not fall
more specifically under one of the above or other headings in this book.
Historical. The beginnings of the organic chemical industry in the
United States started with the manufacture of certain medicinal compounds during the Civil War. In 1879, a small dye works was built,
and by 1917 there were seven companies engaged in the manufacture of
dyes and intermediates. The medicinal field had also increased. Up
to 1914 many organic chemicals had been imported from Germany.
The start of the First World War not only eliminated German and Swiss
imports but increased the market for organic chemicals within the United
States and forced a general realization of the importance of this field.
The use of refinery and natural gases as raw materials for the making of
organic chemicals dates back to 1922, when isopropyl alcohol was manufactured commercially from propylene gas from a petroleum refinery.
Uses and Economics. The production of synthetic organic compounds
has been and is-increasing rapidly. The rate varies with the industry and
~ith the individual compound within an industry, depending on the
/ lowering of the cost and the extent of the consumption. Summaries for
acyclic and for cyclic (coal tar) chemicals are in Tables 1 and 2. These
tables give some comparative data. 1 Individual statistics appear where
the compound itself is presented. The usage of these organic compounds
covers a wide range. A partial classification includes the following: dyes,
medicinals, perfumes and flavors, rubber accelerators, rubber antioxidants, synthetic resins, solvents, refrigerants, detergents, antikn~ck
and antifreeze compounds, insecticides, flotation agents, photographic
chemicals, war gases, tanning agents, dry-cleaning fluids, synthetic
rubbers, humectants, and vitamins. The intricate. relationships among
1
cOmpare Table 2, Chap. 38, particularly for 1954 production figures.

930
931
USES AND ECONOMICS
TABLE 1. PRODUCTION OF ACYCLIC SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN THE

UNITED STATES
1939
1937
1,314
Medicinals .................
1,803
Flavors and perfumes .......
Plastics and resins .......... ....... ..
Rubber chemicals .......... .........
Synthetic rubbers .......... . . . . . . . . .
Plasticizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .
Surface-active agents ....... ........ .
Pesticides, etc .............. ........ .
Miscellaneous and other ..... 2,505,027
Total. .................. . . . . . . . . .
1,668
2,137
..........
13.,122
..........
..........
.......
. .........
'"
2,984,037
4, 000, OOOb
Average
1948-1952
1954
8,520
9,560
804,664
16,673
376,520
58,955
239,002
33,085
13,773,525
15,320,504
16,662
13,437
1,239,623
20,037
461,713
73,056
385,614
61,741
16,998,930
19,270,793

b Approximate.
TABLE 2. PRODUCTION OF CYCLIC SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN THE
UNITED STATES
1920
Intermediates ..................... 257,727
Finished products ................. ...... .
Dyes ........................... 88,264
Toners and lakes ................ .......
5,185
Medicinals ......................
266
Flavors and perfumes ............
4,660
Plastics and resins ...............
Rubber chemicals ............... ......
Synthetic rubbers ............... ......
Plasticizers ..................... ......
Surface-active agents ............ .......
.......
Pesticides, etc ..................
Miscellaneous or other ........... 14,567
Total. ....................... .......
1940
Average
1954
1948-1952
805,801 '3,494,976
.......
3,575,195
127,834
173,754
42,271
. ......
18,208
46,444
4,490
16,801
222,943 1,175,713
.......
94,569
. ......
1,060,050
162,100
. ......
. ..... .
334,002
. ......
256,679
148,385.
202,812
7,070,071
. ......
4,613,869
4,560,085
142,982
39,840
49,262
21,663
1,588,180
109,865
933,249
227,618
640,222
257,533
409,157
9,173,954
these products has been shown in the literature 1 by means of various

charts. Figure 1 illustrates some of the chemicals that may be prepared
from coal, air, and water.
,
1 ANON., Opportunities in the Synthetic Organic Chemical Industry, Chem. &
Met. Eng. 48 (10), 94 (1941).
932
ORGANIC CHEMICALS, NOT OTHERWISE CLASSH'IED
FIG. 1. Chcmicals from coal, air, and water-reactions given below:

(R) CH,On
(1) For nylon readions Ree Chap. 34
(2) RCO,H
+ NH.
->
RCONH,
(3) RCONH, -> RCN + H,O

(4) RCN + H, -> RCH,NH,
(5) CH,OH + CO -> CH,COOH
+H
+ CO + H,O _____,
(9) HCOOClI.
+ lICN _,
HCOOCn,
+ NH, - - - ;
HCONH,
100 psi
(lO) HCONH,--4 HCN
(11) HCOOCH.
COOHClI,OH
H.
->
+ H,O
+ H,O ->
CH,OH,CH,OH
pressnre
(7) CH,COCH.
at
nooo lb.
13JOC
high
(6) CH,O
+ CO -
HeOOn
+ CThOH
+ CH,OH
+ H,O
H.SO.
CH,C(OH)(CH.)CN -
Acetone cyanohydrin CH.OR

Methacrylate resin (Fig. 4, Chap. 35).
cn, = C(CH 3)CO,CH,--->

Methyl methacrylate
The classification of such a large number of products is naturally

difficult. They might be arranged according to their origin as (1) coaltar derivatives, (2) petroleum and natural-gas derivatives, and (3) miscellaneous (such as methanol from CO and H 2). Perhaps a more modern
method would be according to their manufacturing procedure, namely,
according to unit chemical procedses. As adopted here, this results in the
followin~ divisions for arranging the various miscellaneous organic
chemicals: products reSUlting from nitration, esterification, amination by
reduction, amination by ammonolysis, halogenation. suifonation, hydrol-
NITRO-PARAFFINS
933
ysis, oxidation, hydrogenation, alkylation, and condensation. These

parallel the arrangement for intermediates in Chap. 38. Since, ill the
preceding chapter, each unit process is broadly defiaed and described as
to its basic chemistry, agents, and equipment, these aspects will not be
repeated here. Chapter 2 introduces the unit processes as well as the
unit operations.
NITRATION
Nitration is one of the important means for introducing nitrogen into

hydrocarbons. Except for explosives and an occasional solvent, the nitro
group is usually changed as by amination reduction before the product is
used. Nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent RS well as a nitrating one.
Especially in difficult nitrations is much oxidation met with. Here the
exact conditions for the maximum yield of nitrobodies and the mInimum
of oxidation products should be determined and closely adhered to.
Probably nitro-benzene is the most important technical nitration
product (Chap. 38) except for the wartime explosives such as trinitrotoluene, tetryl, picric acid, and cyclonite (Chap. 22). The so-called nitroglycerine and nitro-cellulose are nitrate esters (Chap. 22).
a-Nitro-naphthalene. In nitrating naphthalene,l a mixed acid of the
following composition has been used: H 2S0 4, 60 per cent; HN0 3, 16 per
cent. The acid is run into a jacketed cast-iron nitrator, and the finely
powdered naphthalene is added while holding the temperature at 25 to
30C. The reaction is carried out at 50C. for 6 hr. and at 60C. for 1 hr.
At the end of this period the mass is run into a separator where the nitronaphthalene, which floats on the surface, is removed from the spent acid.
The product is washed twice with boiling water to remove acid and to
steam-distill any unnitrated naphthalene. The molten product is run
under agitation into cold water, producing fine pellets. If necessary,
the product can be purified by recrystallization from solvent naphtha.
The yield under these conditions is 95 per cent. The product is a yellow
crystalline solid melting at 61 6 C. and is used as a dye intermediate and in
further syntheses to make a-naphthylamine and dinitro-naphthalene.
However, much a-naphthylamine is changed by ammonolysis into
phenyl-a-naphthylamine for an antioxidant in rubber or gasoline.
Nitro-paraffins. A basic development in the field of nitration has been
the vapor-phase low-pressure nitration of aliphatic hydrocarbons. 2
The hydrocarbon, propane for example, is vaporized and mixed with
1 Cf. GROGGINS, "Unit Processes in Organic Synt'4bsis," 4th ed., p. 75, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952; FIERz-DAvIDand BLANGEY, "Dye Chemistry,"
Intcrscience Publishers, InQ., New York, 1949.
2 HASS, HODGE, and VANDERBILT, Nitration of Gaseous Paraffins, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
28, 339 (1936); HASS and RILEY, The Nitroparaffins, Chern. Rev., 32, 373 (1943),
an excellent bibliography and summary.
934
vaporized nitric acid to give at least a 2 to 1 ratio of hydrocarbon to acid.

The reactions, nitrations, and oxidations take place very quickly and at
around 400C. The vapors are condensed rapidly to give liquids of nitroparaffins and nitric acid, with the vapors df excess propane and the products of oxidation passing on. Various paraffins may be nitrated with
similar procedures. It is characteristic of these nitrations that the original
carbon chain may be reacted at any point to yield a variety of products.
Propane (in excess)
-+
Nitric acid
!CHaCH2CH2N02
CHaCHN02CH a
CH aCH2N02
CH aN0 2
CO2
H 20
+ NO
etc.
These reactions have been described,l and the equipment has been
pictured. The material of construction is essentially stainless steel
arranged in a continuous series of heaters, reactors, condensers, distillation
coiumns with the necessary pumps, and control instruments.
The nitro-paraffins are so very reactive and offer raw materials that
can be employed in so many useful syntheses that they promise to become
t.lie basis of an important branch of chemical industry. Typical syntheses
from the nitro-paraffins are as follows:
1. Reduction to Amines:
CH aCHN0 2 CH a + 3H 2 -+ CHaCHNH2CH a + 2H20

2-Nitro-propane
Hydrogen
Isopropylamine
Water
2. Addition of an Aliphatic Aldehyde:

N0 2
CHaN02
Nitro-methane
I
I
Basic
+ 3CH20
-----+ CH 20H-C-CH 20H

Catalyst
CH 20H
Formaldehyde
Tris (hydroxymethyl)nitro-methane
/ 3. Addition of an Aromatic Aldehyde:
CH aCHN0 2 CH a + CsH.CHO
2-Nitro-propane
KOH
~
Benzaldehyde
C6H6CHOHC(CHa)N02CHa
2-Nitro-2-methyl-1-phenyl-1-propanol
4. Formation of Hydroxylamine or Salts:

CH aCH 2CH 2N0 2
1-Nitro-propane
.
+ H 2S0 + H 20 -+ NH 0HH 2S0 + CH aCH2COOH

4
'Hydroxylarnrnonium
acid sulfate
Propionic
acid
The Nitro-paraffins and Their Derivatives, Chern. Inds., 46,664 (1939);

The Nitro-paraffins, New Synthetics for Synthesis, Ind. Eng. Chern., 32,
887 (1940).
1
GABRIEL,
GABRIEL,
935
ESTERIFICATION OF OLEFINS
ESTERIFICATION
The making of esters is important for solvents, plasticizers, medicines,

and perfumes. Also certain nitrate esters such as nitro-glycerine and
nitro-cellulose are among the most powerful explosives (Chap. 22).
The acids used may be either organic like acetic and salicylic, or inQl"ganic
like nitric and phosphoric.
Ethyl Acetate. ' This is an important solvent particularly in lacquers.
It is manufactured by the following reaction:
H 2SO.
CH aCH20H
+ CHaCOOH ~ CH aCOOC2H. + H 20
Reactions such as this must be forced to completion by applying the law

of mass action. In other words, one or more of the products must be
removed as they are formed, and an excess of one reagent employed.
Such reactions are also accelerated by using a catalyst such ,as sulfuric
acid. The raw materials are acetic acid, ethyl alcohol in excess, and a
little sulfuric acid. They are mixed, conducted through heat exchangers,
and passed through an esterification column, the overhead of which is the
ternary (boiling point 70.2C.) having the composition: 82.(3 per cent
ethyl acetate, 8.4 per cent ethyl alcohol, and 9 per cent water. Frequently some water is added to the condensate to remove most of the
alcohol which is returned to the system. The ester carrying about 4
per cent of water is rectified through a column, the water going overhead as a constant boiling mixture. It should be noted that all of the
acetic acid reacts by virtue of the mass action o( the excess alcohol.
Ethyl acetate is consumed in such large quantities that this esterification
is frequently conducted in a continuous manner. The equipment is
almost invariably constructed from copper.
Amyl, butyl, and isopropyl acetates are all obtained from the respective
alcohol and acetic acid. The total production of these esters in 1954 was
around 100,000,000 lb. of which three-quarters was butyl acetate. All are
important lacquer solvents and as such impart good "blush" -resisting
qualities to the dried lacquer film. Butyl acetate is the most important
nitro-cellulose lacquer solvent. Other esters made similarly are methyl
salicylate, methyl anthranilate, diethyl phthalate, and dibutyl phthalate.
Esterification of Oletins. Another important type of esterification is
carried out by the addition of an acid to an unsaturate such as ethylene.
CH2:C~2
+ H 2S0
4 -4
C 2H 60S020H
The acid ester is then1hydrolyzed by dilution and heat.

C 2H 60S0 20H
1
by
+H 0
2
-4
C 2H.OH
+ H 2S0
Details of various procedures and the physical chemistry involved, are presented
op. cit., pp. 59()-620, 632-635.
GROGGlNS,
936
ORGANIC CHEMICALS, NOT OTHERWISE r,LASSIFIED
This is an alternative procedure for the manufacture of ethyl alcohol in

competition with the fermentation procedure described in Chap. 31 (see
also Chap. 37). Propylene can be similarly reacted:
CHa'CH :CH 2 + H 2S0 4 --+ CHaCH(OSOaH)CHa
CHaCH(OSOaH)CHa + H 2 0 --+ CHaCHOHCH a + H 2S0 4
The propylene from petroleum cracking-still gases is passed up through
packed towers at 75 to 80F. countercurrent to 97 per cent sulfuric acid,
the acid absorbing approximately 50 per cent by weight of the propylene.
The reaction mixture is taken to a lead-lined dilution tank where the
concentration of isopropyl sulfuric acid is reduced to 20 per cent. Heating now hydrolyzes this ester and the isopropyl alcohol distills over.
Isopropyl alcohol is used extensively as a solvent and as a rubbing alcohol,
but its most important consumption is in the preparation of acetone.
CHaCHOHCHa --+ CHaCOCHa
+ H2
This reaction is carried out by passing the isopropyl alcohol over a coppergauze catalyst. at 300C. Acetone is also prepared by fermentation as
presented in Chap. 31 and as a by-product from phenol, from cumene
(Chap. 38).
Vinyl Esters. The addition of acids to acetylene furnishes valuahle
esters.
+ CH COOH --+ CH COOCH:CH

Vinyl acetate
CHiCH + HCI--+ CH :CHCl
CHiCH
(1)
(2)
Vinyl chloride'
If two molecules (If acid react, a compound such as ethylidene diacetate

is formed.
- (3)
Reactions (1) and (3) are carried out together 2 as shown in Fig. 2. Oleum,
acetic acid, and mercuric oxide are- mixed to give a mercury sulfate/ mercury acetate catalyst. This, plus acetylene gas and acetic acid, goes
into a continuous-reaction kettle which can be heated by steam. The
products leave the reactor as vapors, are condensed, and led to a column
still. The vapors from the top of the column, containing chiefly vinyl
acetate, are condensed and sent to a rectification system to give the
refined vinyl acetate, recovered a~etic acid, and by-product acetaldehyde.
This entire process must be carried on in an anhydrous state. The
sludge coming off the bottom of the kettle goes to a settler. Here the
, Flbw sheets and conditions for making vinyl chloride are given in "Petrochemical
Process Handbook," Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex., 1953, or Petroleum Refiner,
32 (ll), 134-137 (1953).
ANON., Vinyl Acetate, Chern. & Met. Eng., 42, 596 (1935); MORRISON and SHAW,
Vinyl Plastics from Carbide, Chern. & lIfet. Eng., 40, 293 (1933).
937
AMINATION
solid,; are separated and returned to the mercury recovery system, while
the liquids are treated in a rectification column to give the ethyhdene
diacetate. The reaction kettle may be constructed of Duriron. The vinyl
acetate plus vinyl chloride produced according to the reactions above is
consumed in the making of vinylite resins (cf. Chap. 35). The ethylidene
Numerals such as ! t refer to order of cuts of still products. At@

kettle is reflu.ed if process "S being run for production of ethylidene
diacetate only, without vinyl acetate
FIG. 2. Vinyl acetate and cthylidcnc diacctate.
diacetate is distilled with sodium pyrophosphate or zinc chloride tp give

acetic anhydride and acetaldehyde.
(CHaCOOhCHCH a ~ (CH aCO)20
+ CHaCHO
Miscellaneous Esters. Cellulose acetate and cellulose xanthat.e are

extensively manufactured for the synthetic fibers industry as described
in Chap. 34. An important series of compounds, the Gardinols or longchain sodium alkyl sulfates, finds extensive use as wetting agents and
detergents (cf. Chap. 29). In Fig. 1 the making of some additional ~sters,
methyl formate for example, is shown in outline.
AMINATION BY REDUCTION
These reactions are widely used for the production of dye intermediates and a more complete discussion of them may be found in Chap.
38. However, nitro-paraffins and nitriles are being reduced more extensively each year to meet the demands for amines as emulsifying agentR,
for absorption of gases, and for many other purposes.
AMINATION BY AMMONOLYSIS
I.
Amination by ammonolysis! relates to those reactions in which an

amino compound is formed using ammonia or a substituted ammo.nia as
the agent.
1 GROGGINS, up.
cit., Chap. 6. pp. 340ff.
938
Ethylenediamines. An important application of this unit process is

in the manufacture of ethylenediamine from ethylene dichloride. This
latter compound is treated in a pressure autoclave with aqueous ammonia
at 100 to 180C.
CH 2 CICH 2 CI
+ 4NHa -+ CH 2NH 2CH 2NH 2 + 2NH CI

4
A large excess of ammonia is used in order to favor the formation of the

primary amine over the various secondary products; even then only a
40 per cent yield of the desired product is obtained. It is used as a corrosion inhibitor, a solvent for vat dyes, a latex stabilizer, and its fatty acid
derivatives are employed as detergents.
Ethanolamines. A mixture of mona-, di- and triethanolamines is
obtained when ethylene oxide is bubbled through ~8 per cent aqueous
ammonia at 50 to 60C. as shown by the following equations:
CHz-----CH 2 +
."'"o/
HOCH 2CH 2NH 2

monoethanolamine
NHa (Excess) -+ (HOCH 2CH 2)2NH
diethanolamine
(HOCH 2CH 2)aN
triethanolamine
These compounds, usually sold as a mixture, find extensive use in cosmetics as emulsifying agents and as ingredients for dry-cleaning soaps.
Methylamines. Ammonia under pressure may be used to replace
an -OH group as well as a halogen atom. An example of this is the
preparation of methylamines from methanol. This reaction is carried
out in the vapor phase by passing a mixture of methanol and ammonia in
the ratio of 1 to 5 over an alumina gel catalyst held at 450C. The pressure
is 200 lb. per sq. in. About 13Jj per cent monomethylamine, CHaNH2;
7.5 per cent dimethylamine, (CH a)2NI:I; and 10.5 per cent trimethylamine,
(CHa)aN, are 'obtained on the basis of the ammonia. The recirculation
of monoam!ne raises the yield of the diamine.
f Hexamethylenediamine. This is a striking example of a chemical that
is now in large-scale production where only ,a few years ago it was a
laboratory curiosity. It is,prepared by a two-step aniination of adipic
acid. The adipic acid is first treated with ammonia and a dehydrating
catalyst, at 320 to 400C. in the vapor phase to produce ,adiponitrile.
The adiponitrile is reacted with' hydrogen in the presence of ammonia in

the liquid phase under pressure below 200C. to produce hexamethylenediamine (1,6-hexanediamine).
SULFANIJ,AMIDE
939
This compound finds extensive consumption in the making of nylon

(Chap. 34).
Hexamethylenetetramine. Evaporation of the reaction product of
formaldehyde and ammonia produces hexamethylenetetramine. This
compound finds use as a
urinary antiseptic (Urotropine), in the rubber industry, and in the

preparation of the explosive, cyclonite (Chap. 22). It is also consumed in
the making of phenol-formaldehyde resins where it is known as hexa.
Sulfanilamide. This compound is made by the following series of
reactions:
Sulfanilamide is used widely as a specific cure for infections caused by

streptococcus and some other organisms. Many similar compounds have
also been prepared that possess excellent bactericidal properties. Of these
the more important are sulfapyridine, sulfathiazole, and sulfadiazine.!
HALOGENATION
Halogenation is th~ process of introducing halogen atoms into an

organic molecule. This may be carried out by substitution for hydrogen,
addition to an unsaturated bond, or replacement for an -OH or a
-SOaH group.
I,
1 FURNAS, editor, "ROgers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., D. Van
Nostrand Company, Inc~, New York 1942. See Chap. 34 by Shonle, particularly p.
1312.
940
ORGANIC CHEMICALS, NOT OTH]<,RWISFJ CT,ASSIFIFJD
Chlorination of Aliphatics. The direct chlorination of aliphatic hydrocarbons has been studied by Hass' and coworkers at Purdue University.
The various products are obtained through both liquid- and vapor-phase
reactions, using various temperatures and pressures, and with or without
catalysts. The mixtures of products are separated by rectification. These
chloro-aliphatics find many uses commercially; for example, for the
production of amyl alcohols from chloro-pentanes and as solvents,
particularly in dry cleaning under nonflammable conditions.
H~cycle
Product
meth(Jn,
methyl ""onde
Product
methylelle
chloride
Methy! chloride
column
Product chloroform J'
~odUc,
tetrochloride
column
carbon
"frech/offill
FIG. 3. Flow sheet for chlorinated methane. The HCl scrubbers are of Karbate carbon
(Courtesy of Petroleum Refiner.)
Chloro-methane (methyl chloride), dichloro-methane (methylene chloride), and chloroform are produced in large quantities, the three totaling
about 100,000,000 lb. annually. All are obtained by chlorinatiog methane,
although methyl chloride has been made from methanol and hydrogen
lhloride and chloroform from the decarboxylation of trichlor-acetic acid
with lime. Methyl chloride is used as an alkylating agent and refrigerant,
methylene chloride as a dewaxing solvent for oils, and chloroform finds
employment as a solvent, intermediate, and medicinal.
In chlorinating methane 2 according to the flow sheet of. Fig. 3, the
Cl 2 and CH 4 (including recycle) are charged in the ratio of 0.6 to 1.0.
'HASS, et al., Syntheses from Natural Gas Hydrocarbons, Ind. Eng. Chem., 23,
352 (1931); HASS, McBEE, and WEBER, Ind. Eng. Chem., 28, 333 (1936); HASS and
WEBER, Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 7, 231 (1935); HASS, McBEE, and HATCH, Ind.
Eng. Qhem., 29, 1335 (1937).
ANON., Chlorinated Methanes, Petroleum Refiner, 32 (11), 124 (1953), or "Petrochemical Process Handbook," Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex., 1953.
941
ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE
The temperature in the primary reactor is maintained at 650 to 700F.

