RELATIVITY

Einstein published two theories of relativity

In 1905
The Special Theory
For uniform motion

a = 0

In 1916
The General Theory
For non-uniform motion

a 0.

First we will discuss The Special Theory

At the beginning of the century most believed

light was a wave.

Thus must have something that waves:

Sound has air
Water has water, etc.

Physicists proposed that for waves of light

something must wave.
They called it the ether for light
This ether then must fill the universe.
The earth moves through the universe so:
How fast are we traveling through the ether?

To answer this we will start with a race

between two boats (that run at exactly the same
speed) in a river.

The boat going downstream will have speed

c+v
The boat going upstream will have speed

cv
4

The calculated time for round trip is

L
L
2 Lc
t// =
+
= 2 2
c+v cv c v
The speed for the boat going cross-stream will
have speed both ways

c v
2

Therefore

tcross =

2L
v c
2

Then the ratio of the two times will be

5

t //
t cross

1
v
1
c

> 1

Therefore we see that the boat that goes across

and back wins the race even though both boats
travel the same speed relative to the water.
The main point is the time to complete the
race is different for the two boats.
Note:

We can measure ratio of times for boats and

calculate the speed of river if we know the
speed of boats.

The Michelson-Morley Experiment

Diagram of Apparatus
8

Drawing of actual apparatus

We know the speed of light.

We want the speed of the earth through the
ether.
9

When light arrives at the eye it has traveled two

paths to reach the observer.
There will be interference either
constructive
or
destructive
The resulting image will be a series of lines.

10

Spectrometer lines

Since the direction of the ether flow is not

known the apparatus must be rotated.

11

First one than the other path will be parallel to

the flow of ether.
Therefore the interference lines should shift.
Michelson and Morley did the experiment very
carefully and did not find a shift.

The conclusion has to be that:

The Ether does not exist
or
the earth travels along with it.

12

Another experiment shows that we are

not moving with it.

Stellar Aberration is that experiment

While the light travels down the telescope the

telescope moves with the earth.
13

The telescope has to be tilted to keep the image

in the center.
If the ether (the substance that waves to cause
the propagation of light) moves with the scope
there would be no need to tilt the it.
Therefore we conclude the ether does not
exist.
Classical Relativity
The transformation equations before Einstein

14

x ' = x vt
y'= y
z'= z
t'= t

These are the Galilean Equations that allow

observers to compare observations in two
different frames moving relative to each other
with constant velocity.

15

Observer on ground and observer on railroad

car moving in x-direction.
The observer on the ground observes the birds
separated by distance

x1

The distances are equal.

16

If an airplane flies over the railroad car

traveling in the

+ x direction at a speed u

measured by the observer on the ground what

'

will be the speed ( u x ) of the airplane measured

by the observer on the railroad car?
We can use the transformation equation for x

x ' = x vt
and the equation for t

t'=t
Differentiate and divide to get
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dx ' dx
dv
=
vt
dt
dt
dt

u x' = u x v 0
if the velocity of the railroad car is constant.
If the observer on the ground measures the
velocity of the airplane as

ux
then the person on the railroad car will measure

'
x

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What if the person on the ground points a

flashlight in the + x

direction? What will be

the speed of light measured by the observer on

the railroad car?

19

We get

u = ux v
'
x

giving
c' = c v
We must keep this result in mind as we discuss
Einsteins Theory.

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Einsteins postulates for the Special Theory of

Relativity:
1. Fundamental laws of physics are identical
for any two observers in uniform relative
motion.
2. The speed of light is independent of the
motion of the light source or observer.

21

These postulates cannot be satisfied using the

Galilean Equations, as we will see.
However Einstein found that the following
equations worked.

x ' = ( x vt )
y'= y
z'= z
vx
t ' = (t 2 )
c
where

1
2

v
1 2
c

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These are the Lorentz Transformation

Equations.
Now consider the airplane flying over the
railroad car in the x-direction. What is the
speed of the airplane as measured by the
observer on the ground? What is the speed of
the airplane as measured by the observer on the
railroad car? We need to answer these
questions by using the Einstein-Lorenze
Equations.

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x ' = ( x vt )
and
vx
t ' = (t 2 )
c
differentiate
dx ' = (dx vdt )
and
vdx
dt ' = (dt 2 )
c
divide
dx ' dx vdt
=
dt ' dt vdx
2

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divide by

dt '

dx
v
dx '
dt
=
dx
dt '
v
dt
1 2
c
or
ux v
'
ux =
vu x
1 2
c
Thus if an object (an airplane) flies over the
railroad car the observer on the ground will
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measure the speed in the x direction as

observer on the car will find

ux .

The

u x' .

