Problem 1:

Perception of Taste
Although there are simply five universal tastes (sweet, salt, sour, bitter, and umami), the
perception of taste is very intricate. Beginning with the anatomical concepts of taste, there are
2000-5000 taste buds throughout the tongue and palate, although some are found on the
epiglottis, pharynx, and larynx. On the tongue, these taste buds are situated on papilla, which are
projections of various shapes. The first type is foliate which contains lateral folds and is
innervated by cranial nerves VII and IX. Some have speculated that taste buds on foliate papilla
are responsible for our evolution of taste preferences as grow up; specifically, foliate papilla are
speculated to degenerate during the period of puberty. The second type is fungiform papilla
located on the anterior surface of the tongue and is innervated by the chorda tympani branch of
cranial nerve VII. Furthermore, circumvillate papilla, innervated by the glossopharyngeal branch
of cranial nerve IX, are laid out systematically in a V-formation.
Within each taste bud, there are approximately 5-100 taste cells. To add on to this already
complex groundwork, different regions of the tongue contain predominantly different types of
taste cells, which lead to different taste sensitization. Taste cells interact synaptically through
cell-to-cell interactions by releasing neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters lead to feed
forward signals for excitation as well as feedback signals for inhibition. Similar to papilla, there
are three (and speculatively four) cell types. Type I cells have an electron-dense cytoplasm, are
elongate and pleomorphic (variable in size and shape of their nuclei). The abundance of ectoATPase limits the spread of neurotransmitters by either directly degrading them or wrapping
around taste cells via lamellar processes. Type II or Receptor cells are comparably larger with
ovoid nuclei. They contain GPCRs (G-protein coupled receptors) for sweet, bitter, and umami
tastes; however, each receptor have been found to only respond to one taste. These GPCRs
communicate with sensory afferent fibres not by synaptic connections, but by releasing ATP and
ACh through Pannexin 1 hemichannels. Finally, Type III or presynaptic cells have synapses,
although the postsynaptic target remains unclear. When directly stimulated by sour tastants, these
cells release serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA. Interestingly, the ATP released by Receptor
cells not only stimulates sensory afferent fibres, but also adjacent presynaptic cells via P2
purinoceptors (P2Y4). Overall, taste is not coded by a labelled-line mechanism where sensory
cells simply synapse with afferent fibres. Instead, interacting synaptic mechanisms occur early in
taste reception.
Problem 2:
Food Industry
Salt is an important component in the food industry, for its taste ability to suppress
bitterness, as well as benefit in food processing and preservation. However, due to health
concerns, the industry is focusing on maintaining the same perceived salt intensity, but with
lower sodium levels of 20 to 30%. Humans on average require only 180-230 mg of sodium per
day, and exceedingly greater intakes have led to effects on muscle and nerve cells, cardiac output
and blood pressure, renal functions, and capillary exchange. In a rather complex manner, our salt

intake is not driven by physiological need but rather by our taste preference and craving.
Therefore, food manufacturers can vary our salty taste perception and preference because they
are determined by learned experiences and habitation, not by our genetics. When some
companies do choose to lower their sodium content, consumers intelligently outperform these
companies by switching to products with higher sodium content to satisfy their cravings. Salt
Salt Substitutes
To combat this, salt substitutes can be used; examples of such include alternative
minerals, amino acids (arginine and lysine), and sedum-reduced mineral salts (KCl).
Furthermore, contrast also plays an important role in taste perception.
Taste Sensitization
Saltiness preferences depends on habitual salt intake, which may fluctuate through life. In
fact, repeated exposure to low-sodium foods can modify salt preferences. Therefore, in order to
increase acceptance of reduced salt content in foods, all consumed foods in the market must also
have reduced salt content.
Temporal Contrast
The pulse and change in concentration during delivery of salt can affect salt perception.
Specifically, fast concentration changes delivered via two-second pulses reduces sensory
adaptation, leading to increased salt perception. This is because similar to vision, temperature,
and odor receptors, taste receptors are also contrast detectors, wherein prolonged or repeated
stimulation of the receptor extends to adaptation by sensitization, and a decreased magnitude of
perceived intensity.
Olfaction
Another method is to make use of the fact
that sour tastes can enhance the perception of
saltiness. Recent discoveries of taste-aroma
interactions stipulate that flavour perception is
dependent on taste; hence, saltiness of reducedsodium foods can be restored by aromas. Studies
have shown that the saltiness of cheese is reduced
if nose-clips are utilized by subjects, proving the
important role of smell in detecting tastes. With
regard to integration of senses, flavour perception
is multisensory and is comprised of taste, smell,
tactile, and trigeminal sensations. Visual and
auditory senses also augment the perception of
flavour.

In general terms, the olfactory system is a vital component to taste perception. Chemical
molecules enter the nose and dissolve in a mucous within a membrane called the olfactory
epithelium. Receptor cells with axons then project to neurons in olfactory bulb. Compared to
dogs, humans have comparable less olfactory receptors at 40 million.
Problem 3: Factorings
Raw vs Cooked Food
Cooking reduce food toughness to make for easier chewing and digestion. As well, the
process of cooking raises sugar availability in the mouth due to the amylase degradation of
starch. Many species have a strong preference for sweet foods. Despite the benefits of cooking,
some disadvantages include a potential loss of minerals, especially in vegetables. Solutions that
were mentioned in class include eating boiled food with soup, avoiding over boiling and
choosing cook methods that lead to less mineral loss such as stewing and parching.
Cooking also causes molecular transformations and protein denaturation, which alter the
macroscopic properties of food. The example we discussed in class was the case of the raw egg
versus the fried egg. In the raw egg, there is a suspension of proteins in water, while the fried egg
contains denatured proteins that aggregate to form an extensive and opaque protein network.
Taste Evolution
Our speculative ancestors, apes, have been known to prefer cooked food for their higher
quality and ease of chewing. Over the course of evolution, reduction in tooth size and gut size
have paved the way. Mutations that change DNA can also change the foods that our receptors
respond to, providing the explanation for changes in taste preferences across culture and time.
For instance, humans have 25 separate proteins and thus 23 different receptors for bitter tastes,
while rats have 37 receptors. This allows rats a greater opportunity to sense toxic foods in the
environment because they are able to detect a greater variety of toxic foods. Overall, evolution,
from our beginnings as ape-like creatures in tropical rainforests millions of years ago to our
global dispersion across the world, results in adaptive taste receptors that change according to
nutritional needs or toxins in the environment.
Factors that Affect Taste Perception
Everyone is born with the same taste preference for sweetness, which confers an
evolutionary benefit was sweet foods tend to be energy-rich. However, learning also plays a part
as habitual eating habits and mothers diet during pregnancy can affect and modify taste
preferences. The foliate papilla also affects taste perception, as their degeneration is seen when
people start loving bitter coffee or spicy foods that they once hated as a young child.
Personal Commentary on Learning Process
In a literal sense, this course looked at the different matters involving taste, in order
to bridge molecular physiology with the humanities. By studying the biological concepts of taste
perception using a problem-based and student-directed approach, we were able to guide our
learning. Unlike a typical biology class, we were given the opportunity to decide on our learning

objectives for the following weeks class and then to teach each other about our findings through
class discussions. In some cases, the blackboards were used by students to explain complex
signal transduction mechanisms. The three practice TRIPSES were effective in helping us think
in critical terms and then to figure out our next steps based on what we do not already know. The
three problems were, in my opinion, effectively sequenced to allow for a logical flow of learning.