Structural

Geology
a) geological maps
b) folds, fault, & joints
 01
Introduction
Definitions, basic
principles and
concepts.
What is
Structural Geology?
It is the branch of geology that provides
information about the conditions during regional
deformation using structures. It also studies the 3D
geometry from micro to macro scale of rocks to explain
the deformation processes the rocks experienced since
their origination. Structural geology mainly deals with:

● Form, arrangement and internal architecture of

rocks
● Description, representation, and analysis of
structures from the small to moderate scale
● Reconstruction of the motions of rocks
1) Geology - study of lithospheric portion of the earth and its
interaction with the biosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

2) Structural Geology - study of the architecture of rocks as

related to deformation.

● Architecture = form, symmetry, geometry and the elegance

of the components of the Earth's crust on all scales.
● Rock Mechanics (Science) = strength and mechanical
properties of crustal materials, both now and at the time
they were formed and deformed. Form, arrangement and
internal architecture of rocks
 Main Principles and Concepts
● Original Horizontality (Steno):sedimentary layers are
initially deposited in horizontal layers
● Uniformitarianism (James Hutton): the present is the key
to the past
● Superposition: the layer on the bottom is the oldest,
and they get younger as they pile up.
● Cross-cutting relationships: the thing being cut is older
than the thing doing the cutting
 Basics of Tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics is a recent
development in the geological sciences, really
accepted by scientific community since the early
1960's. Earlier in the century geologic paradigm was
dominated by the belief that ocean basins and
continental land masses were permanent and fixed on
the surface of the earth. The theory of Plate Tectonics
now recognizes that the positions of land masses are
not fixed and that they have moved about the earth's
surface over geologic history, ocean basins/oceanic
crust are continually being created and destroyed
through tectonic processes.
"Tectonics" - is a term that refers to the
deformation of the earth's crust.

"Plate" - refers to the subdivision of the

earth's crust and lithosphere into a number
of tectonically coherent blocks that move
about the earth's surface over long periods of
geologic time, carrying with them continents
and oceanic crust.

"Plate Tectonics" - refers to the formation

and migration of these lithospheric plates,
physical interaction between the plates, and
the resultant deformation that is incurred by
the crustal rocks during this process.
3) Tectonics (Greek Tektos - builder)

● Study of the forces and motion that result in rock deformation and
structure.
● Tectonic Deformation of Rock

a) Rigid Body Translation- transportation without any permanent

change in size and shape

b) Deformation - permanent change in the size and shape of rock

by breaking or flow.

● Brittle Deformation- brittle fracture and cracking of

rocks (low temperature, low pressure)
● Ductile Deformation- flowage and solid-state change of
shape (high temps, high pressure, but below melting
point of rock)
Geological Structures
The word structure is from Latin struere (to build)
 What is a geologic structure?
● A geologic structure is a feature in the Earth’s crust that results
from the deformation of rocks. Geologic structures can take
many forms, including folds, faults, and joints, and they can be
caused by a variety of processes, such as tectonic forces,
earthquakes, and fluid flow.
● Folds are geologic structures that result from the bending and
deformation of rocks. They can range in size from small, subtle
folds to large, dramatic folds, such as mountain ranges.
● Faults are geologic structures that result from the movement of
rocks along a fracture or break in the Earth’s crust. Faults can
range in size from small, localized fractures to large, regional
faults that extend for hundreds of kilometers.
 Primary structures
Most of structural geology deals with structures that
developed in rocks when they were deformed by
tectonic processes. However, in describing structures,
it's common to find structures that were developed
while the rocks were forming. These are called
primary structures.