using the products to preheat the reactants. The Ch conversion is
essentially 100 per cent with the CH 4 conversion about 65 per cent. High
velocities are maintained through narrow channels to avoid ignition.
The effluent gases contain in the following ratio:
Methyl chloride ................
Methylene chloride .............
Chloroform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Carbon tetrachloride. . . . . . . . . ..
6
3
1
!1
Besides these are the unreacted CH 4 and the HCl together with traces of
Ch and heavy chlorinated products.
The secondary chlorination is in liquid phase at ambient temperature,
and is light (mercury-arc) catalyzed, in reactor A, converting CH 2Cl 2
to CClaH, and in reactor B, CClaH to CCI 4 Products can be varied
somewhat to satisfy market demands.
Trichloro-ethylene and tetrachloro-ethylene (perchloro-ethylene) are
cheap, important solvents, dry-cleaning fluids, and degreasing agents.
Tetrachloro-ethylene is often preferred for the latter use because of its
greater resistance to alkaline attack. Almost half a billion pounds of these
two chemicals were produced in 1954. Trichloro-ethylene is made chiefly
by dehydrohalogenation of acetylene tetrachloride with lime. Tetrachloroethylene is made by exhaustive thermal chlorination of ethane, by
dehydrohalogenation of pentachloro-ethane, or by pyrolysis of carbon
tetrachloride.
Benzyl Chloride. To produce benzyl chloride, toluene and chiorine
are reacted under conditions different from those employed for the ring
chlorination yielding chioro-benzene as described in Chap. 38. This
reaction is carried out in the absence of iron, the temperature being at
C aH 5CH3
+ Cl
C aH 5 CH 2Cl
+ HCl
130 to 140C. and with the reaction mixture circulating through a glass
arm in the autoclave where light catalyzes the reaction. This product is
used in making benzyl alcohol and other chemicals incorporated in perfumes as well as benzyl derivatives.
Ethylene Dichloride. The addition of halogen to unsaturates serves
to give many valuable derivatives such as ethylene dichloride, ethylene
dibromide, dichloro-e~hylene, trichloro-ethylene, and tetrachloro-ethane.
The preparation of ethylene dichloride is a typical example.
,
The chlorine gas is bu,bbled through a tank of ethylene dibromide and the
mixed vapors sent to a chlorinating tower where they meet a stream of
ethylene. Here reaction takes place at a temperature of 40 to 90C.
940
.'OT OTHERWISE CLASSIFIED
ORGANIC !)T
ss through a partial condenser followed

ne dichloride passing off as a gas and the
;g returned to the process. The product
in the preparation of ethylenediamine and
Ivent and as an additive to tetraethyllead.
compound, commonly known as ethylene
lirect addition of bromine to ethylene. It is
3 as an additive reagent to tetraethyllead in
nt the deposition of lead oxide on the valves
Chlorination 94
carbons has b'" f;.
The variOJ" g g;
c:> .::,0 c
reactiW' g ~ ....
catp' S...... f2 0
.,.? g:;:;dq'~ o 02f

t;j
. ::;. t; ..~
:e
.....
A typical example of a replacement reaction

'u
on of carbon tetrachloride. Carbon disulfide is
treated \VIUh
the presence of iron in a lead-lined still with a
reflux condenser anQ h_,tting coils.
C8 2
Fe
+ 3Cb ~ 8 Cb + CCI,
2
These products are separated by distillation and the sulfur monochloride

is treated with C8 2 to give more carbon tetrachloride.
When the reaction mixture from the latter step is cooled, the sulfur precipitates, and the carbon tetrachloride is separated and further purified
by rectification. The sulfur is converted back to carbon disulfide. The
solvent properties of carbon tetrachloride direct its use as a degreasing
agent and dry-cleaning fluid. It is also employed in fire ~xtinguishers.
Ethyl Chloride. Halogen acids also may be used to give halogenated
derivatives. HCI reacts with ethylene both being in the liquid phase,
in the presence of a catalyst such as aluminum chloride, to give ethyl
chloride.
CH 2 :CH 2
AICl,
+ HCI ~ CH aCH CI
2
Such a reaction may be carried out as a bat-Qh process by bringing the

reagents together in a pressure vessel. A low temperatur!) is used. HCI
may also be made to react ~ith ethyl alcohol to give ethyl chloride according to the equation:
CH aCH 20H
+ HCI ~ CH aCH CI + H 0
2
This reaction will probably not compete with cheap ethylene from
petroleum cracking. The use ot ethyl chloride in the making of tetraethyl I~ad is its most important consumption. It is also employed as a
refrigerant, solvent, and anesthetic.
1 FURNAS,
"
op. cit., p. 467; see also Chlorination of Aliphatics.
AMYL ALCOHOLS
943
Ethylene Chlorohydrin. Hypohalogn acids also add to unsaturates,

ethylene chlorohydrin being made according to the equations:
CaO + H 20 + 2Ch -+ CaCh + 2HOCI

HOCI
CH 2 :CH 2 -+ CH 20HCH 2 CI
In commercial operation, a hydrated lime suspension is passed down a

tower countercurrent to a stream of ethylene at 200 atm. and 20C., thus
giving a solution of ethylene in lime water. Chlorine is introduced and
the reactants are passed to a chamber where the hypochlorous acid
reacts with the ethylene. The ethylene chlorohydrin-calcium chloride
solution coming from the reactor may be treated to give ethylene glycol
(page 944). This latter is highly valued as an antifreeze.
SULFONATION
Since the sulfonation unit process is applied principally to intermediates and dyes, see Chap. 38 for description and examples. At present,
certain detergents employ sulfonation in building up their molecules
though usually sulfate esterification is the chosen process.
HYDROLYSIS AND HYDRATION
Hydrolysis,l as the name implies, involves the reaction of water,

usually in a double decomposition. In almost every/case, an accelerating
agent is necessary to carry out the process commercially. The hydrolysis
of starch to dextrose is presented in Chap. 30, of fats to soaps in Chap. 29,
of sulfonates and halides to hydroxy derivatives in Chap. 38, and of
ethyl alcohol from ethylene under esterification in this chapter.
Amyl Alcohols. The manufacture of amyl alcohols from the chloropentanes 2 is a typical hydrolysis reaction and is shown in Fig. 4 together
with the preceding chlorination. n-Pentane and isopentane are separated
from natural gasoline and chlorinated in the vapor phase at 250 to 300C.
The products pass through a heat exchanger to the rectification unit
where the hydrogen chloride and the dichlorides (5 per cent) are removed.
The hydrolysis of the mono chlorides is carried out in a system of digesters,
pumps, and heaters through which a hot emulsion of amyl alcohol, water,
and sodium oleate circulates. The amyl chlorides and sodium hydroxide
solution are continuously added to the system, and a spent brine and
crude amyl alcohol vapors are continuously withdrawn. The salt solu-
'.
and HAMNER, in Chap. 11 of GROGGlNS, op. cit., discuss the various aspects
of this unit process.
4 ANON., Synthetic Amyl Alcohol and Acetate, Chern. & Met. Eng., 47, 493 (1940),
pictured flow sheet; ANON., Amyl Alcohol Flow Sheet, Petroleum Refiner, 32 (11),
152-153 (1953).
1 LLOYD
944
ORGANIC CHEMICAl,S, NOT OTHERWISE CI,ASSIFIED
tion is scrubbed to remove alcohol vapors and t.hen returns to the electrolytic cells where the necessary chlorine and caust.ic for t.he process are
made. The crude amyl alcohol vapors are condensed and rectified to
give the following products as shown in Fig. 4: (1) amylene which is
hydrated to amyl alcohol, (2) unchanged amyl chlorides to be returned to
process, (3) diamyl ether, (4) special amyl alcohol fract.ions, (5) the
mixture of amyl alcohols sold under the name Pentasol and used as
lacquer solvents.
Sodium oleafe
Wa"rto
Csllt,OH
rt'covery
&-+-+-_"'aOIl from
r--__"="-"'~:-::-...,....""",,,,";:';':;::?,,:"""'--:-;:;--;,-J
,"e;~~O:~fIC
:Oryt;,HnOIf
!Waferfo
OR
i flltt r.co,"y
'i Spentbni1e
[=~~~=~~~=:::::~==~~~~1~~~~~-I-'@/fo"trolyli(i
.
plant
20'81 Nel
Main reactions ~:~::C\ ~lk.;oH__:;H~~CJnO~~~aCI

Sid. reactions
~:~::c?~c;H~~wR' + 2HCl
C,H,. + CI, -
C,H"CI,
Reacfing quantities not known .. weight oflOO% NCl prodvcm I7l'pro. 50%O( chlorine charged
FIG. 4. Flow chart for production of amyl alcohols (Pentasol) from pentancsSharples procedures.
Ethylene Glycol. The important permanent antifreeze, ethylene glycol,

is made by several processes, involving hydrolysis. In the first., et.hylene
chlorohydrin is treated with sodium bicarbonate solution.
CH 20HCH 2CI
+ NaHCO a ~ CH 0HCH 0H + NaCI + CO

2
The chlorohydrin solution is concentrated to 35 to 40 per cent and

/ reacted with the theoretical amount of sodium ,bicarbonate solution in a
closed, stirred, steam-jacketed kettle. At a temperature of 70 to 80C.,
the hydrolysis proceeds smoothly with the evolution of CO 2 and is complete in 4 to 6 hr. The glycol solution is concentrated by distillation.
As the high-boiling ethylene glycol can be separated only with difficulty
from the salt, it is presumably better engineering to make ethylene oxide
out of the ethylene chlorohydrin by heating with caustic soda or hydrated
lime. This ~ould then be hydrated to the glycol by treating with weakly
acidtllated water under low pressure.
.
Diethylene glycol is obtained as a by-product in about 10 per cent
yields from the manufacture of ethylene glycol. Its principal use is as a,
945
GALLIC ACID
humectant for tobaccos. It is also used as an emulsifying agent for oils

and in throwing and soaking operations in the textile industry. Nearly
40,000,000 lb. were produced in 1954.
Another method for making glycol is by the reaction of ethylene,
oxygen, and water in the presence of a silver catalyst. The reaction is
probably stepwise, involving oxidation and subsequent hydrolysis.
A recent high-pressure process for ethylene glycol involves the following

reactions:
CH20 + CO + H 20 ---+ CH 20H'COOH
CH 20HCOOH + 2H 2 ---+ CH 20H'CH 20H
+ H 20
Propylene oxide and propylene glycol are produced by reactions analogous to those for ethylene oxide and glycol. Approximately 100,000,000
lb. of propylene glycol are manufactured annually, which is used as an
antifreeze, humectant, or hydraulic-fluid additive.
Gallic Acid. Gallic acid, 3,4,5-trihydroxy-benzoic acid, is obtained by
the hydrolysis of the glucoside, tannic acid, found in nutgalls and sumac.
The process consists of an alkaline or acid autoclaving of the water
extracts of the nutgalls. It may also be prepared by fermentation of an
extract with Aspergillus niger or Aspergillus gallomyces. The gallic. acid
is purified by several recrystallizations from water using nonferrous
equipment. The chief uses of gallic acid are in the manufacture of dyes
and as a raw material for the production of pyrogallol and bismuth
subgallate. It is also a constituent of many inks where the ferric gallate
formed on oxidation is the 'permanent pigment.
OXIDATION
Oxidation is one of the most valuable tools to the synthetic chemist.

The possibilities of this process are so varied that a type reaction is
impossible. However, it may be said that it involves the addition of
oxygen to a molecule :or the removal of hydrogen from it. The cheapest
reagent, and the one always employed when possible, is air. The reactions
are carried out in both the liquid and vapor phases, using a variety of
catalysts, V 20 5 for example. In the latter ,case, fairly high temperatures
(about 400C.) are employed and, since the reactions are highly,exothermic, the problem of heat removal is a large one. This is described
under Phthalic Anhydride in Chap. 38, page 884.
946
Camphor. An organic chemical produced by oxidation is camphor.

The raw material for this process is turpentine and the following steps are
involved: (1) distillation of turpentine to obtain pinene, (2) saturation
with HCI gas giving bornyl chloride, (3) hydrolyzing this to obtain
camphene, (4) esterifying to give isoborneol acetate, (5) saponification to
isoborneol, and (6) oxidation to camphor. The last reaction is carried
out in the liquid phase using nitric acid as the reagent. Twenty parts of
isoborneol are dissolved in 100 parts of 1.32 sp. gr. nitric acid plus 5 parts
Off gases
Recycle methanol
FIG. 5. Flow sheet for manufacture of formaldehyde.
of 50 per cent sulfuric acid. The mixture is heated to 80 to 90C. and

stirred well for 10 hr. The largest use of camphor is as a plasticizer in
various resins. It is also consumed in many pharmaceutical preparations. l
Formaldehyde. The oxidat~on of methanol to formaldehyde is an
important commercial process.
/
Ag
CHaOH
~02 - H 7CO
H 20;
llH = -38,000 cal.
CHaOH - H 2CO
H2;
llH == +20,000 cal.
The oxidation requires 26.7 cu. ft. of air per pound of methanol reacted,
a ratio that is maintained when passing separate streams of these two
materials forward. Fresh and recycle methanol are vaporized, superheated, and passed into the methanol-air mixer. Atmospheric air is
purified as shown in the flow diagram of Fig. 5, compressed and preheated
to 130F. In a finned heat exchanger. The products leave the converter
at around 1150F. and at 5 to 10 lb. per sq. in. The converter is a small
1 GUBELMANN and ELLEY, Production of Synthetic Camphor from Turpentine,
Ind. Eng. Chern., 26, 589 (1934); GROGGlNS. op. cit., p. 378.
947
ACETIC ACID
water-jacketed vessel containing several layers of silver gauze catalyst.

About 65 per cent of the CHaOH is converted per pass.
The reactor effluent contains about 25 per cent formaldehyde which is
absorbed with the excess CHaOH and piped to the make tank. This latter
feeds the methanol column for separation of recycle methanol overhead,
with the bottom stream containing the formaldehyd~ and a few per cent
of CH 30H. The water intake adjusts the formaldehyde to 37 per cent
strength. The yield in the reaction is 85 to 90 per cent, the formaldehyde
being marketed as a 37 per cent solution sometimes called Formalin. 1
Carbide
Catalysts
H2 S04
4.000 Ib.
'226 lb.
S121b.
Electric ity (compressed a"

power and refrigerc:rtjon)
~\;;c~+:':;'r
49ZKw.-hr.
Ps~';~.hr.
Pe,. fon
<;,~
FIG. 6. Flow chart for acetic acid from carbide.
Much of the equipment is made of stainless steel. Formaldehyde is competitively ~anufactured by controlled oxidation of natural gas or
methane. 2
Acetic Acid. Various methods for the manufacture of acetic acid
involve oxidation. Thus, the production from acetylene goes through
the following reactions:
C 2H 2
CHaCHO
+ H 0 -+ CH CHO
+ Y202 -+ CHaCOOH
2
(1)
(2)
Reaction (1) is carried out by passing acetylene into a suspension of

mercurous sulfate in 25 per cent sulfuric acid in a Duriron kettle under a
pressure of 15 lb. per sq. in., as shown in Fig. 6. The temperature is
maintained between 70 and 100C. by the heat of reaction. As it result
of side reactions the catalyst is reduced to metallic mercury, necessitating
the addition of make-up catalyst every 15 min. and complete change
every 8 hr. A series of scrubbers and condensers removes the acetaldehyde from the effluent gases, the yield being 95 per cent. The oxidation
of acetaldehyde is carried out in a series of two aluminum-lined steel
I
Formaldehyde, Properties, Analysis and Manufacture, J. Soc. Chem.

lnd., 60, 213 (1941); ANON., Formaldehyde, Petroleum Refiner, 32 (11), 120 (1953).
2 ANON., Formaldehyde'from Natural Gas, Chem. &; Met. Eng., 49 (9), 154 (1942),
1 HOMER,
948
vessels. Here, at a temperature of 55C. and a pressure of 70 lb. per

sq. in., air is used to carry out the reaction, 0.1 per cent of manganese
acetate being used to hold down the concentrations of the explosive
intermediate, peracetic acid. The crude acetic acid of 94 per cent strength
is taken off from the second reactor and rectified.
Acetaldehyde for oxidation is also made from ethyl alcohol according
to the following reactions which occur simultaneously:
%0 ~ CH 3CHO
C2H 60H
C 2H 60H ~ CHaCHO
+ H 20
+ H2
The reaction is exothermic, taking place at 540C. upon passing through

a silver-gauze catalyst with the alcohol vapors entering at 160C. and
~>-----1'----'A~1d and
gnhytlrltk
.Main Reactions:
FIG.
",
Catalyst ' - - _ - - '
-Pump
CH.CHO + O. -+ CH.COOOH ( peracetic acid)

CH,COOOH + CH,CHO H.O+(CH,CO),O ( acetic anhydride)
(CH,CO),O + H,O -+ 2 CH,COOH ( acetic acid)
7. Flow chart for acetic anhydride from acetaldehyde.
the air at 200a C. The yield is 85 to 95 per cent, the conversion 50 to

, 55 per cent, and the product is recovered by scrubbing the vapors from
the reactor with ethyl alcohol and then rectifying to give 99 per cent
acetaldehyde; this product can be' made in the plant of Fig. 5. Acetic
')1 acid is also made from CHaOH and CO as shown in Fig. 1.
Acetic Anhydride. Acetaldehyde, produced by either of the methods
discussed above under A.cetic Acid, may be oxidized to acetic anhydride
according to the process shown in Fig. 7. The acetaldehy~e is oxidized
by air in the main reactor with methyl acetate diluent and with manganese acetate catalyst present to prevent the formation of explosive
amounts of peracetic acid. 1 The pressure is around 60 lb. per sq. in, and
the temperature at 50 to 70C. The products, acetic anhydride and
acetic acid, are purified in a series of bubble-cap columns, with the crude
still and the anhydride still operating under vacuum. The most impor1 BENSON,
New Acetic Anhydride Process, Chern. & Met. En(/., 47, 150 (1940).
949
METHANOL SYNTHESIS
tant use of acetic anhydride is in the making of cellulose acetate. It is

also employed in various other acetylations.
Adipic Acid. Vigorous HN0 3 oxidation of cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone produces 8:dipic acid, H0 2 C(CH 2)4C0 2H. This compound is
extensively used in the preparation of nylon in combination with
hexamethylenediamine.
HYDROGENATION
Hydrogenation is employed in the chemical industries today to give

many useful products. The various methods for the production of
hydrogen are discussed fully in Chap. 8. Besides the addition of hydrogen
to double bonds, this reaction may be used to eliminate other elements
from a molecule, as is done in petroleum hydrogenations. These include
mainly oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, carbon, and halogens. Hydrogenation
is carried on under pressure and usually at elevated temperatures with
a suitable catalyst. The temperatures are ordinarily below 400C. but
may extend up to 500C. in some cases. The catalysts vary with temperature, the noble metals such as platinum or palladium being used up to
150C., nickel and copper from 150 to 250C., and various combinations
of metals and metal oxides for the higher temperatures. Pressure not only
increases the rate of reaction but, in the cases where there is a decrease in
volume as the reaction proceeds, causes a desirable shift in the equilibrium
according to Le Ch~telier's principle. The equipment generally used
consists either of a pressure autoclave or a tubular pressure system, built
to withstand pressures up to 3,000 lb. per sq. in. or more. Since most
hydrogenations are exothermic, the equipment should be designed to
facilitate the removal of heat, especially from the catalyst chamber.
Hydrogenation of Fatty Oils. Some of the most familiar hydrogenated
products in use today are the solid cooking fats made from various oils.
This procedure is fully presented in Chap. 28.
Hydrogenation of Petroleum. The hydrogenation of petroleum is one
of the most useful reactions employed in the refinery today. It serves to
upgrade heavy oils and residues giving increased yields of gasoline, to
pioduce higher octane gasoline, and to furnish improved lubricating oils.
A discussion of this process is given in Chap. 37.
Methanol Synthesis. One of the most important of the high-pressure
syntheses in use today is the production of methanol and various higher
alcohols from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The essential reaction is
t:J.H
-24,620 cal.
The catalyst most commonly employed is copper mixed with oxides of

zinc, chromium, manganese, or aluminum. For the synthesis of methanol, contact of the gases with hot iron must be avoided and so copper-
950
lined reactors are used. The theoretical proportions of the gases are
mixed and compressed to 4,500 lb. per sq. in. After oil purification, the
gases go to the reactors where, at 300 0 0., the equilibrium yield is better
than 60 per cent. The gaseous products then pass through the heat
exchangers to high-pressure condensers where the methanol is condensed
at 3,500 to 4,000 lb. per sq. in. with the gases being sent back to the
process. Very pure (99 per cent) methanol is furnished by this process.
The higher alcohols are produced at higher temperatures, 350 to 4750.,
using a catalyst containing alkali (see Fig. 1) ,I
Methanol finds a wide variety of direct industrial uses such as a
denaturant, antifreeze, fuel, and solvent, In addition, it is the starting
material in such reactions as the preparation of methylamines, formaldehyde, and dimethyl-aniline.
High-molecular-weight Aliphatic Amines. 2 These compounds are
made by catalytically hydrogenating the co.rresponding nitriles prepared
by dehydration at elevated temperatures of the ammonium salts of the
fatty acids.
These are essentially new industrial compounds of the" qationic" active

class and are finding employment as flotation agents, in water treatment,
and in textile finishing. They also possess bactericidal properties, and
some of them are insecticides or insect repellents. These are commercially available with the alkyl chain in the above reaction having from
6 to 18 carbon atoms, some being shipped in carload lots.
ALKYLATION
A wide variety of reactions 3 may be employed to introduce an alkyl

radical into the various organic compounds such as are classified under
Alkylation in Ohap. 2 and exemplified here and iii Chap. 38.
Ethyl Ether. Ethyl ether and other aliphatic ethers are made by the
dehydrating action of sulfuric acid on an alcohol.
C 2H.OH + H 2S04 ~ C 2H.'HS04 + H 20
C 2H.OH + C 2H 5 'HS04 ~ C 2H.OC 2H. + H 2S0 4
(1)
(2)
The alcohol and sulfuric acid are heated to 140C, in a lead-lined vessel.
After the reaction is started, the process is continuous. A mixture of
ether, alcohol, and water is constantly vaporized and rectified to furnish
a pure product. The yieid for the reaction is 94 per cent. Ethyl ether
ANON., Methanol, Petroleum Refiner, 32 (11), 122 (1953), flow sheet and description.
Chemicals from Fats, Chem. Eng. New8, 21, 3 (1943).
See Chap. 13 on Alkylation by Shreve in GROGGINS, op, cit,
1
S RALSTON,
951
TETRAETHYL LEAD
is also produced in the hydration of ethylene to ethyl alcohol. The first

step in the process gives ethyl sulfate as above from which the second
reaction proceeds. The uses of ethyl ether are many and varied. Some
important ones are as a solvent, an anesthetic, and for further synthesis
of organic compounds.
Glycol Ethers. A very practical series of ethers is obtained by the
use of ethylene oxide as an alkylating agent. Two of these, ethylene
glycol ethyl ether (Cellosolve) and diethylene glycol ethyl ether (Carbitol), are obtained by the reaction of ethylene oxide with ethyl alcohol.
CH 2
C 2H 50H
CH 20H
I ~O -+ I
CH 2
(1)
CH 2-OC 2 H&
Cellosolve
CH 20C 2 H&
CH 2
"'/ 0
(2)
CH 2
tH 20H
Carbitol
Isomers are made by varying the reactants from those given. Absolute
ethyl alcohol and liquid ethylene oxide under pressure are introduced into
an autoclave, the alcohol being present in 15 per cent excess. The autoclave is heated at 150C. for 12 hr., the pressure changing from 250 lb. per
sq. in. at the start, to 125 at the end. The reaction mass is fractionated,
and the Cellosolve is taken off at 134C. It is obtained in yields of 70
per cent based on the alcohol. Further distillation of the residue gives
the Carbitol which boils at 201.9C. The latter results from any ethylene
glycol present in the reagents or formed by action of ethylene oxide on any
water present or made. Carbitol is also manufactured directly. Both
of these substances find widespread usage as specialized solvents in
textiles, cosmetics, dyeing, and in sealing cellophane packages.
Tetraethyl Lead. A very important alkylated product is tetraethyl
lead, the universal antiknock compound for gasolines. It is prepared
commercially by the action of ethyl chloride on a lead-sodium alloy.
4PbNa
+ 4C H CI-+ Pb(C H + 3Pb + 4NaCI

2
6) ,
The autoclave for the 'reaction must have a heating jacket, a heavy-duty
stirrer to agitate the lead alloy, and a reflux condenser. The alloy should
be finely divided, arid the temperature should be below 70C. The
reaction is heated at the start and then must be cooled to maintain the
952
temperature at 40 to 60C. After 2 to 6 hr., the excess ethyl chloride is

distilled off and tetraethyllead steam distilled from the reaction mixture.
Silicones.' Like tetraethyl lead, silicones are examples of important
compounds of mixed organic-inorganic nature. The silicones and derivatives are remarkable in the variety and unusualness of their properties,
such as solubility in organic solvents, insolubility in water and alcohols,
heat stability, chemical inertness, high dielectric properties, relative low
flammability, solutions low in viscosity at high resin content and with
low viscosity change with temperature, and nontoxicity.
Because of these properties, the silicones are useful for (1) fluids for
hydraulics and heat transfer, (2) lubricants and greases, (3) sealing
compounds for electrical applications, (4) resins for lamination and for
high-temperature-resistant varnishes and enamels, (5) silicone rubber,
(6) water repellents, and (7) waxes and polishes, etc.
The silicones are made either through the Grignard reaction or more
economically by alkylating with an organic halide, usually CHaCI (or
C eH5CI or mixtures thereof) a silicon-copper alloy, according to the
following reaction:
Si(lO per
~ent
eu)
200C., 1-2 atm.

8
(CH a) .siCI(4-n>
4 hr.
,
+ nCHaCI
Principal products: (CH a)2SiCh, (CHa)aSiCI, CHaSiCla

.............
Chloro-silanes
The silicon or copper may absorb any excess chlorine. The further ,reactions to sHanols, siloxanes, and polymers may be expressed:
RSiCla
R 2SiCb
RaSiCl
t
t
!
Chloro-silanes hydrolyzed to sHanols by' H 20
i i i
RSi(OH)a
R'2Si(OHh
RaSiOH
SHanols condensed to silolCanes (split out H 20)
t
R
I
I
Si-O--Si
II
II
Cross-linked
polymers
Resins
and
varnishes
-4- \
Linear and
cyclic polymers
Fluids,
and
greases
t
R
I
R
I
I
R
I
R
R-8i-0-Si-R
Nonreactive
or for terminal
group
Elastomers
,1 Chapter 35 for plastic and insulation use; KIRK and OTHMER, op. cit., Vol. 10, p.
808; ROCHOW, "An Introduction to the Chemistry of the Silicones," 2d ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1947; MCGREGOR, R. R., "Silicones and Their Uses,"
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York. 1954.
PROCAINE (NOVOCAINE)
953
Chain length varied by percentage of RaSiCI which provides end groups.

