Compressible Flow

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Goals
Describe how compressible flow differs from
incompressible flow
Define criteria for situations in which compressible flow
can be treated as incompressible
Provide example of situation in which compressibility
cannot be neglected
Write basic equations for compressible flow
Describe a shape in which a compressible fluid can be
accelerated to velocities above speed of sound
(supersonic flow)

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Basic Equations
Five changeable quantities are important in
compressible flow:
1. Cross-sectional area, S
2. Velocity, u
3. Pressure, p
4. Density,
5. Temperature, T

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Basic Equations
Restrict focus to those systems in which properties
are only changing in flow direction.
Generally, cross-sectional area S is specified as a
function of x. (S=S(x))
Need four equations to describe the other four
variables.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Basic Equations
1. Mass Balance relates , u, S
2. Mechanical Energy Balance relates , u, S, p
3. Equation of State relates T, p,
4. Total Energy Balance relates Q, T

What is different about compressible flow?

, u, p all change with position.
Need to use differential form of equations.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Sdu0
dm

Mass Balance
m uS constant
In differential form

d uS udS Sdu uSd

Divide both sides by uS

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

ud2gzdphf0

Mechanical Energy Balance

p
2

u
dp
h f
W
gZ
2
p
2

Differentiate and assume = 0

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

2
du22gzdp4fD
dLu20
Viscous Dissipation
2

4f L u
hf
D 2

For a short section of pipe:

2

4 f dL u
dh f
D 2

CBE 150A Transport

Assumes only
wall shear (no
fittings)

Spring Semester

Equation of State

pV zRT

M PM

V
zRT

For simplicity it is assumed that z is either 1 (ideal) or a

constant
Volume:

dp dV dT

0
p V
T

Density:

dp d dT

0
p

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Total Energy Balance

For gases thermodynamics allows a better calculation of
the heat transfer Q and changes in internal energy. These
were terms that were previously included in the viscous
dissipation term.
The temperature of a flowing gas depends on:
Rate of heat transfer Q from environment.
Rate of viscous dissipation (significant in compressors).
Included in work term c
Thermodynamic changes H.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

1BTU78ftlbf
Total Energy Balance

u2
Q

gZ H Wc
2
m

Q is the rate of heat addition along the entire length of the

channel and c is the total rate of energy input into the
system and includes efficiency to account for viscous
dissipation.
For c to be in the correct units use:

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Compressible vs. Incompressible

When can simpler incompressible equations be used?
Density change is not significant (<10%)
Fans, airflow through packed beds
Mach number is a measure of the importance of density
changes for compressible fluids.

N Ma

velocity fluid
velocitysound

Rule of Thumb: NMa < 0.3 assume incompressible

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Isentropic Flow

Adiabatic (Q = 0) and Reversible

Isentropic (S = 0)
Venturi meter, Rocket propulsion

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Adiabatic Flow

Adiabatic (Q = 0), Frictional

Mathematically more difficult
Short Insulated Pipes

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Isothermal Flow

Isothermal, Frictional
Long Uninsulated Pipes

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Compressible Flow Through Pipes

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Goals
Describe equations useful for analyzing isothermal,
compressible flow through a constant diameter pipe.
Describe how Mach number and L are related for flow
in a constant diameter pipe.
Use equations for isothermal flow to compute the flow
rate of compressible fluids in constant diameter pipes.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Isothermal Flow
Constant Diameter Pipe

P1 , 1

P2 , 2

Goal is to analyze the friction section. Flow through

pipes is irreversible so viscous dissipation is important.
CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Mass Balance

uS 1 uS 2
S is constant

u 1 u 2
G1 G2

Mass velocity constant

Differential Balance

1 d 1 du

0
dx u dx
CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Mechanical Energy Balance

du
dz 1 dp dh f
W
u
g


dx
dx dx dx
turbulent

horizontal

no compressor

du 1 dp 4 f u
u
0


D 2
dx dx

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Total Energy Balance

du
dz
dT dQ

m u
g Cp
Wc

dx
dx
dx dx

turbulent

horizontal isothermal

no work

du 1 dQ
u

dx m dx
Note: This indicates that there must be heat transfer
because dT = 0. This is the heat required to keep T
constant.
CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Equation of State
1 dp 1 d 1 dT

0
p dx dx T dx
isothermal

1 dp 1 d

0
p dx dx

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Isothermal Flow
Combining Mass, MEB and EOS

p2

p1

dp
1

2
p
p1G

2f
p dp
D

p2

p1

dx 0

Assume friction factor f is constant and integrate:

p2
L
1
2
2

4f
p1 p2
ln
2
D
p1G
p1

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Constant f ?

G u constant
T constant
D u
Re
constant

CBE 150A Transport

constant
f constant

Spring Semester

Isothermal Flow
p2
L
1
2
2

4f
p1 p2
ln
2
D
p1G
p1

P1 , 1

CBE 150A Transport

P2, 2

Spring Semester

Isothermal Flow

M
2
2
p1 p2
G 2 zRT
2
p2
L

4 f ln
D
p1
For a fixed P1 this expression has a maximum at:

CBE 150A Transport

2
max

1 p1
p1 1
4f L
1
ln 2
D
G max
Spring Semester

Maximum Flow
Gmax 2 p2

umax

p2

zRT u
S ,T
M

Ernst Mach (1838-1916)

Thus for a constant cross-section pipe the maximum obtainable velocity is Mach
one for any receiver pressure. This is said to be choked flow.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Choked Flow
PCritical
Vsonic
GMax

P1

GMax U Sonic End of Pipe

P Mwt

R
T

G U U

CBE 150A Transport

G
0
P

Unattainable
Flows

Sonic Velocity
Attainable Flows

PCritical

P1

Spring Semester

Example Problem (maximum flow)

An astronaut is receiving breathing
oxygen at 10 C from his space
capsule through a 7 meter long, 1.7
cm diameter, hose. The capsule
supply pressure is 200 kPa and the
suit pressure is 100 kPa. What is the
flow rate of the oxygen to the suit ? If
the hose breaks off at the suit, what
is the flow rate of oxygen ? What is
the pressure at the end of the hose ?
The hose is smooth.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Calculation Approach (subsonic flow)

Given P1, P2, and T
Assume
subsonic flow
at the end of
the pipe.