What about the speed of light when a flashlight

is pointed in the x-direction?
The observer on the ground points a flashlight
in the +x direction. What will be the speed of
light measured by the observer on the car?

cv cv
cv
u =
=
=
=c
vc
v (c v ) / c
1 2 1
c
c
'
x

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Both observers, even though they are moving

relative to each other, measure the same value
for the speed of light.
This is in agreement with the Second Postulate.

LENGTH CONTRACTION
Read the section on Length Contraction in the
book. We will do it a little differently.

27

The observer on the moving railroad car has a

rod moving with him. He measures the length
of the rod to be

x x = L0
'
2

'
1

Use the Lorentz equations to get

x2' = ( x2 vt 2 )
x1' = ( x1 vt1 )
Then putting these in the equation

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L0 = (x2 vt2 ) (x1 vt1)

L0 = [ (x2 x1) v(t2 t1)]

If the observer on the ground measures the far

end and near end of the rod at the same time

t1 = t2
Then
L0 = ( x 2 x1 ) = L

or

L=

L0

and

>1

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So the observer on the ground with the rod

moving past in the x direction measures the rod
to be shorter than what is measured by the
observer at rest relative to the rod and on the
car.
Length Contraction is a prediction of the
Lorentz Equations.

TIME DILATION
Again we will find time dilation a different way
than the book. Then we will analyze the books
method.
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Observer on railroad car moving in x-direction

with firecrackers and another observer on
ground.
There is a firecracker on the top of the pole at
'
1

'
x
and one on the top of the pole at 2 . Lets

say the firecracker on the top of the pole at

x1'

explodes and then some time later the one on

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'
x
top of the pole at 2 explodes. We want to

consider the time between the two events.

The time interval between the two events as
measured by the observer on the ground will be

t = t2 t1
Using the transformation equations we get
t 2 = ( t 2'

t1

v x 2'
+
)
2
c

v x 1'
= (t +
)
2
c
'
1

So

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vx 2'
vx1'
'
t = ( t + 2 ) ( t1 + 2 )
c
c
'
2

or
v

t = t ' + ( 2 ( x 2' x1' )

c

The time interval is different for the two

observers.

For simplicity consider two firecrackers on the

same post at
x1' = x2' = x '

then
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t = t ' + 2 ( x2' x1' ) = t '

c

and

>1
So the time interval for the observer on the
ground with the events moving relative to him
is longer.

MOVING CLOCKS RUN SLOWLY

If an observer is moving relative to a clock
the interval between ticks will be longer.
This is Time Dilation
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The book demonstration:

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For the girl on the railroad car, O frame, the

light travels up and back to the floor.
The distance traveled is 2d
The time to travel is t
The speed of light is c
So

2d
t =
c
'

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The observer on the ground sees the light travel

from the floor to the ceiling but during this time
the railroad car moves carrying the mirror with
it at a speed v.

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The observer on the ground sees the light travel

farther when it goes from floor to ceiling than
the observer on the railroad car.
For the girl

distance traveled = d

For the boy distance traveled =

ct
2

Both observers must measure the speed of light

as c.
Therefore, since the distance traveled is longer
for the boy than for the girl

38

t > t

'

Consider triangle

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We see that
2

c t v t
2
=
+
d

2
2

Solve for

2
2

c
v
2
t = d 2
4 4

or
2
4d
t 2 = 2 2
c v

and

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t =

2d
c2 v2

2d
v2
c 1 2
c

Use

2d
t =
c
'

to get

2d = ct

'

and put in above equation to get

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t =

c t '
2

v
c 1 2
c

t '
2

= t '

v
1 2
c

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Einstein / Lorentz Transformation Equations

1.

Satisfy Einsteins Second Postulate

2.

Predict Length contraction

3.

Predict Time Dilation

But are these correct?

Must have an experiment to prove!!!

43

Muon lifetime Experiment

Muons are particles created high in our
atmosphere.
They rain down continuously at high velocity at
approximately
v = 2.994 x108 m/s.

If at rest they only exist for approximately

= 2x10

seconds.

The experiment is to set up a detector at the top

of a mountain and stop the muons in the
detector and measure how long they exist.
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Then ask how far down would they have

traveled if they had not been stopped in the
detector.
distance = (speed) x (time they exist)
d = (2.994 x108 m / s ) x(2 x106 s )

= 600 m.
If the mountain is 2000m tall, at bottom should
find very few if any muons.

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Move the apparatus to the bottom of the

mountain and measure the number of the same
type muons that reach sea level.
The experiment showed that as many reached
sea level as passed through the atmosphere at
the level of the top of the mountain.
Why?
When moving relative to us the observer they
exist not for

= 2 x 10-6 s but for

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 = t =

t
2.994 x108 2
1 (
)
8
3 x10

= 16t = 16(2 x106 ) s = 32 x106 s

Thus distance traveled will be

d = (2.994 x108 m / s )(32 x106 s ) = 10, 000m

well below sea level.

Or viewed from the muon

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Experiment also confirms length

contraction.
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