STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 1: Course introduction

Structural Deformation
Rocks deform when stresses placed upon them exceed the
rock strength
brittle deformation (e.g. fractures)
ductile deformation (e.g. folding)

Kink folding, Front Ranges, Canadian Rockies, Alberta

Driving Forces
Plate tectonics - plate convergence and ridge
spreading
Deep burial of sediments
Forceful intrusion of magmas into the crust
Meteorite impacts

Evidence of Crustal Deformation

Folding of strata
Faulting
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures

Evidence of Crustal Deformation:

Folding of rock strata

Faulting
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures

Evidence of Crustal Deformation:

Folding of rock strata

Faulting
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures

Evidence of Crustal Deformation:

Folding of rock strata

Faulting
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures

Analysis of Geologic Structures

Structural analysis generally involves three tasks:
Descriptive Analysis: physical and geometrical
description of rock structures (e.g. folds, faults etc)
Kinematic Analysis: evaluation of the displacement,
and change in shape, orientation and size that rocks
undergo as a result of deformation
Dynamic Analysis: reconstruct forces and stresses
which result in rock deformation and failure

Scales of Structural Analysis

Microscopic - deformation structures occurring at
level of individual mineral grains
Mesoscopic - structures at hand-specimen to outcrop
scales (fractures, small faults, folds)
Megascopic - deformation affecting entire regions
(e.g. fold and thrust belts)

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 2: Review of Fundamental Geologic Structures

Lecture 2: Topics

Geologic bed contacts

Primary sedimentary structures
Primary igneous structures
Secondary structures

Fundamental Structures
Three fundamental types of geologic structures:
bed contacts
primary structures - produced during deposition
or emplacement of rock body
secondary structures - produced by deformation
and other process after rock is emplaced

Bed Contacts
Boundaries which separate one rock unit from another
two types:
1. Normal conformable contacts
2. Unconformable contacts (unconformities)

Conformable Bed Contacts

Horizontal contact between rock units with no break in
deposition or erosional gaps
no significant gaps in geologic time

Book Cliffs, central Utah

Unconformable Contacts
Erosion surfaces representing a significant break in
deposition (and geologic time)
angular unconformity
disconformity
non-conformity

Angular Unconformity
Bedding contact which discordantly cuts across older
strata
discordance means strata are at an angle to each other
commonly contact is erosion surface

Old Red Sandstone, Scotland

Formation of an Angular Unconformity

A. Sediments deposited

C. Marine transgression

B. Sequence folded and

surface eroded

D. Subsidence and
deposition
of second
sequence

Disconformity
Erosional gap between rock units without angular
discordance
example: fluvial channel cutting into underlying
sequence of horizontally bedded deposits

Fluvial sandstones, Utah

Nonconformity
Sedimentary strata overlying igneous or metamorphic
rocks across a sharp contact
example: Precambrian-Paleozoic contact in Ontario
represents a erosional hiatus of about 500 ma

Grand Canyon, USA

Structural Relations
The structural relations between bed contacts are important
in determining:
1. presence of tectonic deformation/uplift and;
2. relative ages of rock units

principle of original horizontality

principle of cross-cutting
principle of inclusion

Principle of Original Horizontality

Sedimentary rocks are deposited as essentially horizontal
layers
exception is cross-bedding (e.g. delta foresets)
dipping sedimentary strata implies tectonic uplift and
tilting or folding of strata

Principle of Cross-cutting
Igneous intrusions and faults are younger than the
rocks that they cross-cut

Mafic dike cutting across older sandstones

Cross-cutting Relations
Often several cross-cutting relationships are present
how many events in this outcrop?

Principle of Inclusion
Fragments of a rock included within a host rock are
always older than the host

2
1

Granite inclusions in basalt

Fundamental Structures
Three fundamental types of structures:
bed contacts
primary structures
secondary structures

Primary Sedimentary Structures

Structures acquired during deposition of sedimentary
rock unit
Stratification - horizontal bedding is most common
structure in sedimentary rocks

Laminated mudstone

Primary Sedimentary Structures

Cross-bedding - inclined stratification recording
migration of sand ripples or dunes

Large-scale aeolian cross-beds, Utah

Primary Sedimentary Structures

Ripples - undulating bedforms produced by
unidirectional or oscillating (wave) currents

Symmetrical wave ripples

Primary Sedimentary Structures

Graded bedding - progressive decrease in grain size
upward in bed
indicator of upwards direction in deposit
common feature of turbidites

Coarse-grained turbidite

Primary Sedimentary Structures

Mud cracks - cracks produced by dessication of
clays/silts during subaerial exposure

Mud-cracks on tidal flat

Primary Sedimentary Structures

Sole marks - erosional grooves and marks formed by
scouring of bed by unidirectional flows
good indicators of current flow direction

Sole marks on base of sandstone bed

Primary Sedimentary Structures

Fossils preserved remains of organisms, casts or moulds
good strain indicators
determine strain from change in shape of fossil
relative change in length of lines/angle between lines

Uniaxial compression

Primary Igneous Structures

Pillow lavas - record extrusion and quenching of lava on
sea floor
convex upper surface indicates way up

Pillows forming at MOR

Primary Igneous Structures

Flow stratification - layering in volcanic rocks
produced by emplacement of successive lava sheets
stratification of ash (tephra) layers

Stratified pyroclastic flow

Sequence of basaltic flows

Importance of Primary Structures

1. Paleocurrents - determine paleoflow directions
2. Origin mode of deposition, environments
3. Way-up - useful indicators of younging in
stratigraphic sequence
4. Dating - allow relative ages of rocks to be
determined based on position, cross-cutting
relations and inclusions
5. Strain indicators - deformation of primary
structures allows estimates of rock strain

Secondary Structures
Secondary structures - deformation structures
produced by tectonic forces and other stresses in crust
Principle types:
fractures/joints
faults/shear zones
folds
cleavage/foliation/lineation
Secondary structures are of primary interest
in structural geology

Fractures and Joints

Fractures surfaces along which rocks have broken and
lost cohesion
Joints - fractures with little or no displacement parallel to
failure surface
indicate brittle deformation of rock

Joints in Sandstone, Arches National Park, Utah

Faults
Faults - fracture surfaces with appreciable displacement
of strata
single fault plane
fault zone - set of associated shear fractures
shear zone - zone of ductile shearing

Shear Zones
Shear zone - zone of deformed rocks that are more highly
strained than surrounding rocks
common in mid- to lower levels of crust
shear deformation can be brittle or ductile

ductile shear zone

Fault Terminology
Hanging wall block- fault block toward which the fault
dips
Footwall block - fault block on underside of fault
Fault plane fault surface

Fault Slip
Slip is the fault displacement described by:
direction of slip
sense of slip
030/00
magnitude of slip

Slip direction

Displaced
marker
Slip
magnitude
Slip
sense

Left-handed strike slip fault

Fault Types
Dip-slip faults - slip is parallel to the fault dip direction
normal fault - footwall block dispaced up
reverse (thrust) fault - footwall block displaced down

Fault Types
Strike-slip fault slip is horizontal, parallel with strike of
the fault plane
right-handed (dextral)
left-handed (sinistral)

Fault Types
Oblique slip Combination of dip- and strike-slip motion
dextral-normal
dextral-reverse
sinistral-normal
sinistral-reverse

Faults
What type of faults are shown here?

Normal faults

Folds
Folds warping of strata produced by compressive
deformation

range in scale from microscopic features to

regional-scale domes and basins

indicators of compression and shortening

Recumbent fold in sandstones

Plunging Anticline, Utah

Fold Terminology
Hinge (Axial) plane - imaginary plane bisecting fold limbs
Hinge line - trace of axial plane on fold crest
Plunge - angle of dip of hinge line

Fold Terminology
Anticline - convex in direction of youngest beds
Syncline - convex in direction of oldest beds
Antiform - convex upward fold (stratigraphy unknown)
Synform - concave upward fold

ANTICLINE

SYNCLINE

OLDER

YOUNGER

YOUNGER

OLDER

Fold Terminology
Synformal Anticline - overturned anticline
Antiformal Syncline - overturned syncline
ANTICLINE

YOUNGEST

YOUNGEST

OLDEST

OVERTURN

SYNFORMAL ANTICLINE
YOUNGEST

OLDEST

YOUNGEST

Fold Terminology
Monocline - step-like bend in strata

Foliation and Cleavage

Foliation - parallel alignment of planar fabric elements
within a rock
Cleavage - tendency of rock to break along planar surface
cleavage is a type of foliation
resemble fractures but are not physical discontinuities

Gniessic foliation

Cleavage in slates

Lineations
Lineation - sub-parallel to parallel alignment of elongate
linear fabric elements in a rock body
e.g. slickenlines and grooves on fault plane surface

Slickenlines on fault surface

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 3: Geometric analysis of geologic structures

Structural Analysis
Analysis of geologic structures involves three successive
steps:
1. Descriptive or geometric analysis - quantitatively
describe geometry of structures
2. Kinematic analysis - determine movements,
changes in shape or strain
3. Dynamic analysis - determine direction,
magnitude of forces and stresses

Geometrical Analysis: Geocubism

Measurement of the 3-dimensional orientation and
geometry of geologic structures
simplify geometry by decomposing structures into lines
and planes (or other geometric elements)

Picasso: Girl Before a Mirror 1932

Analysis of Complex Structures

Analysis and modeling of complex structures carried out
using sophisticated software
model complex curviplanar surface, volumes in 3-D
display as fence diagrams, geocellular 3-D models

Linear Geologic Structures

Lineation - any linear feature observed in a rock or rock
surface or imaginary line used in a geometrical construct
e.g. a fold axis.

Lineation in gneiss

Fold axial trace (imaginary)

Orientation of Linear Structures

Orientation of lines specified with trend and plunge
Trend - direction measured in degrees clockwise from
north (through 360); also known as azimuth
Plunge - angle of inclination of line (0 - 90)
N
N
E

W
S
W

Trend 200 , plunge 45

S

Examples of Linear Structures

Primary structures - flute casts, grooves, glacial striae
Secondary structures - slickenlines and grooves, mineral
lineations

Glacial striations on bedrock

Sole marks

Examples of Linear Structures

Secondary structures - slickenlines and grooves, mineral
lineations
intersection lineations

Grooves on exposed fault plane

Slickenlines

Orientation of Linear Structures

Many linear structures are developed on planar
surfaces such as bedding planes
orientation measured using the pitch angle
angle from horizontal measured within the plane
a.k.a. rake angle
Pitch
angle
Striations
on fault
plane

Planar Geologic Structures

Examples of planar geologic structures:
bedding planes and contacts
foliation
joint surfaces
fault planes
fold limbs
fold axial planes (imaginary surface)

Examples of Planar Structures

Bedding planes - most common planar geologic structure
primary depositional structure
erosion surface

Inclined bedding plane

Examples of Planar Structures

Foliation - cleavage planes produced by metamorphism of
sedimentary rocks
common structure in slates and phyllites

Foliated phyllite, Cascade Mountains, B.C.

Examples of Planar Structures

Joint planes - planar fracture surfaces caused by of
brittle failure rock

Examples of Planar Structures

Fold axial plane - imaginary plane bisecting limbs of
fold

Recumbent fold, Port au Port Peninsula, Newfoundland

Orientation of Planar Structures

The attitude of a plane can be established from any two
lines contained in the plane, provided they are not parallel
Horizontal

Dipping
plane

Orientation of Planar Structures

For convenience, two lines in a plane are selected
which are a horizontal line and line of steepest
inclination

Dipping
plane

Strike and Dip

Strike - line formed by intersection of imaginary
horizontal plane with inclined surface (0 - 360)
Dip - inclination of the plane measured perpendicular to
the strike line (0 - 90)
W
S
270

hori

al
t
n
o
z

Strik

Di

le
g
an

e
90

N
E

Orientation of Planar Structures

Apparent dip - dip measured along line other than at 90
to strike
apparent dip will always be less than true dip angle

W
S
270

hori

Strik

e
90

al
t
n
o
z

Apparent dip

N
E

Measurement of Orientation Data

Strike and trend are measured with a compass
Dip and plunge are measured using an inclinometer

Brunton compass

Inclinometer

Measurement of Strike Direction

Strike is measured by placing the compass parallel
with the outcrop face
apply the right-hand rule to record strike

Measurement of Dip Angle

Dip angle measured by placing the long axis of the
compass parallel with the dip direction
dip read off the inclinometer
Inclinometer

30

Recording of Structure Data

Field data are recorded in a notebook and transferred to a
base map
overlay mylar transparency on air photo or topo map
record measurements on mylar using symbols and station
numbers which reference notebook entries
strike
25
20

sandstone
18

e
lin
c
n
sy

N
shale
05/044

34
limestone
22

12/090

25
dip angle

Structure Symbols

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 4: Geometric Analysis II

Lecture 4: Topics

geologic maps
structure contour and structure maps
three-point problems, cross-sections
stereonets

Representation of Geologic Structures

Structural orientation data are displayed and analysed
using various types of graphical aids
geologic maps
structure maps
cross-sections
stereonets
rose diagrams
histograms

Geologic Maps
Shows surface distribution of rock types and contacts
structures portrayed using symbols (strike and dip of
beds, fold axes, faults etc.)
read and interpret map to infer subsurface structure

Outcrop Patterns
Outcrop patterns controlled by attitude (strike and dip)
of beds and topographic relief
predictable for inclined beds

Rule of Vs
Outcrop pattern of inclined bedding is predictable in valleys
beds dipping downstream V-downstream
beds dipping upstream V-upstream

Rule of Vs
Outcrop of vertical bed will always parallel the direction of
strike, regardless of terrain
e.g. vertical dike intruded into older strata
vertical structures usually easy to spot on satellite
imagery, air photos

Rule of Vs
Inclined bedding dipping at same gradient as stream will
Parallel stream valley contours

Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are beds dipping relative to stream valley?

Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are beds dipping relative to stream valley?

Block Models/Diagrams
Relations between outcrop pattern and subsurface structure
are visualized using block models or diagrams
construct cross-sections along map edges

Bryce 3-D
Block models now constructed using 3-D modelling
sofware
slice and dice stratigraphy interactively

Structure Contour Maps

Map showing the relief on a geologic surface
e.g. top or bottom of bedding plane, fault, folded surface
constructed from borehole data

Structure Contour Maps

Structure contour lines are lines of equal elevation
show elevation relative to horizontal datum
values are often negative since subsurface elevation are
commonly below sea level
Projection
of map
plane
-30

-10

Folded surface
(antiform)

0
-10
-20
-30

Elevation metres

-20

Datum Surface
Datum is a horizontal reference surface (e.g. sea level)
commonly use subsurface datum - usually regional
stratigraphic surface with low relief (e.g. top of shale)
elevation given in metres relative to datum surface (e.g.
metres below datum surface m b.d.s.)
BH-1
Datum = 0 m

Depth

BH-3

BH-2
Unit A

Unit B - Shale

100 m

Elevation =
- 100 m b.d.s.

Unit C

BH-4

Constructing Structure Contours

Structure contours can also be defined by finding points of
equal elevation along a bed contact
find intersections of contact with topo contour
draw structure contours through points of equal elevation
Unit A
100 m a.s.l.
90

80
100
90

Unit B

80

Planar Surfaces

For uniformly dipping plane, the structure contours are

parallel lines
contours equally spaced for surface of constant dip

- 10 m
- 20
45

45
- 30
- 40

INCLINED BED WITH

CONSTANT DIP ANGLE

- 50
STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP

Curvi-planar Surfaces
Contours lines are curvilinear with variable spacing
e.g. folded surface, erosion surface with valleys, ridges
dip direction and magnitude changes across map
FOLD AXES

- 10
- 20
- 30
- 40
- 50
COMPLEXLY FOLDED
DIPPING SURFACE

STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP

Rules of Contouring
The general rules of contouring also apply to all structure
maps:
1) contours cannot cross or bi-furcate
2) contours cannot end in the middle of the map, except at
a fault or other discontinuity
3) same contour interval must be used across the map and
elevations must be labelled
4) elevation is specified relative to datum (e.g. m above
sea level)

Determining Dip 
Dip direction and angle can be determined from structure
contour map
measure horizontal separation X, find difference in Z
 = tan-1 (Z/X)
tan  = Z/X,
e.g.  = tan-1 (10 m/100 m),  = 6
- 10

Distance between
structure contours (X)

- 20
100 m
- 30
- 40
6

20 m

Change in
elevation (Z)

- 50
30 m

STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP

Three-point Problem
Minimum of three points is required to uniquely define a
orientation of a plane
Can construct structure contours given minimum of
three boreholes
40

40

40

50

20

40

30

20

20

50

30

50 m a.s.l.

Three-point Problem
1. Find minimum and maximum values
2. Draw line between max, min elevations and subdivide
into equal distance intervals
3. Connect points of equal elevation to define structure
contour

40

20

20

30

30

40

40

50

50

Isochore Map
Map showing change in thickness of stratigraphic interval
constructed from borehole data
does not take into account dips of surfaces and is an
apparent thickness
BH-1
BH-2
Unit A
Apparent
thickness
Unit B

Unit C

Zero Thickness
Areas where stratigraphic unit is absent (eroded or not
deposited) are bounded by a zero contour
zero contour useful in defining edges of geologic units
e.g. oil-bearing sandstones
ISOPACH OF FURNACE CREEK UPPER SAND (THICKNESS IN METRES)
0

0
0

0
0

11

32
6

0
38

22

0
0

48

25

14

33

45
40

0
7
20

21

31
34

0
0

0
8

0
6

36

0
8

14

30
10

20

30

20

10
25

500
metres

12

15

25

Isopach Map
Map showing thickness of unit taken perpendicular to bed
sometimes difficult to estimate true thickness when
there is lots of relief on bounding surfaces
calculate using trig
BH-1
BH-2

Structure Cross-sections
Cross-section is a 2-D slice through stratigraphy
Construct by projecting elevations of structure contours
onto profile
Procedure called and orthographic projection

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 5: Introduction to Stereonets

Lecture 5: Topics
Stereonet basics
plotting lines and planes
Some example problem and solutions

The Stereonet
Lower hemisphere of a sphere projected onto a flat surface
a type of 3-dimensional protractor
allows analysis of structural data in 3-dimensions
plot data on tracing paper overlaid on net

Elements of a Stereonet
Great Circles - large circular arcs running north-south
equivalent to lines of longitude on globe
Small Circles - circular arcs running from east to west
equivalent to lines of latitude on globe
N

Great
circle
Small
circle

E
90

W
270

S 180

Schmidt Net

Elements of a Stereonet
Primitive - the perimeter of the stereonet
divided into 360 degrees at 2 increments
perimeter indicates compass directions
N 0

Primitive

E
90

W
270

S 180

Schmidt Net

Types of Stereonets
Two types of stereonets used geology:
1. Schmidt net
2. Wulff net

Schmidt (Equal Area) Net

Each 2 degree polygon has an equal area
used in structural geology because it preserves areal
proportions (important for analysis of distributions)
N 0

2 x 2 polygon

E
90

W
270

S 180

Schmidt Net

Wulff (Equal Angle) Net

Great and small circles are real circular arcs
preserves angular proportions but not area
used in crystallography, not much in structural

Plotting Lines - Trend and Plunge

Line projected onto lower hemisphere of net will appear
as as single point on net
e.g line plunging at 50 in the direction 130 (50/130)

50
130

Right-hand Rule
We will use the right-hand rule convention for all structural
measurements
right-hand thumb points in direction of strike
fingers point in direction of dip
Bedding plane striking N-S and dipping
eastward at 45
N

Strike direction
Measurement recorded
as 000/45

45
Dip direction

Example
Plot the following lines on the stereonet:
N 0
50 - 270
20 - 060
45 - 320
E

90

270

180

Schmidt Net

Plotting Planes
The intersection of a plane with the lower hemisphere of a
sphere is a great circle
e.g. bedding plane striking 030 and dipping 60 SE

030

60

Example
Plot the following planes (use the right-hand rule):
000 - 30 E
N 0
060 - 60 SE
130 - 20 SW
270 - 90 N
E

90

270

180

Schmidt Net

Plotting Poles to Planes

In order to analyze relationships between planar surfaces
it is often more convenient to plot the pole to the plane
pole is projection of a line drawn normal to the surface
of a plane
e.g. pole to plane oriented 000 /30
N
000

Pole to
30

plane

30

Example: Plotting Poles to Planes

Plot the pole to the following plane: 040/30
N 0

W
270

E
90

Schmidt Net

S 180

Step 1:
1. Mark off strike direction 040 on primitive
N 0
040

W
270

E
90

Schmidt Net

S 180

Step 2:
2. Rotate strike to north and draw great circle with dip of
30
N 0

040/30

W
270

E
90

Schmidt Net

S 180

Step 3:
3. Count in 90 degrees along E-W towards centre of net
and mark location of pole
N 0

W
270

040/30

Pole to A

E
90

90

Schmidt Net

S 180

Applications in Structural Geology

Stereonets are used to solve the following types of
problems:
1) rotations - restore dip of bed to pre-deformation
attitude
2) find intersections of planes
3) plot geometry of folds
4) find displacements along faults
5) examine trends in lines and planes - e.g. presence of
preferred orientations

Rotational Problems
Often we need to undo the rotation and inclination of
strata cause by deformation and tectonism:
find former attitude of beds or structures
determine paleocurrent directions
determine structural events where multiple phases of
deformation have taken place
unfold folded layers

Rotational Axes
Can perform rotations on three types of rotational axes:
HORIZONTAL
AXIS OF ROTATION

VERTICAL
AXIS OF ROTATION

N 0

E
90

W
270

INCLINED
AXIS OF ROTATION

S 180

Schmidt Net

Example: Restoring Dipping Beds

Rock sequence with angular unconformity
determine the attitude of Group A prior to deposition of
Group B
Group A (145/26), Group B (020/30)

Step 1:
1. Visualize the problem first, then plot planes A
(145/26), B (020/30) and their poles
N 0

B 020/30

Pole to B

W
270

E
90

Pole to A

A 145/26
S 180

Step 2:
2. Rotate Group B to North and rotate both poles 30 to
the east
N 0

B 020/30

Pole to A

W
270

E
90
Pole to B

A 145/26
S 180

Step 3:
3. Rotate pole to A to W-E axis and fit a new plane to pole
record dip of new plane (45)
N 0

W
270

45

B 020/30

90

E
90

A 145/26
S 180

Step 4:
4. Rotate N back to top and find strike of restored Group A
strike and dip of restored Group A is 156/45
N 0

B 020/30

W
270

E
90
Restored
Pole to A

A 156/45
S 180

Restoring Dipping Beds

Group A (145/26), Group B (020/30)
1. Plot bedding planes as great circles
2. Plot poles to planes
3. Rotate strike of upper bed to N-S axis
4. Rotate Group B to 30 horizontal along with its pole
5. Rotate Group A pole same amount along small circle
6. Plot planes to the poles
7. Find new strike and dip of restored Group A

Intersection of Two Planes

Intersection of any two planes will produce a line in space
(provided they are not parallel)
e.g. dike cross-cutting dipping strata

Line of intersection

Example: Intersection Problem

BED
BLE
MAR

DI
KE

A gold-bearing zone is discovered at the altered contact

between a marble bed (340/60) and dike (040/40)
in what direction (inclination) should the mine shaft be
constructed to exploit the mineralized zone?