Lower polymers are oils j higher polymers are solids.
Barbital. Barbital (diethyl-barbituric acid) is prepared by a series of
reactions starting with the ethyl ester of malonic acid.
C0 2C 2H 6
CH2/
'"
C0 2C 2H.,
C0 2C 2H 6
NaOC.H. C2H6'CH/
C.H.Cl
'"
C0 2C 2H II
A whole series of similar compounds may be prepared in a like manner

by using alkylating agents other than ethyl chloride. For example,
phenyl-ethyl-barbituric acid is known as phenobarbital. These compoup.ds find extensive pharmaceutical use as hypnotics and soporifics.
Procaine (Novocaine). The production of the important local anesthetic, procaine, involves not only the unit process of alkylation but also
halogenation and reduction.
954
ORGANIC CHEMICALS, NOT OTHERWISE CI,ASSIFIED
The hydroxy tertiary amine that is used to condense with the p-nitrobenzoyl chloride is prepared by treating ethylene chlorohydrin with
diethylamine.
CONDENSATION
The unit process of condensation involves the commercial reacting

of two chemicals to form a main product with the simultaneous splitting
off of water, hydrogen chloride, or another simple compound.
Phenolphthalein. l This compound is widely used as an acid-base
indicator and also as a laxative. It is prepared by condensing phthalic
anhydride with phenol in the presence of sulfuric acid.
OH
Q9
0
OH
O=
co/ + 2
CO"\O
OH
~ O=C)o
+H0
C
2
H 2SO.
II
'
MISCELLANEOUS UNIT PROCESSES
Formic Acid. Two very useful acids, formic and oxalic, are produced
starting with sodium hydroxide solution and carbon monoxide. Sodium
hydroxide (97 to 98 per cent) is reacted with the carbon monoxide at
200C. and under a pressure of 8 to 10 atm. in a jacketed autoclave.
CO
+ NaOH ~ HCObNa
The carbon monoxide is usually produced by the incomplete combustion

of coke, followed by removal of CO 2 with an amine solvent, or by scrubbing with caustic soda. After the reactiog is complete, the solution is
acidified and the formjc acid distilled off. The product is 90 per cent
formic acid and the yield is 95 per cent. Formic acid serves for the
preparation of formate esters and oxalic acid. In the anhydrous state
it is employed as a solvent for certain reactions and as a reducing agent
(see Fig. 1) for conversion of methanol and carbon monoxide into met.hyl
formate and
then into formic
,
, acid.
c;>xalic . Acid. If, after the sodium formate is made according to the
foregoing equation, the pressure is reduced in the autoclave and th
temperature is raised to 375C., sodium oxalate will be. formed.
1 ROWE, "Colour Index and Supplement," Society of Dyers and Colourists, Bradford, Yorkshire, 1924; GROGGINS, op. cit., p. 648.
955
SALICYLIC ACID
2HCOONa~
COONa
+ H2
COONa
The hydrogen is exhausted from the autoclave, and the reaction is complete when no more hydrogen is evolved. Milk of lime is added to the
solution and the mixture thoroughly agitated. The calcium oxalate
formed is filtered off and the caustic solution is concentrated and reused.
Na 2C 20 4 + Ca(OHh ~ CaC20 4 + 2NaOH
The calcium oxalate, plus some calcium carbonate that is present, is
reacted with dilute sulfuric acid. Much of the calcium precipitates
as CaS042H20 while on concentration the remaining calcium sulfate
Reactions: 2c"H s OH t2N"OH -2C. Hs ONa +2 H2 0

2C.H sONa tCO, -ONaC.H.COONa +C.HsOH
ONaC.H.COONa+ H2 S04 -OHC. H.COOH+Na.SO.
OHC.H.COOH +CH 30H -OHC.H.COOCH 3+H.O
FIG. 8. Flow sheet for salicylic acid and methyl salicylate.
present precipitates out and is filtered off. Further concentration to

30o Be., followed by cooling, causes the oxalic acid to crystallize. These
crystals are removed and washed in a centrifuge while the mother liquor
is employed for make-up in subsequent runs.
The uses of oxalic acid are many and varied. Some of the important
ones are as a germicide, a bleaching agent, a solvent, and as a starting
material in the manufacture of various other chemicals, especially many
simple and complex oxalates.
Salicylic Acid. Salicylic acid l is made by the Kolbe reaction from
CO 2 (see Fig. 8). The starting material is phenol, which is run into hot
aqueous caustic soda to give sodium phenate. This step is carried out in
a heated iron tank.
OH
ONa
~ N.OH ,olution ~
+ H,O
1 SHONLE, p. 1305, in FURNAS, op. cit.; pictured flow sheet in Chem. &: Met. Eng.,
50 (8), 132-135 (1943).
956
The resulting solution is evaporated to dryness in stirred autoclaves under

vacuum at l30C. The sodium phenate must be absolutely dry; to
ensure this, certain manufacturers conduct this unit operation in a heated
ball mill so that the material being dried is simultaneously ground up.
The temperature is reduced to lOOC., and dry CO 2 gas is introduced
under 6 atm. pressure. The following reactions occur:
o
ONa
OCOONa
+co'~O
OH
~OCOONa
The sodium salicylate is dissolved in water and decolorized by passing

through activated carbon containing some Zn powder. The solution
is acidified with excess hydrochloric acid, precipitating the salicylic acid.
OH
OH
COONa~OCOOH
+ NaCl
Salicylic acid is used as a medicinal and an intermediate in the production

of other medicinals, but the largest consumption is in the making of
aspirin, acetyl salicylic acid. It also finds use as an antiseptic.
Aspirin. Aspirin, acetyl salicylic acid, is prepared by acylating salicylic
acid with acetic anhydride. It is widely used as a pain-relieving drug.
COOH
COOH
OOH + (CH,CO),0 ~ Ooeocn, + eH,eO,n

Tartaric Acid. Tartaric acid,l dihydroxysucCinic acid, has the formula:
HOOCCHOHCHOHCOOH
This occurs as its dextro~rotary isomer am! a,s its crude acid potassium
salt with some calcium, salt in argols and wine lees-the solid deposits
left in a wine vat after fermentation. The pure acid potassium salt,
KHC4H 40 6, cream of tartar, is obtained by leaching with water, precipitation of the calcium and other impurities, evaporation, and crystallization, followed by recrystallization if necessary. It is dried and powdered
for use as ,an ingredient of bliLking powders.
T,annic Acid. Tannic acid, a glucoside of gallic acid, is obtained by
countercurrent extraction of nutgalls by water. The extract as obtained
1 ULLMANN, "Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 3ded., Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1951.
CHEMICALS FROM MILK
957
is 10 to 11 Be. The equipment is constructed either of copper or of

wood. It is imperative that no iron be present as iron reacts with tannic
acid to form black iron tannate. Even traces of iron are sufficient to
discolor the product. The water extract is concentrated in volume and,
on drying, yields technical tannin which is used as a mordant in dyeing
and as a source of gallic acid. Extraction of nutgalls with alcohol or
ether, bleaching of the extract with mild reducing agents, such as sodium
bisulfite, and evaporation of the extract yield medicinal grade tannin.
This is used for burns, as an astringent, in gargles, and to precipitate
proteins in wineries and breweries.
Pyrogallol. Pyrogallol, 1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene, is obtained by decarboxylating gallic acid. The gallic acid is autoclaved with water at
12 atm. and 200C. with copper equipment. The reaction is complete
when no more carbon dioxide is evolved, and the water solutiQn is then
evaporated to dryness. The solid pyrogallol is purified by sublimation
in vacuo or in superheated carbon dioxide. It is used in photography, for
dyeing, medicinally to treat skin diseases, and as an oxygen absorbent
in analytical chemistry.
Alkaloids. Alkaloids! are generally defined as complex organic bases
of plant origin. A few of the more important alkaloids are morphine,
cocaine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, and atropine. They are widely
employed as medicinals and are obtained by extraction from the plant
source and purified by various precipitations and crystallizations.
Vitamins. 2 Certain organic compounds have been found to be essential in the .diet of man. Absence of these compounds produces scurvy,
beriberi, and many other disorders. It is interesting to note that, important as the presence of these substances is in the diet, only very small
quantities are needed by man. The supply must be maintained daily
either from food or special means. At present, a number of these essential
compounds or vitamins have been synthesized, but others are known
whose exact chemical structure has not been established. Although
vitamins A and D are obtained economically from natural sources
(chiefly fish-liver oils), their structures are known. Vitamin C, present in
citrus fruits, is manufactured more cheaply by synthetical processes.
Vitamin B has been found to consist of a comple~ mixture of compounds,
part of which can be synthesized economically and some of which, with
unknown or kno~ chemical structure, are extracted from natural
sources.
Chemicals from Milk. There are available, throughout the United
States, some billions of pounds of whey, resulting from the making of
cream and of chees~. Much of this whey is wasted each year or used as
p. 1284, in "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry."
p. 1298, op. cit.; ROSENBERQ, "Chemistry and Physiology of the 'Vitamins." Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1942.
1 SHONLE,
SHONLE,
958
a cheap animal food. A great deal of study has been given to the exploi~
tation of this raw material and now about 5,000,000 lb. of lactic acid is
made annually by fermentation as described in Chap. 31. In addition,
this country manufactures about 5,000,000 lb. of lactose and 50,000,000
lb. of casein. The lactose has a certain limited consumption, almost
entirely in infant foods and pharmaceutical preparations. Casein is a
phosphoprotein of high molecular weight (probably near 100,000) with
many and varied applications. About three~quarters of the casein now
manufactured is consumed as a binder in high-grade coated paper for
Note: Alkrnafivr mdhods, all givlng casein of differrnf properties, include preclP.1fc;rfion w/fh sulfuric or krcfic
leis (sour whey oro/low/nr/ mIlk to sotJr),or by enzyme OICTion wifh
Skim milk
3.333 lb.
Hvdrocliloric acid (.p.lldI5) 19.93. lb.
Sham
1,200, lb.
wot.r
Electricity
Direct IobOr
ren~f
VOIric.ble
12 Kw.- hr.
3 mcm- hr.
Per
Iqo lb.
caseIn
* AverQ9f presenf practice i a:xn be much reduced

FIG. 9. Flow sheet for casein-grain-curd process using hydrochloric acid.
printing and stationery. Most of the remainder is used in glues, coldwater paints, and plastics.
Casein! is precipitated from skim milk by the use of an acid such as
hydrochloric, sulfuric, or lactic acid, or by rennet. The casein resulting
from these different methods has somewhat varying properties, and. there
seems to be more demand for the lactic casein among consumers. This
is made by allowing the skim milk to sour naturally or, better, to use a
starter fermentation to develop the lactic acid necessary to precipitate
the casein. The manufacture through hydrochloric acid is. depicted in
tJhe flow sheet of Fig. 9 wher.e the casein is car~fully precipitated as a
grainy curd in a continuous. spirtll trough reactor, washed, pressed,
disintegrated, dried, and pulverized. 2 Whey resulting from this separation
1 CORWIN, Chap. 44 in "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," many references
and many data. TRIMBLE and BELL, Methods for Manufacturing' Acid Precipitated
,Casein from Milk, U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 279, 1938; SUTERMEISTER and BROWNE,
"Casein and Its Industrial Applications," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1939; ANON., Lactic Acid and Gasein from Skim Milk, Chem. & Met. Eng., 48,
480-483 ,(1936).
Fuller details of this process are given by a pictured flow sheet, Chem. & Met.
Eng., 47, 427 (1940); TRIMBLE and BELL, op. cit., p. 25; CHRISMAN, Success in ByProduction Demands Quality Control, Food Ind8., 12, 45 (1940).
959
SELECTED REFERENCES
seems most suitable for concentration to lactose (Fig. 10) or for fermentation to lactic acid (page 692 of Chap. 31).
Lactose or milk sugar is much less sweet than sucrose. It has b~en
consumed! chiefly in infant feeding. The only commercial source of any
importance in the United States is the whey of cheese and casein plants.
t':(o~),
3.00~
Decolonzlng corbon
w"tec
:g
5 lb.
Steom
Electricity
Direct lobar
4;000 Ib.\
n kw-h.....
Per- 100 Ib
to-t.Smon-hr: (octose
10.0009" l.
FIG. 10. Flow sheet for lactose (milk sugar).
Figure 10 shows the unit operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.)
involved in the manufacture of lactose.
The raw whey is mixed with hydrated lime in a vat heated with steam coils
(Pr.).
The precipitated albumin is removed by filtration (Op.).
The mother liquor, containing the lactose, is evaporated in multiple-effect
vacuum evaporators (Op.).
The concentrated sirup is filtered to remove any foreign matter and concentrated further in a vacuum pan (Op.).
The sirup from this evaporator is crystallized and centrifuged. The mother
liquor is sent back to the vacuum pan to be further concentrated to obtain
another crop of lactose crystals. The mother liquor from this second crop of
crystals is concentrated and sold as a by-product for its riboflavin content (Op.).
The crude lactose crystals are treated with water and activated carbon to
remove coloring impurities (Op.).
Filtration removes the carbon and the decolorized sirup is concentrated,
crystallized, and centrifuged (Op.).
,..,
The mother liquor is returned to the vat containing the decolorizing carbon
and the crystals are dried, pulverized, and made ready for the market (Op.).
r_-
SELECTED REFERENCES
Groggins, P. H., editor, '''Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis," 4th ed., McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
Ellis, Carleton, "Hydrogenation of Organic Substances," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1930.
- - - , "Chemistry of Petroleum Derivatives," Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York, 1937.
1 HORNE,
Sugar Industries of the United States, Ind. Eng. Chem., 27, 989 (1935)
960
Schotz, S. P., "Synthetic Organic Compounds," Ernest Benn, Ltd., London, 1925.
Ullmann, Fritz, "Enzyklopaedie der technischen Chemie," 3d ed., 10 vols., Urban &
Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna, 1951.
Furnas, C. C., editor, "Rogers' Manual of Industrial Chemistry," 6th ed., D. Van
Schwyzer, Julius, "Die Fabrikation pharmazeutischer und chemischtechni~cher
Produkte," Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1931.
Curme, G. 0., and F. Johnston, "Glycols," Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1952.
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1947-1956.
APPENDIX
PROBLEMS
Problems should be an important part of any chemical engineering textbook. The

instructor should make up some new problems each year, or modify ones used ina
previous year. Also, a mixture of simple and comprehensive problems should be given
to the class. The best comprehensive problems are the ones published annually
and called the Student Contest Problems of the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers' .1
Recently a new and enlarged edition of the problem book by Lewis, Radaseh, and
Lewis' has appeared. Some of these problems are of the comprehensive type. An of
the problems and the text of this book will be helpful in causing the student to apply
through problems many of the principles presented in this volume.
The following pages give, under the chapter numbers and titles used in this volume,
a number of simple problems for about half the chapters followed by reference to
chapters in Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, op. cit., for additional problems.
CHAPTER S. GENERAL FUNDAMENTALS
Ct. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapter 1.

CHAPTER 4. WATER CONDITIONING AND WASTE-WATER TREATMENT
1. A water contains the following metals, expressed in milligrams per liter: Ca++,
30; Mg++, 10; Fe++, 0.5.
a. Calculate the total hardness expressed in milligrams of equivalent CaCO. per
'liter.
b. Assuming that 95 per cent CaO costs $11 per ton, calculate the cost of softening
1,000 gal. of this water.
2. A water has the following analysis expressed in grains per gallon (7,000 grains
per lb.): Ca(HCO a)., 7.00; Mg(HCOa)., 2.92; MgCO a, 1.00; CaSO" 1.36; MgSo" 2.16.
Assuming 100 per cent CaO, Na.CO., and NaCI cost SI1, $20, and $4.50 per ton,
respectively, calculate
a. The cost of softening ~,ooo,ooo gal. a day by the lime-soda process.
b. The cost of salt per day for regeneration of zeolite if 0.5 lb. of salt is required for
each 1,000 grains of h~rdness (as CaCO.) removed from the water.
S. A water has the following ions present, p.p.m.: Ca++, 75; Mg++, 10; HCO" 190;
CO 2, 11. If lime costs 68 cents and Na.CO. costs $1.30 per 100 lb. what is,the total
cost for softening 800,000 cu. ft. of water?
1 "A.I. Ch.E. Student Contest Problems, and' the Prize Winning Solutions,"
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1950.
LEWIS, RADASCH, and LEWIS, "Industrial Stoichiometry," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
961
962
APPENDIX
CHAPTER 6. FUELS, POWER, AND AlR CONDITIONING

1. From the following data calculate the heat balance for a certain boiler plant:
Coal fired, 5,000 lb. per hr.; water fed to boiler, 40,000 lb. per hr. at 200F.; steam,
580F. at 250 lb. per sq. in. abs.; Hue gas, 650F. The coal had the following analysis:
C, 76.3; H., 4.8; 0., 4.0; N . 0.7; S, 1.1; ash, 9.7; moisture, 3.4; 12,800 B.t.u. per lb.
The cinder analysis was ash, 71.5; combustible, 28.5. The fiue gas analysis was CO.,
13.1; 0., 5.7; CO, 0.6; N., 80.6. Assume 1 hr. and 60F. as the datum line for the
basis of calculations.
2. A roasting oven is fired with coal containing 8 per cent moisture, 21.0 per cent
volatile combustible, 62 per cent fixed carbon, and 9.0 per cent ash with a heating
value of 13,200 B.t.u. per lb. Refuse taken from the ashpit contains 10.0 per cent
moisture, 9.0 per cent volatile combustible, 26.6 per cent fixed carbon, and 54.4 per
cent ash, Calculate the percentage of the heating value of the coal that is lost by the
presence of unburned combustible matter in the refuse.
S. Explain exactly how each of the following factors affects the efficiency, furnace
temperature, and stack temperature of a steam boiler:
a. Insufficient air.
b. Excess air.
c. Leaky furnace settings.
d. Tube deposits.
4. A furnace fired with a hydrocarbon fuel oil has a dry stack gas analysis of 12.1
per cent CO., 6.1 per cent 0., and 81.8 per cent N . Calculate
a. Composition of original fuel oil.
b. Percentage of excess air used.
c. Cubic feet of air (s.t.p.) per pound of fuel.
Cf. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapters 1, 2, and .4.
CHAPTER 6. COAL CHEMICALS
Cf. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapter 12, problems 3 and 4.
CHAPTER 7. FUEL GASES

1. A large three-lift water-sealed gas holder used for the storage of city gas is to be
removed from service for internal inspection. State' the principal precautions you
would observe to ensure safety.
/ 2. A producer gaa has the following composition: CO, 24.0 per cent; CO., 4.0
per cent; 0., 2.0 per cent; N., 70 per cent. Calculate.
a. The cubic feet of gas at,70F. and 750 mm. Hg pressure, per pound of carbon
present.
b. The volume of air at the conditions of part (a), required for the combustion of
100 cu. ft. of the gas at the same conditions if it is desired that the total O.
content present before combustion shall be 20 per cent in excess of that theoretically'required.
c. The percentage composition by volume of the gases leaving the burner of part
(b), assuming complete comb~stion.
d. The volume of the gases leaving the combustion of parts (b) and (c) at a temperature of 600F. and a pressure of 750 mm. Hg per 100 cu. ft. of gas burned.
S. Using van der Waals' equation of state, calculate the density of methane at
500 lb. per sq. in. abs. and 80F.
963
PROBLEMS
4. The reaction for the production of blue water gas containing 48 per cent H"
42 per cent CO, 5 per cent CO 2, and 5 per cent N 2 is presumed to be
C
=+ H 20
--->
CO
+ H2
a. Using handbook data, compute the heat absorbed in the production of the
actual blue water gas, per pound of carbon consumed. Assume that the reaction
takes place at 20C.
b. How much heat would be. absorbed per pound of carbon consumed if the reaction
took place at lOOOC?
6. A natural gas has the composition CH" 93 per cent; N 2, 4 per cent; H 2, 2 per
cent; O 2, 1 per cent. The gas is piped from the well at a temperature of 16C. and a
pressure of 40 lb. per sq. in. abs. Assuming that the simple gas law is applicable,
calculate
a. The partial pressure of the O 2.
b. The partial volume of N 2 per 20 cu. ft. of gas.
c. The density of the mixture in pounds per cubic foot at the existing conditions.
6. A gas with a heating value of 1950 B.t.u. per cu. ft. has the following composition: C 2H, and C.H., 55.1 per cent; O 2, 1.3 per cent; CH., 15.5 per cent; C,H" 25.0
per cent; N 2, 3.1 per cent. Calculate the percentage of C 2H. and C,H .
7. Calculate the theoretical flame temperature of the following gas when burned
with theoretical amount of air. Combustion is only 75 per cent complete, Air and
gas are initially at a temperature of 18C.
CO, 20 per cent; N 2, 74 per cent; CO 2, 6 per cent.
8. Calculate the number of calories required to heat, from 373 to 2000C., 10,000
cu. ft. (s.t.p.) of a gas having the following composition (by volume): CO" 19 per
cent; O 2, 2 per cent; N 2, 79 per cent.
9. A producer gas (8 per cent CO 2, 17 per cent H 2, 26 per cent CO, 1 per cent CH.,
48 per cent N 2) is made from a coal containing 72 per cent C, 4 per cent, H,O, 7 per
cent ash, 17 per cent volatile combustibles. Assuming that all steam and water are
decomposed and the volatile combustibles contain only C and H, calculate
a. Cubic feet of producer gas (dry s.t.p.) per pound of coal fired.
b. Cubic feet of air used (dry s.t.p.) per pound of coal fired.
c. Pounds of steam decomposed per pound of coal fired.
d. mtimate analysis of the fuel.
e. Pounds of steam decomposed per pound of coal fired in excess of that brought
in by the fuel itself.
10. A producer gas analyzing 3.6 per cent CO 2, 0.8 per cent C 2 H., 2.7 per cent CH'I
11.6 per cent H 2, 29.7 per cent CO 2, and 51.6 per cent N 2 under a positive pressure of
1.5 in. of water and saturated with water vapor at lOOF. is burned in a furnace with
air which enters at 70F. qnd I/O per cent saturated with water vapor. The flue gas,
which is at 460F., analyz~s 8.1 per cent CO 2, 1.7 per cent CO, 7.9 per cent O 2, and
82.3 per cent N 2. The barometer is 747 mm. Calculate
a. Percentage of excess ilir.
b. Cubic feet of gas formed per cubic foot of fuel gas entering.
c. Cubic feet of air supplied per cubic foot of fuel gas entering.
Ct. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapters 2, 3, and 5.
C~APTER 8. INDUSTRIAL GASES

1. Hydrogen by the steamciron process is being produced at the rate of 3,500 cu. ft.
per hr. If 2.5 times the necessary steam is used, what is the weight of steam used
I?er day?
964
APPENDIX
2. It is desired to market O. in small cylinders having volumes of 0.8 cu. ft., each
containing 1.5 lb. of oxygen. If the cylinders are subjected to a maximum temperature of HOF., calculate the pressure for which they must be designed. Assume the
applicability of the simple gas law.
3. Calculate the number of hours of service that can be derived from 5 lb. of
carbide in an acetylene lamp burning 5 cu. ft. of gas per hour at a temperature of 70F.
and a pressure of 755 mm. of Hg.
4. Calculate the molecular heat of combustion of acetylene from the following
data (basis C as graphite):
2H. +
2C +
C +
2Ca +
Ca, 0.,
Ca,
2C,
O. --+
0, --+
O. --+
O. --+
H. --+
2C --+
H2 --+
2H.0;
2CO;
CO.;
2CaO;
Ca(OH).;
CaC.;
C.H.;
tiH = -2(68,375) cal.

tiH = -2(26,390) cal.
tiH = -94,030 cal.
tiH = -2(151,700) cal.
t1H = -236,000 cal.
tiH = -14,500 cal.
tiH = +54,800 cal.
IS. a. How much coke, air, water, and limestone are necessary for the production
of 500,000,000 B.t.u. from acetylene?
b. How much of each is necessary if the CO is to be burned also?
6. CO 2 is being absorbed in alkaline solution and heated to recover the pure CO .