Assume G

Calculate
NRE

Calculate

Calculate
G

Iterate
Calculate
V at end
of pipe
If V > V sonic - flow is unattainable - got to next page
Calculate
V sonic at
end of
pipe

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Calculation Approach (sonic flow)

Given P1, P2, and T

Assume
sonic flow at
the end of the
pipe.

Assume
GMax

Calculate

Assume
FDTF

Calculate
GMax

Iterate

Check FDTF
assumption

Calculate
P2 (sonic)

Calculate
NRE

If P2 (sonic) > P2 - flow is sonic at end of pipe and G = G Max

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

10 Minute Problem
Nitrogen ( = 0.02 cP ) is fed from a high pressure cylinder through
in. ID stainless steel tubing ( k = 0.00015 ft) to an experimental
unit. The line ruptures at a point 10 ft. from the cylinder. If the
pressure in the nitrogen in the cylinder is 3000 psig and the
temperature is constant at 70 F, what is the mass flow rate of the
gas through the line and the pressure in the tubing at the point of
the break ?
10 ft

P = 3014 psia
P = 1 atm

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Reversible Adiabatic Flow

CBE 150A Transport

p0

pr

T0

Tr

Spring Semester

Converging/Diverging Nozzle

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Isentropic Flow of Inviscid Fluid

Q 0 S 0
In this case The mass balance and MEB are the same as
that for the isothermal case.
Now though the total energy balance will give a relation
between the velocity and temperature

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

duxC
dpTx0

Total Energy Balance

du
dZ
dT dQ
u g
Cp

dx
dx
dx
dx
1

CBE 150A Transport

horizontal

adiabatic

Spring Semester

Equation of State
1 dp 1 d 1 dT

0
p dx dx T dx
Given the normal equation of state, the TEB, MEB, and the
thermodynamic relation Cp Cv = zR/M, isentropic flow gives
the following useful values.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Useful Relationships
Given the normal equation of state, the TEB, MEB, and the
thermodynamic relation Cp Cv = zR/M, isentropic flow gives
the following useful values.

pV p0V0
p0
p

0
p T

p0 T0
CBE 150A Transport

Cp
Cv

Spring Semester

From Mechanical Energy Balance

du 1 dp
u

0
dx dx

1
udu dp 0

or

p
1

udu dp 0

p0

dp

Integrating

p
2 p0

u u
1
0 1
p0

CBE 150A Transport

2
0

up

Spring Semester

Isentropic Flow
T
2 zRT0

u u
1
M 1
T0
2

2
0

2 p0
2
2

1
u u0
0 1
0

CBE 150A Transport

uT

Spring Semester

Velocity, NMa, and Stagnation

For isentropic flow the definition of the speed of sound is:

uS ,S

dp

p
RT

It is also convenient to express the relationships in terms of

a reference state where u0 = 0. This is called the stagnation
condition (u0 = 0) and P0 and T0 are the stagnation pressure
and temperature.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Velocity Mach Relationships

The previous relationships now become:

2
Ma

p0

and

CBE 150A Transport

2
Ma

2 T0

1 T

Spring Semester

Cross-Sectional Area
for Sonic Flow
Application of the continuity (mass balance) equation gives:
2

S
1 2 1 N Ma

*
S
N Ma
1

2 1

S* is a useful quantity. It is the cross-sectional area that

would give sonic velocity (NMa = 1).

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Summary of Equations for Isentropic Flow

2

S
1 2 1 N Ma

*
S
N Ma
1

T
1 2
1
N Ma
T0
2

2 1

p
1 2
1
N Ma
p0
2

1 2
1
N Ma
0
2

p0, T0, 0, are at the stagnant (reservoir) conditions.

These ratios are often tabulated versus NMa for air ( = 1.4).
One must use the equations for gases with 1.4.
CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Maximum Mass Flow Rate

Since the maximum velocity at the throat is NMa = 1, there is
a maximum flow rate:

m max S *

2
0 p0

Increase flow by making throat larger, increasing stagnation

pressure, or decrease stagnation temperature. Receiver
conditions do not affect mass flow rate.

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Drug Injection via Converging / Diverging

Nozzle
Supersonic jet

Helium cylinder

Contour Shock Tube

CBE 150A Transport

Powdered drug cassette

Spring Semester

Shock Behavior

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

Shock Behavior
Isentropic Paths

Po

Pt

PR

PR = P c
PR = Pe
PR = Pf

Non-Isentropic
Paths
Pe< PR < Pf

Sonic Flow at throat (maximum mass flowrate)

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

10 Minute Problem

Air flows from a large supply tank at 300 F and 20 atm (absolute) through
a converging-diverging nozzle. The cross-sectional area of the throat is 1
ft2 and the velocity at the throat is sonic. A normal shock occurs at a point
in the diverging section of the nozzle where the cross-sectional area is
1.18 ft2. The Mach number just after the shock is 0.70.
What would be the pressure (P1) at S = 1.18 ft2 if no shock occurred ?
What are the new conditions (T2 and P2 ) after the shock ?
What is the Mach number and pressure at a point in the diverging section of the
nozzle where the cross-sectional area is 1.8 ft2 ?

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester

CFD Simulation of Nozzle Behavior

CBE 150A Transport

Spring Semester