40

URANIUM
60

ORE

Step 1:
1. Visualize the problem, then plot the planes for the
marble bed and dike and find their intersection point
BED 340/60

N 0
DIKE
040/40

W
270

E
90

S 180

INTERSECTION

Step 2:
2. Now find the trend and plunge of the line of
intersection (rotate point onto W-E to find plunge)
BED 340/60

N 0
DIKE
040/40

W
270

E
90

INTERSECTION
130/48
Schmidt Net

S 180

Step 3:

BED
BLE
MAR

DI
KE

Visualize your result and check that it makes sense.

mine shaft must be constructed in the direction 130 SE at
an angle of 30 to exploit the ore body

40
PROJECTION OF
MINE SHAFT
60

Analysis of Folds
Folded strata can also be represented on a stereonet
plot limbs as dipping planes
plot trend and plunge of fold axis
find orientation fold axial plane
NW LIMB FOLD AXIS
N 0 018/65
38/032

HORIZONTAL
PLUNGE

SE LIMB
045/65
XIS
A
LD
FO

TREND

W
270

E
90

FOLD LIMB
FOLD AXIAL PLANE

S 180

- Diagrams

Geometry of fold analyzed by plotting poles ( -poles) to

fold limbs
determine relative tightness of folding and fold
symmetry

GEO3Z03
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Fzz
Z

Jzx
Jzy
Jyx

Fyy
Jxy

Jyz

Jxz
X

Fxx

Lecture 6: Force and Stress in the Subsurface

Lecture Topics:
Force
Stress
Stress components
Computing shear and normal stresses

Basic Definitions
Stress - intensity of forces acting on rock body
Strain - change in size or shape of a rock
body resulting from applied forces
dilation = change in volume
distortion = change in shape

DISTORTION
DILATION

DILATION AND
DISTORTION

Force: Newtons First Law

Force - push or pull required to change the state of rest or
state of motion of a body
object at rest is state of static equilibrium
all forces are balanced
F1 + F2 + F3 = F'1 + F'2 + F'3
F1

F3

F2

F'2

F'3

GF = 0
F'1

Force: Newtons Second Law

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the net force applied to it and inversely proportional to
the objects mass
Force = mass x acceleration:

F = ma

Mass
Mass is the volume density of a body or amount of
material it contains per unit volume
M=DV
D = density (kgm-3)
V = volume (m3)
Weight - the force produced by gravitational
acceleration acting on a given mass

Units of Force
Dimensions of force:
F = ma = M C L/T2
F: [MLT-2]
Basic unit of force is the Newton (N):
force required to impart acceleration of 1 ms -2 to a body of
1 kilogram mass
1 N = 1 kgms-2 (SI units)
1 dyne = 1 gcms-2 (cgs units)

Force as a Load
Force is also frequently described in terms of a load or
the contact force generated by a mass
load is expressed as weight
e.g. person weighing 80 kg imparts a load of
80 kgms-2 or 80 N on the Earth

Force Vectors
Force is a vector quantity having both magnitude and
direction
obeys laws of vector addition/subtraction

DIRECTION
E
D
U
T
I
N
G
MA

Vector Addition/Subtraction
Resultant vector can be found by adding and subtracting
vector quantities

40 N
F1

10 N
F2

30 N
R

NET FORCE = F1 - F2 = 30 N

Parallelogram Rule
Resultant of any two vectors can be found by drawing
vectors tail to tail and finding diagonal
P

F1

F2

P
FR

F1
F2

FR is resultant vector of forces acting on point P

Vector Addition in 3-D

Any force vector FR can be resolved into 3 principal
components acting at right angles in a Cartesian coordinate system
Z

FR = Fx + Fy + Fz
Fz

FR
Fx

Fy

Y
X

Types of Forces
Body Forces - forces which act on the entire mass of a
body, independent of forces created by surrounding
materials
gravitational acceleration
magnetic fields
Surface Forces - forces produced by action of one
body on another across surfaces of contact
tectonic forces transmitted across a fault plane

Stress
Stress is the concentration of force per unit area:
F = F
A
stress is intensity of the applied force
also known as traction
also a vector quantity

Units of Stress
Stress in Earth Science is usually measured in pascals:
1 pascal (Pa) = force of one Newton acting on an area
of one m2
1 Pa = 1 Nm-2 = 1 kgms-2m-2 = 1 kgs-2m-2

F=1N

1 m2

1 Pa = 1 N / m2

Units of Stress
1 kilopascal (kPa) = 1000 Pa (103 Pa)
1 megapascal (MPa) = 106 Pa
1 gigapascal (GPa) = 109 Pa

Stress Components
Stress acting on any surface (arbitrarily oriented plane)
can be resolved into two components:
normal stress, n (sigma) - stress acting normal to plane
shear stress, J (tau) - stress acting tangential to plane

F
Fn

Fn
J
J

=0

Stress in 3-Dimensions

Normal and shear tresses acting on a point can be

described using a 3-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system:
xx - normal stress in x direction
Jxy - shear stress in face normal to x acting in direction
Fzz
of y axis
Z

Jzx
Jzy
Jyx

Fyy
Jxy

Jyz
Jxz

Fxx

Stress Tensor
Stress Tensor - nine stress components required to
completely describe the stresses acting on a point in a body
Fzz
Z

Fxx

Jxy

Jxz

Face Normal to Y: Jyx

Fyy

Jyz

Jzy

Fzz

Face Normal to X:

Face Normal to Z: Jzx

Jzx
Jzy
Jyx

Fyy
Jxy

Jyz
Jxz

Fxx

Stress Sign Conventions

By convention compressive stress is positive and tensile
stress is negative

Fn

Fn

Fn

Fn

COMPRESSIVE STRESS - POSITIVE

TENSILE STRESS - NEGATIVE

Stress Sign Conventions

Sign of shear stresses indicated by sense of motion
clockwise or right-handed shear is negative
counterclockwise or left-handed shear positive
J

COUNTERCLOCKWISE SHEAR
STRESS - POSITIVE

CLOCKWISE SHEAR
STRESS - NEGATIVE

Stress Ellipsoid
The total stress field acting on stresses acting on a point
can be represented by the stress ellipsoid
1
F1 - greatest principal stress
F2 - intermediate principal stress direction
F3 - least principal stress

3
2

triaxial stress is general

case where 1 > 2 > 3
Ellipsoid

Lithostatic Stress Problem

Calculate the normal stress placed on the crust by a granite
cube 1000 m on a side with a density of 2700 kgm-3
1000 m
1000 m
Density = 2700 kgm-3
GRANITE
1000 m

Lithostatic
stress?

Lithostatic Stress Problem

Mass of granite cube
=
DxV
=
2700 kgm-3 x (1000 m)3
=
2.7 x 1012 kg
Force at base of cube
= mxa
= 2700 kgm-3 x (1000 m)3 x 9.8 ms-2
= 2.65 x 1013 kg ms-2
= 2.65 x 1013 N

Answer
Stress at base of cube:
= F/A
= 2700 kgm-3 x (1000 m)3 x 9.8 ms-2 / (1000 m x 1000 m)
= 2700 kgm-3 x 1000 m x 9.8 ms-2
= 2.65 x 107 Pa
= 26.5 MPa
The granite block exerts a force of 26.5 MPa

Lithostatic Stress Gradient

The stress we have calculated is called the lithostatic stress
the vertical stress produced by column of overlying rock
in upper crust gradient is about 26.5 MPa/km
mantle gradient is approx 35 MPa/km
geothermal gradient approx 30 C per 1 km

1 kbar = 108 Pa
10 kbar = 1 GPa

Lithostatic Stress Gradient

Note that we can also write the lithostatic stress in terms of
depth, z:

= F/A
= mg/A
= Vg/A
= Azg/A ; cancel area
= gz

Example
What would be the lithostatic stress at the base of the
continental crust at 40 km depth?
= gh
= 2700 kgm-3 x 9.8 ms-2 x 40,000 m
= 1.05 x 109 Pa
= 1.0 GPa

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 7: Stress Analysis

Lecture 7: Topics
Principal stress components
Computing shear and normal Stresses
Mohr circle diagrams
Measurement of ambient stresses in crust

Stress Components
Stress acting on any surface (or arbitrarily oriented plane)
can be resolved into two components:
normal stress, .n (sigma) - stress acting normal to plane
shear stress, J (tau) - stress acting tangential to plane

.
.n

.n
J
J

=0

Stress Ellipsoid
The total stress field acting on stresses acting on a point
can be represented by the stress ellipsoid
1
.1 - greatest principal stress
.2 - intermediate principal stress direction
.3 - least principal stress

3
2

triaxial stress is general

case where 1 > 2 > 3
Ellipsoid

2-D Stress Ellipse

Generally we simplify problems by dealing with stress
within a single plane
plane containing 1 and 3, 1 and 2 , or 2 and 3
1

Stress States
Three stress configurations:
Trixaxial stress
Hydrostatic stress
Uniaxial stress

Triaxial Stress
Triaxial stress is general case where all three principal
stresses are of a different magnitude
1
1> 2> 3
elliposoid is oblate (flattened)
3

2
2

Ellipsoid

Hydrostatic Stress
All normal stresses, including principal stresses are equal
all stresses generated are normal stresses (no shear
stress components)
1= 2= 3
all stress generated by a fluid are hydrostatic
1

SPHEROID

2
3

Uniaxial Stress
Two of the three principal stresses are equal to zero
ellipsoid is a needle

Uniaxial stress
1 > 0 , 2 = 0, 3 = 0

3
2

Calculation of Stress Components

Calculate the normal (n) and shear stress () components
for a stress of 50 MPa inclined at 60 to the XY plane
xz = 50 MPa

n = ?
60
X

=?

Calculation of Stress Components

Normal and shear stress components can be calculated by
solving for the lengths of the vectors
Z

n = sin xz
= sin 60 50 Mpa
= 43.3 MPa
= cos xz
= cos 60 50 Mpa
= 25 MPa

xz = 50 MPa
n = 43.4 MPa
60
X

= 25 MPa

Note on Shear Stress Symbol

Note that shear stress is also commonly written as s (as
in text book)
we will use Greek letter (tau)

Stresses on Inclined Plane

Normal and shear stress acting on a surface can also be
calculated if the principal stress components (1 and 3)
and angle of plane are known
Pole inclined
to plane

1
+50 MPa

+10 MPa

= 22.5

+10 MPa

Inclined plane
+50 MPa

Fundamental Stress Equations

Normal and shear stress acting on a surface can also be
calculated if the principal stress components (1 and 3)
are known
calculate stress for plane of any orientation using the
fundamental stress equations:
n = (1 + 3) + (1 - 3) cos 2
2

= (1 - 3) /2 sin 2

Example
Find the normal and shear stress components for
1 = 50 MPa 3 = 10 MPa
Pole inclined
to plane

= 22.5
1

+50 MPa

2 = 45

+10 MPa

= 22.5

+10 MPa

Inclined plane
+50 MPa

Example
Calculate the normal stress n
is angle measured anticlockwise from 1 direction
n = (1 + 3)
2

(1 - 3) cos 2
2

Pole inclined
to plane

n = (50 + 10) + (50 - 10) cos 45

2
2
3

n = 30 + 20 (cos 45)

1
+50 MPa

+10 MPa

+10 MPa

Inclined plane

= 44 MPa

= 22.5

+50 MPa

Example
Calculate the shear stress component
is angle measured anticlockwise from 1 direction
= (1 - 3) sin 2
2
= (50 - 10) sin 45
2
= 20 (sin 45)
= 14 MPa

Pole inclined
to plane

1
+50 MPa

+10 MPa

= 22.5

+10 MPa

Inclined plane
+50 MPa

Alternate Approach: Mohr Circles

Otto Mohr (1835-1918) German engineer - devised
method for solving stress components using a simple
graphical method
J

DIAMETER =

.3 - .1

RADIUS =

.3 - .1
2

.3

2
20

10

.3 + .1
2

30

40

.1
50

60

.n

Example: Mohr Circles

Find the normal and shear stress components for fault plane:
1 = 50 MPa 3 = 10 MPa
Pole inclined
to plane

= 22.5

2 = 45

1
+50 MPa

3 +10 MPa

= 22.5
+10 MPa

Inclined plane
+50 MPa

Example: Mohr Circles

1. Locate 1 = 50 MPa 3 = 10 MPa on sigma axis and
draw centre point at 3 + 1/2
(10+50)/2 = 30 MPa
J

.3

.1
20

10

.3+ .1
2

30

40

50

60

.n

Example: Mohr Circles

2. Draw Mohr circle passing through 1, 3 then construct a
radius at angle 2 = 45
angle always measured anticlockwise from 1
read off values of n and
J
DIAMETER = .3 - .1

= 14 MPa

RADIUS =

.3 - .1
2

.3

2
20

10

30

40

.1
50

60

n = 14 MPa

.3 +.1
2

.n

Example: = 0
1
+50 MPa

+10 MPa

+10 MPa

=0

.3
10

2 = 0
20

30

40

+50 MPa

.1
50

60

n = 50 MPa

.n

Example: = 45
1
+50 MPa

2 = 90

45
+10 MPa

+10 MPa

= 20 MPa

.3
10

2 = 90
20

30

40

+50 MPa

.1
50

60

n = 30 MPa

.n

Example: = 90
1
+50 MPa

2 = 180

90
+10 MPa

+10 MPa

= 0 MPa

.3
10

2 = 180
20

30

+50 MPa

.1
40

n = 10 MPa

50

60

.n

Assignment
Draw Mohr circles for = 135, = 180,

Measurement of Earth Stresses

Direction and magnitude of stresses in the Earths can be
determined by measurement of strain
Methods of stress measurement:
borehole breakouts
over-coring
hydrofracturing
earthquake focal mechanism

Stress Measurement: Over-coring

Drill small diameter hole (3-4 cm) with strain gauge in
centre then drill larger hole (15-20 cm)
measure expansion (relaxation) of rock mass
change in shape in circle to ellipse
15-20 cm