The average CO. content in the flue gases entering the absorbing towers is 18 per cent
and the gases leaving the towers contain 10 per cent. Of the recovered CO. 12 per
cent is lost in various ways and 88 per cent is recovered as the pure CO. product.
Calculate
a. The percentage of the entering CO. absorbed in the towers.
b. The percentage of the original CO. recovered as a final product.
7. By passing a clean purified flue gas up an absorption tower fed with a so-called
lye solution, made up originally with Na.CO., the CO. content of the gas is reduced
from 17.1 to 12.1 per cent. The lye solution at entrance and exit is analyzed with
0.2303N HCI, using in each case lO-cc. samples of lye. For the incoming lye 28.21 cc.
of acid are required to decolorize phenol-phthalein and a total of 72.30 cc. to get an
end point with methyl orange. For the exit liquor these values are 18.41 and 73.16 cc.,
respectively. 185 gal. of lye per hour Ij.re supplied to the tower, which operates at a
substantially constant temperature of 150F.
'
a. What percentage of the alkali in the two solutions is in the form of bicarbonate?
b. How many pounds of CO. are absorBed per hour?
c. What is the volume in cubic feet per hour of the gas entering the tower?
8. By treating dolomitic limestone with sulfuric ac~d, pure CO. can be prepared.
The limestone used in such a process contained CaCO. and ,MgCO., the remainder
being inert, insoluble materials. The acid used contained 10 per cent H 2SO. by
weight. The residue from the process had the following composition:
Per cent
Water ............. 85.00
CaSO ............ 8.30
MgSb............. 5.00
H.SO.. .. .... ..... 1.00
Inerts. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.60
CO .............. ,,0.10
965
PROBLEMS
During the process the mass was warmed and CO 2 and water vapor removed.
a. Calculate the analysis of the limestone used.
b. Calculate the percentage of excess acid used.
c. Calculate the weight and analysis of the material removed from the reaction
mass per 100 lb. of limestone treated.
Cf. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Figs. 10-4; 10-5.
CHAPTER 9. INDUSTRIAL CARBON

A plant is designed to manufacture charcoal from walnut shells which cost $1 per
ton .. The gas required for charring the shells costs $1 per ton of shells. Electricity
is 6 cents per kilowatt-hour and 4% hp. of electricity is used continuously per 24-hr.
day. Water costs $1.50 per day. Nine tons of shells are used per day to manufacture
3 tons of charcoaL Three men working 10 hr. per day and one man working 8 hr. a
day are paid at the rate of $l.50 per hour. Sacking expenses are $4 per ton of
charcoaL What is the profit per ton of charcoal selling at $50 per ton?
CHAPTER 10. THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES

1. A pottery kiln is made up of a 4-in. layer of firebrick and an 8-in. laye~ of building brick, the latter being on the outside where the temperature is 125F. The temperature within the kiln is 2500F. The thermal conductivities for firebrick and brick
are 0.62 and 0.42 B.t.u. per hr.-ft.' per OF. per ft., respectively. Assuming perfect
contact between the layers, calculate
a. The rate of heat flow through the wall B.t.u. per hr.-ft.'
b. The temperature at the junction of the two layers.
2. A test run is being made on a tunnel kiln used for firing bricks. The kiln is
coal-fired, and all ash is removed by allowing it to drop into a pit filled with water.
Evaporated water enters the stack with other gases. The tunnel holds 36 cars. One
car is removed every 2 hr. and each car carries 900 bricks. Calculate the amount of
heat and percentage loss due to
a. Sensible heat in dry flue gas.
b. Sensible heat in refuse.
c. Heat carried out by clay and clay structure of the kiln.
d. Unburned CO in flue gas.
e. Heat loss due to C in refuse.
Use the following data:
Analysis of Coal:
Per cent
H, .......... ,....................... .
C ........... :....................... .
N ......... .: ....................... .
0 .........., ....................... .
S ......... . 1-
5.22
76.17
1.50
7.65
1.92
................... ','"
7.54
Ash ................................ .
Calorific value ....................... . 13,830 B. t.u. per lb.
Total coal fired'...................... . 1,937 lb.
966
APPENDIX
Analysis of Refuse:
Per cent
0.15
Volatile ........................................ . 1.65
Fixed C ........................................ . 28.66
Ash ............................................ . 69.54
H 2 0 ........................................... .
~L'em peratures:
Atmosphere......... .. .... . . . ..... . . .. ........... 79F.

Flue gas ......................................... 340F.
Specific Heat (at 209.5F.):

B.t.u. per lb.
Clay ......................
CO 2 .
O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N 2 , CO ....................
Steam .....................
of.
0.23
0.2095
0.2167
0.2471
0.491 (between 212 and 340)
(Laterit heat of vaporization of water = 967 B.t.u. per lb.)

Ashpit holds 566 lb. H 20.
4.735 lb. wet ash as removed weighed 2.71 lb. after drying.
Boiling point H 20 = 212F.
Flue Gas Analysis:

Per cent
CO 2 . 3,29
CO ............................................ . 0.16
N 2 79.88
O2 16.67
Removable percentage of water in bricks = 4.55.
Green ware = 17,100 lb.
Clay structure in kiln = 7,100 lb.
Assume heat content of all other parts of structure as' negligible, heat content of
moisture as a product of combustion and is driven out of the clay ware as negligible.
The cars containing the clay came out at a temperature of 900F.
Heat of combustion of CO = 4,380 B.t.u. per lb.
I Cf. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapters 11 and 12 (design of a tunnel kiln).
CHAPTER 11. CEMENTS, CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
1. Draw a flow sheet for a plant manufacturing portland cement ,by the wet process.
All units should be numb"red or otherwise designated and a concise, accurate description of each type of unit given in an appendix.
2. A portland cement contains 4 moles of tricalcium silicate to 3 moles of dicalcium
silicate. If the~e are 23.03 lb. of Si0 2 per 100 lb. of cement, what are the absolute
amounts of the silicates present? How much CaO should be added to change the
ratio to 8 moles of tricalcium silicate to 1 mole of dicalcium silicate?
3. A limestone containing 48 per cent CO 2 (dry basis) and no other volatile material is burned with a coal containing 78.1 per cent C, 6.2 per cent H, 6.2 per cent ash,
967
PROBLEMS
and 9.5 per cent 0 . The air is dry. Barometric pressure is 757 mm. The stack gases"
leaving at 650F. and 757 mm., contain 26.3 per cent CO., 2.9 per cent 0., and 70.8
per cent N . Calculate
a. Pounds of lime produced per pound of coal fired.
b. Percentage of excess air.
c. Cubic feet of stack gas per pound of lime produced.
4. In the calcination of pure CaCO., the CO. leaves the kiln at 400C. The CaO
is withdrawn at 1500C. If the charge enters at 70C., how many B.t.u. are necessary
for complete calcination of 500 lb. of CaCO.? Specific heat of CaO is 0.22 cal. per,
gram-DC.
6. The gases from a shaft limekiln, externally fired, are 20.0 per cent CO" 5.0
per cent 0., and 75.0 per cent N., and leave at 400F. The coal fired has a heating
value of 13,000 B.t.u. per lb. and contains 79.0 per cent C, 6.0 per cent H, 7.5 per cent
0, and 7.5 per cent ash. The limestone enters at 70F. and its analysis is 81.0 per
cent CaCO., 6.0 per cep,t MgCO., and 13.0 per cent inert. The burnt lime leaves at
500F. The entering air is at 70F. with a water vapor pressure of 12 mm. The barometric pressure is 755 mm. Calculate
a. Pounds of burnt lime produced per pound of coal fired.
b. Percentage of excess air.
c. Sensible heat in waste gases (as percentage of heating value of coal burned).
d. Latent heat in waste gases (as percentage of heating value of coal burned).
e. Heat of decomposition of lime (as percentage of heating value of coal burned).
!. Sensible heat in the lime (as percentage of heating value of coal burned).
g. Radiation and other losses (as percentage of heating value of coal burned).
Heat of formation of MgCo. from MgO and CO. at 70F.
= 47,300 B.t.u. per lb.-mole

Heat of formation of CaCO. from Cli.O and CO. at 70F.
= 76,500 B.t.u. per lb.-mole

Specific heat of burnt lime = 0.18 B.t.u. per lb. per of.
C!. Lewis,
Radasch, and Lewis, Chapters 1 and 8.

CHAPTER 12. GLASS INDUSTRIES
1.' A glass for the manufacture of chemical ware is composed of the silicates and
borates of several basic metals. Its composition is as follows:
Per cent
SiO.............. ; ...
B.O.....................
AI.O......................
65.0
8.5
1.0
Per cent
ZnO ....................... .
MgO ..................... .
Na.O ..................... .
10.8
7.0
7.7
AhO, acts as a base and B.O. as an acid, HBO . Determine whether the acid or basic
constituents are in excess in this glass and the percentage of excess reacting value
above that theoretically required for a neutral glass.
2. A glass company is producing single-strength (Ys in. thick) window panes 2~<i by
1% ft. in size. The glass drawn from a debiteuse is 65 in. wide and has a specific
gravity of 2.60. What is the largest number of window panes that can be made from
a batch of glass of the following weights:
968
APPENDIX
T01I8
Sand (pure SiO.) .................................. , 50
Na.CO ............................................ 16
CaO ................................................ 7
Na 2SO,............................................ 6
COal. ....................... , ..................... , :l-::l:
3. Calculate the percentage of the total charge in the previous problem which
disappears from the melt as CO. and SO
CHAPTER 13. POTASSIUM SALTS AND MIXED FERTILIZERS
1. Five hundred metric tons of fixed nitrogen are needed. Assuming 95 per cent
purity, what weight of urea should be ordered? Assuming 95 per cent purity, repeat the
calculations for ammonium sulfate and Chilean nitrate. (One metric ton = 2,205 lb.)
2. A fertilizer is to have a 2-16-4 ratio and is to be made from KNO. and a Peruvian guano which contains 1.95 per cent N., 19 per cent P.O" and 3% per cent K.O.
Calculate the amounts of each per ton of fertilizer.
'
3. It is desired to make a 4-14-2 fertilizer by mixing ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and ammonia with a 2-11-3 fertilizer already on hand. How much of each of
these three materials will be necessary to make 100 lb. of the 4-14-2 fertilizer? Is a
filler necessary? If so, how much?
4. Make a fertilizer with the composition:
N ......................................... 4 per cent
P.O.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 per cent
K.O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 per cent
from
a. NaNO, containing 16 per cent N .
b. Acid phosphate containing 15 per cent available P.O..
c. KCI containing 50 per cent K.O.
d. Inert filler.
How many pounds of each of thp.se materill.ls will he reqllirerl per ton of fertilizer?
CHAPTER 14. SALT AND MISCELLANEOUS SODIUM COMPOUNDS
1. 1,000 lb. of rasorite containing 85 per cent Na.B,O, 4H.O is redissolved, filtered.
and run to the crystallizer as a 20 per cent solution of borax, Na.B,O, 10H.O at
1750F. After cooling to HOF. the crystals are centrifuged and go to the drier carrying 6 per cent moisture. The mother liquor contains 10 per cent borax. What yield
of dry crystals is obtained? '
2. In the evaporation of salt brines a certain manufacturer uses a triple-efTect
evaporator with parallel feed. Fifty per cent of the feed sent into each effect is evaporated. Eight thousand pounds of saturated steam per hour at 230F. is sent into the
first effect. Brine is sent into first effect at 70F.
Effect
Boiling point, F ............................... .

Area, sq. ft .......... " ....... , ............... .
II
III
210
500
180
500
125
500
969
PROBLEMS
Calculate
a. Capacity of the evaporator.
b. Steam economy.
c. Over-all coefficient for each effect.
C/. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapter 1.
CHAPTER 15. SODA ASH, CAUSTIC SODA, AND CHLORINE

1. A plant is to manufacture 500,000 lb. of Solvay ammonia soda per day, containing 96.7 per cent Na 2 CO . flow much salt will be required for the actual conversionif it is 98.5 per cent NaCl? If the carbonating towers consume only 66 per cent
of the salt, how much salt is actually required?
2. A plant is making soda with a 98.1 per cent purity; 50,000 lb. of salt is actually
converted. The reaction Nfl.flCO.
NaCl_. NaHCO.
NH.Cl goes 80 per cent
to completion while the conversion of bicarbonate to carbonate is done without loss.
How many pounds of NaHCO. (dry) are produced? How many pounds of dry soda
ash are made? How much salt is originally used?
3. Calculate the weight of NaCI and of CaCO. to make 1 ton of soda ash containing the equivalent of 58 per cent Na 20. Assume that 25 per cent excess NaCI is
neeessary in the first step and 7 per cent NaHCOalost in washing.
4. 3,000 lb. of NaCI is to be converted into Na 2CO. per cycle by the Solvay process.
Assume all reactions go 100 per cent and that 19 per cent of the salt put in is lost.
920 lb. of CO 2 is recirculated with losses of CO 2 amounting to 5 per cent of the total
CO 2 present each cycle plus 10 per cent of the recycled CO 2 Ammonia losscs are
0.5 per cent and the rest of the ammonia is recycled. Calculate the amounts of CaCO,
and NH. that must be supplied initially for conversion of 3,000 lb. NaCI per cycle
and that which must be supplied for each subsequent 3,OOO-lb. cycle.
5. A single-effect evaporator is to be designed to concentrate 250 gal. of 10 per
cent NaOH solution (sp. gr. = 1.116) per hour to 50 per cent (sp. gr. = 1.540).
Feed is to enter at 70F. (steam pressure = 5 lb. per sq. in. gage). Vacuum is 27 in.
referred to a 30-in. barometer. The specific heat of feed is 0.95; of finished liquor, 0.85.
Boiling point rise (50 per cent NaOH solution) = 30F.

Over-all heat transfer coefficient = 225.
The finished liquor will leave the evaporator at the boiling temperature and condensate will leave the basket at equilibrium temperature for 5 lb. steam. Calculate,
a. Area of heating surface to be supplied (sq. ft.).
b. Steam consumption in pounds per hour.
c. Expected steam economy.
6. Sodium carbonate crystals (decahydrate) are dissolved in 103 lb. of water.
This is treated with a Ca(OH). slurry giving 200 lb. of 9 per cent NaOH solution with a
92 per cent conversion. Calculate
a. Weight of Ca(OH). slurry.
b. Weight of Na 2CO,lOH.0 used.
c. Percentage of Na.CO. in NaOH solution.
d. Percentage of Na.CO. solution.
7. A soda ash solution containing 22 per ceiit Na.CO. is to be treated with lime
(83 per cent conversion) to form a caustic solution containing 14 per cent NaOH.
If there were 9.8 lb. of lime in the original suspension, what percentage of the total
suspension is lime?
8. A caustic soda solution is to be made by adding a 16 per ccnt Na 2 CO. solution
970
APPENDIX
in the proper stoichiometric proportions to a slurry containing 30 per cent Ca(OH) .

If the conversion is 90 per cent complete, what is the concentration of t.he resulting
solution?
9. A plant causticizes 300 tons of 95 per cent soda ash per day obtaining a 96
per cent yield. The lime is 96 per cent CaO and is used in theoretical amount. If
42 per cent NaOH liquor is to be made, how much lime is to be used and how much
caustic soda will be produced daily?
10. The liquor from a diaphragm cell contains 10 per cent NaOH and 13 per cent
NaCI. 15,000 lb. of caustic containing 2.3 per. cent NaCI is produced per day by
evaporation of the liquors. Calculate the, pounds of salt that precipitate per day in
the evaporators and the decomposition efficiency of the cell.
.
11. Chlorine gas and caustic are being made in Hooker-type cells. The chlorine
contains 0.9 per cent oxygen and, for the purpose of measuring the rate of generation,
more O. gas is added to the chlorine at a rate of 21b. O. per min. The gas now analyzes
3.0 per cent 0 . How much caustic (100 per cent) will be produced in one hour?
(Temperature is 25C., barometer normal.)
12. An alkali chlorine manufacturer has an excess of moist cell gas (97 per cent
chlorine) which he proposes to liquefy.
a. Draw a schematic diagram of the equipment required.
b. Describe the function of each unit and specify the material from which it may
be constructed.
c. Describe the type of compression and liquefaction equipment you would select.
13. A battery of 50 Nelson cells produces 8 tons of Cl. per day. Cathodic .::urrent
efficiency is 94 per cent. Anodic current efficiency is the same.
Calculate,
a. Amount of caustic soda produced in the cell per day.
b. Assuming 100 per cent current efficiency, calculate current in ampere-hours
that passes through the cell if 1 amp.-hr. is required for 0.0033 lb. of NaOH.
Cf. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapters 9 and 12, Design of sodium hypochlorite
process.
CHAPTER 16. ELECTROLYTIC INDUSTRIES
1. If finely pulverized iron costs 10 cents per pound, 30 per cent muriatic acid
1.05 cents per pound, and electricity 1 cent per kilowatt-hour, what is the comparative
price for a pound atom of active reducing hydrogen produced (1) from iron and
hydrochloric acid and (2) by the passage, of the electric current if 2 volts are required
to release the hydrogen?
2. "10 volume" hydrogen ,peroxide will liberate upon acidification at 60F. and
under normal barometric pressure oxygen whose volu!lle is ten times the volume of the
original solution. What is the percentage of hydrogen peroxide in the original water
solution?
'
3. A bauxite sample runs 61 per cent AhO. and 8 per cent SiO . This material
is roasted, dissolved in caustic soda to form a solution from which the iron present is
precipitated by dilution and oxidation, then removed by filtration. By suitable
treatment hydrated AhO. is precipitated in a very pure form with a recovery of 80
per cent of the original AhO . The SiO. remains behind as Na2SiO . The precipitated hydrated AbO. is dehydrated and forms the charge to an aluminum furnace.
If caUstic soda is purchased as a solution in water containing NaOH equivalent to
38.8 per cent Na.O at a cost of 1.3 cents per pound of solution, what will be the cost
of the caustic soda used in producing 100 lb. of pure Al.O. assuming that therc is used
10 per cent more than thc theoretical amount of NaOH required to react with the
PROllliF;MS
971
silica and AI,O. present in the original bauxite? Note that most of this caustic soda
is concentrated and reused.
Cf. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapter 12, Problem 1.
CHAPTER 18. PHOSPHORUS INDUSTRIES
Cf. Lewis, Radasch, .and Lewis, Chapter 12, Problem 5.
CHAPTER 19. SULFUR AND SULFURIC ACID

1. An iron pyrite has the following composition: Fe, 40.0 per cent; S, 43.6 per
cent. This pyrite is burned with air 100 per cent in excess of that required to burn
all the iron to Fe.O. and all the sulfur to SO . Assume that no SO. is formed in the
furnace. After the gases formed have passed through the converter, 95 per cent.
of the SO, is oxidized to SO . What will be the composition of the gases entering and
leaving the converter?
2. Oxides of nitrogen may be produced by treating crude NaNO. with sulfuric
acid or by the oxidation of ammonia. How many pounds of 66Be. sulfuric acid and
95 per cent sodium nitrate must be used to yield the equivalent of the oxides of
nitrogen produced by oxidizing 1 lb. of anhydrous ammonia?
3. A typical analysis of an Illinois coal shows it to contain 2.99 per cent S, 66.5
per cent C, 4.26 per cent H, and the remainder noncombustibles. A large power
plant burns 500 tons of this coal per day with 40 per cent excess air. What will be
the composition of the stack gas in percentage SO,? If a plant was installed to recover
this sulfur dioxide, how many cubic feet of gas (at 300F. and 750 mm.) would have
to be scrubbed per minute? Assuming a recovery of 50 per cent of the sulfur fired in
the form of SO" how many tons of sulfuric acid (66Be.) could be produced as a
by-product of this plant in a year?
CHAPTER 20. NITROGEN INDUSTRIES
Where the presence of nitrogen is not objectionable, hydrogen for reductions may
be produced by cracking ammonia at high temperature. A cylinder of hydrogen
un!ler high pressure contains' 1 lb. of hydrogen and weighs approximately 100 lb.
An ammonia cylinder containing 100 lb. of ammonia weighs approximately 150 lb.
A plant wishes to reduce 1 ton of Fe.O. to metallic iron per day with hydrogen. If
freight is 20 cents per 100 lb. hauled and it costs 3 cents per pound to crack ammonia,
calculate and compare the costs of cylinder hydrogen and hydrogen from ammonia.
Ammonia costs 5 cents per pound and cylinder hydrogen $1 per pound.
Cj. Lewis, R.adasch, and Lewis, Chapter 7.
CHAPTER 22. EXPLOSIVES, PYROTECHNICS, AND CHEMICAL WARFARE

1. The spent acid from a nitration process has the composition 43 per cent sulfuric
acid, 36 per cent nitric acid, and 21 per cent water by weight. This acid is to be
fortified by the additiol\ of concentrated sulfuric acid containing 91 per cent H,SO.
and strong nitric acid containing 88 per cent HNO . The fortified mixed acid is to
contain 40 per cent H,SO. and 43 per cent HNO . Calculate the quantities of spent
and concentrated acids that should be mixed together to yield 1,000 lb. of the desired
acid.
972
APPENDIX
2.. Four hundred pounds of toluene is agitated with 4,000 lb. of mixed acid having
the following composition: 7.5 per cent HNO., 80 per cent H.SO" 12.5 per cent H.O.
If the nitration proceeds until all of the toluene is changed to mononitro-toluene,
what will be the composition of the spent acid when the mononitro-toluene is separated from it?
S. Nitro-glycerine decomposes on explosion according to the following empirical
formula:
C.H.(NO.)a ---> 3CO.
2.5H.0
1.5N.
0.250.
The temperature of the gases has been determined to be 3360C. at the instant of
explosion. If 5 grams of nitro-glycerine are exploded in a I-liter bomb, what pressure
should be exerted at the instant of explosion if the walls are not to rupture?
CHAPTER 24. PAINT, VARNISH, LACQUER, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES

Cf. Lew's, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapter 10, Problem 6.
CHAPTER 29. SOAP AND OTHER SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS

A washing compound is to be made by drying a solution containing 15 per cent
soap and'25 per cent sodium carbonate. During the course of the drying the sodium
carbonate is converted to the decahydrate and appears in the finished product in this
form. The finished washing compound contains 8 per cent free moisture. How many
pounds of solution should he taken to produce 100 lb. of finished washing compound?
CHAPTER SS. PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRIES

Cf. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapter 9 (particularly Ill. 6 and Problem 11);
Chapter 12 (Problem 2).
CHAPTER S5. PLASTICS

Plastics as a whole are made of a very limited number of raw materials of which
petroleum, lime, salt, coal, water, air, and naval stores are the most fundamental.
Starting with those raw materials, prepare a chart showing all the intermediates
involved in the manufacture of the following plastics: a\lrylate resins, vinyl resins,
synthetic rubber (several types), phenolic resins, alkyd resins, and melamine resins.
I
CHAPTER S6. NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER
1. Certain ingredients are generally added to rubber in very small quantities.
To aid in the rapid incorporation of these materials and in the accuracy of the meas-'
ured quantity used, the chemical to be added is often blended into a "master batch"
of rubber separately, and small known weights of the master batch are added to the
rubber as it is worked on the rolls. A certain rubber formula is to contain, among
other things, in the finished product 0.56 per cent Captax, 0.49 per cent phenyl-tl~
naphthylamine,' and 65 per cent sm~ked sheet, the entire batch weighing 150 lb.
The chehist uses 100 lb. of smoked sheet to make up a master batch of Captax containing 5 per cent Cgptax. Later, by error, he incorporates 6 lb. of phenyl-p-naphthylamine into this batch. In order to avoid discarding the master batch, he adjusts
PROBLEMS
973
its components to a fixed ratio between Captax and phenyl-,3-naphthylamine. What

will be the composition of the master batch and how much master batch should be
added to the batch on the mill to give the proper proportions of Captax and phenyl-pnaphthylamine in the finished product?
2. Butyl rubber is polymerized at an extremely low temperature, frequently as
low as -lOOF. At these temperatures extreme care should be taken to provide
absolutely dry ingredients to avoid formation of ice on the heat-transfer surfaces and
to avoid the loss of heat. After polymerization the charge must be heated to +150F.
Describe the precautions necessary to make this process feasible from the standpoint
of heat consumption and freedom from icing troubles.
3. Tennis balls are made by curing two halves around a pill of ammonium nitrite,
then decomposing the nitrite by heat to inflate the interior.
NH,NO, -> N. + 2H.0
If the ball is a 2-in. diameter sphere, how much ammonium nitrite must be added to
give an internal pressure of 50 lb. per sq. in. gage at 70F. after it is dccomposed
according to the above formula? Assume the ball to be at a temperature of 30C. at
the time the pill is inserted.
CHAPTER 37. THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

