Aerodynamics

Contents
Chapter I Properties of the Atmosphere

l.l The Atmosphere
1.2 Gas Composition
1.3 Regionsof the Atmosphere
1.4 Temperature
1.5 Pressure
1.6 Density
1.7 PerformanceCeilinss
1.8 The Gas Laws
1.9 The InternationalStandardAtmosphere
l.l0 Speeds
Chapter l: Test Yourself
Chapter 2 Aerodynamics- Basic Principlesof Airflow
2.1 AtmosphericPressure
2.2 StreamlineFlow
2.3 Flow Continuity
2.4 Venturi Effect
2.5 Stagnation
2.6 MeasuringAirspeed
Chapter 2: Test Yourself
Chapter 3 Aerodynamics- Aerofoils and Actions (Definitions)
3.1 Chord Line
3.2 Mean Camber Line
3.3 Thickness/ChordRatio ("FinenessRatio")
3.4 Angle of Attack
3.5 Angle of incidence
3 . 6 W a s hO u t
3.1 WashIn
3.8 Wing Area
3.9 Mean Chord (Geometric)
3.10 TaperRatio
3 . 1 I A s p e c tR a t i o
3.12 Wing Loading
3 . 1 3 S w e e pA n g l e
3.14 Dihedral
3.15Anhedral
3 . 1 6 A x e s a n d F l i g h t C o n t r o l s( P r i m a r yC o n t r o l s )
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P R I N C I P L EOSF F L I C H T
3 . l 7 A l t e r n a t i v eF o r m s o f C o n t r o l
JJ
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Chapter4 Drag
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Profile Drag (ParasiteDrag)
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40
Chapter 5 Lift
5.1 Introduction
5.2 (a) PressureDistribution
(b) PressureGradients
(c) Lift Equation
( d t L i f t / D r a gR a t i o
(e) Movement of the Centre of Pressure
(f) SpanwiseDistribution of Pressure
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Chapter 6 InducedDrag
6. I Introduction
6.2 Drift Effect
6.3 Downwash
6.4 Span Effect
6.5 Summary of Effects
5l
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Chapter 7 Total Drag

'l
.l Introduction
1.2 Wave Drag
7.3 Summary: Check List
56
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59
60
Chapter 8 Stalling
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Determining Factor
8.3 The Cause
8.4 Alleviation
8.5 The Effect of Engine Power
8.6 Constancy
8.1 Weight Effect
8.8 Loading in Turns
8.9 Effect of Shape
8.10 The Position of the Centre of Gravity
8 . 1I I c i n g
8.12 Stall Warning Device
8 .l 3 S p i n n i n g
8 . 1 4 T h e D e e pS t a l l
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CONTENTS
8-l5
Detail Calculationsand Factors Affecrins

StallingSpeedand StallingAngle
8.16 Wing Tip Stalling
8.17 The Effect of Aspect Ratio on the Stalling Angle
8.l8 The Effect of Sweepbackon the StallingAngle
8.l9 The Effect of Flap on the StallingAngle
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Chapter 9 Spinning
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Phasesof the Spin
9.3
Motion of the Aircraft
9.4
Balanceof Forcesin the Spin
Effect of Attitude on Spin Radius
9.5
9.6
Angular Momentum
9.7
Inertia Moments in a Spin
9.8 AerodynamicMoments
9.9
Spin Recovery
9. l0 GyroscopicCross-couplingBetweenAxes
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Chapter 10 Wing Planforms