BEFORE
OVERCORING

.1
5 cm

AFTER
OVERCORING

STRAIN
GAUGE

.3

MAXIMUM
STRETCH

Stress Measurement: Hydrofracturing

Seal off hole with packer and pump in water under high
pressure until rock fractures
water pressure required to cause fractures is equal to
principal horizontal stress
orientation of fractures gives direction of 1 and 3
1
HYDROFRACTURES

INFLATABLE
PACKER

Borehole Breakouts
Stresses cause bulging and fracturing of borehole wall
measure change in shape of borehole using caliper tool
gives orientation of principal horizontal stress

BOREHOLE
BREAKOUT

CALIPER
TOOL

World Stress Map

Orientations of maximum contemporary principal horizontal
stress (1 ) have been compiled on world-wide basis

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 8: Strain

Lecture 8: Strain
Deformation
Strain
Strain ellipsoid
Measurement of strain

Definitions
Deformation - response of rock body to applied
stresses
rigid body deformation
non-rigid body deformation (strain)

Rigid Body Deformation

Rigid body - rock body displaced with no change in
shape or volume
translation
rotation

TRANSLATION
ROTATION

Rigid Body Deformation

Example - displacement of fault blocks along fault planes

Non-rigid Body Deformation

Strain - change in size and shape body experiences
during deformation
dilation - change in volume
distortion - change in shape

DILATION

ROTATION

Homogeneous Strain
All points within deforming body undergo same
change in shape or volume

UNDEFORMED

HOMOGENEOUSLY
DEFORMED

Homogeneous Strain Rules

Straight lines remain straight after deformation
Parallel lines remain parallel

UNDEFORMED

HOMOGENEOUSLY
DEFORMED

Heterogeneous Strain
Changes in size and shape varies across deformed body

UNDEFORMED

HETEROGENEOUSLY
DEFORMED

Heterogeneous Strain
Most deformation in nature is heterogeneous
e.g. folding - no lines remain parallel or straight

Analysis of Strain
Analysis of heterogeneous strain is a problematic
difficult to deal with mathematically
subdivide into regions which can treated as locally
homogeneous
HETEROGENEOUS STRAIN

LOCALLY
HOMOGENEOUS
STRAIN

Types of Homogenous Strain

Two end-members of homogeneous strain
simple shear
pure shear

Simple Shear
Rock body is sheared like a deck of cards
square converted to a parallelogram

Simple Shear: Geological Example

Shearing of fault blocks past one another
lines within body undergo uniform rotation
line parallel to direction of shear remain parallel
1

SHEAR
ZONE

Pure Shear
Uniform stretching extension in one direction and
uniform contraction in plane perpendicular to stretch

Pure Shear: Geological Example

Uniform stretching of Earths crust at rift zone or
boundinage of rock
uniform extension and contraction
lines parallel to and perpendicular to principle direction of
stretch do no rotate
1

RIFTING

CRUST
ASTHENOSPHERE

Measurement of Strain
Measure change in length and orientation of lines
reference line or object called strain marker
e.g. deformed fossils, sedimentary structures

CHANGE IN LINE
LENGTH

CHANGE IN LINE
ORIENTATION

Strain Markers: Examples

Stretched pebble conglomerate - pebbles originally
spheroidal

Strain Markers: Examples

Augen gneiss - stretched feldspar and quartz crystals

Strain Markers: Examples

Oncolites - carbonate concretions with concentric
spherical layers (deposited by algae; similar to ooliths)

Strain Ellipsoid
Strain Ellipsoid - graphical representation of distortion
produced in rock by deformation
axes indicate degree of stretch relative to three principal
stretch directions S1, S2, S3
S1

S1> S2 > S3
S3
S2

Strain Ellipse
Strain ellipse - as in stress analysis we reduce problems to
2-dimensions and work with strains occurring in a single
plane
S3

S1

Strain Ellipses
Instantaneous strain ellipse - shows single increment of
deformation within strain continuum
a snapshot of strain condition at given instant
Finite strain ellipse - shows final or total strain
INSTANTANEOUS STRAIN ELLIPSES
1

FINITE STRAIN ELLIPSE

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 9, 10: Strain Measurement and Rheology

Lecture 9,10 Topics:

Measurement of Strain
Experimental deformation of rocks

Extension
Extension (elongation), e - ratio of change in length to
original length
e = (lf - lfo) / lo

lo = original length
lf = final length

lo = 10 cm

lf = 15 cm

e = (lf - lo) / lo
= 15 - 10 / 10
= 0.5
50% lengthening

Stretch
Stretch, S - ratio of final length to original length
S = lf / lo
= 1+e
lo = 10 cm

lf = 15 cm

S = lf / lo
= 15 / 10
= 1.5
line lengthened 1.5 times
S = 1.5 x 100
= 150% stretch

Angular Shear
Elongation and stretch provide no information about
changes in angles between lines
Angular shear, (psi) - measures departure of line
from original position
= + 25*

UNDEFORMED

CLOCKWISE - POSITIVE

= - 25*

ANTICLOCKWISE - NEGATIVE

Shear Strain
The change in orientation of lines in deformed body
can also be measured as a displacement
Shear strain = tan

= tan
= x/y

Quadratic Elongation
Two other measures of strain derived from stretch S:
used in fundamental strain equations (see text pg. 69)
Quadratic elongation,
= (lo / lf )2
= S2
Reciprocal quadratic elongation,
= 1 / = 1 / S2

Summary of Strain Parameters

Elongation, e
Stretch, S
Angular shear, (psi)
Shear Strain,
Quadratic elongation,

How are Stress and Strain Related?

We know that stress causes strain in rock but how are
the they related?
How much and what type of strain occurs for a given
stress regime
What factors affect strain - e.g. temperature,
lithology, confining pressures, fluid pressures etc.

Rheology
Rheology - study of the response of rocks and other
materials to stress
experimentally deform rock specimens
produce deformation structures using scaled models
of strata

Triaxial Apparatus
Experimental apparatus for deforming small rock samples
AXIAL
LOAD (.)

TRIAXIAL
APPARATUS

CORE
SAMPLE

Pp

PISTON

O RING

JACKET

Pc
SAMPLE

COPPER
JACKET

PISTON

Pp= PORE PRESURE

Pc = CONFINING PRESSURE

Triaxial Apparatus

Loading frame

Pressure vessel

Triaxial Test
Which parameters can be varied?
vertical axial load
horizontal confining stress
pore water pressure within sample

Axial Load
Axial load is vertical stress applied to sample by
displacement of pistons
axial = Load (force) / Sample Area
= Load/ r2

Confining Pressure
Confining pressure recreates stresses acting on rock at its
original burial depth
assume hydrostatic conditions - pressure acting to laterally
confine sample is equal to vertical confining pressure
confining pressure is sum of lithostatic + hydrostatic
stresses
Pc = Pl + P h
Pl = lithostatic stress, weight of overlying rock
Ph = hydrostatic stress, weight of water occupying pore
spaces

Pore Water Pressure

Pore pressure is pressure exerted by fluids on pore
walls (recall water relatively incompressible)
pressure exerted within sample
tends to counteract the confining pressure

Pw

Axial Compression Test

Vertical axial load is maximum stress 1
horizontal confining stress 2 = 3
specimen undergoes length-parallel shortening
STRESS . =
LOAD/SAMPLE AREA

.1

.3

.2
.3

.2

.1

.1 >> .2 = .3

Axial Extension Test

Vertical axial load is minimum stress, 3
horizontal confining stress 1 = 2
specimen undergoes length-parallel shortening
STRESS . =
LOAD/SAMPLE AREA

.3

.1

.2
.1

.2

.1 = .2 >> .3
.3

Strain Measurement
Strain in sample is obtained by measuring displacement
of pistons
shortening of core described by e or S
e = (lf-lo)/lo

lo

lf

Strain Measurement
Strain recorded as load-displacement curve on a X-Y
plotter
LOAD DISPLACEMENT CURVE
SAMPLE RUPTURE

LOAD (kg)

SAMPLE SHORTENING

SEATING POSITION

PISTON FREE TRAVEL

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

Strain Rate
Displacement or shortening is used to obtain a strain
rate,
=e/t
since e is dimensionless, units are s-1
Example: 2 cm long core sample compresses to 1.98
cm during first second of loading
e = (lf - lo) / lf = (1.98 - 2) / 2 = -0.02/2 = -0.01
= -0.01 s-1

Stress-strain Diagram
Percentage strain is plotted against differential stress,
d = 1 - 3
percentage strain e = (lf - lo) / lf x 100

Differential Stress (MPa)

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
ELASTIC LIMIT

SPECIMEN RUPTURE

ELASTIC STRAIN

Strain (%)

Elastic Deformation
If sample is loaded then unloaded the strain will be
recovered - a behavior called elastic deformation
time lag in recovery is called hysteresis loop

Differential Stress (MPa)

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

SAMPLE
UNLOADED
ELASTIC STRAIN

HYSTERESIS LOOP

STRAIN RECOVERY

Strain (%)

Plastic Deformation
If stress is raised continually, sample will reach its
elastic limit and begin to deform plastically
plastic deformation is a permanent, non-recoverable
strain
Differential Stress (MPa)

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
ELASTIC LIMIT
YIELD STRENGTH

ELASTIC
DEFORMATION

Strain (%)

PLASTIC
DEFORMATION

Brittle Deformation
Continued loading will eventually cause the sample to
fracture and rupture
behavior is called brittle deformation
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

Differential Stress (MPa)

ELASTIC LIMIT

ELASTIC
DEFORMATION

PLASTIC
DEFORMATION

FAILURE

FRICTIONAL
SLIDING

Strain (%)

Rock Strength
Yield strength - stress at which plastic deformation begins
Ultimate strength - maximum stress at peak of curve
Rupture strength - stress at which rock fractures
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

Differential Stress (MPa)

ELASTIC LIMIT
ULTIMATE STRENGTH

YIELD STRENGTH

RUPTURE
STRENGTH

FAILURE

Strain (%)

Frictional Sliding
Further displacement after rupture occurs by frictional
sliding along fracture surfaces - microfaults

Differential Stress (MPa)

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
ELASTIC LIMIT
YIELD STRENGTH

ELASTIC
DEFORMATION

PLASTIC
DEFORMATION

FAILURE

FRICTIONAL
SLIDING

Strain (%)

Rock Strength Factors

How does rock strength change with varying:
confining pressure?
pore water pressure?
temperature?
lithology?
strain rate (time)?

Confining Pressure
Increased confining pressure results in a greater elastic limit
and ability to deform plastically before failure
rock yield strength and plasticity increase
less elastic deformation - rock stiffness increases

Confining Pressure: Example

Marble deformed under varying confining pressures
with differential stress applied at same rate:

A. 0.1 MPa
B. 3.5 MPa
C. 35 MPa
D. 100 MPa

Pore Water Pressure

Increased pore water pressure tends to offset effects of
confining pressure
increasing Pw tends to decrease rock strength,
important effect in deeply buried sedimentary rocks

Effective Stress
Effect of pore water pressure determined by effective
stress
Effective stress = Pconfining - Pwater

Pw low, high effective stress increased rock strength,

ductility
Pw high, low effective stress decreased rock strength,
ductility

Temperature
Increase in temperature results in decrease in yield strength
and increase in plasticity
rock sample begins to
exhibit viscous behavior
decrease in rock stiffness, E
geothermal gradient is 30 C
/km
25 km - 800 C
40 km - 1200 C

Lithology
The strength of rock is related to its mineralogic
composition
dense, crystalline rocks tend have highest strengths
sedimentary rocks weaker

Lithology: Rock Heterogeneity

Strength also dependent upon presence of heterogeneities
in rock
layering, foliations, fabrics (alignment of mineral grains)
fractures

Garnet biotite gneiss

Strain Rate
Experimental data show that rock strength is also a
function of the rate at which stress level is raised
rapidly applied strain
results in higher rock
strength
low rates of strain result
in lower rock strength
gradual strain is called
creep

Time-dependent Strain: Creep

Creep is slow ductile deformation produced by prolonged
exposure to a low level of differential strain
implication: rocks may flow under low stresses applied
over long time periods
PRIMARY
CREEP

TERTIARY
CREEP

Strain

SECONDARY
CREEP

Time

Time-dependent Strain: Creep

Primary Creep - initial increase in rate of strain with time;
initially elastic followed by plastic behavior
Secondary Creep - steady rate of strain with time
Tertiary Creep - accelerating rate of creep followed by
failure
PRIMARY
TERTIARY
CREEP

CREEP

Strain

SECONDARY
CREEP

Time

Rheids
S.W. Carey (1953) coined term rheid for materials
which exhibit time-dependent strain
a substance whose temperature is below the melting
point and whose deformation by viscous flow. is at
least three orders of magnitude greater than the elastic
deformation under the given conditions
ice, salt, gypsum
rocks are act as rheids over geological time scales

Models of Rock Behavior

3 basic modes of strain behavior in rocks
elastic
plastic
viscous

Elastic Deformation: Hookes Law

Relationship between stress and elastic strain given by
Hookes Law: = Ee where E = Youngs modulus
e = strain
IDEAL ELASTIC DEFORMATION

Stress (.)