1. A certain gasoline has an A.P.I. gravity of 62 at 60F./60F. What is itll specific
gravity? What is its gravity in degrees Baum6? How much will a 50-gal. barrel of
it weigh?
2. Gasoline is sweetened to remove odor. The primary reaction involved may be
assumed to be
2RSH + (0) -> RSSR + H.O
If a straight-run gasoline (A.P.I. gravity = 51.2 at 60F./60F.), containing 0.06
per cent sulfur all of which is assumed to be present as mercaptans, could be sweetened
catalytically by the use of the cheapest known oxidizing agent, air, how many cubic
feet of dry air at 60F. would be required to sweeten 1,000 bbl. (42 gal. each) of this
gasoline if 60 per cent of the oxygen fed took part in the reaction?
3. A gas has the following composition by volume: H., 5.4 per cent; CR., 9.9 per
centi C.H., 6.1 per centi C,H., 26.9 per centi C.H,., 51.7 per cent. If this gas is
compressed to 60 lb. per sq. in., how many pounds per hour will pass through an 8-in.
inside diameter pipe line if the gas flows at a temperature of 60F. and a velocity of
6 ft. per sec.?
CHAPTER 38. INTERMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
C/. Lewis, Radasch, and Lewis, Chapter 12, Problem 6.
f,
NAME INDEX
Banks, D. M., 228
Barksdale, J., 508
Barnett, E., 927
Barney, A. L., 588
Baron, A. L., 694, 699
Barraclough, R., 555
Barrett, B., 540
Barron, H., 819
Barry, T. H., 526, 527
Bartholomew, F. J., 366
Barton, L. E., 510
Bauman, W. C., 51
Baxter, J. P., 466
Bear, F. E., 342
Bebie, J., 478
Bedoukian, P. Z., 580, 583, 585, 594
Beglinger, E., 718
Behrman, A. S., 53
Bell, H. S., 860
Bell, K. E., 535
Bell, R. E., 339, 343, 354
Bell, R. W., 98
Benger, E. B., 749
Bennett, H., 520
Benson, G., 948
Benson, H. K., 719
Benson, L. J., 319
Bent, R. D., 858
Berg, C., 164
Berger, J. H., 377
Bergius, F., 717
Berl, E., 372
Besselievre, E. B., 43, 62
Beyling, C., 478
Bidlack, V. C., 527
I ,
Babo, A. F. von, 698
Biesterfeld, C. H., 43
Bachman, W. E., 461
Bigelow, M. H., 795
Bacon, F. S., 767, 774
Bigger, R. P., 32
Badger, W. L., 10,21, 22, 273, 285, 287,
Bilbe, C. W., 602
299, 300, 311, 419, 422, 643
Birch, R. E., 177
Baekeland, L., 771
Bixler, D. A., 501
Bailey, A. E., 600, 614
Bixler, G. H., 642, 665
Baker, E. M., 273,~, 287, 299, 300, 311, Blake, J. T., 819
Blangey, L., 879, 928, 933
419,422
Blau, H. H., 231, 250
Baker, T. T., 493 .
Baldwin, M. M., 193, 553
Bliss, H., 140
Ball, J. M., 804, 819
Block, S. S., 561
Bangert, W. G., 547
Blom, A. V., 526
Bangham, H. D., 103
975
Aall, C. H., 350, 355

Abbott, W. W., 103
Abrahams, S. A., 226
Addicks, L., 26
Ahlgren, G. H., 568
Alexander, J., 541, 549
Alexander, M. L., 821
Allen, A. H., 42
Allen, A. 0., 552
Allen, C. H., 524
Allen, H. D., 620-622
Alston, P. W., 652
Ambrose, H. A., 834
Anderson, C. 0., 275
Anderson, H. J., 75, 78
Anderson, R. B., 100, 103
Andrews, A. 1.,198
Andrussow, L., 415
Angus_Butterworth, L. M., 252
Arend, C. A., 260
Aries, R. S., 11, 43, 786
Armstrong, E. F., 228
Armstrong, F. F., 610
Arnold, L. K., 774
Ashburner, C. A., 825
Atlas, H. H., 786
Atwood, G. E., 263
'Auth, G. H., 79
Avery, J. M., 310
Ayo, J. J., 629, 634
Ayres, F. D., 63, 301
Azbe, V. J., 216, 228, 250
976
NAME INDEX
Blout, E. R., 795

Boatright, R. G., 809
Bockris, J. O'M., 172, 311, 329
Bodenstein, M., 385
Bogin, C., 523, 524
Bogue, R. H., 199,202,203,209,228
Bolton, E. K., 757
Bone, W. A., 419
Boruff, C. S., 664, 686
Botset, H. G., 825
Boundy, R. H., 819
Bourion, F., 877
Bowles, 0., 228
Boyce, J. C., 478
Boyer, R. F., 810, 819
Boynton, R. S., 212
Bradley, K J., 921
Bradley, W. E., 838
Brandenberger, H., 752
Brandt, L. H., 139
Brashares, C. A., 189
Bridger, G. L., 137, 348
Bridgman, P. W., 419
Brighton, T. B., 273
Britton, S. C., 881
Brockman, C. J., 329
Brooks, B. T., 821, 859, 860
Broughton, G., 163, 175,233,514,515,
522,527,534,536,538,543,548,647,
736, 748, 766, 898
Brown, A. W. A., 567
Brown, C. L., 854
Brown, G. G., 22
Browne, C. A., 663
Browne, T., 958
Brownlie, D., 95
Brumbaugh, C. C., 422
Bruner, W. M., 767
Bucherer, H. T., 928
Buckley, D. J., 801
Buell, C. K, 809
Bunbury, H. M., 719
Bundy, R. H., 810
B,.urchard, J. E., 479
Burke, J. F., 379
Burrell, H., 515
Burton, W. E., 819
Buswell, A. M., 44, 57
Butcher, C. H., 374
Buthod, A. P., 830
Butler, W. H., 780
Buttrey, D. N., 795
Butts, A., 26 ,
Byrns, A. C., 189
I
Cady, H. P., 147

Cain, J. C., 893, Q05, 927, 928
Callaham, J. R.. 48.101. 354. 511. 513. 779
Calvin, M., 914

Campbell, G. A., 568
Carlisle, J. P., 554
Carney, B. R., 832
Carroll, B. H., 485, 487
Carswell, T. S., 779, 780, 795
Casey, J. P., 742
Casey, R. S., 756
Cass, O. W., 757
Castner, J. B., 75, 886
Cauley, S. P., 858
Cawley, C. M., 100
Cerna, W. W., 44
Chamberlain, K A., 898
Chambers, F. S., Jr., 379
Charriou, A., 544
Chase, W. W., 754
Chen, P. S., 536, 549
Chesny, H. H., 223, 226
Chilton, T. H., 416
Chrisman, J., 958
Clapp, W. H., 795
Clapperton, R. H., 742
Clark, D. S., 795
Clark, F. W., 679, 680
Clark, M. E., 525
Clark, R. L., 371
Clarke, A., 594
Clarke, F. W., 44
Clarke, H. T., 699
Coen, I. H., 315
Cofield, E. P., 603
Cole, R. J., 365
Collie, B., 639
Collings, G. H., 270
Collins, D. N., 713
Conover, C., 884
Cook, W. A., 557
Coons, K. W., 639
Cooper, H. C., 331, 334
Cope, W. C., 402
Cqqueron, F., 828
Corl, C. S., 556
Corley, H. M., 43
Corwin, J, F.,,958
Cotton, R. 'H., 654
Cousen, A., 242, 252
Cowan, B., 739
Cowie, G. A., 270
Cox, G. L., 623
Cox, J. T., 156
Craig, D. P., 75, 78
Crawford, D. B., 144
Crawford, F. M., 687
Creighton, H. J., 172,329
Crittenden, E. D., 347
Crocker, E. C., 594
Crockin, J. M., 603
Crossley, M. L., 911
NAME INDEX
Cubberly, R, 64
Curme, G. 0., 960
Currie, J. N., 691
Curtis, H., 354, 361, 395, 400, 401, 407,
415,417-419
Dahlen, M. A., 911, 924, 926
Dalton, N. N., 639
Daniels, F., 413
Dan,iels, R M., 654
Daubert, B. F., 614
Davidson, A., 877, 927
Davies, J. G., 663
Davis, C. C., 819
Davis, 'Pearce, 252
Davis, T. L., 478
Dawson, T. R., 819
De Bruyne, N. A., 549
Delmonte, J., 546, 549
deLorenzi, Otto, 79
Deming, E. W., 31
Demmerle, R. L., 189, 346, 621
DeNavarre, M. G., 594
de Ong, E. R., 567
Depew, H. A., 506
Desch, C. H., 205, 210, 228
De Waele, A. D., 527
De Wolf, P., 393
D'Ianni, J. D., 803
Dice, C. M., 273
Dickson, J. H., 252
Dietz, V. R, 167
Dinsmore, R P., 797, 807
Direnga, O. G., 297
Distelhorst, S. D., 58
Dobbin, R E., 158
Dodge, B. F., 131, 140
Doolittle, A. K., 796
Dorman,'K. L., 911
Dormer, G. G., 119
Dorn, M., 929
Douglass, E. W., 275
Downs, C. R., 75, 139, 323, 884, 886
Doyle, A. M., 929
Drake, N., 822, 826
Drekopf, K., 478
Dubois, G., 389, 391
Dunbrook, R. F., 819
Dunn, C. E., 493
Dunn, C. G., 672, 698
Dunstan, A. E., 821, 860
Dunster, G. W., 527
I,
Dunwoody, W. B., 411
Durgin, C. B., 352
Durrans, T. H., 527
Dutton, L., 483
Dyson, G. M., 428
977
Easterwood, R W., 342, 355, 357

Eckel, E. C., 228
Eckman, D. P., 42
Edgar, G., 833
Edwards, J. D., 319
Edwards, W. L., 406
Egloff, G., 821, 833, 845, 854
Ehlers, N. J., 302
Eichenhofer, H. J., 302
Eide, A. C., 506
Elley, H. W., 946
Elliott, S. B., 496, 617, 639
Ellis, C., 524, 860, 959
Elmore, K. L., 342
Emley, W. E., 221
Emmett, P. H., 401
Engel, H. C., 795
Engelhart, G. K., 203
Ericcson, E. 0., 717
Ernst, F. A., 406
Eskew, G. L., 284
Esselen, G., 767, 774
Evans, E. B., 860
Evans, R M., 490, 493
Ewell, R. H., 6
Fairlie, A. M., 368, 369, 372, 374--377
382, 385-387, 391, 393
Faith, W. L., 372
Farine, G., 898
Farquhar, N. G., 115
Farr, H. V., 440, 510
Fasig, E. W., 527
Faust, J. B., 429
Fedoroff, V. N., 302
Feeney, R A., 697
Feist, W., 854
Fenske, M. R., 133
Ferguson, R. H., 625
Fernelius, W. C., 282
Fettes, E. M., 817
Fierz-David, H. E., 879, 928, 929, 933
Fieser, L. F., 473
Filachione, E. M., 693
Finger, G. C., 432, 433
Fink, C. E., 165
Finn, A. N., 236, 264
Fischer, F., 854
Fischer, G. J. B., 478
Fischer, W., 927
Pisher, C. H., 693
Fiske, D. L., 76
Fitt, T. C., '365
Fitzgerald, G. F., 859
Fleming, A., 699
Fleming, E. P., 365
Flett, L. H., 616
Flint, W. P., 568
978
NAME INDEX
Fogg, D. E., 393

Folkins, H. 0., 336
Foster, J. W., 699
Frank, G. H., 927
Franke, N. W., 81
Frary, F. C., 316, 317, 319, 435
Frear, D. E. H., 266, 555, 556, 562, 567
Frieden, A., 543, 544, 546
Friedlander, P., 929
Friedman, J. S., 493
Friend, W. Z., 26
Friese, G. M., 917
Frings, H., 691
FrisseIle, P., 563
FroIich, Per K., 807
Fry, J. H., 28
Fryling, C. F., 250
Fuchs, W., 81, 82
Fulda, H., 877, 879, 927
Fulton, C. A., 339
Fulweiler, W. H., 117, 121, 124
Furnas, C. C., 22, 25, 43, 45, 124, 252,
314,385,386,393,448,464,527,541,
643,663,712,719,729,939,942,955,
960
Gabriel, C. L., 687, 934

Gale, W. A., 255, 260
Gall, J. F., 432
Gamble, T., 719
Gardiner, W. C., 307
Gardner, H. A., 526
Garibaldi, J. A., 697
Garibay, J., 346
Garner, C. S., 448
Garner, F. H., 860
Garvey, B. S., 801, 803
Geertz, E., 128
Geiger, C. F., 192
Geigy, J. R., 909
Geiringer, P. L., 75
Georgievics, G., 893, 928
Gerber, T. C., 460
Gester, G. C., 840
Getz, C. A., 128
Giacobbe, John, 26
Gilbert, N., 413
Gilchrist, H. L., 478
Gildart, L., 209
Gilliland, E. R., 21, 22, 71
Gilwood, M. E., 53
Glasstone, S., 329, 917
Gloster, A. J.l 377
Gloyer, S. W.~ 605
Gluud, W., 102
Gnadinger, C. B., 556
Gohr, E. J., 854
Golding. Brage, 495, 516, 520, 791
Goldstein, R. F., 860

Gollmar, H. A., 86, 110
Golumbic, N., 100, 103
Gonnerman, H. F., 210
Goodman, A. H., 283
Goos, A. W., 703
Gordon, D., 66
Goss, W. H., 603, 605
Gould, R. F., 435
Granberg, W. J., 609
Grandmougin, E., 893, 928
Green, A. G., 928
Green, W. H., 53
Greene, J. W., 478
Greenfield, R. E., 656
Greenspan, F. P., 324
Greenwood, H. C., 150
Gregory, T. C., 43
Griess, J. P., 905
Griffin, R. C., 42
Griswold, J., 79
Griswold, T., 881
Grodzinski, P., 172
Groesbeck, E. C., 491
Groggins, P. H., 22, 133, 277, 463, 566,
567,585,610,634,810,867,869,870,
872,874,875,877-879,881,882,887,
893, 905, 910, 911, 914, 927, 933, 935,
937, 943, 946, 950, 954; 959
Gross, W. H., 145, 228, 322
Grosvenor, W. M., 386
Grounds, A., 99
Grove, C. S., Jr., 756
Gruse, W. A., 837, 842, 844, 857-860
Gubelmann, I., 946
Guenther, E., 575, 594
GuiIIandeu, A., 595
Guinot, H. M., 679, 680
Gumz, W., 124
Gunners, R. C., 854
Gustafson, H. B., 48
Guy, H. G., 81
"Guyot, A., 879
Hachmuth, 'K., 809
Hackleman, C. W., 491
Hader, R. N., 441, 718, 804, 805
Hadfield, W. J., 100
Haensel, V., 856
Hager, D., 822
Haggard, H. W., 42
Hahner, C. H., 247
Haines, H. W., 773
Hale, G. C., 881
Hall, A. J., 765
Hall, C. C., 100
Hall, F. P., 177, 191
Hall, R. E., 356
NAME INDEX
Hall, So Ao, 559

Halperin, Zo, 264
Hamilton, No Ho, 695
Handforth, So Lo, 416
Hansen, Ao Eo, 691
Hansen, Fo R., 496
Hanson, Go Ho, 809
Hanson, Wo To, Jro, 486, 487
Hantsch, Ao, 928
Happel, Jo, 858
Hardman, Ho Fo, 834
Harley, Go To, 263
Harlow, 1. Fo, 60, 61
Harman, Co Go, 196
Harness, Co Lo, 514
Harney, To Ro, 389, 391
Harnly, Jo \VO, 537
Harris, Eo Eo, 719
Harrison, Go Bo, 490
Hart, Po, 427
Hart, Wo Bo, 860
Haslam, R. To, 124
Hass, Ho Bo, 588, 933, 940
Hassack, Po, 690
Hasselstrom, To, 587
Hassler, Jo Wo, 172
Hatch, Go Bo, 55
Hatch, Lo Fo, 940
Hawley, Lo Fo, 700, 719
Haynes, Wo, 8, 42, 363, 393, 719
Hays, Ho Lo, 809
Heath, So Bo, ~27
Heaton, No, 527
Heckman, R. Fo, 22
Heindel, Ro Lo, 75
Hemming, Co Bo, 795
Henderson, Lo Mo, 851
Henderson, Yo, 42
Hendricks, So Bo, 342
Henney, K., 490, 493
Herfeld, Ho, 549
Herman, Ao, 685
Hermans, Po Ho, 765
Herrell, Wo Eo, 699
Herrick, Ho To, 690
Hersberger, Ao Bo, 630
Herstein, Ko Mo, 698
Hertz, Do Bo, 43
Hessel, Fo Ao, 478
Hessel, Mo So, 478
Hester, Ao So, 524
Heumann, Ko, 928
Hewitt, Jo To, 928
Hickey, R. J., 687, 698 I.
Hicks, Wo, 356
Higgins, Go Co, 493
Hightower, Jo Vo, 259, 260, 295, 300, 605,
638, 661, 715; 716
Hignett, To Po, 347, 348, 355
Higson, Go 1o, 363

Hilditch, To Po, 614
Hill, Ao Go, 460
Hoak, R. Do, 366
Hobson, Go Do, 821
Hodge, Eo Bo, 933
Hodge, Wo Wo, 438
Hodkin, Fo Wo, 242, 252
Hoffer, Go No, 269
Hohenstein, Wo Po, 795
Holland, Ao Ao, 274, 275
Holmstead, Bo, 469
Holstein, Po Fo, 429
Homer, Ho Wo, 947
Hooker, Go Wo, 427
Hoover, Jo R., 529
Horne, Wo Do, 804, 959
Horsfall, 1. Go, 561
Hou, To Po, 285, 296, 311
Houben, Jo, 927
Hougen, 0o Ao, 7, 17,22
Houwink, R., 549, 795, 819
Howerton, Wo Wo, 661
Howland, Lo Ho, 803, 814
Hubbard, Do 0o, 304
Hubbuch, To No, 348
Hubel, Jo Ho, 301
Hughes, Eo Co, 834
HuJl, Wo, 120, 547, 683, 733
Hulla, Go, 854, 860
Hulsart, Co Ao, 75
Humphrey, 1. Wo, 712
Hunter, Do, 720
Huntington, R. Lo, 124, 860
Hutchinson, Jo Co, 383
Hyden, Wo Lo, 752
Illing, Vo Co, 821
Inskeep, Go Co, 697, 735
Insley, Ho, 177, 191
Jackson, Ko Eo, 467
Jacobs, Mo Bo, 478, 594, 698
Jacobs, Po Bo, 698
Jacobson, Mo, 559
James, To Ho, 484, 493
Jamison, Eo Ao, 123
Jenkins, Ro Lo, 561
Jenkner, Ao, 95
Jenness, Lo Co, 742
Joachim, B., 505
Johnllen, Bo, 721
Johnson, Ao Jo, 79
Johnson, Jo R., 699
Johnston, Fo, 960
Johnstone, Ho Fo, 307
Jolly. To Do, 318
979
980
Jones, C. L., 126, 151
Jones, E. M., 375, 382
Jones, H. A., 577
Jones, P. J., 860
Jones, R. J., 269
Jorczak, J. S., 817
Jorgensen, A., 698
Joslyn, M. A., 594
Junkins, J. N., 406
NAME INDEX
Krase, N. W., 415,707

Kreps, T. J., 393
Kreulen, D. J. W., 103
Kronowett, P., 921
Krumbhaar, W., 526
Kuchinka, R., 857
Kuebel, A., 447
Kuhn, W. E., 671
Kummer, J. T., 401
Kunin, R, 51, 62
Kaiser, E. R., 74
Kaplan, J. K, 458
Lacey, W. N., 205, 860
Karnofsky, G., 603
Ladoo, R B., 152, 198, 702
Karow, E. 0., 692
Laidler, K, 17
Lake, G. R., 838
Kartaschoff, V., 898
Kastens, M. L., 100, 383, 397, 458, 496,
Landis, W. S., 337
555, 629, 631, 634
Lane, J. C., 860
Katz, D. L., 209
Lange, 0., 928, 929
Katz, J. J., 442
Langton, H. M., 795
Katz, M., 360
Lapple, C. E., 375
Keenan, J. H., 64
La Que, F. L., 26
Keller, R. N., 6
Larison, E., 393
Lathrop, E. C., 650
Kelly, H. S., 858
Kennedy, S. J., 536
Lauer, B. E., 22
Kenyon, R. L., 603, 622
Laury, N. A., 274
Kerr, R. W. E., 662, 663
Lauter, C. J., 437
Keyes, D. B., 371, 677
Lawrence, C. A., 566, 568
Keyes, F. G., 64
Lea, F. M., 205, 210, 228
Kharasch, M. S., 567
Le Beau, D. S., 804, 805
Kibler, A. L., 467
Lee, J. A., 24, 42, 106, 273, 388, 555, 557,
Kidoo, G., 158, 638
712,716,736,740,758,786,800,806,
Kiebler, M. W., 81
817
Kiessling, O. E., 827
Lee, S. B., 665, 694
Killeffer, D. H., 244, 319, 515
Leech, W. A., Jr., 110
Leeming, J., 765
King, B. W., 196
King, R. A., 366
Leffingwell, G., 639
King, V. L., 55
Leighou, R B., 56, 499, 515, 519
Leonhardt, H. G., 698
Kingsbury, P. C., 27
Kirby, W., 100
Lerch, W., '203, 209
Kircher, J. E., 632
Lesser, M., 639
Kirk, R. E., 2n. ff. (repeated references - Lessing, L. P., 762
throughout book)
Levey, H. A., 471, 752
/ Kirkpatrick, S. D., 242, 258, 263,320, 366 Levine, R., 282
Kirst, W. E., 75, 886
Levitt, B., 608, 614
Kiar, M., 719
Lewin, A., 795
Klingman, G. C., 568
Lewis, G. N., 400, 419
Klipstein, K H., 460
Lewis, H. C., 7
Knecht, E., 894, 897, 929
Lewis, John, 742
Kobe, K, 41, 255, 260, 298, 354, 355
Lewis, W. K, 7, 21, 22, 71, 163, 175, 233,
Koehler, H. C., 561
386,514,515,522,527,534,536,538,
Koehler, W. A., 172,329
543,548,647,736, 748, 766,898,~14
Kolhoff, W. !A., 120
Liebmann, A. J., 686
Kolaqhov, P. J., 674
Lind, S. C., 821
Komarewsky, A., 854
Lindsay, F. K, 54
Koontz, A. R., 467
Lindsly, B. E., 826
Kornfeld, G., 482, 484
Lippman, A., 374,424
Kortiim, G., 172, 311, 329
Lipsett, C. H." 43, 748
Kraiker, H., 366
Little, R. W., 763
NAME INDEX
Lloyd, S. J., 943

Lobo, W. E., 144
Lodge, F. S., 266, 269
Looker, C. D., 271
Lowenthal, R., 894, 897, 929
Lowry, H. H., 103, 117, 121, 124
Lubs, H., 893, 909, 911, 918, 919, 928
Lucas, J. A., 352
Lum, J. H., 352
Lundy, W. T., 363
Lyle, 0., 663
McAdams, W. H., 21, 22, 71
'McBee, E. T., 940
Me Berty, F. H., 447
McBride, R. S., 95, 241, 622, 627
McBurney, W. G., 397
McCabe, J. C., 71
McCabe, W. L., 21, 22
McCormack, Harry, 22
McCubben, K., 603
McCullough, J. H., 858
McCutchan, W, N., 687
McCutcheon, J. W., 616, 626, 629, 639
McDill, B. M., 651
McGarvey, F. X., 51
McGinnis, R. A., 651, 652, 663
Mach, E., 698
MacInnes, D. A., 329
Mackall, J. N., 346
McLaughlin, G. 0., 530, 533, 535, 549
MacMullin, R. B., 301, 310
McNamara, E. P., 197
McNamee, J. P., 817
Magraw, R. M., 263
Mair, B. J., 828
Malowan, J. E., 352
Mandru, J. E., 652
Man'ning, P. D. V., 222, 223, 260, 320,593
Mansfield, G. R., 339
Mantell, C. L., 152, 165, 169, 172, 303,
311, 317, 322, 329, 337, 546
Mantius, E., 379
Marchionna, F., 819
Mark, H., 795
Markley, K. S., 603, 614, 639
Marsel, C. J., 599, 610, 620
Marsh, G. L., 594
Marsh, J. T., 742
Marshall, A., 478
,
Marshall, J. R., 107
Martin, G., 150,206,228,639
Martin, P. T., 120
I
Martin, R. C., 527
Martin, W. J., 478
Maschwitz, P. A., 851
Mason, C. F., 858
Mason, J. W., 131
981
Mason, W. P., 44
Master~, C. L., 879
Matthews, G. E., 480
Mattiello, J., 495, 502, 505, 508, 513-515,
518, 522, 523, 526
Maude, A. H., 422
Mauersberger, H. R., 765
May, O. E., 690
Mayer, F., 928
Mazuyer, G., 594
Meade, A., 124
Meade, G. P., 663
Mears, R. B., 319
Mees, C. E. K., 43, 484, 493
Meidinger, W., 493
Mellan, I., 527
Meres, M. W., 825
Merrill, R. C., 281
Merriman, H. R., 795
Merten, J. A., 698
Mertle, J. S., 491
Metcalf, C. L., 568
Metcalf, R. L., 568
Metzger, F. J., 145
Metzner, E. K., 264
Meyer, K. H., 795
Meyer, M., 451, 452, 478
Miall, L. M., 228
Michaelis, L., 672
Michener, J. W., 652
Midgley, T., 833
Miles, F. D., 386,,393
Miller, A. M., 400, 432
Miller, H. C., 826, 827
Mindler, A. B., 647
Miner, C., 639, 689
Mitchell, J. E., 411, 810
Mitter, M. N., 568
Moakes, R. C. W., 819
Moilliet, J. L., 639
Moncrieff, R. W., 765
Montgomery, G. L., 44
Moore, N. H., 602
Moore, S., 652
Moore, Z. W., 856
Morey, G. W., 232, 233, 246, 252
Morgan, J. J., 103, 105, 124, 165
Morrell, C. E., 807
Morrell, J. C., 100
Morrell, R. S., 527, 795
Morris, V. N., 120
Morrison, G. 0., 936
Morton, W. E., 765
Moulton, H. R., 247
Moulton, R. W., 349
Mrstik, A. V., 853
Mullins, P. V., 147
Mumford, R. W., 258, 259
Munroe, C. E., 478
982
NAME INDEX
Munter, C. J., 55, 355-357