10.I Introduction
10.2 Aspect Ratio
10.3 Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag
10.4 Aspect Ratio and Stalling Angle
10.5 Use of High Aspect Ratio
10.6 The Effectsof Taoer
10.7 StallPatterns
10.8 Sweepback
10.9 Alleviating the Tip Stall
1 0 . 1 0P i t c h - U p
l0.ll ForwardSweep
1 0 . 1 2D e l t a W i n g s
1 0 . l 3 P o l y m o r p h i cA i r c r a f t
1 0 . l 4 C a n a r dD e s i g n
1 0 . 1 5S u m m a r y
Chapter l0: Test Yourself
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t01
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Chapter ll
Flight Controls
I l. I Introduction
11.2 Inset Hinge
I 1.3 Horn Balance
l l . 4 B a l a n c eT a b
I L5 ServoTab
I 1 . 6 A n t i - B a l a n c eT a b
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FFLIGHT
P R I N C I P LO
ES
ll.7 InternalBalance
I 1.8 MassBalance
I 1.9 AdverseRoll TendencyDue to RudderDeflection
ChapterI l: TestYourself
139
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145
Chapter12 Tabs
12.l Introduction
12.2 ControlLocks
Chapterl2: TestYourself
147
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Chapter13 High Lift Devices

l3.l Introduction
13.2 Typesof Flap
13.3 LeadingEdgeSlots
13.4 Slats
13.5 SlatControl
13.6 TheBoundaryLayer
13.7 Slatand SlottedFlap Combination
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Chapter14 Stability
14.I Introduction
14.2 Definitions
14.3 StaticStability
14.4 DirectionalStability
14.5 Trim Point(StickFixed)
14.6 DynamicStability
14.1 Summary
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Chapter15 Forcesin Flight
196
I 5.I Introduction
196
15.2 PitchingMoments
198
Turning
Gliding
and
I 5.3 Effectsof Climbing,
198
(a)Climbing
203
(b) Forcesin a Glide
205
(c)Turning
208
Note
to
Points
Essential
(d) Turningand Manoeuvres:
216
Chapter15: TestYourself
Chapter16 High SpeedFlight
I 6.I Introduction
16.2 Definitions
16.3 Airflow
16.4 Speedof Sound
16.5 ShockWaves
16.6 WaveDras
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CONTENTS
16.7 Reductionof WaveDrag
16.8 Effectsof Compressibilityon Lift
16.9 SupersonicFall in Cr
16.10Effectsof IncreasingMach No on Stability
Chapterl7
FundamentalManoeuvresandTheir
Effects,Trim and EngineFailure
17.l Introduction
17.2 Lift
17.3 Lift Relatedto Camber
17.4 Yaw to Port (ConventionalFin and Keel Surface)
17.5 Yaw to Port (LargeFin and Keel Surface)
l7 .6 Increaseof SpeedWhilst MaintainingLevel
Flight at a ConstantAltitude
11.7 StallingAngle
17.8 StallingSpeed
17.9 Multi-EnginedAircraft
17.10Minimum ControlSpeed
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Chapter18 DuplicateInspectionof Controls

l8.l Pilot Responsibility
18.2 Control SystemDefrnition
18.3 DuplicateInspectionof Control Systems
18.4 PersonsAuthorisedto Certify DuplicateInspections
18.5 Flying Control Systems
18.6 ControlCables
18.7 CableTensioning
18.8 Mechanical
Stops
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Chapterl9 Aircraft Construction

l9.l Aircraft StructuralDesisn
19.2 Definitions
19.3 Designinga New Aircraft
19.4 The Design
19.5 StructuralRigidity
19.6 Flutter
19.7 The Structure
19.8 WingConstruction
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SomeMore Key Points

FrNar-TEsr
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284
Properties
of theAtmosphere
1.1 TheAtmosphere
The gaseousenvelopesurroundingthe Earth is calledthe atmosphere.
Thereis no definedupperlimit to theatmosphere,
but much of this study
is limited to the first 60,000ft wheremost aviationactivity is conducted.
1.2 Gas Composition
Gasesare found in the atmospherein the following proportions by
volume:
Nitrogen
78%
Oxygen
2l%
Othergases
l% (egargon,carbondioxide,watervapour)
Oxygen is essentialfor the sustenanceof life and the combustion of

materials. In the context of aviation, oxygen is required for the combustion of fuel, a deficiency of this gas resulting in incomplete burning and
reduced engine efficiency.
Water vapour is presentin the atmospherein varying proportions, and
is responsible for the weather around the earth, which in turn affects
aircraft operations and performance. Additionally the presenceof water
vapour may causeicing of the airframe or engine which may impair an
aircraft's performance.
1.3 Regionsof the Atmosphere