. = Ee

E = ./e
= stress / strain

Strain (e)

Youngs Modulus, E
Youngs modulus E, describes how much stress must be
applied to achieve a given amount of strain
the higher the value of E, the stiffer the rock is

Stiff

INCREASING

Stress (.)

Less Stiff

Strain (e)

Youngs Modulus, E
Youngs modulus is negative since strain (e) is negative
values of E range from - 0.5 x 105 MPa to -1.5 x 105
MPa

e = (lf-lo)/lo

lo

lf

Poissons Ratio,
Poissons Ratio, (nu) is another elastic modulus
describing degree to which core bulges as it shortens

= |elat / elong|
Typical values of
Limestone fine-grained
Limestone medium-grained
Granite
Coarse sandstone
Shale
Biotite schist

0.25
0.17
0.11
0.05
0.02
0.01

Plastic Deformation
Ideal plastic solid does not deform until critical
threshold is reached
ideal solid will deform as long as stress is maintained
rocks are not ideal plastic solids
IDEAL PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Stress (.)

CRITICAL THRESHOLD

IDEAL PLASTIC
SOLID

ROCK SAMPLE

Strain (e)

Viscous Deformation
Ideal viscous substance has no yield strength and flows
under any amount of strain
= strain rate
= viscosity (resistance to flow)
IDEAL VISCOUS DEFORMATION

Stress (.)

. =

Strain Rate ()

Viscous Deformation
Viscosity measured in poises (10 poises = Pas-1)
mantle rocks 1023 poises
basalt lava 103 poises
IDEAL VISCOUS DEFORMATION

corn syrup 102 poises

Stress (.)

MORE VISCOUS

LESS VISCOUS

Strain Rate ()

Deformational Mechanisms
Rock accommodate strain through changes which occur
at granular to molecular levels
1. Microcracking
2. Dislocation glide and twinning
3. Dislocation Creep
4. Pressure solution

See text Chapter 4

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lectures 11, 12: Joints and Fractures

Lectures 11, 12: Topics

Classification of joints and fractures

Joint surface features
Origin of joints and fractures
Fracture measurement and analysis

Definitions
Fractures - surfaces along which rocks have broken and
lost cohesion
Joints - fractures with little or no displacement parallel to
failure surface
Faults - fracture surfaces with appreciable displacements

JOINTS

FRACTURES

Occurrence and Scales

Joints and fractures are most common geologic
structure in the Earths crust
occur in all rock types

Systematic Joints
Joints with approximately planar geometry
parallel orientations and regular spacings
characteristic of uniform regional stress fields

Entrada
(Jurassic-age)
Sandstone
Utah

Systematic Joints
Joint System - two or more joint sets which intersect at
fairly constant angles

Systematic Joints
Conjugate Joints - two or more joint sets which have
formed simultaneously
formed under same stress conditions

Joint Zones
Individual joints may form quasi-continuous joint zones
which extend over large regions

Non-systematic Joints
Joints with irregular or curved joint faces
random, non systematic orientation
often form subsidiary to systematic joints
local non-uniform stress fields

Non-systematic Joints
Exfoliation Joints - sheet-like curved joints formed parallel
to topography by mechanical weathering of rocks
non-systematic joints
form best in igneous intrusive rocks

Non-systematic Joints
Columnar Joints - primary volcanic structures produced by
formation of vertical fractures as lava cools and contracts
polygonal pattern in cross-section reflects
shrinkage towards centre of column

Columnar Joints
Joints open up perpendicular to cooling centres within
lava flow
propagate vertically from top and bottom to centre of
flow

NUCLEUS

NUCLEUS

120

DIRECTION OF COOLING
AND JOINT PROPAGATION

Mud Cracks
Non-systematic joints formed by dessication and
contraction of mud surface

Differential Fracturing
Preferential fracturing of more brittle lithologies in a
sequence of rocks

Veins
Veins are fractures filled with mineral precipitates
record flow of fluids through fracture systems

Gash Fractures
Extension fractures produced by shearing within ductile
shear zone
S- or Z-shaped gashes
indicate sense of shearing

Fracture Types
Can broadly classify into 2 types based on motion which
has occurred across fracture surface
1. Extension fractures - formed by opening
perpendicular
to fracture
2. Shear fractures - formed by tearing parallel
to fracture surface
4 modes of fractures

Mode I: Opening
Extension fractures form by pull-apart displacement
perpendicular to fracture walls
formed by tensional stresses acting on rocks

Mode II: Sliding

Shear fractures formed by sliding displacement parallel to
fracture surface
formed under dominantly compressional stress conditions

Mode III: Scissoring

Shear fracture formed by scissoring motion parallel to
surface and fracture front

Mode IV: Mixed mode

Fractures may form by combination of modes I, II and III

How are Fracture Modes Related to

Stress Fields?
Mode I - net extension - pull-apart forces
Mode II and III - net compression

Mode I: Stress Field

Formed under net tensile stress
1 - positive, parallel to fracture
2 - positive, vertical
3 - negative and normal to fracture
.2
.1

.3

.3

.1
.2

Mode II and III: Stress Field

Shear fractures formed under net compressional stresses
1 - positive, 30-45- to fracture
2 - positive, vertical
3 - positive, 45-60- fracture
.1

.3

.3

.1

How are Fracture Modes Identified?

Can determine fracture mode by looking at fracture
surfaces
nature of displacement
presence of plumose structures
slickensided surfaces

Mode I Fractures: Plumose Structures

Feather-like pattern of ridges and grooves on fracture
surface
forms only in extensional fractures (Mode I)
rapid, near-explosive snapping apart of rock

Plumose Structure
Origin - site of initial rupture and propagation of the
fracture surface
Hackles - ridges radiating from fracture origin
Ribs - arcuate ridges perpendicular to hackles

Fracture Propagation
Curvature of ribs indicate direction of fracture opening
propagation opposite to fracture hackles
ribs record snap-shot of propagating joint front

Mode II, III: Shear Fracture Surfaces

Slickenlines - striations and grooves recording
frictional shear along fracture surfaces
indicate slip direction on shear fracture

Origin of Fractures/Joints
1.
2.
3.
4.

Tectonic joints
Unloading joints
Joints associated with igneous intrusions
Joints formed by meterorite impacts

Tectonic Joints
Mode I tensile joints formed parallel to direction
principal stress 1 and perpendicular to 3
a.k.a cross-fold joints
Shear fractures form at 30-45* to 1
.1

.2
.3

CROSS-FOLD
JOINTS

Neotectonic Joints
Geologically young ( < Miocene-age) joints formed under
present-day tectonic stress regimes.
joints are fresh - no fillings
may cut older joints or veins
orientation of joint plane parallels maximum horizontal
stress 1
.1

OLDER FRACTURE
SETS

MODE I TENSILE
FRACTURE

.3

Neotectonic Joints, S. Ont.

Neotectonic jointing present in Paleozoic rocks in S. Ontario
dominant joints are oriented SW-NE
mode I extensional joints
some evidence for mode II shear fractures as well

Unloading Joints
Tensile joints produced by cooling and contraction of
crust as it is uplifted
release joints tend to form along pre-existing planes of
weakness in the crust
form perpendicular to former 1 direction
a.k.a. strike joints
RELEASE
JOINTS

FORMER

.1DIRECTION
UPLIFTED CRUST
COOLS AND THERMALLY
CONTRACTS

Fracture Analysis
Determine fracture mode and orientation of stresses
which formed fractures:
Measure:
1. Fracture orientation (azimuth or strike and dip)
2. Length, geometry
3. Fracture density (spacing)
4. Examine fracture surfaces
presence of slickenlines
plumose structures

Orientation Analysis
Measure strike and dip of individual fractures to
determine preferred orientation directions
plot on stereonet or rose diagram to evaluate trends
rose diagram is a type of histogram

Fracture Density: Circle Inventory

Circle of known diameter is drawn on outcrop and
orientation and length of fractures measured
fracture density calculated as F = L / *r2 where L
is cumulative fracture length, r is radius of circle

CHALK
CIRCLE

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 13: Mechanics of Fracturing

Lecture 13: Topics

Experimental modeling of fractures and faults
Failure envelopes
Andersons theory of faulting
Read chapter 5 and 6

Modeling Fractures and Faults

Formation of fractures and faults can be modelled in
laboratory
1. Triaxial tests
2. Shear box models
AXIAL
LOAD (.)

TRIAXIAL
APPARATUS

Pp

PISTON

O RING

JACKET

Pc
SAMPLE

PISTON

Pp= PORE PRESURE

Pc = CONFINING PRESSURE

Triaxial Test Types

Tensile Strength Test - confining stress (1 = 3) is zero

and 3 increased steadily until failure
Compressive Strength Test - 1 increased while confining
stress (2 = 3) held constant
Tensile/Compressive Test - small confining pressure with
increasing 3
.3

.2 = . 3

.1 = . 2

.1 = . 2 = 0

.3
TENSILE TEST

.1

.3

.3
TENSILE/COMPRESSIVE TEST

.1
COMPRESSIVE TEST

What is Measured?
yield strength - values of 1 and 3 at point of
failure
angle at which fractures form relative to 1

Measurement of Fracture Angles

Angle of fracture measured relative to 1 direction ()
+J

.3

2 = 60

= 60

= 30

.1 = . 2

2 = 120

+.

-.

= 30
2 = 60

.3
TWO FRACTURES AT 30 DEGREES TO

.1

-J

MOHR
CIRCLE
DIAGRAM

Failure Envelopes
Lines produced by plotting points of failure from
several triaxial tests on same rock

Tensile Strength Test

Test carried out under conditions of zero confining stress
(1 = 2 = 0)
sample fails at point where 3 exceeds the tensile
strength
J

40
30

2 = 180
TENSILE
STRENGTH
= 30 MPa

20
10

CONFINING
STRESS
= 0 MPa

.n
-40

TENSILE
STRENGTH
FAILURE
ENVELOPE

-20

10
-20

-40

20

30

40

50

60

Tensile Strength Test

Mode I extension fracture forms parallel to 1 and at
90- to 3
.3
MODE I

=0

.1 = .2

.3

Tensile/Compressive Test
Confining pressure maintained constant and tensile
strength increased
mode I extension fractures develop
J
2 = 180
TENSILE
STRENGTH
= 10 MPa

20

CONSTANT
CONFINING
PRESSURE
= 10 MPa

10

.n
-20
TENSILE
STRENGTH
FAILURE
ENVELOPE

-10

10
-10

-20

20

30

Tensile/Compressive Test
At confining pressure Pc = 3X tensile strength, the
fracture orientation and mode changes
J
POINT OF
FAILURE
TENSILE
STRENGTH
= 10 MPa

40

2 = 32

30

CONFINING
STRESS
= 30 MPa

20
10

.n
-40

-30

-20 -10

PARABOLIC
FAILURE
ENVELOPE

10
-20

-40

20

30

40

50

60

Tensile/Compressive Test
Mixed mode fractures form at angle of 16- to 1
fractures are combination extension/shear
.3
MODE I

= 16

MODE II

.1 = .2

.3

Tensile/Compressive Test
At Pc = 5X tensile strength, the normal stress on the
fracture is zero
mode II shear fractures form at low angle
points of failure map out a parabolic failure curve
J

40
30
20

TENSILE
STRENGTH
= 10 MPa

CONFINING
STRESS
= 50 MPa

2 = 45

10

.n
-40

-30

-20

-10

10
-20

PARABOLIC
FAILURE
ENVELOPE

-40

20

30

40

50

60

Tensile/Compressive Test
Mixed mode fractures form at angle of 23-- 30- to 1
fractures are combination extension/shear
.3
= 23 - 30

MODE II

.1 = .2

.3

Compressive Strength Tests

1 is axial compressive stress
measure ultimate strength and angle of fracture under a
variety of confining stress conditions