Murphree, E. V., 842, 854, 856
Murphy, E. A., 799
Murphy, W., 224
Murray, R. L., 287, 446
Muskat, I. E., 301, 825
Myer, J. E., 215
Myers, R. J., 62
Myers, W. M., 198
Nachod, F. C., 62
Nagle, W. M., 75, 886
Naidus, H., 502
Najarian, H. K., 506
Naoum, P., 463
Nash, A. W., 821, 860
Nauth, R., 795
Naves, R., 594
Nealey, J. R, 715
Neblette, C. B., 493
Negovskii, A. S., 333
Neidig, C. P., 630
Nelson; H. A., 505, 697
Nelson, O. A., 553
Nelson, W. G., 709
Nelson, W. L., 828-832, 834, 836-841,
844, 845, 858, 860
Newcomb, R., Jr., 198
Newitt, D. M., 419
Newman, A. B., 1
Newton, R. D., 11, 43
Niebanck, R. J., 335
Nieuwland, J. A., 812
Niven, W. W., Jr., 629, 639
Nordell, E., 47, 53, 62
Norton, F. H., 184, 186, 196, 197
Norton, L. B., 552
Noyes, W. A., Jr., 478
Nyman, C. J., 279
O'Brien, T. D., 279

O'Brien, W. B., 905, 909, 928
O'Brien, W. J., 508
,
O'Connor, J. A., 363, 609, 782
O'Hara, C. E., 483
Oldershaw, C: F., 421
Olive, T. R., 226, 383, 392, 697, 750, 882
Olsen, A. L., 478
Olsen, J. C., 297
Olson, C., 315
Olson, H. M., 44, 46, 58
Orr, S. T., '126
Osterberg, J. W., 483
Othmer, D. F., 2n. ff. (repeated references
throughout book)
Ott, Emil, 742, 765, 774
Otto, F. C., 250
Owen, W. L., 685

Owens, C. H., 691
Palmer, R. C., 710
Pardun, H., 857
Parker, A, A., 117
Parrish, P., 103
Parry, E. J., 527
Partington, J. R., 407
Partridge, E. P., 55, 356) 357
Patrick, R. F., 194
Patterson, A. M., 565
Patton, E. L., 713
Patty, F. A., 42
Pearl, I. A., 585, 735
Pearson, K., 543
Peckham, G. T., 692
Peddicord, H., 631
Peierls, E. S., 789
Perazich, G., 37
Perlman, D., 665
Perry, H. J., 724
Perry, J. M., 629, 632, 639
Perry, John H., 5n. ff. (repeated references throughout book)
Perry, T. D., 795
Peterson, R. F., 379
Petty, R. D., 695
Phillips, C. J., 245, 246, 249, 252
Phillips, G. W. M., 386
Picken, L. E. R., 795
Pigford, R. L., 126, 292, 419
Pigott, R. J. S., 834
Pinkerton, R. D., 853
Pohl, W., 385
Pollard, J. H., 363
Pond, G. G., 337
Poole, H. P., 713
Porritt, RD., 819
Porter, A. B., 785
Porter, C. W., 432
Porter, H. C., 93, 102
Porter, R. W., 728
Poste, E.,P., 707
Potter, A. A., 36.
Potts, R. H., 622
Poucher, W. A., 594
Powell, A. R., 120
Powers, P.O., 782
Powers, T. J., 60, 61
Pratt, L. A., 278
Pratt, L. S., 527
Prentiss, A. M., 478
Prescott, S. C., 672, 698
Price, D., 639
Pritchard, W., 510
Pryor, B. C., 814
NAME INDEX
Quarles, G. G., 493

Quig, J. B., 762
Quinn, E. L., 126, 151
Quirke, T. T., 6
Rabald, E., 42
Rabinowitch, E., 442, 483
Radasch, A. H., 7
Radcliffe, L., 608
Radley, J. A., 543, 654, 663
Ragatz, 0., 7, 17
Raifsnider, P. J., 459
Raiziss, W., 567
Ralston, A. W., 639; 950
Randall, M., 400, 419
Randolph, J., 248
Rankin, G. A., 209
Ranshaw, G. S., 278
Raschig, F., 882
Rawson, C., 894, 897, 929
Raynolds, J. W., 774
Rebb, R. L., 813
Reddelien, G., 928
Reed, F. C., 406
Reed, R. M., 107, 112, 134, 137,366, 432,
433
Reents, A. C., 638
Reich, G. T., 129, 130, 132, 675
Reichenberg, H. E., 661
Reichert, J. S., 324
Reilly, J., 479
Reiter, A. A., 703
Remmey, G. B., 192
Reverdin, F., 877, 879, 927
Rhodes, T. J., 29, 42
Rhodes, T. W., 32
Rice, 0., 55
Richardson, A. S., 625
Richter, 0., 8
Ridgway, R. R., 334
Riechers, E. H., 283
Riegel, E., 41, 709
Ries, E. D., 386
Ries, H., 197
Riley, E., 933
Ritz, G. J., 603
Roberts, E. J., 354
Roberts, J., 95, 102
Robertson, G. R., 210, 255, 260, 263
Robinson, A. T. C., 765
Robinson, C. S., 478
Robitschek, P., 795
f,
Rochow, E. G., 952
Rochow, W. F., 189
Roelen, 0., 854
Rogers, B. A., 827
Rogers, S. Fl., 819
Rogge, R. H., 66l
983
Roll, l{ H., 26
Rooseboom, A., 412
Root, H. H., 614
Rose, H. J., 81
Rose, R. E., 898, 928
Rosenberg, H. R., 957
Rosenbusch, H. A., 683
Rossini, F. D., 828
Rossman, J., 43
Rowe, F. M., 893,894,898,901, 902, 907,
910, 928, 954
Rowley, L. N., 74
Rubenkoenig, H., 283
Rudolfs, W., 43, 62
Ruebensaal, C. F., 786
Ruff, 0., 331
Ruheman, M., 141, 150
Rushton, J. H., 139
Russell, R. P., 124
Ryan, J. G., 858
Ryan, W. J., 62
Sachanen, A. N., 829, 846, 860
Sackett, W. J., 346
Sagarin, E., 594
Sage, B. H., 860
Sams, R. H., 281
Sanchilli, V., 270
Sandborn, L. T., 584
Sand hoff, A. G., 81, 82
Sands, A. E., 108, 366
Sands, G. A., 25
Sankey, C. A., 739
Sartori, M., 468, 478
Saunders, K H., 905, 909, 928
Savell, W. L., 275
Sawyer, C. B., 115
Sawyer, F. G., 115, 429, 430, 546, 726,
728, 729, 739
Sax, N. 1., 42
Scherl, B., 686
Schildkneckt, C. E., 786, 791, 795
Schmerling, L., 841
Schmidt, L. D., 108, 366
Schnacke, S., 822, 826
Schoen gold, M. D., 43
Scholl, W., 267
Schotz, S. P., 960
Schramba;W. P., 224, 322
Schreiber, F. D., 110
Schrier, E., 272, 322
Schroeder, W. C., 100, 456
Schultz, G., 893, 902
Schumacher, J. C., 327
Schwaiger, F. H., 698
Schwalbe, C., 877, 927
Schwartz, A. M., 629, 632, 639
Schwartz, C., 55, 355-357
984
NAME INDEX
Schwarz, E. W. K., 765, 924

Schwitzer, K. M., 614, 960
Schwyzer, J., 584, 587, 960
Scott, G. S., 117
Searle, A. B., 197
Seaton, M. Y., 221
Seiferle, E. J., 555
Seltzer, E., 626
Seymour, R. B., 28
Shafer, L. M., 911
Shafor, R. B., 354, 654
Shanley, E. S., 324
Sharp, D. E., 231, 233, 252
Shaw, T. P. G., 936
Shea, G. B., 826, 827
Shearon, W. H., Jr., 81, 157, 300, 303,
363,407,499,605,611,613,645,680
713, 714, 814
Sheffield, D. H., 587
Shepard, H. H., 552, 567
Sheppard, S. E., 542, 544
Sherman, J. V., 765
Sherman, S. L., 765
Sherwin, K. A., 300
Sherwood, T. K., 126, 292, 419
Shoeld, M., 345, 346
Shonle, H. A., 939, 955, \157
Shreve, R. Norris, 9, 11,30, 133, 283, 440,
510,872,878,879,887,903,906,910,
914, 927, 950
Siegel, M. R., 348
Silcox, H. E., 665
Silverman, A., 229
Simmons, L. D., 273
Simonds, H. R., 795
Sittenfield, M., 632
Sittig, M., 323, 328, 845, 848, 849, 856
Skeen, J. R., 370, 412
Skoog, F., 568
Sliepcevich, C. M., 209
Smith, D. J., 853, 856
Smith, F. E., 176
Smith, H. H., 810
Smith, H. I., 260
Smith, R. 0., 754
Smith, J. C., 27
Smith, P., 543
Smith, P. I., 549
Smyth, H. D., 445
Snell, C. T., 284
Snell, F. D., 284, 358
Soday, F. J., 396
Sosman, R. B., 252
Spll-ngler, S. F., 367, 416
Spaulding, C. R., 5a
Speller, F. N., 24, 25, 42
Spencer, D. A., 41)0
Spencer, G. L., 66:3
Spencer-Strong, G. H., W4
Sprague, E. C., 169

Squires, L., 163, 175, 233, 514, 515, 522,
527,534,536,538,543,548,647,736,
748, 766, 898
Stallings, E. M., 685
Stansel, N. R., 331, 337
Stark, W. H., 674
Starke, H. R., 209
Starr, B., 657
Steinour, H. H., 209
Stengel, L. A., 133
Stephenson, R., 446
Sterba, M. J., 856
Stevens, A., 689
Stevens, D. R., 837, 842, 844, 857-860
Stevenson, L. T., 742
Stewart, J. R., 527
Stillman, D., 563
Stockman, G. J., 638
Stokes, C. A., 152, 158, 702
Stookey, S. D., 235
Storch, H. H., 100, 103
Storrs, B. A., 113, 114
Striplin, M. M., 361
Stromquist, D. M., 638
Strouse, G. C., 918
Studley, G., 65
Sutermeister, C., 742
Sutheim, G. M., 515
Sutherland, R., 537
Swain, P. W., 65
Swallen, L. C., 774
Swann, S., 328
Sward, G. G., 505, 526
Swayze, M. A., 209
Sweeney, O. R., 774
Sweeney, W. J., 829, 836, 841
Sweetland, L. E., 301
Szymanowitz, R., 168
Tait, T., 858
Tauber, H., 699
Taussig, R., 337
Taylo!, E. R., 657
Taylor, G. B., 416
Taylor, H. S., 133, )151, 419
Taylor, M. C., 310, 311
Taylor, R. L., 336
Teeple, J. E., 255, 270
Texter, C. R., 55, 357
Theis, E. R., 530, 533, 535, 54\1
Thomas, E., 43
Thomas, H. E., 62
Thompson, A. P., 3S7
Thompson, H. L., 360, 407
Thomssen, E. G., 639
Thorpe, J. F., 8, 284, 285, 8!)7, 928
Tiemann, H. D., 742
NAME INDEX
Tiffany, J. E., 478

Tiger, H. L., 53
Tisdale, H. R., 927
Tizard, H. T., 821, 860
Todd, J. M., 363
Tone, F. J., 331
Tongue, H., 419
Toth, S. J., 342
Townsend, Oliver, 445
Tracy, O. V., 807
Trask, P. D., 821
Tray, S. E., 602
Treadway, R H., 661
Treffier, A., 438, 573
Tressler, D. K., 594
Treybal, R. E., 614, 814
Trimble, J. F., 958
Tromp, L. A., 663
Trueger, E., 677
Truog, E., 269
Trusty, A. W., 856
Truttwin, H., 928
Tschinkel, J. G., 476
Tupholm, C. H. S., 543
Tu'rner, F. M., 219
Turrentine, J. W., 258, 270, 347
Twichaus, H. C., 302
Tyler, C., 43
Tyrer, D., 879
Uhlig, H. H., 42
Ullmann, F., 8, 284, 419, 448, 493, 584,
879, 928, 956, 960
Underkofler, L. A., 672, 687, 698
Updegraff, N. C., 107, 366
Uren, L. C., 860
Vail, J. G., 281
Vale, C. P., 795
Valette, S., 544
Van Antwerpen, F. J., 438
Vanderbilt, B. M., 933
Vanderhoef, H. K., 573
Van Doren, L., 315
Van Krevelen, D. V., 402
Van Lanen, J. M., 664
Van Winkle, M., 860
Varzanov, M. A., 333
Venkataraman, K., 873, 874, 877, 887,
892,893,899,900,904,905,911,915,
918, 921, 922, 924, 928
Vincent, G. P., 311
"
Viol, C. H., 442
Vi~lbrandt, F. C., 41
Vittinghoff, J., 120
Vodonik, J.,L., 756
Vogel, E. H., Jr., 698
985
Vogt, R. R., 812

Von Berg, R L., 605
Von Fischer, W., 527
Von Ludwig, D., 250
Waeser, B., 419
Waggaman, W. H., 270, 338, 339, 343,
349, 354, 355, 361
Wake, W. C., 819
Wakeman, R L., 81
Wakeman, S. A., 692, 694
Walker, W. H., 21, 22, 71
Wallace, H. M., 267
Wallis, T., 677
Walter, F. G., 698, 699
Walton, R P., 657, 663
Ward, R, 146
Wardenburg, F. A., 407
Warren, B. E., 246
Warren, J. C., 56
Warth, A. H., 609, 614
Watson, E. R., 893
Watson, K. M., 7, 17,22
Watts, A. S., 180
Wayne, P. J., 767
Webb, B. H., 692, 693, 699
Weber, P., 940
Weber, W. C., 354
Weidlein, E. R, 248
Weil, B. H., 81, 860
Weingart, C. W., 479
Weiss, J. M., 97
Weissler, H. E., 680
Weith, A. J., 774, 795, 812
Wellman, R. H., 550
Wells, A. E., 393
Wells, J. H., 81, 103
Wells, S. D., 740
Wentworth, T. 0., 677
West, C. J., 742
West, T. F., 568
Weyl, W. A., 235
Wheaton, R N., 51
White, A. H., 279
White, J. F. M., 279
White, 0., 250 ..
Whitley, G. S., 819
Whitmore, F. C., 455
Whittaker, C. M., 929
Whittemore, O. J., 193
Whittier, E. 0., 692, 693, 699
Wichelhaus, H., 877, 879, 927
Wiegandt, H. F., 605
Wigner, J. H., 639
Wilcock, C. C., 909
Wilcoxon, B. H., 447
Wilhelm, H. A., 445
Wilkerson, T. L., 339
986
Wilkie, H. F., 674, 685
Williams, R., 512, 622, 759, 773
Wills, J. H., 281
Willson, C. S., 149
Wilson, J. A., 534, 548
Wilson, P. J., 81, 103
Wilson, R. E., 860
Winther, A., 929
Witham, G. S., 742
Witt, J. C., 228
Wolf, D. E., 568
Wood, F. C., 742
Wood, J. W., 577
Woodroffe, D., 549
Woods, -H., 205, 209
Woodward, H. E., 910, 911
Worden, E. C., 765
Work, E., 699
Work, T. S., 699
NAME INDEX
Wright, F. E., 209

Wurster, o. H., 610, 636
Wychoff, R. D., 825
Yates, L. D., 347, 348

Yost, D. M., 448
Young, C. B. F., 639
Zabel, H. W., 323, 433

Zakharov, A. I., 879
Zergiebel, C. P., 352
Zerweck, W., 901
Ziegler, K., 911
Zotos, G. A., 324
Zwicker, B. M. G., 803
Zwilgmeyer, F., 911
SUBJECT INDEX
Page references in boldface type indicate main discussions
Abietic acid, 711

Abrasives, artificial, 331
Absolute (perfumery), 579
Accelator, 53
Acetaldehyde, 858, 937, 948
Acetate, 744
manufacture, 754
raw materials for, 746
Acetate rayon dyes, 897
Acetic acid, 690, 703, 858, 947
Acetic anhydride, 858, 937, 948
Acetone, 686, 858, 936
Acetyl chloride, 471
Acetyl salicylic acid, 956
Acetylene, 147
Acetylene blacks, 160
Acid Alizarin Blue B, 896, 899, 918
Acid Black lOB, 899, 908
Acid dyes, 898,
Acrilan, 743, 761, 764
Acrylic copolymers, 743, 761, 762
Acrylic resins, 772, 786
Acrylic rubbers, 818
Acryloid, 768
Acrylonitrile, 812
Acylation, 892
Adamsite, 471
Addition reactions, 890
Adhesives, 644
Adipic acid, 757, 949
Adiponitrile, 911
Adsorption, 163
Aerobes, 666
Aerosols, 432
Affination, 645
Agfa color, 490
Air, constituents of, 140
fractionating column for, 143
liquefaction of, 140
properties of, 140
Air conditioning, 78
Air pollution, 61
Albersols, 768
Alcohol, absolute or anhydrous, 676
amyl,944
butyl, 686
Alcohol, dehydration of, 677, 679

denatured, 668
industrial, 667, 671
isopropyl, 855, 936
liquid system, water-alcohol-benzene
678
methanol, 716
propyl,936
synthetic, 855, 936
temperature versus composition, of
vapor and liquid, 676
Aliphatic amines, 950
Aliphatic thiocyanates, 560
Alizarin, 900
Alizarine brown, 896
Alkali industry, 286
Alkaloids, 957
Alkyd resins, 519
Alkyl sulfonates, 630
Alkyl-aryl sulfonates, 630, 632
Alkylation, 15, 853, 887, 889, 950
Allethrin, 556
Alligatoring, 500
Allyl thiocarbamide, 487
Aloxite, 333
Alumina, 189, 192, 193, 434
Aluminum, 25, 316
Aluminum chloride, 438
Aluminum oxide, 333
Aluminum silicates, 192
Aluminum sulfate, 435
Alums, 435
Alundum, 333
Alvar,768
Amatol,410
Ambergris, 572
Amberol, 768
Ambrein, 573
Ameroid, 768
Amination, by ammonolysis, 875, 1:)37
by reduction, 871, 873, 937
Ammonia, 91, 399
comparison of syntheses, 403
cracking of, 139
equilibrium percentage, 400
manufacture, 402
987
988
SUBJECT INDEX
Ammonia, synthesis gas for, 136

Ammonia still, 92
Ammonium carbamate, 412
Ammonium nitrate, 410, 452
Ammonium phosphates, 359
Ammonium picrate, 452, 460
Ammonium sulfate, 91, 410
Ammunition, 453
Amyl acetate, 935
Amyl salicylate, 582
Anaerobes, 666
Aniline, 870,872, 874
Aniline dyes, 872
Animal skins, 529
Anion exchange, (see Ion exchange)
Anisaldehyde, 585
Anode process, 804
Ansco color, 490
Anthracene oil, 100
Anthraquinone dyes, 918
Anthraquinone vat dyes, 896, 919
Antibiotics, 694
Antiseptics, 665
ANTU (a-naphthylthiourea). 561
Araldite, 768
ArdiI, 743, 763
Argols,264
Argon, 145, 146
Argyrol, 567
Aridye,9oo
Arnel,756
Aromatization, 855
Artic Syntex, 630, 634
Asbestine, 515
Asbestos, 228
Asphalt, 834
Aspirin, 956
Astrazones, 899
Atomic bombs, 477
Auramine, 899, 913
Aureomycin, 694, 698
Autochrome, 490
Auxochrome, 893
Aviation gasoline, 833
Azine dyes, 916
Azo dyes, 891, 904
important, classification of, 908
Babassu-nut oil, 618
Bachman process, 461
Bacitracin, 694, 697
Backus process, 130
Bacteria, 664
Badger-Stafford retorts, 709
Bagasse, 650, 654
Bakelite, 768
Baking powders, 349, 358, 360
Barbital, 953
Barite, 440
Barium carbonate, 439
Barium peroxide, 325
Barium salts, 439
Barium sulfate, 439, 510
Basic dyes, 899
Basic sulfate, 504
Bating, 534
Battery, acid for, 370
dry-cell, 328
Edison, 329
lead storage, 328
Bauxite, 434, 436
Bayer process, 434
Beckosol, 768
Beer, 680
Beeswax, 609
Beetle, 768
Beneficiation, of cement rock, 203
of cl!1y minerals, 176
of phosphate rock, 341
Benzaldehyde, 585
Benzanthrone, 921 ,
Benzoin, 573
Benzyl acetate, 583
Benzyl alcohol, 583, 941
Benzyl benzoate, 582
Benzyl chloride, 941
Bergius process, petroleum hydrogenation,854
wood hydrolysis, 717
Beryllia, 193
B.H.C. (benzene hexachloride), 558
Bichloride of mercury, 562
Bismarck brown, 899, 908
Bitterns, 222
Black-liquor recovery, 729
Black powder, 462
Blanc fixe, 510
Bleaching powder, 309
Blue vitriol, 438
Blueprinting, 493
Boiler feed-water treatment, 53, 58, 73
Boilers, fire-tube, 71
water-tube, 73
Bollman extractor, 603
Bone black, 167, 647, 649
Booster, 454
Borax, 236, 256, 259, 441
Bordeaux mixture, 562
Boric acid, 441
Boron carbide, 331, 334
Boron compounds, 441
Bort, 171
Bottles, machine for making, 243
Brandy, 685
Brewers' grains, 681
Brick, common, maufacture of, 183
face, manufacture of, 182
SUBJECT INDEX
Brick, insulating, 193

refractory (see Refractories)
sand-lime, 220
Brisance, 451
British gums, 546, 548
Broadfield process, 345
Bromine, 426
Bromo-benzyl cyanide, 468
Bubble-cap column, 116
Builders, detergent, 630
soap, 352-359, 618
Burkeite, 256, 258
Burners, Glen Falls sulfur, 374
pyrite, 374
Butacite, 768
Butadiene, 807
Butane, 123
isomerization flow sheet, 855
Butanol, 686
Butaprene, 808
Butenes, 808
Butter, 609
Butyl acetate, 935
Butyl rubber, 808, 817
Butyric acid, 858
Cadmium reds, 512
Calcium abieate, 220
Calcium aluminate cement, 202
Calcium arsenate, 220, 663
Calcium bromide, 220
Calcium carbide, 334, 398
Calcium carbonate, 219
Calcium chloride, 220
Calcium cyanamide, 397
Calcium fluoride, 220
Calcium hypochlorite, 309
Calcium iodide, 220
Calcium lactate, 220
Calcium magnesium phosphate, 349
Calcium metaphosphate, 348
Calcium organic compounds, 220
Calcium phosph!<tes, 338, 348, 349
Calcium sulfide, 219
Calcochrome blue black R, 907
Calcofast dyes, 911
Calgon, 55,357
Caliche, 418
Calomel, 562
Cameras, 482
Camphene, 559
Camphor, 946
Carat, 171
Carbitol, 951
Carbohydrates, degradation by CI. acetabutylicum, 688
Carbon, 28, 162
activated, 163, 166, 649
989
Carbon, amorphous, 153

diamond, 153, 170
graphite, 153, 160, 167
as a material of construction, 160
Carbon black, 138, 166
channel process, 157
furnace process, 158
Carbon dioxide, 126
Carbon disulfide, 336
Carbon electrodes, flow sheet, 168
Carbon monoxide, 150
Carbon tetrachloride, 942
Carbonado, 171
Carbonization, comparison of yields, 88
high-temperature, 81, 85
low-temperature, 81, 95
Carbonyl chloride, 469
Carborundum, 331
Carbowax, 773
Carboxylation, 892
Carbro process, 491
Carnauba wax, 609
Carnotite, 443
Carter white lead process, 503
Casale synthetic ammonia process, 403,
407
Casein, 958
Casein adhesives, 545
Casing-head gasoline, 831
Castor, 571
Castor oil, 607
dehydrated, 516
Catalin, 768
Catalyst, hydrogenation, 611
sulfuric acid, 383, 387
synthetic ammonia, 401
Catalytic cracking, 845
Catechol tannins, 535
Cation exchange, (see Ion exchange)
Cationic agents, 49, 566, 630
Caustic soda, 286
electrolytic, 298
finishing, 301
lime-soda process, 296
purification, 301
Causticized ash, 295
Cellophane, 752
Cellosolve, 951
Cells, Castner, 307
De Nora, 307
diaphragm, 303
Dow magnesium, 322
Downs, 324
dry, 328
Edison, 329
electrolytic, 303, 317
fluorine, 432
Hooker S, 303, 308
Hooker S-3A, 304, 305, 308
990
SUBJECT INDEX
Cells, lead storage battery, 328