Examples are the following: bedding, ripple mark or

cross bedding in sedimentary rocks. Primary
structures represent the local conditions of the
environment within which the rock forms.
 Secondary Structures

Are structures that develop in sedimentary or igneous

rocks after lithification, and in metamorphic rocks
during or after their formation. Fundamental
secondary structures are joints and shear fractures;
faults, folds, cleavage, foliations, lineations, shear
zones
FOLDING OF ROCKS OR ROCK STRATA
(LAYERS OF ROCKS)
● A fold is a geologic structure that is formed by layers or beds
of rock being bent or folded. The plane that marks the center
of the fold is called the axial plane. The line which marks where
the axial plane intersects the surface of Earth is called the
hinge line.
● Under components of horizontal stress: flat-lying layers of
sedimentary/volcanic rocks may become bent into a series of
folds (analogous to pushing and folding sheet of paper).
● folding process results in shortening and thickening the crust
 Fold
Types
Usually, folds are classified on the
basis of: symmetrical character,
upward/downward bend,
occurrence of plunge, uniformity of
bed thickness and behavior of the
fold pattern with depth
 1. Anticlines and Synclines
Anticlines and synclines are the up and
down folds that usually occur together and
are caused by compressional stress.

Anticlines are folds in which each half of the

fold dips away from the crest. Synclines are
folds in which each half of the fold dips
toward the trough of the fold. You can
remember the difference by noting that
anticlines form an “A” shape, and synclines
form the bottom of an “S.”
After erosion has occurred, geologists can
use the patterns of rocks on the surface to
determine where anticlines and synclines
exist. In the block diagram above, the top
of the block represents the ground surface
and what would be shown on a geologic
map. The sides of the block show the
underground geology. In anticlines, as seen
on the ground, the oldest rocks are in the
center of the fold. In synclines, the
youngest rocks are in the center of the fold.
Anticlines
Synclines
 2. Symmetrical and
Asymmetrical Folds
In a symmetrical fold, the limbs slope at approximately the same
angle on either side of the axial surface. In an asymmetrical fold,
the limbs are unequal in length, and axial plane is inclined,
dipping in the same direction as that of the gently dipping limb.
Degree of asymmetry is given as the ratio of length of short to that
of long limb. Thus, the smaller the ratio, greater is the degree of
asymmetry.
Symmetrical Folds
Asymmetrical Folds
3. Overturned folds - condition in which one limb of fold has
been tilted beyond vertical

4. Plunging folds - axis of fold is tilted

5. Domes - resemble anticlines, but the beds dip uniformly in

all directions away from the center of the structure. Domes
are caused by compression and uplift.

6. Basin- resemble synclines, but the beds dip uniformly in all

directions toward the center of the structure. Basins are
caused by compression and downwarping.
Overturned folds Plunging folds
Dome and Basin
 Joints
• Joints are fractures (cracks) in rocks
along which no movement has
occurred.

• Joints develop perpendicular to the

direction of tensional stress. They
develop at angles to the direction of
compressional stress.

• Joints are important because they

create open spaces in rock in which
water, oil, or natural gas can move or
be stored.

• Joints also provide potential surfaces

along which rocks can slide.
 FAULTING AND RELATED
STRUCTURES
Faults are fractures (cracks) in rocks along which
movement has occurred. Faults are classified according to
which direction the rocks moved along the fault: normal
faults, reverse faults, thrust faults, and strike-slip faults.
Faults also create environmental effects such as the
movement of groundwater, and can cause hazards such as
rock slides and earthquakes.
1. Dip-slip faults- movement is vertical down the plane of the fault, movement along the
inclination or dip of fault plane hence "dip-slip".

a. Normal Faults - faults in which crustal block above the fault plane (hanging wall)
move down relative to crustal block below the fault plane (foot wall)

b. Reverse Faults - faults in which crustal block above the fault plane (hanging wall)
moves up relative to crustal block below the fault plane (foot wall).

2. Thrust Fault - reverse fault with very low angle, or very gently inclined (<30o) fault plane.
Associated with strong, horizontally oriented, compressional stresses.

3. Strike-slip faults - movement along fault is horizontal along the fault (similar to notion of
transform faults in plate tectonics), i.e. offset is parallel to the trend or strike of the fault plane.

a. Strike - the trend or compass direction of the line formed between the
intersection of a horizontal plane with any inclined plane.