Coulomb Failure Envelope

Lines tangent to Mohr circle at failure represents the
Coulomb failure envelope
failure strength increases linearly with increasing
confining stress
J
40

COULOMB
FAILURE
ENVELOPE

30
20

2 = 60

10

.n
-40

-20

10
-20

-40

20

30

40

50

60

Compressive Strength Tests

Shear fractures (mode II) form at angles of 25-35- to 1
fracture surfaces show slickenlines
.1
= 30

MODE II

.2 = .3

.1

Coulomb Failure Criterion

Failure envelope can be represented mathematically by
Coulomb failure criterion (1773)
c = C + tan (n)
c = critical shear stress required for faulting
C = cohesive strength
= internal angle of friction (25-35- for most rocks)
n = normal stress

Coulomb Failure Criterion

Coulombs law describes height and slope of failure
envelope:
C = cohesion, is y-intercept
tan = slope of line defining envelop
n = normal stress (read off n axis)

Example
Can predict conditions of stress under which a rock will fail:
for example Pc = 18 MPa and 1 = 60, 123 MPa

Brittle-Ductile Transition
If confining pressures are raised to a high enough level, the
sample no longer fractures in brittle fashion
fails along ductile shears oriented at approx. 45 - to 1
.1
= 45
DUCTILE
SHEAR ZONE

.2 = .3

.1

Ductile Failure Envelop

Zone of ductile failure shown by horizontal envelopes
called von Mises envelope

Combined Envelopes
Combined envelopes to define grand envelope for failure
shape of envelope will vary for different rock types but
same overall form

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 14: Mechanics of Fracturing and Faulting II

Combined Envelopes
Grand envelope of failure includes:
tensile and tensile-compressive failure envelopes
Coulomb failure envelop
von Mises envelop
2 = 25-35
(Mode II)
2 = 23-30
(Mode II)
2 = 45
(ductile shear)
2 = 0
(Mode I)

Brittle Failure: Coulomb Law

Coulombs Law predicts
critical shear strength at which rock will fail
angle of fault (22 - 30*) relative to 1
Jc = C + tanN ( .n)
+J

.3

2 = 120

Jc
N

= 30

.1

.1

.3

+.n

= 30

.1

+.n

MOHR
CIRCLE
DIAGRAM

.3
TWO FRACTURES AT 30 DEGREES TO

.1
-J

Andersons Theory of Faulting

Anderson (1951) attempted to predict fault types based on
Coulomb model for brittle failure
reasoned that shear stress at surface of the Earth is zero
surface should be a principal plane, containing two of
three principal stress directions
.1, .2 OR .3
EARTH'S SURFACE

.1, .2 OR .3

.1, .2 OR .3

Andersons Theory of Faulting

Coulomb failure criterion predicts that most rocks on
average will fail at angle of 30- to 1
normal-slip, thrust-slip and strike-slip faults should
be common near surface
.3

= 30

.1

.1

= 30

.3
TWO FRACTURES AT 30 DEGREES TO

.1

Normal-Slip Faulting

Normal-slip faults form when 1 is vertical and 2 and 3

are in horizontal plane
on average normal faults dip at 60 may form mode I vertical joints (parallel to 1)

60
30

Thrust Faults
Thrust faults form when 3 is vertical
thrust faults dip at 30 1 and 2 are in horizontal plane

30
30

Strike-Slip Faulting
Strike-slip faults form when 2 is vertical
1 and 3 are in horizontal plane
acute angle between conjugate fault planes is 60-

30

60

Shear Box Experiments

Modes of faulting predicted by Coulomb failure criterion
are confirmed by sandbox type experiments

Hubberts sandbox experiment

Shear Box Experiments

Extension created in left compartment and compression in
the right
normal faults develop with dips of 60 thrust faults form with dips of 30-

Exceptions to Coulombs Law??

1. Rock Anisotropy - presence of pre-existing fractures,
bedding and fabric of rock will affect fracture behavior
rock will fail preferentially along pre-existing planes of
weakness
2. High fluid pressures - tend to offset normal stress

Byerlees Law
Byerlees Law - describes conditions under which existing
fracture will move
a modified Coulomb failure equation
no cohesion term (fracture has no cohesion)
internal angle of friction replaced with
c = (n)
= coefficient of sliding friction
n = is the normal stress

Coefficient of Frictional Sliding

Coefficient of frictional sliding is ratio of shear
stress/normal stress
= / n and = tan
balance of stresses determines whether sliding will
occur
equivalent to internal angle of friction in Coulomb law

 and Confining Pressures

Byerlee showed experimentally that is same for most
rocks
low confining pressures (< 200 MPa) = .85 ( = 40-)
high confining pressure (> 200 MPa) = .60 ( = 31-)

c = 0.85(n)
c = 0.5 + 0.6(n)

Envelope of Frictional Sliding

Byerlees law can be plotted as an envelop of frictional
sliding
recall that " = (90 - N) /2
for low confining pressure " = (90 - 40) /2 = 25-

Envelope of Frictional Sliding

As differential stress is increased the range of fractures
with orientations favourable for reactivation increases

Envelope of Frictional Sliding

Maximum reactivation angles occur at differential stress
which approaches the Coulomb failure envelope

Effects of Fluid Pressures

High fluid pressures in rocks tend to offset the effects of
lithostatic (normal) stress (n)
Effective stress * = n - Pf
Coulombs failure law is modified by replacing normal
stress with the effective stress, Pf
c

= C + tan (n - Pf)
= C + tan (*)

Fluid Pressures in the Subsurface

At depth of > 3 km pore pressures may exceed the
hydrostatic and lithostatic stress
hydrostatic pressure Ph = fgh
lithostatic pressure Pl = rgh

SEDIMENTARY BASIN

3 km

Ph > Pf
INCREASING
COMPACTION

3 - 10 km

Pf > Ph
INCREASING
TEMPERATURE
(3 C / km)

Pf > Pl

Implications: Fracturing
If fluid pressure exceeds the lithostatic stress then the
second term in the Coulomb equation is reduced to zero
critical shear stress required to fracture rock is equal to
rock cohesion only
For Pf >= n

c = C + tan (n - Pf) Coulomb Law

c = C

Implications: Frictional Sliding

When pore water pressure approaches the normal stress
right-hand term in Byerlee equation reduced to zero
critical shear stress required for sliding is zero

For Pf >= n

c = (n - Pf)
c = 0

Byerlee Law

Fluid Pressure and Principal Stresses

High fluid pressure results in an equal reduction in both
principal stresses
Mohr circle is displaced to the left along n axis and
rock fails

extension fractures

shear fractures

Hydrofracturing
Fluid pressures trigger the formation of mode I extension
joints called hydrofracs
pressures build until rock fails by extension
fractures dissipate pressures
fracture propagates by build up and release of fluid
pressure

Rhythmic Plumose Structures

Cyclic plumose structures are snapshots in the
progressive development of mode I joints by
hydrofracturing
each cycle records phase of pressure build-up

Displacement on Thrust Faults

Elevated fluid pressures explain displacement of large
slices of crust along low angle thrust faults
shear stresses required to move thrust enormous under
conditions of normal frictional sliding

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lectures 15, 16, 17: Regional Fault Systems

Lecture Topics
Major fault types
normal faults
thrust faults
strike-slip faults
regional tectonic settings
recognition of faults, in outcrop, subsurface

Fault: Definition
A fracture with visible displacement parallel to the
fracture surface. May consist of:
single fault plane
fault zone - set of associated shear fractures
shear zone - zone of ductile shearing

Fault Terminology
Hanging wall block- fault block toward which the fault dips
Footwall block - fault block on underside of fault
Fault plane fault surface

Normal Fault Systems

Normal faults form where the crust is being extended and
stretched
downward movement of hanging wall exposes older
strata in footwall
extension accomodated by regional-scale systems of
normal faults called extensional terranes

Normal Fault Systems: Terminology

Graben - down-dropped block bounded by conjugate
normal faults
Horst - relatively uplifted or upthrown block
Half-graben - down-dropped tilted block bounded on one
side by conjugate fault

Normal Fault Systems: Terminology

Listric fault - concave-upward normal fault
Detachment fault - low-angle (near horizontal) normal fault
which separates faulted hanging wall blocks from
unfaulted footwall rocks below
Antithetic fault - minor fault with displacement opposite to
main system

Tectonic Setting of Normal Faults

Primary tectonic settings (structural provinces):
continental rifts and mid-ocean ridge systems
passive continental margins
continental extensional provinces (non-rift related)

Continental Rifting
Rifting and break-up of continents is associated with
stretching of and thinning of crust
stretching and thinning accommodated by normal faulting
crusts subsides forming extensional basins

Structural Basin
Depression in the crust produced by tectonic subsidence
provides accommodation space for accumulation of
sediments
extensional basins produced by rifting often very deep
(>20 km)
major accumulations of hydrocarbons

Example: Red Sea Rift

Red Sea rift is an active continental rift system
rifting began about 30 Ma (Miocene)
region stretched from 350 to 450 km in width since onset
of rifting in Oligocene (S = 43%)

Red Sea Rift: Tectonic Setting

Rifting result of counterclockwise rotation of Arabian Plate
relative to African Plate
spreading rate of about 1 cm/yr
subduction of Arabian Plate uplifting Zagros Moutains
Eurasian Plate
Anatolian Plate
Zagros Fold
And Thrust Belt

African Rift
Valley

Carlsberg Ridge

Red Sea Rift Development

1. Development of mantle plume in Oliogene
2. Crustal thinning, extensional normal faulting
3. Development of new MOR
4. Carbonate platforms develop on margins

African Rift Valley: A Failed Rift

Rift system began as three-pronged system of rifts in
early Miocene
Rifting ceased along African RV in late Miocene

Passive Continental Margins

Extensional basins formed during during initial phase of
continental rifting
high rates of sediment accumulation and subsidence
growth faults - normal slip takes place simultaneously
with sedimentation

Passive Margins: Gulf Coast, USA

Extension initiated during Jurassic-age rifting of NA from
Africa)
Half-grabens down-faulted to east

Continental Extensional Provinces

Large regions of crustal extension not associated with
rifting
Basin and Range province,
southwest USA
extension associated with
right-lateral shear as NA and
Pacific plates slide past
one another

Basin and Range: Detachment Faulting

Extension accommodated by slip on low-angle detachment
faults (stretch estimated at greater than 137%)
hanging wall blocks begin at high angle and are
progressively rotated to low angles along listric faults

Metamorphic Core Complexes

Extension results in denudation of upper crust, exposing
middle and lower levels of crust
exposed sections reveal mylonitic rocks called
metamorphic core complexes

Transfer Faults
Individual detachment faults are continuous along strike
differential displacement transferred from one segment
of normal faults to another by a strike-slip transfer fault

Thrust Fault Systems

Thrust faults accommodate crustal shortening and
compression
older footwall rocks thrust over younger hanging wall
strata
tectonic transport may involve many 10s to100s km

Thrust Fault Systems: Terminology

Thrust sheet (nappe) - overthrust hanging wall block
Allocthon - displaced thrust sheet rocks of hanging wall
Autochthon - in place, unmoved rock of footwall

Thrust Fault Systems: Terminology

Klippe - isolated erosional outlier of overthrust strata
Fenster - erosional window through thrust sheet exposing
younger footwall strata

Thrust Geometry
Ramp-flat geometry - thrust faults cut up through
stratigraphy in steps transferring slip from one glide
horizon to next
Horse - rocks enveloped by overlying roof and underlying
floor thrust
Decollement - basal shear plane at bottom of thrusted
sequence
Roof thrust
rse
Ho

Floor thrust
(Ramp)

Decollement

Thrust Geometry
Two basic geometries of thrust sheets:
Imbricate fan - fan-like triangular thrust slices which
converge on single basal thrust
Thrust duplex - inclined and stacked thrust horses
resembling roofing tiles

Thrust Propagation
In-sequence thrusts - faults propagate in direction of
thrusting, toward foreland
Out-of-sequence thrusts - faults propagate towards hinterland
Hinterland

Foreland

In-sequence thrusts

Hinterland

Foreland

Out-of-sequence thrusts

Thrust Propagation
Thin-skined - thrusting affects sedimentary cover
Thick-skinned - thrusts extend into basement - mid- to lower
crustal levels

Hinterland

Thinskinned

Thick-skinned

Thin-skinned

thrusting

thrusting

Foreland

Tear Faults
Thrust faults are not structurally continuous but are
segmented by tear faults or transfer faults
accommodate differential displacements of different
parts of thrust sheet

Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts

Regional-scale systems of low-angle listric thrust faults
form at the margin of major orogenic belts
Canadian Rockies - westward-dipping listric thrusts
displace Precambrian and Cambrian strata northeastward
over younger Cretaceous strata
maximum displacement is about 200 km

Shear Box Models

Can simulate duplexing of thrusts using shear box
experiment
Layer of wetted fine sand over dry sand (about 1 thick)
Frame resting on mylar sheet attached to roller

Shear Box Models

Thrust propagate out-of sequence - step back to
hinterland
No overlying layer to constrain thrusts

Displacement on Thrust Faults

Elevated fluid pressures explain displacement of large
slices of crust along low angle thrust faults
shear stresses required to move thrust enormous under
conditions of normal frictional sliding
high fluid pressure lowers shear stresses

Palinspastic Reconstruction
Undo thrusting and restore strata using balanced crosssections
Example: Lewis Thrust Sheet, Canadian Rockies

Strike-slip Fault Systems

Steeply dipping or vertical faults which accommodate
horizontal shear within the crust
1.
2.
3.
4.