Theatmosphere
is dividedinto a numberof layers:
- where temperaturedecreases
(a) The Troposphere
with increaseof
height.In this regionnearlyall significantweatheroccurs.
- the upper limit of the tropospherewheretemper(b) The Tropopause
aturestopsdecreasing
with an increaseof height.The tropopauseis
therefore the upper limit of significant weather, thefirst point of
11
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
lowesttemperature,and additionally it is the region fot maximum wind
strengths.
The heightof thetropopausevarieswith latitude,seasonof theyear,
and prevailingweatherconditionswith the resultthat it is usually
higherin low latitudes,in summerand in fine weather.
Typicalheightsfor the tropopauseare:
TropopauseHeight
Latitude
Equator
lGlT km
45'N/S
10-12km
ft
53,000-57,000
ft
33,000-39,000
Poles
7Yz-9km
ft
25,000-29,000
(c)
TheStratosphereextendsfrom the tropopauseto approximately50

by the temperaturebeing steadyor
km amsl,and is characterised
increasingwith height.
(d)
The Mesosphereextendsfrom 50 km to 80 km. The temperature

with height.
generallydecreases
(e)
or lonosphere,wheretemperatureincreaseswith
The Thermosphere
height.
1.4 Temperature
(a) Units
The temperaturescalesmost commonlyusedare Celsiusor Centigrade,
Fahrenheitand Kelvin or Absolute.
The first two scalesarebasedon themeltingpoint of ice,being0"C and
and the boiling point of water,being100'C or 212"F.
32"F respectively,
Being a form of energy,heat is relatedto the random movementof
If heat is reduced,the moleculesbecomeless
moleculesin a substance.
canbe reducedis
active.The minimumtemperatureto whicha substance
-273'C,
and this is known as Absolute zero,or OoK.
approximately
cbrrespondingly,the meltingpoint of iceis equivalentto273"K and the
boilingpoint of waterto 373"K.
To ionvert from one temperaturescaleto another,the following
formulaemav be used:
p =!
+32
t = (F-32)
i
K =C + 273
12
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
(b) TemperatureVariation in the Troposphere
At ground level,in general,the temperatureincreases
with decrease
of
latitude.
With increasingaltitude,theconductiveandconvectiveeffectsfrom the
eartharereducedsothat temperaturewill usuallydecrease
with heightup
to the tropopause.
SeeFig. l-1.
Typicalvaluesof temperaturefound at the tropopauseare:
Latitude
Temperature
Equator
-80'c
45"N/S
-56'C
Poles
-45'C
Thereis, therefore,a reversalof temperatures

