API 936: Refractory Installation, Inspection and Testing

PART -II
PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF REFRACTORIES

PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF REFRACTORIES

What are Refractories
Any material can be described as a refractory, if it can withstand the action of abrasive or
corrosive solids, liquids or gases at high temperatures. The various combinations of
operating conditions in which refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a
range of refractory materials with different properties. Refractory materials are made in
varying combinations and shapes depending on their applications. General requirements
of a refractory material are:
Withstand high temperatures

Withstand sudden changes of temperatures

Withstand action of molten metal slag, glass, hot gases, etc

Withstand load at service conditions

Withstand load and abrasive forces

Conserve heat

Have low coefficient of thermal expansion

Should not contaminate the material with which it comes into contact

Table 1 compares the thermal properties of typical high density and low density
refractory materials.
Table 1. Typical Refractory Properties
Property

High Thermal

Low Thermal Mass

Mass(Highdensity refractories) (Ceramic fiber)

Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Specific heat (J/kg K)
Density (kg/m3)

1.2
1000
2300

0.3
1000
130

Depending on the area of application such as boilers, furnaces, kilns, ovens etc,
temperatures and atmospheres encountered different types of refractories are used.
Some of the important properties of refractories are:
Melting point: Pure substances melt instantly at a specific temperature. Most refractory
materials consist of particles bonded together that have high melting temperatures. At
high temperatures, these particles melt and form slag. The melting point of the refractory

is the temperature at which a test pyramid (cone) fails to support its own weight.
Size: The size and shape of the refractories is a part of the design of the furnace, since
it affects the stability of the furnace structure. Accurate size is extremely important to
properly fit the refractory shape inside the furnace and to minimize space between
construction joints.
Bulk density: The bulk density is useful property of refractories, which is the
amount of refractory material within a volume (kg/m3). An increase in bulk density of a
given refractory increases its volume stability, heat capacity and resistance to slag
penetration.
Porosity: The apparent porosity is the volume of the open pores, into which a
liquid can penetrate, as a percentage of the total volume of the refractory. This property is
important when the refractory is in contact with molten charge and slag. A low apparent
porosity prevents molten material from penetrating into the refractory. A large number
of small pores is generally preferred to a small number of large pores.
Cold crushing strength: The cold crushing strength is the resistance of the
refractory to crushing, which mostly happens during transport. It only has an indirect
relevance to refractory performance, and is used as one of the indicators of abrasion
resistance. Other indicators used are bulk density and porosity.
Pyrometric cones and Pyrometric cones equivalent (PCE): The refractoriness of
(refractory) bricks is the temperature at which the refractory bends because it can no
longer support its own weight. Pyrometric cones are used in ceramic industries to test the
refractoriness of the (refractory) bricks. They consist of a mixture of oxides that are
known to melt at a specific narrow temperature range. Cones with different oxide
composition are placed in sequence of their melting temperature alongside a row of
refractory bricks in a furnace. The furnace is fired and the temperature rises. One cone will
bends together with the refractory brick. This is the temperature range in oC above which
the refractory cannot be used. This is known as Pyrometric Cone Equivalent temperatures.
Refer Figure below.

Figure 3: Pyrometric
Cones
(Bureau of Energy Efficiency,
2004)

Creep at high temperature: Creep is a time dependent property, which

determines the deformation in a given time and at a given temperature by a refractory
material under stress.
Volume stability, expansion, and shrinkage at high temperatures: The contraction or
expansion of the refractories can take place during service life. Such permanent changes
in dimensions may be due to:
The changes in the allotropic forms, which cause a change in specific gravity

A chemical reaction, which produces a new material of altered specific gravity

The formation of liquid phase

Sintering reactions
Fusion dust and slag or by the action of alkalies on fireclay refractories, to form alkalialumina silicates. This is generally observed in blast furnaces.
Reversible thermal expansion: Any material expands when heated, and contracts when
cooled. The reversible thermal expansion is a reflection on the phase transformations that
occur during heating and cooling.

Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity depends on the chemical and mineralogical

composition and silica content of the refractory and on the application temperature. The
conductivity usually changes with rising temperature. High thermal conductivity of a
refractory is desirable when heat transfer though brickwork is required, for example in
recuperators, regenerators, muffles, etc. Low thermal conductivity is desirable for
conservation of heat, as the refractory acts as an insulator. Additional insulation
conserves heat but at the same time increases the hot face temperature and hence a
better quality refractory is required. Because of this, the outside roofs of open-hearth
furnaces are normally not insulated, as this could cause the roof to collapse. Lightweight
refractories of low thermal conductivity find wider applications in low temperature heat
treatment furnaces, for example in batch type furnaces where the low heat capacity of the
refractory structure minimizes the heat stored during the intermittent heating and cooling
cycles. Insulating refractories have very low thermal conductivity. This is usually achieved
by trapping a higher proportion of air into the structure. Some examples are:
Naturally occurring materials like asbestos are good insulators but are not
particularly good refractories
Mineral wools are available which combine good insulating properties with good
resistance to heat but these are not rigid
Porous bricks are rigid at high temperatures and have a reasonably low thermal
conductivity.

Various Types of Refractories

Fireclay refractories consist essentially of hydrated aluminum silicates (generally Al2O3
2SiO2 2H2O) along with smaller quantities of other minerals. Hard clays are the flint and
semiflint clays, which form the principal component of the super and high-duty fire bricks
having PCE of 3335. Plastic and semiplastic refractory clays, also called soft clays, vary
considerably in refractoriness, bonding strength, and plasticity having PCE values ranging
from 29 to 33.
High-alumina refractories. Several minerals can be used in the making of alumina refractories.
Most high-alumina refractories are made from bauxite (Al2O3 H2O + Al2O3
3H2O) or diaspore (Al2O3 H2O) or a mixture of the two blended with flint and plastic clay.
Alumina types are more refractory than fireclay, approximately in proportion to their content of
alumina. They are highly resistant to chemical attack by various slags and fumes and, in

general, have greater resistance to pressure at high temperature than fireclay refractory.
Silica refractories are made from high-purity crystalline mineral quartz. Their thermal
expansion is high at low temperatures and negligible beyond 550C. They possess high
refractoriness, strength, and rigidity at temperatures close to their melting point. They are
susceptible to thermal spalling (cracking) at 650C, but
at higher temperatures, they are free from spalling.
Basic refractories. The raw materials used include magnesite, dolomite, and chrome ores.
Insulating refractories are lighter and porous, as they trap a lot of air and hence possess much
lower conductivity and heat storage capacity. They are normally used as the backing to the
dense refractory facing. If the furnace conditions are clean, they can also be used as facing
materials.

1.Refractory Bricks:
Bricks are preformed shapes obtained by pressing the green mass to the required shape and
size and firing at the specified temperature until the refractory bond is formed by chemical
action under heat. The word brick is used in the acronym BRIL to cover both bricks and the
tiles. Standard refractory bricks are made in two thicknesses, namely, 227 mm 116 mm 76
mm and 63 mm (9 in. 4 1/2 in. 3 in./2 in.). Tiles are flattened bricks usually made in the
range of 5076 mm thickness, with overlapping edges and an arrangement to hold the tile.
Tiles
can also be made in different shapes and in more advanced composition than bricks. Today,
refractory brick construction is confined mainly to the following areas:
Around the fire in pile burning, in horse shoe or ward furnaces in firing bagasse or similar
fuels. This type of burning is nearly extinct.
Shaped refractory arches in chain grate stokers for radiating the heat onto the bed.
Boiler enclosure in brick set boilers.
Brick lining for underground brick flues.

 Stack lining.
Brick lining in cyclones and external HXs in CFBC boilers.
The use of refractory bricks in modern boilers is negligible in comparison to the former times.
Since the bricks are pressed in hydraulic presses, they are strong, dense, and heavy, which
makes them ideally suited to face the fire and dust-laden gases.
Several types of refractory bricks are manufactured to suit various types of furnaces:
1. Fireclay
2. High alumina
3. Insulating bricks
Firebricks (FBs) are made of a blended mixture of flint and plastic clays. Some or all of the
flint may be replaced by highly burnt or calcined clay called grog.The dried bricks are burnt at
12001500C. Firebricks can withstand spalling and many slag conditions but are not suitable
for lime or ash slags.
High-alumina bricks are graded by alumina content as
50, 60, 70, 80, and 90% and are used for unusually severe temperature and load conditions.
They are more
expensive than firebricks.
Insulating FBs are made from porous fireclay or kaolin. They are light, one-half to one-sixth
of the weight of equivalent refractory brick, low in thermal conductivity, and capable of
withstanding high temperatures. They
are graded by thermal withstand temperatures as 870,
1100, 1260, 1430, and 1540C (1600, 2000, 2300, 2600, and 2800F). They are not slagresistant.
High-burned kaolin (aluminasilica china) refractories can withstand high temperatures and
heavy loads or severe spalling conditions as in oil-fired boilers.