Chloranil, 56.3
mercury cathode, 305
Chlordan, 559
storage, 328
Chlorinated phenols, 562, 563
Chlorination, 14, 739, 854, 876
Vorce, 304, 306
Chlorine, 286
Celluloid, 708, 709
available, 309
Cellulose, 783
chemical processes for, 307
Cellulose acetate, 744, 764
fibers (see Acetate)
compression and liquefaction of, 303
drying of, 302
film, 488
plastics, 771, 784
electrolytic, 298
sheeting, 756
Solvay nitrosyl chloride process for, 307
Cellulose acetate-butyrate, 771, 785
Chlorine dioxide, 311
Cellulose derivatives, 718
Chloro-acetophenone, 471
Cellulose ethers, 771, 784
Il-Chloro-anthraquinone, 890
Chlorobenzene, 876
Cellulose nitrate, 464
p-Chloro-benzoylbenzoic acid, 890
Cellulose nitrate plastics, 769, 784
Cellulose sponge, 753
Chloroform, 940
Chloromycetin, 694, 697
Cellulose xanthate, 747
Chloropicrin, 468
Celotex, 650
Cement rock beneficiation, 203
Chloroprene, 812, 816
Chocolate, 592
Cements, 200
Chromatone process, 491
calcium aluminate, 202
Chrome blue blacks, 891, 900, 905, 909
corrosion-resisting, 202
Chrome dyes, 900
furane,211
Chrome green, 513
magnesium oxychloride, 221
Chrome yellows, 512
manufacture of, 200
Chromite, 190, 447
phenolic, 211
portland (see Portland cement)
Chromium oxide, 512
pozzuolana, 202
Chromogen, 893
Chromophore, 893
silicate, 211, 281
Chrysoidine G, 899, 906
Sorel's, 221
Chrysoidine law, 906
special, 211
Chrysoidine Y, 891, 908
sulfur, 211
(See also Adhesives; Glues)
Cinnamic aldehyde, 582
Ceramics, 27, 173
Citric acid, 691
Cerini rayon process, 750
Civet, 571
Cerium compounds, 446
Civetone, 571
Claude liquid-air system, 142
Chalking, 499
Claude synthetic ammonia process, 403,
Chamber process for sulfuric acid, 371
407 .
Chambers, 376, 382
Clay minerals, 175, 178, 182
Chamois leather, 540
beneficiation of, 176
Charcoal, 471, 702
- Clay products industries, 182
Chassis (perfumery), 578
C.M.C. (carboxymethyl cellulose), 718
Cheer, 630
Chemical engineering, definition of, 1
Coal, chemicals from, 80, 84
Chemical warfare, 466
coking, '85
peacetime uses of materials, 474
decomposition, -81, 82
Chemico-contact sulfuric acid process,
destructive distillation, 81
392
as fuel, 67
Chemico drum-type sulfuric acid concenhydrogenation of, 100
powdered, 68
trators, 378
Chemico sludge-conversion prOCess, 367
proximate analysis, 67
Chemigum, 808, 818
ultimate analysis, 67
Chile saltp~ter, 417
Coal gas, 116
China clay beneficiation, 176
Coal tar, crude products, 83, 91, 865
distillation, 97
China wood oil, 607
dye hydrocarbons, 865
Chinaware, 180
principal products, 94
Chloramine, 566
Chloramphenicol. 694. 697
stills, 97
SUBJECT INDEX
Coated fabrics, 525

Cobalt blues, 511
Cocoa, 592
Coconut oil, 606, 618
Cod-liver oil, 608
Coke, as fuel, 68
manufacture of, 85
Coke base, properties of, 153
Coke ovens, beehive, 85, 86
co-product, 86, 87
Foundation, 91
Koppers-Becker, 86, 88, 90
Otto-Hoffmann, 91
Otto-Schniewind, 91
Piette, 91
Piron,91
Roberts, 91
Semet Solvay, 88, 89
Colburn process, 241
Cold rubber, 814
Colgate-Emery fat splitting process, 619
Color photography, 490
Colored smokes, 472
Combustion, 69
Compound 1080, 561
Concentrators, sulfuric acid, 377
Conching, 592
Concrete in chemical construction, 27
Concrete (perfume), 579
Condensation, 16, 581, 889, 954
Congenerics, 686
Construction materials, 23, 42
Contact process for sulfuric acid, 383
Containers, 31, 42
Control, chemical, 30, 42
Converters, sulfuric acid, 389
Copals, 518
Copper, in chemical construction, 25
thermal c!)nductivity of, 160
C!JPper phthalocyanine, 513, 926
Copper salts, 438
Copper sulfate, 438
Copra, 606
Cordite, 458
Corn kernel, 657
Corn oil, 606
Corn products, flow sheet, 658
Corn sirup, 656, 659
Corrosion, 23, 42
Corrosive sublimate, 562
Corundum, artificial, 334
Cossettes, 651
Costs, 3, 43
Cotton, chemical, 455, 746
Cotton linters, 746
"
Cottonseed oil, 595, 600, 602
Cottrell precipitators, 375,
Coumarin, 581
Coumarone-indene resins, 792
991
Cream of tartar, 956

Creosote, 562
Creosote oils, 100
Cresols, 566
Crimp, 744
Crisco, 598
Cryolite, 318
Crystal violet, 899
Crystolon, 331
Cullet, 236
Cumar, 768
Cumene, 887
Cuprammonium rayon, 744, 753
Current density, 299
Current efficiency, 299
Cutback asphalt, 883
Cyanamide (calcium cyanamiue), 397
Cyclonite, 461
Cycloparaffin resins, 792
Cyclorubbers, 806
Cycloversion, 849
Cylinder machine, 740
2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid),
564
Dacron, 743, 760, 764
Dakin's solution, 566
Dalecarlia water plant, 437
Dannar process for glass tubing, 245
Davison superphosphate process, 346
D.D.T., 667
Decomposition efficiency, 299
Debiteuse, 240
Defecation, 645
D.E.G.N. (diethylene glycol dinitrate),
465
Dehumidification, 78
Dehydration of gases, 107
Den process, 345
Denaturants, 668
Denier, 744
Desolvation, 522
Detergents, 615, 629
classification, 629
manufacture, 630
Deterpenation of, essential oils, 580
Detonation, 454
Developed black BH, 908
Dextran, 642
Dextrins, 546, 548, 656, 659
Dextrose, 659
Diagen, 899, 911
Diammonium phosphate, 360
Diamonds, industrial, 170
properties of, 153
Dibutyl phthalate, 935
Dichlorobenzene, 560
Dichloro-diphenyl-dichloroethane, 560
- -"-"
992
"--~-~----~----=-'=-------
SUBJEC'f INDEX
Dichloroethylene, 941
Diesel fuel, 833
Diethyl-barbiturie acid, 953
Diethyl phthalate, 935
Diethylene glycol, 114, 944
Diethylene glycol ethyl ether, 951
Dihydrostreptomycin, 694, 697
Diisopropyl fluorophosphate, 468
Dimethyl amine, 938
Dimethyl aniline, 888
Dimethyl fluvene, 894
Dimethyl siloxane, 808, 818
Dimethyl terephthalate, 760
Dinol,462
Dipentene, 712, 713
Diphenyl, 560
Diphenyl oxide, 581
Diphenylamine, 560
Diphenylamine-chloroarsine, 468
Diphenylchloroarsine, 468
Diphosgene, 468
Direct dyes, 900
black EW, 900
blue 2B, 891, 900, 908
brown 3 GO, 891, 900
fast yellow, 916
green B, 908, 910
sky blue FF, 908
yellow R, 912
Disinfectants, 565
Distillation, of coal tar, 97
destructive, of coal, 81
Distillates, petroleum, 832, 833
Distillers' grains, 686
Dithiocarbamates, 563
Doctor treatment, 858
Dolomite, 221, 228
Dorr strong-acid process, 353
Downs reactor, 885, 886
Downs sodium cell, 75
Dowtherm, 75, 581
Dreft, 630
Driers, 496
"Dry" ice, 127, 132
Dry quenching, 87
Drying oils, 616, 599
Dufay color, 490
Dulux, 768
Duponol, 630
Du Pont sulfuric' acid concentrator, 381
Du Pont synthetic ammonia system, 403,
407
I
Durez,768
'
Dutch white lead process, 602
Dyes, 861, 892
cause of color, 893
classification, 894
generalized flow sheets, 891, 895,
896
Dyes, manufacture, 901

Dynamite, 463
Dynel, 743, 762, 764
Earthenware, 179
Eastman dye transfer, 491
Economics, 43
Elastomers, 802
Electricity costs from water power, 312
Electrochemical processes, chemicals
made from, 313
Electrodes, carbon, 169, 170
Electrolytic industries, 298, 312, 349, 432
Electrolytic white lead process, 504
Electromagnetic isotope separation, 445
Electrothermal industries, 330
Electrothermal process for white lead,
506
Emulsion paints, -000
Enamels, 520
porcelain, 194
vitreous, 181, 194
Energy, 3
consumption of, in process industries,
63
.
industrial, sources of, 65
supply of, 67
Energy efficiency, 299
Enfleurage, 577
Enzymes, 666, 674
Eosin, 915
Epon, 768
Epsom salts, 227
Eriochrome Blue Black R, 907
Ester gum, 519, 712, 768
Esterification, 935
Ethanolamines, 113, 121, 938
Ethocel,768
Ethyl acetate, 935
Ethyl cellulose, 718
plastics, 785
Ethyl chloride,,942
Ethyl ether, 856, 950
Ethyl mercuric chloride, 563
Ethyl mercuric phosphate, 563
Ethylbenzene, 811
Ethylene bromide, 942
Ethylene chlorohydrin, 943
Ethylene dibromide, 942
Ethylene dichloride, 941
Ethylene glycol, 944
Ethylene glycol ethyl ether, 951
Ethylenediamines, 938
Ethylidene diacetate, 937
Explosives, 449
characteristics, 452
classification, 449
SUBJECT INDEX
Explosives, industrial, 462

military, 453
properties, 451
toxicity, 465
Extract (perfumery), 559
Fab,630
Fat splitting, 619
Fats, 695
animal,607
fatty-:wid content of, 595
hydrogenation of, 611
vegetable, 599
Fatty acids, 618
comparison of various processes for,
620
purification of, 621
F~ser synthetic ammonia process, 403
Feldspar, 176,236
Fermentation (unit process), 16, 665
Fermentation industries, 664
Fermentations, important, survey of, 667
Ferric oxide, 511
Ferrophosphorus, 355
Ferrous sulfate, 366, 438
Fertilizer, calcium phosphates, 338
crop balance sheet for nitrogen, 397
mixed, 265.
nitrogen, 265, 268, 411
phosphate fertilizing constituents, 265,
268
potash in, 254, 269
United States consumption, 267
world production, 396
Fiberglas, 743, 760
Fibers, synthetic, 743
Films (photographic), coating, 489
kinds, 482
mamifacture, 484
Fire-clay refractgries, 189
Fire protection, 33, 42
Fischer-Tropsch process, 854
Fish oils, 609
Fixing agents, 484
Flameproofing, 763
Flares, 475
Flavanthrone, 920
Flavor formulation, 594
Flavoring industry, 690
Flint, 176
Flotation (see Beneficiation)
Fluorapatite (see Phosphate rock)
I
Fluorescein, 915
Fluorescence, 146
Fluorine, 431
Fluorine compounds as insecticides, 553
Fluorochemicals, 431
Fluorosilic acid, 433
993
Fluorothene, 432, 791, 792

Fluxes, in ceramic manufacture, 177
. in enamels, 194
Foam rubber, 804
Fog oils, 472
Food dyes, 901
Foots, 605
Formaldehyde, 562, 857, 946
Formalin, 562, 947
Formic acid, 954
Formica, 768
Forsterite refractories, 190
Forticel, 768
Fourcault process, 240
Fourdrinier machine, 721, 738
Frasch process, 363
Freons, 77, 433
Friedel-Crafts reaction, 889
Frit, manufacture of, 195
Froth flotation (see Beneficiation)
Fruit concentrates, 590
Fuels, 66
Fumigants, 560
Fungal amylase, 674
Fungi,664
Fungicides, 550, 661
Furfural, 757, 840
Furnaces, carbide, 335
cyanamide, 398
electric, 330, 333
glass, 238
Furness cuprammonium rayon process,
754
Fusee, 474
Galalith,768
Gallic acid, 945
Gallocyanine, 900
Galorn, 768
Gas, blue, 117
carbureted, 119
coal, 95, 116
composition and heating values, 105'
dehydration, 107
heats of combustion, 105
illuminating, 104industrial, 126
liquefied petroleum, 123
natural, 106
producer, 121
purification, 107
rare, 145
storage, 106
water, 117
Gaseous diffusion, isotope separation, 445
Gasoline, casing-head, 831
flow ~heets, 839, 848, 849, 852, 853
natural, flow sheet, 832
994
SUBJECT INDEX
Gay-Lussac tower, 372, 376, 377

Gelatine, 640
Gelatine dynamite, 465
Gelva, 768
Genetrons, 433
Germicides, 565
Gin, 685
Girbotol absorption process, 112
Glass, 229
annealing, 246
borosilicate, 232, 233, 249
bottle, 241, 243
in chemical construction, 27, 249
chemical reactions, 236
colored, 234
comparative properties, 250
composition, 231
fiber, 234, 743, 760
finishing, 246
flat, flow sheet, 237
kinds of, 232
lead, 232, 233
light bulbs, 244
lime, 232
manufacture, 238
opal,234
optical, 247
phosphate, 235
photosensitive, 235
safety, 234, 248
shaping and forming, 240
silica, 232, 249
thermal conductivity, 160
tubing, 245
window, 240
Glauber's salt, 275
Glazing, 181
Glen Falls burner, 374
Glim, 630
Glost firing, 182
Glover tower, 372, 375
Glucose, 661
Gjues, 542, 643
Glutamie aeid, 593
Gluten,65\)
Glycerine, 619, 636
synthetic, 638
Glycol ethers, \)51
Glycols, 944
Glyptal, 768
Goop, 473
GR-S, 807, 808, 813
cold, 814
!
oil-extended, 816
Graham's salt, 356
Graphite, 167
properties, 153
thermal conductivity, 160
tower, 162
Graphite, tube exehanger, 161

Gravimetric petroleum survey, 822
Greases, animal, 618
petroleum, 834
Green liquor, 730
Grignard process, 583
Guggenheim sodium nitrate process, 418
Guided missiles, propellants for, 476
Guignet's green, 513
Gum processing, 713
Gun cotton, 457
Gunpowder, 452
Gypsum, 218, 224
Haber-Bosch process, 403, 406
Half-tone plates, 492
Halogenation, 14, 876, 939
Hardness of water, 46
Hardwood distillation, 701
Hargreaves process, 421
Haveg, 768
Heat, of cement hydration, 210
of combustion of gases, 105
Heat balance, 65
Heat transmission, 74
Heating, 75
Heavy oil, 100
Heliotropin, 585
Helium, 147
Heptachlor, 559
Herbicides, 550, 563
Hexa, 779
Hexachlorethane, 472
Hexaethyl tetraphosphate, 559
Hexahydroxy-cydohexane, 656
Hexamethylene-diamine, 758, 938
Hexamethyl~ne-tetramine, 939
Hexylresorcinol, 566
Hollander beater, 736
Hot lime-soda process, 53
Houdriftow, 849
Hondry ea_talytic cracking ,process, 818
Humidifieation, 78
IIycar, 808' '
Hydraulie oil press, 601
Hydro, 278
Hydroehloric acid, 420
cooler-absorber, 42:~
Hydrocyanic acid, 397, 664
Hydroelectric power, 74
Hydrofluoric acid, 432
Hydroform Deep Blue BOA, 920
Hydroforming, 855
Hydrogen, in ammonia manufacture, 402,
403
consumption, 133
for hydrogenation of oils, 611
manufacture, 134
SUBJECT INDEX
Hydrogen chloride (se~ Hydrochloric

acid)
Hydrogen cyanide, 555
Hydrogen peroxide, 324
Hydrogen sulfide in natural gas, 107, 366
Hydrogenation, of fats and oils, 610, 949
of petrol~um, 854
Hydrogenation operating chart, 613
Hydrogenator, 612
Hydrogenolysis of coal, 101
Hydrolysis, 15, 880, 883, 943
Hydron Blue, 918
Hypalon, 818
Hypersorption, 164
Hypo, 280
Igepons, 630, 634
Igniter, 454
Incendiaries, 472
Indanthrene Blue GCD, 896, 901, 920
Indanthrene Blue RS, 920
Indanthrene Yellow G, 920
Indian red, 512
,
Indigo, 896, 901, 922
Indigoid, 896
Indoxyl, 896
Indur, 768
Infrared emulsions, 482
Injuries, causes of, 35
disabling, 34
Inks, 524
Inner tubes, flow sheet, 801
Inositol, 656
Insecticides, 550
classification, 551
inorganic, 552
plant derivatives, 553
synthetic organics, 557
Instrumentation, 29, 42
Insulation, magnesia, 226
Intaglio printing, 491
Intermediates, 861, 867
generalized flow sheets, 891, 895, 896
Iodine, 428
Ion exchange, in beet-sugar manufacture,
653
in water treatment, 49
lonone, 581
Iron, cast, 25
high-silicon, 25
wrought, 25
Iron blues, 511
Isobutane, 855
Isobutylene, 813
Isolates, u80
Isomerization of petroleum prooucts, 854
Isopropyl acetate, 9;35
995
Isotopes, nndl'ar propprties, 446

spparat.ion, 415
Japans, 518, 520
Jordan engine, 737
Kaolinite (see Clay minerals)
Karbate, 160
thermal conductivity of, 160
Kel F, 432, 768, 791, 792
Kellogg propane process, 842
Kellogg synthetic ammonia process, 403
Kellogg tonnage-oxygen process, 14:4
Kerosene, 832
Keryl-benzene sulfonate (see Alkyl-aryl
sulfonates)
Ketonimine dyes, 913
Kilns, 196
Kips, 529
Kodachrome, 490, 491
Kodacolor, 491
Kodapak, 75G, 7GB
Koroseal, 768
Kraft process (see Sulfate pulp)
Krilium, 269
Krypton, 145
Labor, 40
Lachrymators, 467
Lacquer, 494, 520
formulation, 523
Lactic acid, 692
Lactose, 958
L'air liquide synthetic ammonia process,
403
Lakes, 495, 513, 900
Laminated plastics, 794
Lampblack, 153, 154
Langebeinite, 254
Lapis lazuli, 510
Lard,607
Lard oil, 607
Latex, 798, 803
Latex paints, 501
Lead in chemical construction, 26
Lead arsenate, 552
Lead azide, 452, 462
Lead sulfate, basic, 504
Leather, 528
artificial, 526
chemicals in, 530
comparisons, 532
finishing,'539
manufacture, 531
waste disposal, 537
LeBlanc process, 285
Lehrs, 242
Lewisite, 468
996
SUBJECT INDEX
T..ewisol, 768
Library, 41
Light bulbs, 244
Light oil, 99
Lignin plastics, 793
Lime, 212
Lime kiln, vertical, 217
Lime-soda process, 51
Lime-sulfurs, 554
Limestones, approximate composition of,
214
Liming, 533
Lindane, 559
Linde-Frankl process, 144
Linde system, 142
liquefier and rectifier, 143
Linoleum, 526
Linoxyn, 515
Linseed oil, 515, 605
Liquors, alcoholic, 686
Litharge, 512
Lithium carbonate, 440
Lithium hydride, 440
Lithium salts, 256, 440
Lithography, 492
Lithol Red R, 900
Lithopone, 439, 607
L.P.G. (liquefied petroleum gases), 123,
832
Logwood, 927
Lube-oiI flow sheets, 840-842
Lucite, 768, 772
Lumarith, 768
Lunar caustic, 442
Lung injurants, 468
Lustrex, 768
Magnesia, 85 per cent, 226

Magnesia refractories, 190, 193, 225
Magnesium, 224, 319
Magnesium carbonates, 226
Magnesium chloride, 222, 227
electrolysis of, 320
Magnesium compounds, 221
Magnesium oxide, 227
Magnesium oxychloride cement, 221
Magnesium peroxide, 227
Magnesium silicate, 228
Magnesium soaps, 228
Magnesium sulfate, 227
Malachite Green, 914
Malt process, 674
Mannheim furnace, 274, 424
Ml),nnitol, 654
Manure salts, 255
Margarine, 596, 613
Matches, 476
Matrix, 339
Mauve,902
Mechanical pulp process, 724
Melamine-formaldehyde resins, 397, 772,
783
Menthol, 588
Mercury chlorides, 562
Mercury fulminate, 452, 462
Merpols, 630
Merthiolate, 567
Metallic powders, 514
Metallized dyes, 911
MetaniI Yellow, 908
Metaphen, 567
Metaphosphates, 355, 366
Metaphosphoric acid, 352
Methanol, 703, 858, 949
synthesis gas for, 136
Methocel, 718
Methoxychlor, 559
Methyl acetone, 703
Methyl cellulose, 718
Methyl chloride, 940, 942
Methyl formate, 932
Methyl Orange, 908
Methyl rubber, 807
Methyl salicylate, 582, 935, 966
Methyl Violet, 895, 899, 914
Methylamines, 938
Methylene Blue, 895, 917
Methylene chloride, 940
Metol,483
Michler's ketone, 471
Microsol Black, 917
Middle oiIs, 100
Mildewproofing, 763
Milk, chemicals from, 957
Milk of magnesia, 227
Mills-Packard chambers, 382
Mineral wool, 250
Miticides, 560
Molasses, 645, 670
Molds, 664
Molybdenum compounds, 439
Molybdenum Orange, 439
Monastral dyes, 925
Monel metal, 26
Monomethylam"ine, 938
Monsanto mass, 387
Mont Cenis synthetic-ammonia process,
403
Montan wax, 610
Mordant dyes, 900
MP-189,630
M.S.G. (monosodium glutamate), 593,
652
Muriate of potash, 255
Muriatic acid, 420
Musc Zibata, 572
Musk, 571
SUBJECT INDEX
Musk ambrettc, 583