with latitudein comparison to thosefound at groundlevel.This is partly because
the tropopause
is higherat the equatorand the temperaturedecrease
is effectiveover a
greaterheight.
27,00oft -45.6
F i g u r e1 - 1
(c) LapseRates
The temperaturedecrease
with increaseof heightis referredto as lapse
rate.
A representative
valueof 2'Cl1000ft is a typical valuefor the troposphere,and this figure is used as the referencefor the Jet Standard
Atmosphere(JSA).
13
P R I N C I P LOEFSF L I G H T
The InternationalStandardAtmosphere(ISA) usesthe comparable
ft.
valueof 1.98"C/1000
For meteorologicalpurposes,differentiationbetweendry (that is, not
saturated)and saiuratedaaiaUaticlapseratesis made,and the valuesof
are used.The differenceof
3'C/1000ft and 1.5'C/1000ft respectively
lapserate for saturatedair is causedby the releaseof latent heat during
thus reducingthe temperaturechange.
condensation,
andAircraft Performance
(d) Temperature
an increaseof temperatureresultsin a reductionof
pressure,
given
Ai a
density.
Firitly, consideringairframeperformance,a reductionof density(p)
by increasingthe true airspeed
iift (L). This may be counteracted
reduces
(v) to achievethe requiredamountof lift (L):
L = C, %pv'S
where:
Cr_= coefficient of lift
and
S = surface area
Thus: Ct lz pY2S
of an increasedtake-off
The dynamicpressureis gainedat the expense
stageof flight'
to
the
according
run
run, cruisingTAS or landing
of temperature:
(D)
with
increase
reduces
On the credit side,drag
D = Co t/rpY2S
A pistonengine'sperformanceis relatedto the temperatureof the air
the lower
beingdrawninlo theiylinder head.The higherthetemperature,
combusin
the
burnt
can
be
that
mixture
andweighiof fuel/air
thed-ensity
increase
with
falls
therefore
engine
of
the
The po*.etoutput
tion cham-ber.
of temperature.
For a propulsionsystem,pistonor jet,
Thrust = Massof air x Accelerationto which air is subjected
Thus an increaseof temperaturewill reducethe massflow and, therefore the thrust.
1.5 Pressure
(a) Definition
Pressureis the forceexertedon a unit area,ie:
x Acceleration
pressure
- = Eorce Mass
Area
Area
14
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
molepressureis causedby the massof the gaseous
In the atmosphere,
culesactingunder the forceof gravity on a givenarea.As all molecules
to betheweight
canalsobeconsidered
actundergravitythenthepressure
of a columnof air on a unit area.
F i g u r e1 - 2
(b) Units
The metric units of pressureare dynes per square centimetre, where the
dyne is the force required to accelerateI gram by I centimetre per second.
The System International units of pressure are Newtons per square
metre, where the Newton is the force required to accelerateI kilogram by
I metre per second.The Newton is therefore, equal to l0s dynes.
Although largely obsolete, the Imperial system of units is still
encountered,and pressureis expressedin pounds per squareinch.
In meteorology the unit of pressure is the millibar (mb), which is
equivalent to 1000dynes per square centimetre.
Before the introduction of the millibar, meteorological pressurewas
measuredin terms of the length of a column of mercury in a barometer
i
that the weight of the atmospherecould support.
l5
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I G H T
-1*..,,
ofcorumn
I of Mlrcury
to
I Proportional
l'"*""
F i g u r e1 - 3
(c) Variation of Pressurein the Atmosphere

At sealevel,pressuregenerallyvariesbetween950 and 1050mb. In tropical revolving storms and tornadoes,however,pressuresmay fall much
lower.
and so the
With increasingaltitude the massof overlying air decreases
pressurefalls. Pressurevaluesof the International StandardAtmosphere
are given below:
Altitude
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
(ft)
(mb)
(psi)
(in HG)
(mm HG)
29.92
760
40.000
t87.6
2.12
30,000
300.9
4.36
20,000
465.6
6.' 75
10,000
696.8
1013.25
l0.lI
14.7
From the table it should be noted that at about 18,000ft, the pressure
is half the sealevel value.
Also, it should now be apparentthat the rate of pressuredecreasewith
height is not constant.In the first 10,000ft, the pressurefalls at a rate of
approximatelyI mb per 30 ft but between30,000ft and 40,000ft the pressuredecreaseis closerto I mb per 88 ft.
16
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
(d) PressureAltitude
The altitudeat which a given pressureoccursin the International
StandardAtmosphereis calledthe pressurealtitude.
If, for example,the pressureat the top of Mount Everestweredetermined as 300.9mb, then the pressurealtitudewould be 30,000ft.
Assumingthe samemeansealevelconditions,and two columnsof air
of the sameheight,but differingtemperatures,then the cold air would
havea greatermassthan the warm air due to the densitydifference.The
pressureof the atmosphere,
however,is causedby the massof overlying
moleculeson a unit area.The pressureabovethe columnof warm air is
thereforehigherthan that abovecold air. Becausea higher pressure
is found at a lowerlevel,thenthepressurealtitudeabovewann air is lower
than thepressure
altitudeabovecold air. Alternativelyit canbeexpressed
that the true altitudeof an aircraftis more than that indicated(assuming
the correctmeansealevelpressurehas beenset on the subscale)above
waffn air, and lessthan that indicatedabovecold air. (Fig l- )
PressureCorrespondingTo 700mb
ano
A PressureAltitude Of 10.000ft
' ( l eWarm
ss
dense)
1013mb
1013mb
(valuesare approximate)
Figure1-4
1.6 Density
(a) Definition
Density is the massper unit volume of a substance,at a specifiedtemperature and pressure.
DensitV
- = Mass
Volume
17
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
(b) Units
metricor
in grams,ot kilogramsper cubicmetre_for
bensity is expressed
feet.
per
pounds
cubic
are
units
Imperial
The
respectively.
SI uniti,
Factorsaffectingdensitywhen consideringa gasare:
Pressure
DensitY =
Gasconstant x Absolutetemperature
For a given temperature,therefore,an increaseof pressureincreases
density,or, at a given pressure,a decreasein temperatureincreaSes
density.
(c) Variation of Densityin the Atmosphere
Ai sealevel,densitiesviry between1.20and 1.55kg per cu m, the higher
valuesbeing usuallyassociatedwith the colder temperaturesof higher
latitudes,and the lower valuestypical of Equatoriallatitudes.
by the massof the
Air at lower levelsin the atmosphereis compressed
reducesand air
mass
overlyingair. With increasingaltitude,the overlying
pressure.
can now-expand,resultingin further reductionof
but at a rate
With incieasingaltitudethe temperaturealso decreases,
height.
with
lower than the pressure.Density,therefore,decreases
Density valuis of the InternationalStandardAtmosphereare shown
below:
Density
Density
Altitude
m]
[lb/cu ft]
[kg/cu
tftl
0.019
0.302
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0.458
0.653
0.905
0.029
1.225
0.077
0.041
0.056
At about 22,000ft, the densityis half the sealevelvalue'