3. Oblique-slip faults - faults which have both vertical and horizontal components of
movement.
Fault
Mapping Geologic
Structures
 Geologic structures such as anticlines, synclines, domes,
basins, and faults are not always easily visible. By mapping
the slopes, orientations, and types of rocks in an area,
geologists can create a geologic map and a geologic
cross-section to learn about the structures.

1. Strike and dip

2. Geologic maps and cross sections

 Strike and dip
• Strike and dip are measurements of
the orientation and slope of a rock.
Geologists use these measurements to
map geologic structures.

• The dip of a rock is the angle between

horizontal and the slope of the rock.

• The strike of a rock is the orientation

of a horizontal line drawn
perpendicular to the dip.
In the diagram on the left, strike can be
found easily on the rock layers because
the surface of the water represents a
horizontal plane. The strike is due
North. The dip is the angle between the
surface of the water and the rock
surface. The dip is 75 degrees East.
The map symbol for this strike and dip
is shown in the inset.

Geologists use strike and dip symbols

on geologic maps to show strikes and
dips measured in the field. The
geologic map shows many strike and
dip symbols.
 Geologic Maps and Cross Sections
● Geologic maps are important tools for understanding geologic
structures. They also help geologists find important economic
minerals and avoid hazards.
● Geologic maps are maps of the earth’s surface showing the
types and ages of rock exposed. Maps can also show structures.
 Geologic maps show the
geology of the surface of
the earth. This map shows
the geology of Shenandoah
County. Each color and
pattern represents a
different type or age of rock.
Each rock type is labeled
with an abbreviation that
stands for its age and
formation name.
Cross sections show the geology of a
vertical plane below the earth’s
surface. Cross sections are valuable
tools for visualizing structures.

Geologic cross sections are

representations of underground
geology. Geologists use geologic
maps with structural symbols, like
the map of the Salem area to create
cross-sections (above). The line
(D-D’) on the map is the line along
which the cross section was drawn.
Anticlines, synclines, and faults can
be seen in cross sections.
 Importance of Structural Geology
It is a field of study under geology that can trace back the rocks
and mountains' origins. Structural geologists can identify the
deformational histories and use the measurements to uncover
information about past events. The stress fields that result in the
shapes of the rocks are of interest to the geologist. Understanding the
stress fields can help link important events in the past to the
evolutionary process of a particular region. Structural geology helps to
identify widespread rock patterns and deformations on surfaces such
as mountains, rifts, etc., that is a result of plate tectonics.
 It is a subfield of geology where a geologist examines natural
geological phenomena. The stress put on the rocks as it was formed of
particular interest. The deformations can reveal the angles and origins
of stress and makes it possible to determine the intensity of the
pressure. Specialists in structural geology can draw up many
conclusions by studying how rocks look, how things from, and how
they can be used.

In the economic sense, structural geology is critical in

understanding the processes of formation. It can enable us to analyze
the patterns and identify the geological features that hold pockets of
valuable minerals and other resources such as petroleum.
The relationship of Structural Geology to other fields
● Engineering: Problems with construction of bridges, dams, power plants,
highways, and airports, and beneath buildings problems
● Environmental: Problems such as land use, planning, earthquake hazard,
volcanic hazard, waste isolation and disposal, control of the distribution of
groundwater
● Petroleum and mining geology: Understanding the geometric techniques,
projection of faults geologic contacts, larger trends of regional processes that
control the concentration of mineral and hydrocarbons

Structural geology is very important in the field of civil engineering since it is

the basis of construction projects for buildings, bridges, dams, roads, etc. and It
serves as a tool for prevention and mitigation in the control of geological risks.
The study of structural geology also has a primary importance in economic
geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology. The main target of
structural geology is to use measurements to understand the stress field that
resulted in the observed strain and geometries.
Thank You!