2.Refractory Tiles:
Refractory tiles are used in the following areas in modern boilers:
On top of the floor tubes to protect the tubes from overheating in package boilers
In burner quarls to give the right shape to the flame
Between tubes to form gas baffles
In the lining of cyclones
In the lining of hot and dust-laden gas ducts and hoppers

3.Refractory Castables:
These refractory materials are not preformed but are cast in situ to any desired shape.
Because of this flexibility and the advances made in the materials and binders, the castable
refractories have become greatly popular, displacing the shaped and formed types in many
applications. They are available in special mixes or blends of dry granular or stiffly plastic
refractory materials with which (a) practically joint-free linings (monolithic) can be
made or (b) repair of masonry can be carried out. These are packed in a way that makes
transportation and handling easy. The application is also made very easy with little or no
preparation. There are four types of castables or monolithics:
1. Plastic refractories
2. Ramming mixes
3. Gun mixes
4. Castables
The monolithics develop their strength by either air or hydraulic setting. The entire thickness
becomes hard and strong at room temperatures. At higher temperatures, it becomes even
stronger due to the development of the ceramic bond. Heat setting monolithic refractories have
very low strength at low temperatures and develop their full strength only on attaining the full
temperature. Linings on furnace wall tubes require that the water walls be fully drained before
the application of a refractory layer, lest the water-cooled walls hinderthe lining

from attaining the necessary temperature. Usually castable linings need some anchor material
to hold.
Plastic refractories are mixtures of refractory materials prepared in stiff plastic conditions of
proper consistency, for ramming into place with pneumatic hammers or mallets. Plastics are
similar to castables in formulation, as both use calcined aggregates and a binder. However, the
plastics that are premixed at the factory use phosphates or other heat-setting agents to
develop
a bond when fired. Castables use hydraulic cements that form the permanent bond when
mixed with water.
Plastic chrome ore (PCO) linings are proven lining materials for black liquor (BL) recovery
boilers. The air setting plastic compound is rammed into position on the studded walls to
develop a dense monolithic layer, which has high resistance to spalling, erosion, hot gases,
and smelt. High-alumina phosphate-bonded plastics are used in hot cyclones of circulating
fluidized bed (CFB)
Ramming mixes are ground refractory materials with minor amounts of other materials
added to make the mixes workable. Most ramming mixes are supplied dry. Ramming mixes
are required to be mixed with water and rammed into place, followed by drying and heating
when they form a dense and strong monolithic refractory structure by self-bonding.
Gun mixes are granular refractory materials prepared for spraying at high velocity and
pressure by guns. The resulting lining is homogeneous and dense and free
from lamination cracks. The spray can be either by dry mix or by wet mix. The gun has a water
nozzle to moisten the mixture. The gun mixes can be either air or heat setting. Refractory
lining of steel stacks is often done by gunning.
Castables are granular refractory materials combined with suitable hydraulic setting bonding
agent. They are supplied in dry form to be mixed, at site, with water and poured or cast in
place to develop a strong hydraulic set. They are rammed or troweled or tamped into position
and occasionally applied with air guns. These castables have negligible shrinkage in service
and low coeff cients of thermal expansion. They are resistant to spalling. Some are capable of
withstanding severe erosion. Some are good insulators and others are good conductors.
High-alumina dense castables with varying alumina contents in excess of 90% are used up
to an operating temperature of 1800C to withstand high erosion .Burner quarls and furnace
linings are some examples of the usage of this castable.

Low-cement, ultra lowcement, and no-cement castables are relatively recent

developments where refractory cement used as binder is progressively brought down to
withstand high temperatures without weakening the lining. Less cement means reduced lime
content and reduced water requirement for setting. The
porosity is reduced by more than 50%, resulting in a very dense structure capable of standing
up to very high erosion as seen in cyclones of CFB boilers.
Insulating castables serve as hot face lining in clean applications and as backup lining for
dusty applications. They are light, strong, and low in conductivity, making the whole liner thin
and cheap. They are made in a range of densities from ~
400 to 1600 kg/m3.
Silicon carbide lining of FBC furnaces is done to withstand extreme levels of erosion and
have good heat transfer to the water walls.