We havealreadyseenthat densityat sealeveltendsto be higherat the
Polesthan at the Equator. However,at 26,000ft, the densityvalue is
similarat all latitudes.
(d) Variation of Densitywith Humidity
ihe total pressureof th-eatmosphereis equalto the sumof the individual
The preisureof moist air is lessthan that for dry
bf tn. gases.
pressures
the total pressure.From the gasequation,
iir, and so humiditydecreases
it canbe seenthat tirereductionin pressureresultsin a lowerdensity'The
greaterthe humidity,the lower the density.
l8
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
(e) DensityAltitude
This is definedas the altitudein the InternationalStandardAtmosphere
at which a givendensityis found.
Aircraft performanceis largely dependenton density altitude as
opposedto true or pressurealtitude.
(f) DensityandPerformance
The effectsof densityon lift, drag,power and thrust havebeenconsideredin the sectionconcerningtemperature.
Thereare,however,additionaleffectsof densityperformance.
Above about 300kt TAS, air becomessignificantlycompressed,
and
locally increases
the density.At much higher speedsthis may give a
markedincreasein drag,and whenincreasingaltitude,this canoffsetthe
otherwisereducingdragvalue.
A similar compressibilityeffectincreasesdrag on a propellerblade,
reducingits efficiency,particularlyat higheraltitudes.
A jet engine'sperformance,however,is enhancedby this compress,ibility effectas massflow is improved.
(g) Air Densityandthe HumanBody
The reduceddensityof air with increasingaltitudemeansthat in a given
volume of air breathedin, the oxygencontenthas decreased.
Above
10,000ft this reductionleadsto hypoxia,its effectsrangingfrom lack of
judgementto sleepiness
or collapse,accordingto height.
At night, the reducedintakeof oxygenimpairsnight visionat altitudes
of4.000 ft and above.
To counter theseproblems,aircraft operatingabove l0;000 ft must
havean enrichedoxygensupply,eitherin conjunctionwith a pressurised
cabin,or through facemasks.At night, ideally,oxygenshouldbe availablefrom groundlevelupwards.
1.7 PerformanceCeilings
(a) ServiceCeiling
This is definedasthe altitudeat whichthe rateof climb of an aircraftfalls
to a specifiedfigure,usually100ft per minute.
(b) AbsoluteCeiling
The absoluteceilingis the altitudeat whichthe rateof climb of an aircraft
falls to zero.
(c) Piston-EnginedAircraft
For such aircraft, operatingunder 26,000ft, then the improved
l9
P R I N C I P LOEFSF L I C H T
atmosphericdensityfound in winter in high latitudeswill givethe highest
ceiling.
(d) Jet-EnginedAircraft
As mostjet-enginedaircraftoperateabove26,000ft, thenthebestperformanceceilingwill be found at the highesttropopauseand lowesttemperature,
ie in summer,and at low latitudes.
1.8 The Gas Laws
Introduction
Whilst air is not an ideal gas,it doesconform,within closelimits, to the
resultsof Boyle'sand Charles'laws.
(a) Boyle'sLaw
is inversely
The volume(V) of a givenmassof gasat constanttemperature
proportionalto pressure(P):
VxlorPV=constant
P
in the form:
This canbe expressed
PrVr=PrV,
(b) Charles'Law
by 11273
increases
The volumeof a givenmassof gasat constantpressure,
of its volumeat 0"C for everyl"C risein temperature:
VxKorV=constant
K
The alternativeexpressionbelowis alsouseful:
Vr - Vz
Kz
Kr
(c) CombinedBoyle'sandCharles'LawEquation
the
The resultsof both lawsmay becombinedin oneequation,expressing
behaviourof a gas under varying conditionsof pressure,volume and
temperature:
PtV, = PzVe
K2
Kr
20
PROPERTIES
OF THEATMOSPHERE
1.9 The InternationalStandardAtmosphere