Musk ketone, 584
Musk xylene, 584
Muskone, 571
Musks, artificial, 583
Mustard gas, 468
Napalm, 473
Naphtha, 833
Naphthalene, 560
Naphthalene-sulfonic acids, 879
Naphthanil,899
Naphthol, 883, 899
Naphthol Blue Black, 908
Naphthol Green B, 903
Naphthol Yellow B, 903
Naphtol, 911
Nash Hytor pump, 302
Natural gas, 106, 830
for acetylene, 148
purification of, 107
as source of hydrogen, 135
storage, 106
Natural gasoline, 831
Naval stores, 710
Neat's-foot oil, 608
Neon, 146
Neoprene, 808, 812,_ 816
Nerve gases, 467
Nevindene, 768
Nickel, in chemical construction, 26
sponge, 612
Nicotine, 556
Nigrosines, 917
Niter cake, 276
Nitration, 869, 933
Nitric acid, 413
for acidulation of phosphate rock, 347
commercial grades, 414
Nitrile rubbers, 817
Nitro-benzene, 870
Nitro-cellulose, 464
Nitro dyes, 903
Nitro-naphthalene, 93:3
Nitro-paraffins, 93a
Nitrogen, from cracked ammonia, 139
crop balance sheet, 3\}7
industries, 394
manufacture, 140
statistics, 305, :306
Nitrogen Engincerinl!; GOrP., 402, 405
Nitrogen fixation, -l 1:3
Nitrogen mustards, -l69
Nitroglycerine, 452, 463
Nit-ron, 768
Nitroso dyes, 903
Nitrolls oxide, 150, 410
Nonionic agents, 630, 634
997
Norbide,334
Novocaine, 953
Nuclear enginetoring, 443, 446
Nylon, 756, 767, 764, 768, 773
plastic, 759, 773
Oberphos process, 346
Ocher, 512, 513
Octane number, 833
Oil of vitriol (see Sulfuric acid)
Oils, 696
animal,607
citrus, 577
drying, 516
essential, 573
fatty acid content of, 595
hydrogenated, 611
vegetable, 599
(See a1so Petroleum; specific kinds of
oil)
Oleums, 369
Olive oil, 618
Olustee process of gum cleaning, 714
Opacifiers, 194
Optical glass, 247
Orange II, 899, 900, 908
Orion, 743, 761, 764
Oronite, 630
Orthophosphoric acid, 352
Orvus, 630
Othmer process, 705, 707
Oxalic acid, 954
Oxidation, 584, 857, 884, 945
Oxygen, manufacture, 138, 140
tonnage, 144
Ozocerite, 610
Paint, 494
constituents, 495, 498
manufacture, 496
pigments, 499
Palm oil, 606, 618
Paper, de-inking of, 740
photographic, 482
Paper industries, 720
Paper manufacture, 736
Paperboard, 741
Para Red, 911
Parachute flares, 475
Paracril, 808
Paraffin wax, 8.34
Parathion, 560
Paris green, 552
Parison mold, 243
Parlon, 805
Patents, 36, 43
Peanut oil, 607
998
SUBJEC'l' INDEX
Pearl glue, 548

Pearl starch, 659
Pechiney process, 413
Penicillin, 694, 695
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, 460
Pentasol, 944
Pentolite,460
Perchloroethylene, 941
Perfume, 569
fixative, 571
formulation, 588
industrial applications, 589
vehicle, 570
Permissible explosives, 451, 453
Permutit, 53
Persulfuric acid, 325
Pesticides, 660
Pestox 3, 560
P.E.T.N. (pentaerythritol tetranitrate),
460
Petrochemicals, 834
Petroleum, 820
additives, 834
antioxidants, 859
chemical changes, 841
classes of crudes, 830
constituents, 828
earnings, 827
flow sr.eets, alkylation, 853
cracking, 844, 846, 848, 849
furfural-extraction, 840
generalized, 839
isomerization, 855
platforming, 857
polymerization, 851, 852
solvent-refining, 840
gravimetric survey for, 822
origin of, 821
production statistics, 823-825
refining products, 832
reserves, 824
seismic survey for, 82:3
transportation of, 827
/ Phase diagrams, AI.0 o-Si0 2 , 178
MgO-Si0 2 , 191
Na 2 0-CaO-SiO,,233
Searles Lake, 255
Phenazine, 916
Phenobarbital, 953
Phenol, 566, 878, 881
Phenol coefficients, 565
Phenol-formaldehyde resins, 778
reactions, ,781
Phenolic resins, 51!}, 771, 'l78
cast, 780
molded,779
Phenolphthalein, 954
Phenothiazine, 560
Phenyl-ethyl-barbituric acid, 953
Phenyl glycine, 923

Phenyl mercuric oleate, 563
Phenyl-d-naphthylamine, 933
Phenylethyl alcohol, 583
Phosgene, 468, 470
Phosphate rock, beneficiation of, tl'41
nitric acid acidulation, 347
processing, 343
products, 343
as raw raaterial, 339
statistics, 340, 345
sulfuric acid acidulation (see Superphosphate)
Phosphates, calcined, 348
calcium, 348, 349
tetraethyl pyro, 351
tricresyl, 351
triphenyl,351
Phosphoric acid, 362
Phosphors, 146
Phosphorus, 352
manufaG_ture, 352
uses, 350
white, 472
yellow, 475
Phosphorus pentoxide, 352
Phosphorus sesquisulfide, 475
Photoengraving, 491
Photographic development, 483
Photographic emulsions, 482
manufacture, 486
Photographic film and paper, 484, 489
Photographic fixing, 483
Photographic industry, 480
Photographic process, 482
Photographic supports, 488
Photogravure, 492
Photomechanical reproduction, 4\)1
Photosensitive glass, 235
Phthalic anhydride, 881
Phthalocyanine dyes, 924
_ Picric acid, 452, 460
Pictol,483
P~ments, 502
black, 154, 156, 159, 610
blue,01()
,
extenders for, 4\)9, '614
green, 512
lakes, 513
red, 511
table of, 490
toners, 513
.white, 502
comparison of, 500
Pilot plants, ,n
Pine oils, 712, 711l
Pine stumps, solvent extraction of, 715
a-Pinene, 711
Piperonal, 585
SUBJF.CT INDEX
Pitchblende, 442
Pittsburgh solvent-extractioll procpss,
605
Planographic printing, 492
Plant location, 40
Plaskon, 768
Plastacele, 768
Plaster, 219
Plaster of Paris, 218
Plasticizers, 777, 778, 802
Plastics, 28, 766
classification, 767
molding of, 780
statistics, 774-776
Platforming, 856
Platinum in chemical construction, 27
Platinum catalyst, 383, 387
Plexiglas, 768, 772
Plio film, 806
Pliolite, 806
Plumbago, 168
Plutonium, 446
Poison gases, 466
classification, 467
defense against, 470
mortality from, 467
Polyacrylonitrile fibers, 743, 701
Polyester fibers, 743, 760
Polyester rubbers, 818
Polyethylene, 773, 791
Polymerization, of petroleum, 851
of rubber, 813
Polyphosphates, 355, 367
Polystyrene, 772, 790
Polysulfide rubbers, 817
Polythene, 768
Polyvinyl alcohol, 788
Polyvinyl butyral, 789
Polyvinyl resins, 772, 786
Pomade, 578
Ponceau 2R, 900
Pontochrome Blue Black R, 907
Porcelain, 180
Portland cement, 200
heneficiation, 203
chemical specifications, 200
composition, 208, 211
energy requirements, 205
grinding hookups, 206
heats of hydration, 210
kinds, 200
manufacture, 206
raw materials, 202, 203
settling or hardeningl,209
strength, 210
.
Potash, balance sheet fpr, 266
caustic, 263
removal by crops, 266
Potash alum, 436
999
Potassium, 261
Potassium acid tartrate, 264
Potassium carbonate, 264Potassium chlorate, 327
Potassium chloridc, 264
from sylvinite, 260, 262
by Trona process, 255, 259
Potassium hydroxide, 263
Potassium nitrate, 264
Potassium perchlorate, 327
Potassium peroxide, 264
Potassium salts, 253
l)otassium sulfate, 263
Pottery, 180
Power costs, 312
Power generation, 71, 74
Pozzuolana cement, 202
Precipator, 53
Precursors, 696
Prills, 411
Primer, 454
Primuline dyes, 916
Procaine, 953
Process control, 30
Procter and Gamble fat-splitting process,
619
Producer gas, 121
Proof gallon, 668
Propane, 123, 135
Propellants, 476
Propionic acid, 858
Propylene glycol, 945
Propylene oxidE;, 945
Protein fibers, 743, 762
Pulp, 720
comparison of, 725
flow sheets, 727, 729-731
Putty, 219
Pyralin, 768
Pyrazolone dyes, 913
Pyrethrum, 555
Pyrex, 259
Pyrite (see Sulfur)
Pyrocotton, 457
Pyrogallol, 957
Pyrogallol tannins, 535
Pyrogel, 473
Pyrophosphates, 355, 367
Pyrophosphoric acid, 352
Pyrotechnic gell, 473
Pyrotechnics, 439, 440, 474
Pyroxylin, 769
Pyrrhotite (see Sulfur)
Quartz glass, 232, 250
Quaternary ammonium compounds, 566
Quicklime, 217
Quinone oxime dyes, 903
1000
SUBJECT INDF,x
Radium, 442
Hag pulp, 735
Raney's nickel, 612
Rapidogen Orange R, 912
Rapidogens, 899, 911
Rare-earth compounds, 446
Rare earths, 193
Rare gases, 145
Raw materials, ultimate geologic, 6
Hayon,744
manufacture, 748
spinning of, 751-753
R.D.X.,461
Red lead, 511
Red mud alumina process, 435
Red oil, 619, 621
Reforming of gasoline, 851
Refractories, 184
in ceramic manufacture, 177
in enamels, 194
fusion temperatures, 185
in glass industry, 236
kinds, 188
manufacture, 186
properties, 184
Refrigerants, 77
properties, 78
Refrigeration, 76
Heich proeess, 130
Hesear("h, 37, 43, 859, 865
Resino'x, 768
Resins, 766
classification, 767
statistics, 774-776
Retarders, 802
Revivification, 167
Rezyl,768
Riboflavin, 689
Ritex, 190
Rock wool, 250
Rocket propellants, 476
Rodenticides, 561
Rosin, 518, 710, 711
gum, 710
wood, 710, 715
Rosin oils, 712
Rotenone, 556
Rotocel extractor, 6Da
Hotogravure, 492
Rubber, in chemical constru("tion, 28
chlorinated, 805
natural~ 797
~eclaimed, 804
resins from, 805
synthetic, 797, 806, 808
Rubber ('ompoundillg, 801
Rubber hydror.hlorirle, 806
Saccharin, 587
Sachse process, 148
Sacket Super-Flow Pro~ess, 346
Safety, 33, 42
Safety glass, 234, 248
Safranine, 895, 917
Saggers, 180
Sal soda, 295
Sales, 43
Salicylic acid, 582, 955
Salt, 271, 291, 298, 300
Salt cake, 254, 264
Salt dyes, 900
Salt glaze, 182
Sampling, 31
Santomerse, 630
Saponification, 617
Saran, 743, 760, 768, 772, 818
Sarin, 469
Schoch process, 148
Schradan, 560
Screening smokes, 471
Sea water, composition of, 223
Seaboard process, 109
Searles Lake, composition of, 255
Seger cones, 185
Seismic survey for petroleum, 823
Selden mass, 387
Serpek aluminum nitrile process, 395
Sesquiterpenes, 579
Sewage disposal, 59
Shanks process, 418'
Shark-liver oil, 6G8
Sharples continuous full-boiled process,
625
Shell, high-cxplosive, 453
Shell catalytic-isomerization process, 855
Shell synthetic-glycerine process>_638
Shellac, ,519, 793
Shortenings, 613
Shrapnel, 454
Shrink proofing, 765
Sienna, 513
Signal flares, 475
Silica, in chemical construetion, 27
fused, 337
refractories, 188
vitreous, 232
Silica gel, 130
Silic~n carbide, 191, 331
Silicon tetrafluoride, 433
Silicone resins, 774, 783
Silicone rubbers, 808, 818
Silicones, .952
Sili("othermic process, 322
Silver in chemical conRtni~tion, 26
Silver halides, 485
Silver nitrate, 442
SUBJECT INDEX
Simonson-Mantius sulfuric acid concentrator, 380

Sizing of paper, 737
Slag wool, 250
Slop, 675, 686
Sludge acid, 367
Smokeless powder, 457
Smokes, screening, 471
Soap, 616
cold-made process, 626
full-boiled process, 623
heavy metal, 496
magnesium, 228
manufacture, 623
neutralization process, 627
semiboiled process, 626
typical, 628
\
various solubilities, 617
Soda ash, 286
carbonating tower, 292
manufacture, 291
natural, 289, 295
by Trona process, 256, 258
Soda pulp, 722, 725, 727, 731
Sodas, modified, 295
Soderberg electrodes, 318, 335
Sodium, 323
Sodium acid pyrophosphate, 358
Sodium amide, 282
Sodium azide, 462
Sodium bicarbonate, 293, 296
Sodium bisulfate, 276
Sodium bisulfite, 276
Sodium carbonate (see Soda ash)
Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose,
718
Sodium chlorate, 326
Sodium chloride (see Salt)
Sodium chlorite, 311
Sodium. cyanide, 283
Sodium dichromate, 447
Sodium ferrocyanide, 283
Sodium fiuoracetate, 561
Sodium hexametaphosphate, 355
Sodium hydrosulfite, 278
Sodium hypochlorite, :310
Sodium hyposulfite, 278
Sodium metaphosphate, 356
Sodium nitrate, 417
Sodium nitrite, 280
Sodium perborate, 282
Sodium perchlorate, 326
Sodium peroxide, 282.
Sodium phosphates, 355
Sodium pyrosulfite, 276
Sodium sesquicarbonate, 295
Sodium silicates, 232, 280
Sodium silicofluoride, 434
1001
Sodium sulfate, 256, 274

Sodium sulfides, 278, 280, 817
Sodium sulfite, 277, 280
Sodium thiosulfate, 279
Sodium tripolyphosphate, 357, 630
Softwood products, 710
Soil conditioning, 269
Solexol continuous-extraction process,
605
Solvay nitrosyl chloride process, 307
Solvay process, 285, 289
Solvent recovery, 164, 165
Soman, 469
Sorbitol, 654
Sorel's cement, 221
Soybean oil, 595, 602, 606
Space velocity, 401
Spalling, 186
Spans, 630
Sperm oil, 609
. Spinning of fibers, 756
Spiractor, 53
Spirit-soluble dyes, 901
Sponge rubber, 804
Spry, 598
Starch, 664
cassava (tapioca), 655, 662
commercial, 659
com, 655
rice, 655, 662
sago, 662
sorghum, 661
wheat, 655; 662
white potato, 655, 661
Starch adhesives, 548
Stassfurt deposits, 425, 427
Statistics, 39,43
Steam-electric-plant fuel consumption
and costs, 72
Steam power, 64
electric power from, 74
Stearic acid, 619
Steel, stainless, 25
thermal conductivity of, 160
Steep water, 656
Steffen process, 652
Stengel ammonium nitrate process, 411
Sternutators, 467, 468
Stilbene dyes, 912
Still, ammonia, 92
coal-tar, 97
Stillage, 675
Stokers, 70
.
Streptomycin, 694, 697
Strontium salts, 440
Styrene, 810
Styrene resins, 790
Styron, 768
1002
SUBJECT INDEX
2,4,5-T (2,4,5_trichlorophenoxyacetic
Sublimed white lead, 504
acid),564
Substantive colors, 900
Tableware, 180, 181
Sudan I, 908
Tabun,469
Sugar, 640
Talc, 515
flow sheets, 644, 646, 651
Tall oil, 716, 731
grades of, 648
Tallow, 609, 618
instrument control for, 648
Tannic acid, 956
refining of, 645
Suida extractive-distillation process, 704, Tanning processes, 532
chrome, 538
706,707
oil, 540
Sulfa compounds, 566, 939
vegetable, 535, 537
Sulfanilamide, 566, 939
Tannins, 535
Sulfate pulp, 721, 725, 727
synthetic, 536
bleaching of, 729
Tantalum in chemical construction, 27
Sulfated amides, 630
Tartaric acid, 956
Sulf ated esters, 630
Tartrazine, 913
Sulfated fatty alcohols, 630, 631
Teflon, 43?' 768, 773, 791, 792
Sulfated oils, 634
Tenite, 768
Sulfide dyes, 900, 918
Terpenes, 579, 711
Sulfite pulp, 721, 725, 732
a-Terpin ene, 713
waste liquors, 717, 735
Terpineols, 587
Sulfonation, 877, 880
Terpinolene, 713
Sulfur, 362
Terramycin, 694, 698
burners and furnaces, 374
Tetrachloroethane, 941
from by-products, 366
Tetrachloroethylene, 941
as insecticide, 553.
Tetraethyllead, 833, 951
mining, 363
Tetraethyl pyrophospbate, 559
from pyrites, 366
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate, 357, 630
from smelter gases, 365
Tetryl, 452, 469
Sulfur black, 918
Textile finishing, 763
Sulfur dioxide, 149, 554
Thermal cracking, 849
manufacture, 149
Thermite, 473
oxidation, 384
Thermofor catalytic cracking (T.C.C.),
recovery, 366, 367
848
Sulfur dyes, 900, 918
Thiazine dyes, 895, 917
Sulfur monochloride, 469
Thiazole dyes, 916
Sulfur removal from gases, 107
Thioindigo, 922
Sulfuric acid, 362, 369
Thiokols, 807, 808, 817
commercial strengths, 370
Thorium, 193,447
concentration, 377
Thylox absorption process, 115
flow sheets, 367, 373, 384
Tide, 630
hydrates of, 369
Tincture of iodine, 565
manufacture, 371, 383, 392
Tires, flow sheet, 800
Superchrome Blue B Ex, 907
Titanium dioxide, 608
Superphosphate, 344
Titanium tetrachloride, 472
ammoniated, 348 .
T.N.T., 452, 468
continuous process, 345
Toluene, 856
den process, 345
Toners, 495, 613
granular, 346
Tow, 744
triple, 347
Toxaphene, 559
Surf, 630
Tracer bullets, 475
Surface-active agents (see Detergents)
Trauzl block test, 451
Sylvinite, 253, 260
Triarylmethane dyes, 895
Syndets (see Detergents)
Trichloroethylene, 941
Synergists, 5-'>6
2,4,5_Trichlorophenoxyacctic aCid, 564
Syntans, 536
1,2,3-Trih_ydroxybcnzcne, 957
Synthesis gas, 120, 136
Trimethylamine, 938
Systemics, 551, 560
Trinitro-toluene (T.N.T.), 452, 468
Systox,560
SUBJECT INDEX
Tripotassium phosphate process, 114

Trisodium phosphate, 355, 358
Triton, 630
Trona, 295
Trona process, 255
vacuum evaporator, 261
Truck flares, 475
Tung oil, 607
Turkey-red oil, 629, 630
Turpentine, 710
gum, 710. 712
sulfate, 716, 731
sulfite, 716
wood, 710, 714
Tweens,630
Twitchell process for fat splitting, 619,
620
Tyrian purple, 926
Ultramarine blue, 510
Ultrawet,630
Umber, 513
Unit operations, classification, 10
definition, 1, 9
tabulation and equipment, 18
Unit processes, classification, 10
definition, 1, 9
tabulation and equipment, 12
Universal Oil Products thermal cracking,
859
Uraninite, 442
Uranium, 442
isotope separation, 445
purification, 444
Urea, 412
Urea-formaldehyde resins, 771, 782
Urotropine, 939
Utahwax, 610
Vacuum carbonate process, 110
Vanadium catalyst, 383, 387
Vandyke brown, 513
Vanilla, 591
Vanillin, 584
Varnish, 494, 616
constituents of, 5i8
Vat, 919
Vat dyes, 901
simplified flow sheet, 919
Vegetable dyes, 927
Vehicle, 496
~,
Vel, 630, 634
Vello process, 245 '
Venetian red, 512
Verneuil process, 334
Vesicants, 467
Vicara, 656, 743, 762, 764
1003
Vinegar, 690
Vinyl acetate, 786, 858, 936
Vinyl chloride, 787, 936
Vinyl copolymers, comparative molecular
weights, 788
Vinyl esters, 936
Vinyl fibers, 743, 760, 762
Vinylidene chloride resins, 789
Vinylite, 768
Vinyon, 743, 762
Viscose (see Rayon)
Vitamins, 689, 957
Vitrification, degree of, 179
Vitron, 743, 760
Voltage efficiency, 298
Vulcanization, 798
Vycor, 249
Wallerstein process, 683
Warfarin, 561
Waste disposal, 38, 43, 59
Water, 44
boiler feed, 53, 58
chloramine treatment, 57
chlorine treatment, 57
conditioning of, 45, 58
corrosion by, 56
deaeration, 55
deionized, 47, 49
demineralizing, 49
distillation, 51
municipal, 57
sea, composition of, 223
silica removal, 55
softening installations, 47
threshold treatment, 55
waste-water treatment, 69
Water gas, 117
carbureted, 119, 120
machine, 118
Water glass, 232, 280
Water ice, physical properties, of 126
Water repellency, 763
Water treatment, aluminum sulfate for,
436
chloram"ine, 57
chlorine, 57
phosphorus compounds in, 350, 356,
358
Waxes, 599, 609
Weizmann fermentation process, 686
Wetherill zinc oxide process, 505
,Whale oil, 608
Whisky, 685
White lead, 502
White liquor, 730
Whitewares, 179
Whiting, 219, 515
1004
Wine, 6&1
Witherite, 439
Wood, average composition, 700
in chemical construction, 28
hydrolysis of, 716
Wood chemicals, 700
Wood oils, 703
Wood tar, 703
Wool fiber characteristics, 764
Wool Green S, 895
Woolwich process, 461
Wort, 682
Wulff process, 148
SUBJECT INDEX
Xanthene dyes, 915

Xenon, 145
Yeast, 664, 673
Zein, 656
Zein fibers, 762
Zeolite, 47
Zinc oxide, 505
Zinc yellow, 512
Zirconia, 193

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McGRAW-HILL SERIES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

THE CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

McGRAW-HILL SERIES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

EDITORIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

WALTER E. LOBO Director, Chemical

BUILDING FOR THE FUTURE OF A PROFESSION

NEWTON-Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation

The Chemical Process Industries

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

KOGAKUSHA COMPANY, LTD.

a,.U!. '" o. !( \ D ' \

THE CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

Exclusive rights by Kogakusha Co., Ltd., for manufacture and export

Copyright @ 1956 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

TOSHO INSATSU PRINTING CO., LTD., TOKYO, JAPAN

This book represents a lifetime of experience in the chemical

Chemical engineering underlies the chemical process industries, and the

the point of view of teachers in chemical engineering, was concerned

berstadt, Foster D. Snell, Sylvan B. Lee, Jerome Martin, R. J. Hickey,

UNIT PROCESSES AND UNIT OPERATIONS

WATER CONDITIONING AND \VASTE-WATER TREATMENT

Water Conditioning, 45; Methods of Conditioning Water, 46; Sewage and

FUELS, POWER, AND

The Destructive Distillation of Coal, 81; Coking of Coal, 85; Distillation of

Carbon Dioxide, 125; Hydrogen, 133; Hydrogen Manufacture, 134; Oxygen

THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES.

Basic Raw Materi~ls, 175; Unit Processes Including Fundamental Ceramic

Manufacture, 230; Methods of Manufacture, 238; Manufacture of Special

POTJ\SSIUM SJ\LTS AND MIXED FERTILIZERS.

Potassium Chloride,' 254; Various Potassium Salts, 263; Mixed Fertilizers,

SALT AND MISCELLANEOUS SODIUM COMPOUNDS

SODA ASH, CAUSTIC SODA, AND CHLORINE

Manufacture of Soda Ash, 289; Manufacture of Sodium Bicarbonate, 295;

Aluminum, 315; Magnesium, 319; Sodium, 323; Hydrogen Peroxide, 324;

Calcium Phosphates, 338; Phosphorus, 349; Manufacture of Ph!)sphorus

Mining and Manufacture of Sulfur, 363; Sulfuric Acid, 367; Manufacture

21. HYilROCHLORIC ACID AND MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC CHEMICALS

Industrial and Military Explosives, 449; Military Explosives, 453; Industrial

24. PAINT, VARNISH, LACQUER, AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES

27. PERFUME AND FLAVORING INDUSTRIES .

Soap Manufacture, 1617; Detergents or Surface-active Agents (Other than

Sugar, 640; Manufacture of Sugar, 642; Starches and Related Products,

Industrial Alcohol, 667; Manufacture of Industrial Alcohol, 671; Absolute

Distillation of Hardwood, 701; Manufacture, 703; Products from Softwood,

PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRIES.

Rayon and Acetate, 744; Reactions, 747; Viscose Manufacturing Process,

Thermosetting Resins, 778; Thermoplastics Based on Cellulose, 783;

NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER

THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Constituents of Petroleum, Including Petroleum Gases, 828; Products of

INTERMEDIATES, DYES, AND THEIR ApPLICATION

ORGANIC CHEMICALS, NOT OTHERWISE CLASSIFIED

Nitration, 933; Esterification, 935; Amination by RedU!ltion, 937; Amination

These unit operations or physical changes and these unit processes or

to a specific company. However, the full listing of such companies is

fore, we may well say, quoting from Dean Emeritus A. A. Potter of

therefrom the various pumps or filter presses or reactors that would be

II., cdiior-in-chicf, with a staff 'of specialists, "Chemical Engineers'