Tear faults
Transfer faults
Transform faults
Transcurrent faults

Tear and Transfer Faults

Tear faults - small-scale local strike slip faults which are
subsidiary to normal and thrust faults
Transfer faults - larger, regional-scale strike-slip faults
which accommodate slip on normal or thrust faults

Transform Faults

Major strike slip faults found in association with plate

boundaries and mid-ocean ridges
San Andreas fault is right-lateral transform fault
accommodates about 4 cm/yr of slip between Pacific and
NA plates

Transform Faults
Transform faults in oceanic plates serve to accommodate
differential rates of spreading along mid-ocean ridges
transform motions result in offset in ridge axis

Transcurrent Faults
Regional-scale strike-slip faults in continental crust not
associated with plate boundaries
e.g. transcurrent faulting in central and eastern Asia
associated with northward drive of Indian Plate

Escape tectonics

Strike-slip Fault Geometry

In strike-slip faults slip distributed over number of
associated fault segments
arrangement of segments varies

Strike-slip Fault Geometry

Transfer of slip from one fault segment to another occurs at
bends or step-overs
bend - jog in fault connecting one segment to another
step-over - one fault terminates and another begins

Releasing bend

Restraining bend

Extensional Strike-slip Duplex

Extension at releasing bend produced normal faulting
extensional strike-slip duplex
causes subsidence forming a pull-apart basin
negative flower structure seen in cross-section

Compressional Strike-slip Duplex

Occurs at restraining bend on strike-slip fault
localized thrust faulting
causes local uplift - pop-up structure
positive flower structure (a.k.a. palm tree structure)

Example: Marmara Sea

Marmara Sea in NE Turkey is classic strike pull-apart basin
formed at releasing bend on N. Anatolian fault
Result of right-lateral slip on NAF as Turkey escapes
westward
Marmara Sea

Example: Marmara Sea

Lozenge-shaped basin, over 1500 m deep

Fault Quiz

Fault Quiz

Fault Quiz

Recognition of Faults
1.
2.
3.
4.

Faulted outcrops
Topographic expression
Borehole data
Seismic data

Features of Fault Surfaces

Slickensides - striated fault surfaces (grooves, ridges)
Slickenlines - fine striations on slickensides which
record direction of fault slip

slickenlines
slickensides

Features of Fault Surfaces

Fault grooves - large-scale furrows produced by
abrasion between fault blocks
similar in appearance to glacially abraded surfaces

Features of Fault Surfaces

Slickenfibers - lineations produced by growth of mineral
crystals in direction of fault movement

Features of Fault Surfaces

Chatter marks - transverse ridges and steps produced by
abrasion
similar to abrasional forms produced by ice

Fault asperities and grooves

Feature on fault plane surface

Fault Gouge
Zone of pulverized rock formed by grinding between two
fault blocks
gouge is a type of breccia
cataclastic rock (sed. rock formed by tectonism)

gouge

Breccia

Topographic Expression
Fault trace - the intersection of a fault with the ground
surface
Fault scarps - offset in surface produced by fault
displacement

Fault
trace

scarp

Flat Irons
Flat irons - triangular outcrop areas produced by fluvial
erosion and downcutting hanging wall block
Large displacements on normal fault

FW

HW

Fault Recognition: Subsurface

The presence of faulting indicated in boreholes by:
offset in horizons between adjacent boreholes
repeated sections (overthrust)
missing sections (normal faulting - especially
detachment faults)

Fault Recognition: Subsurface

Fault can be directly imaged and displacement
determined in seismic profiles
measure travel time of reflected sound waves
produced by explosion or vibrating source

Example

Fault Recognition: Subsurface

Gravity and magnetic mapping
magnetic properties of rocks altered by shearing
along fault planes and hydrothermal fluids
faults mapped as aeromagnetic lineaments

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lecture 18: Shear zones

Lecture 18: Topics

1.
2.
3.
4.

Types of shear zones

Shear zone foliation
Shear indicators
Rock types associated with shear zones

Shear Zones
Planar or curviplanar zone of deformed rocks which are
more highly strained than surrounding rocks
1. Brittle (a.k.a fault zone)
2. Semi-brittle
3. Ductile
4. Brittle-ductile

Brittle Shear Zones

Shear zone characterized by brittle deformation; fracturing
and faulting
form within upper 10-15 km of the crust
characterized by closely spaced faults
brecciated rocks
parallel, anastomosing and en echelon types

Semi-brittle Shear Zones

Deformation is dominantly brittle with some ductile
aspects
en echelon gash fractures and sigmoidal veins

Semi-brittle shear (dextral shear)

Ductile Shear Zones

Formed by ductile shearing under high temperature/pressure
conditions
form in middle to lower crust at brittle-ductile transition
(10-15 km depth)
mantle lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (75-200 km)
rocks are tectonites with well developed foliation/lineation

Brittle-ductile Shear Zones

Under suitable conditions both brittle and ductile
deformation may take place simultaneously:
intermediate temperature and pressure regime within
brittle/ductile transition
layers with contrasting mechanical properties

Brittle Overprinting
Brittle shear zone may overprint pre-existing ductile
features
uplift and unroofing of crust
shift to lower pressure/temperature regime

Ductile Overprinting
Ductile shear zone may overprint pre-existing brittle
features
burial accompanying subsidence or down-warping of
crust
shift to higher pressure/temperature regime

Foliation Patterns
Foliation tends to develop perpendicular to principal
stretch S1
foliation in shear zone lies at angle to shear
becomes increasingly inclined with continued motion on
shear zone: produces a sigmoidal foliation
centre of shear zone more strongly deformed

S-C Fabrics
Sigmoidal fabrics have expression at both microscopic
and macroscopic level
S-surface - foliation planes develop by alignment of platy
minerals
C-surface - primary surfaces of shear
useful indicators of direction of shear
Mica fish
showing well
developed
S-C fabric

Sense of Shear Indicators

Objects which cut across shear zones provide useful
indicators of shear direction
dikes and veins
as in faults, displacement of marker viewed in a single
plane is an apparent displacement only

Shear Zone Classifications

Classify shear zone in same way as faults, based on
displacement

Shear Indicators
Sigmoidal gash fractures showing left-handed (sinistral)
displacement

Shear Indicators
Inclusions in gneiss indicating right-handed (dextral) shear

Shear Zone and Fault Rock Types

Distinctive suites of rock types are found in association
with faults and shear zones
1. Cataclastic rocks
2. Mylonitic rocks

Cataclastic Rocks
Rocks consisting of angular fragments produced by
grinding and crushing within brittle shear zone
lack internal structure; no preferred fabrics
form in faults at shallow depths of < 10-15 km

Cataclastic Rock Types

Classified according to size of fragments:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Megabreccia
Breccia
Microbreccia
Gouge
Cataclasite
Pseudotachylite

Clasts
> 0.5 m
1-500 mm
< 1 mm
< 0.1 mm
< 10 mm
< 1 m

% Matrix
< 30
< 30
< 30
< 30
> 30

Breccia
Rock composed of angular fragments and blocks of
crushed fault rock
grainsize 1-500 mm
also found in association with meteorite impacts

Fall-back Breccia, Sudbury, Ontario

Megabreccia
Breccia composed of very large angular fragments and
blocks of fault wall rocks
grainsize > 0.5 m

Gouge
Light-coloured rock consisting of powdered rock and
rock fragments
grainsize < 0.1 mm
non-cohesive
weathers rapidly to soft clay

Cataclasite
Fine-grained fault rock in which fragments are
cemented together (cohesive)
ultraclasite - glassy appearance

Pseudotachylite
Fine-grained glassy rock which looks like basaltic
volcanic glass (tachylite)
grainsize < 1 m
records deep earthquake event or meteorite impact
melting of fault rock by frictional heating

Pseudotachylite, Vredefort, S. Africa

Volcanic glass (tachylite)

Mylonitic Rocks
Fine-grained rocks formed by recrystallization of
mineral grains due to ductile shearing
form in faults at depths > 10-15 km
typically temperatures of 250-350 -C
show well-developed foliation and lineation

Mylonitic Rock Types

Mylonites classified based on texture and matrix:
Grain size % Matrix
1. Mylonitic gneiss
> 50 m
2. Protomylonite
< 50 m
< 50%
3. Mylonite
< 50 m
50-90%
4. Ultramylonite
< 10 m
> 90%

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Lectures 19, 20: Fold Geometry and kinematics

Lecture 17: Topics

1.
2.
3.
4.

Occurrence of folds
Fold terminology
Description fold geometry
Folds in outcrop

Folds - Ductile Deformation

Folds are most conspicuous evidence that crust has
undergone ductile deformation
indicators of compression and shortening
form structural traps which accumulate oil and gas

Fold strata, Calico Hills, southern California

Occurrence of Folds
Folds are common features of orogenic fold and thrust
belts associated with convergent plate margins

World distribution of orogenic belts

Occurrence of Folds
Other settings in which folds may form:
gravitational sliding and slumping of unlithified
sedimentary strata
compression associated with intrusion of igneous
pluton, sills, dikes etc.
buckling of plate interiors due to stresses transmitted
from continental margins

Fold Terminology
Anticline - convex in direction of youngest beds
Syncline - convex in direction of oldest beds
Antiform - convex upward fold (stratigraphic order not
known)
Synform - concave upward fold

ANTICLINE

SYNCLINE

OLDER

YOUNGER

YOUNGER

OLDER

Fold Terminology
Synformal Anticline - overturned anticline
Antiformal Syncline - overturned syncline
ANTICLINE

YOUNGEST

YOUNGEST

OLDEST

OVERTURN

SYNFORMAL ANTICLINE
YOUNGEST

OLDEST

YOUNGEST

Fold Terminology
Monocline - step-like bend in strata

Description of Fold Geometry

Hinge line - locus of greatest curvature of fold
Axial surface - surface joining all hinge lines in
successive nested folds

AXIAL
PLANE
HINGE LINE

Fold Attitude
Orientation of fold in space requires measurement of
both
plunge and trend of hinge line (0-90-)
strike and dip of fold axial surface
TREND

STRIKE
DIP

PLUNGE

Fold Attitude
Fleuty (1964) classified folds based on relative orientations
and inclinations of hinge lines and axial surface

Fold Tightness
Tightness is described in terms of the inter-limb angle
gentle folds 170-180 open folds 90-170 tight folds 10-90 isoclinal folds 0-10 -

Fold Harmony
Harmonic folds - depth of continuous folding many times
greater than fold wavelength axial trace
Disharmonic folds - folds have little depth, and are
independent of nearby folded layers

Harmonic Folds

Disharmonic Folds

Fold Order
Folds develop simultaneously at different scales
larger folds contain smaller folds
Pumpellys Rule - style and attitude of higher-order folds
similar to lower-order folds

Fold Classes
Ramsay (1967) devised fold classification based on
thickness of limbs relative curvature of bounding
surfaces
measure orthogonal thickness perpendicular to tangents
dip isogons - line connecting two points of equal dip on
opposite surfaces

Fold Classes
Class 1 - curvature of inner arc of fold > than outer arc
Class 2 - curvature equal, dip isogons vertical
Class 3 - curvature of outer surface < inner surface
Thicker limbs

Uniform thickness

Thicker hinge

Fold Strain Analysis

Use fold classes and orthogonal thickness data to
estimate strain in folds
construct strain ellipse

Common Fold Shapes

Fold Surface Outcrop Patterns

Erosion of folded strata may produce complex surface
outcrop patterns
less resistant beds eroded to form linear valleys
more resistant beds form ridges

Satellite Image
Ridge and Valley
topography,
Pennsylvania

Outcrop Patterns: Domes and Basins

Gentle regional warping of sedimentary strata produces
broad domes, arches and basins in continental
interiors
e.g. Michigan basin and Algonquin Arch

Structural Dome, western Texas

Outcrop Patterns: Plunging Folds

V-shaped closure of plunging fold indicates direction of
fold plunge

Plunging Anticline near St. George Utah

Outcrop Patterns: Complex Folds

Repeated folding and overturning of strata can produced
complex topography
e.g. Swiss Alps, Zagros Mountains, Iran

Lecture 18: Topics

Mechanisms of folding
Superposed folding

Folding Mechanisms
Three fundamental mechanisms of folding of strata:
1. Flexural folding
flexural slip
flexural flow
2. Passive folding
3. Volume-loss folding

Flexural Folding
Bending and flexing takes place by differential shear and slip
deformation within weak or incompetent) layers within
rock sequence
Flexural slip - layer-parallel slip along bed contacts
Flexural flow - layer-parallel shear within incompetent layer

Flexural-slip Folding
Flexural slip - layer-parallel slip occurs along bed contacts
between competent and incompetent layers
layers tend to maintain original thickness
outer arc undergoes layer-parallel stretching
inner arc undergoes layer-parallel shortening

Flexural-slip Folding
Distortion takes place mainly in hinge zone
layer parallel strain decreases towards centre of
layer
a neutral surface of zero strain (no lengthening)

Flexural-slip Folding
Flexural-slip folds, Mt. Kidd, Rocky Mountains, Alberta
Slip accommodated along contact between incompetent
shale layers and more competent limestones

Flexural-flow Folding
Flexural flow - folding is accommodated layer-parallel
shear distributed throughout the incompetent layer
no stretching of shortening of outer and inner arcs of
fold
sense of shear reverses across fold axial surface
shear displacement decreases towards hinge zone

Flexural-flow Folding
Flexural-flow fold in quartzite

Harkless
Formation
quartzite and
slate, Deep
Spring Valley,
California

Passive Folding
Folding takes place by ductile flow without true bending
or buckling
layering exerts no influence on folding
characteristic of weak or incompetent rocks
analogous to simple shear of card deck

Passive Folding

Examples:
passive flow folds in lava
syndepositional folds in turbidites (laminated muds)

Volume Loss Folding

Folds become amplified by progressive loss of material
from folded layers
minerals dissolve under pressure or as a result of
movement of hydrothermal fluids through rock
can amplify pre-existing folds produced by buckling

Mechanics of Buckling
Instability develops when layers of different mechanical
properties are subjected to layer-parallel stress
folding will not occur if layers are perfectly parallel and
orthogonal to stress
small imperfections in geometry of folded layer can
trigger instabilities

Biots Law
Dominant wavelength of single folded layers is related to
layer viscosity and thickness
L = 2t ( / 6 0)1/3
L = dominant wavelength
t = thickness of stiff layer
= viscosity of stiff layer
0 = viscosity of confining medium
wavelength increases with increasing thickness
wavelength increases with increasing layer stiffness
wavelength decreases with increasing viscosity of
confining layer

Biots Law
wavelength increases with increasing thickness
wavelength increases with increasing layer stiffness
wavelength decreases with increasing viscosity of
confining layer
L = 2t ( / 6 0)1/3

Biots Experiment

Competence and Fold Form

Contrast in competency (viscosity) of folded layers affects
not only wavelength but the form of folds
high contrast leads to large amplitude, longer
wavelength folds (e.g. ptygmatic folds)
low contrast produces tight, cuspate folds

Ptygmatic folding in gneiss

Layer Thickness and Fold Form

Fold shape is also a function of the spacing of layers
widely spaced stiff layers have short wavelengths
closely-spaced layers have longer wavelengths - akin to
increasing layer thickness

Superposed Folds
In complexly deformed terranes (e.g. orogenic belts) strata
may undergo multiple phases of folding
folds are refolded producing different sets of folds
can be simulated with clay models

Fold Interference Patterns

Superposition of folding of the same scales results in
complex interference patterns in outcrop

Fold Examples

Fold Examples

Fold Examples

GEO3Z03

Lab 1: Introduction to Structure Maps

(Due Jan 25th, 2002)

The objective of this lab is to become familiar with the fundamentals of constructing and reading
geologic maps and cross-sections. Read the tutorial on structure maps (handed out this week in
class) before you attempt the map exercises.
Map 1: Constructing structure contours and cross-sections
Map 1 shows a sequence of sedimentary and volcanic rock units (A-E). The rocks have been
deformed by a regional tectonic event. Your job is to determine the subsurface structure and to
reconstruct the geologic history of the map area.
Description of Stratigraphic Units
Unit A: evaporites (halite, gypsum)
Unit B: fossiliferous limestones (abundant coral and reef-dwelling organisms)
Unit C: marine sandstone
Unit D: diatomaceous mudstone
Unit E: pillow basalts
1.

Construct structure contours for all bed contacts using the method outlined in the tutorial.
Label all structure contours with elevation values and a names (e.g. use ATB-2@ for top of
unit B) and elevations. Note that the topographic contours are in metres above sea level.

2.

Calculate the dip of each unit and plot a few strike and dip symbols for each geologic
contact on the map.

3.

Draw a structure cross-section from point X to point Y using the profile provided at the
bottom of the map. First construct the surface topography and then draw in the contacts
using the projected elevations of your structure contours. Note: geologic boundaries are
drawn as solid lines below the surface and as dashed lines where they are projected above
the land surface.

4.

Identify each unit on the cross-section with labels or use shading and symbols. Identify
any possible unconformities with a bold contact on the cross-section.

5.

Describe the structure shown in your cross-section. Hint: unit E is the oldest rock unit.

6.

Determine the strike and dip of the fold axial plane.

7.

Write a summary (a paragraph or two) on the geologic history of the map area. This
should include a discussion of all geologic events (depositional and tectonic) in the order
of oldest to youngest.

Map 2: Completing the outcrop area

Map 2 shows an area underlain by three sedimentary rock units. The area has not yet
been mapped (i.e. there is no geology map available) but limited information is available
from two outcrops (A and C) and a borehole that has been drilled at point B. Your job is
to construct structure contours for the contacts between the rock units and to draw the
surface outcrop pattern (i.e. bed contacts) using the available information. This is a
simple example of the >three-point problem= described in the mapping tutorial.
Structure Data
Outcrop A:

base of the Fox Hills sandstone crops out.

Borehole B: borehole drilled to over 700 m penetrated the following units:

Hell Creek gravel 100 m thick
Fox Hills sandstone 100 m thick
Pierre shale > 500 m thick
Outcrop C:

base of the Hell Creek gravel is exposed

You may assume that all three units have constant thickness and dip throughout the map
area.
Using the above information and the topographic contours on the map:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Draw structure contours for the top and base of the Fox Hills sandstone.
Determine the strike and dip of the Fox Hills sandstone.
Draw and shade in the complete outcrop area of the Fox Hills sandstone on the
map (i.e. draw the upper and lower contacts and shade the area between them).
Hint: the sandstone contacts are present at surface (>crop out=) wherever the
structure contours lines are at the same elevation as the topographic contours.
What effect does surface topography have on the outcrop pattern of the Fox Hills
sandstone? Do stream valleys control the shape outcrop pattern? Explain.
Two small isolated sandstone outcrops are present on the 700 m topographic
contour. How can we explain these outcrops?

A
800

700

600

500
400
300

800

600

500

400
300
600
700

1000

2000

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 metres

metres

GEO3Z03 Lab #1 Map 2

GEO3Z03

Due Feb. 1st, 2002

Lab 2: Introduction to Stereonets

This lab explores the use of stereonets for solving some simple geometrical problems in
structural geology. The first three questions cover basic tasks of plotting lines and planes on a
stereonet. These methods were covered in last lecture; review your notes if necessary before
proceeding with the lab. Be sure you read the sections in SGRR on stereographic projections
(pg. 691-720).
Plot the solutions to each question on a separate piece of tracing paper and label all
structures plotted on the stereonet with a name (e.g. bedding plane) and orientation (e.g. 095/24).
Be sure to apply the right-hand rule for all orientation data.
1.

Measure the strike and dip of the rock slabs located on the front desk. Plot the strike and dip
of each sample on the stereonet. Check that the declination is properly set on your compass
before you make your strike measurements (declination approx. 10- W).

2.

Given a plane oriented at 010/45, find the plunge of lines contained within the plane which
have trends of 042-, 090- and 176- respectively. Find the pitch of these lines within the
plane.

3. A coal bed strikes at 050- and is dipping 50- to the SE. What would be the apparent dip of
the coal bed in an outcrop exposure with a strike of 080-?
4. A dipping limestone bed is exposed in two vertical outcrop faces. The bed has an apparent
dip of 30- toward 260- in one outcrop and 22- degrees dip towards 346- in the second
outcrop. A) What is the true dip and strike of the limestone bed? B) What is the angle
between the two outcrop faces?
5.

Cross-beds are exposed on two faces of a vertical sandstone outcrop as shown below.
Measurements of the plunge (angle of inclination) and trend of individual cross-laminations
in each face yields a mean plunge and trend of 23-/179- for the west face and 44-/088- for
the south face. Determine the paleocurrent direction for the sandstone.

23/179

CROSS-BEDDED
SANDSTONE

44/088

5. Non-parallel planes always intersect along a line (see figure). The orientation of such a line
can be found by locating the intersection of two great circles on a stereographic projection.
Find the plunge and trend of the line of intersection of two planes whose attitudes are 040/60
and 120/30. Find the angle between the two intersecting planes (hint: requires plotting poles
to the planes).

LINE OF
INTERSECTION

7. The limbs of a fold are oriented at 025/46 and 053/79. Find: A) the plunge and trend of the
fold axis (line of intersection of the fold limbs), B) Find the strike and dip of the fold axial
plane (plane bi-secting fold limbs and containing axial line), C) the angle between the two
fold limbs.

8. A fault plane (shown below) strikes east-west (090) and dips to the south at 55-. Slip along
the fault plane has displaced a dike (000/25) and a quartz vein (160/40). Determine the
amount (distance in metres) and direction of slip along the fault plane. In order to do this you
will need to draw a structural cross-section from A to B showing the attitudes of the dike and
quartz vein on both sides of the fault. Hints: 1). Use the stereonet to find the pitch of the dike
and quartz vein in the fault plane, 2.) Use the displacement of the intersection between the
dike and the vein to find the direction and amount of slip on the fault.

QUARTZ
VEIN

DIKE

25

40

FAULT

55

25

40

DIKE
0

500 m

QUARTZ
VEIN

GEO 3Z03

Lab 3: Rotation Problems

Due Fri. Feb. 8th, 2002

The objective of this lab is to become familiar with the restoration of strata (removal of
tectonic tilt and folding) using some basic rotation operations on the stereonet. We will
assume that in all cases tilting and folding has involved rotations around horizontal axes
of rotation.
1. Three sets of cross-bedding are measured in a bed which strikes 135 and dips 40 to
the SW. The attitudes of the cross beds are 150/60, 010/20 and 090/50. What was
the attitude of each set of cross-beds at the time of deposition?
2. Two sets of dipping beds are separated by an angular unconformity. The beds above
the unconformity have an attitude of 240/36; the beds below the unconformity have
an attitude of 020/30. Find the original strike and dip of the lower sequence prior to
the tilting of the upper sequence.
3. Given the strike and dip of beds of different ages:
Cretaceous (100 - 67 Ma)
Jurassic (200 - 140 Ma)
Triassic (200-250 Ma)

310/30
080/50
295/70

a) Find the attitudes of the Jurassic and Triassic beds prior to post-Cretaceous tilting.
b) Find the attitude of the Triassic beds prior to post-Jurassic tilting. Report your
answers using the right-hand rule for the strike and dip of the restored beds.
4. The northwest limb of a plunging antiform strikes 230 and dips 60 NW. The
southeast limb of the fold is oriented 010/72. The northwest limb contains glacial
striations that pitch at 82 to the SW. It is known based on regional mapping that the
glacier that produced the striations flowed from the southeast.
a) What is the apparent ice flow direction indicated by the striations on the fold
limb?
b) Determine the orientation of the glacial striations prior to folding. What is the true
ice flow direction?
c) What would be the error in measurement (in degrees) of the ice flow direction
if we did not correct for folding?