In order to providea datum for aircraft performancecomparison,and
instrument calibration, an assumedset of conditions has been deterreflect
theseconditionsdo not necessarily
mined.Whilst representative,
The valuesusedarelistedbelow:
actualconditionsin the atmosphere.
(i)
at 1.98"Cper 1,000ft to
l5'C at msl,anddecreasing
Temperature
36,090ft (ll km) where the temperatureremainsconstantat
-56.5'Cuntil65,6l7ft (20km).
(ii)
mb at msl.
1013.25
Pressure
(iii)
Densityl.225kglcu m at msl.
1 .10 Speeds
(a)
IndicatedAirspeed(IAS) The dynamicpressureof air againsta

wherep = density,
vehicle,or indicatedairspeed,is equalto YzpY2,
=
to ISA,
calibrated
and V true airspeed.An airspeedindicator,
pressure
as
a
speed.
meansealevelconditionsrecordsthedynamic
it
means
then
If, for example,the indicatedreadingwere 200 kt,
that the dynamicpressureis the sameas it would be at a true air
speedof 200kt at standardconditionsat meansealevel.
(b)
RectifiedAirspeed(RAS) The indicatedairspeed,correctedfor

instrumentand positionerrors(IE and PE).
EquivalentAirspeed(EAS) The rectifiedairspeedcorrectedfor
compressibility(C). It shouldbe noted that compressibilityis
alwaysa subtractedquantitY.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(0
True Airspeed('tAS) The equivalentairspeedcorrectedfor

density.
CalibratedAirspeed(cAS)Someairspeedindicatorsarecorrected
Calibratedairspeedis thevalue
for meansealevelcompressibility.
of this reading,correctedfor instrumentand positionerrors.
Mach Number(Mn) Mach numberis the ratio of TAS to the local
speedof sound(LSS).
21
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLICHT
Chapter1: TestYourself.
I With increasingaltitudepressuredecreases
and:
a) temperaturedecreases
at the samerate aspressurereduces.
but at a higherratethan pressurereduces.
b) temperaturedecreases
c) temperaturedecreases
but at a lower ratethan pressurereduces.
d) temperatureremainsconstantto 8,000ft.
Ref para 1.4
2 Density= ;
a) Mass
Volume
b) Volume
Mass
c) Volume x Mass
d) Massx Temperature
Ref para 1.6
3 Total pressureof air will:
a) not be affectedby temperature.
b) increasewith increasedhumidity.
c) reducewith increasedhumidity.
d) not be affectedby moisture.
Ref para 1.5
4 A reductionin air pressureresultsin:
a) no significantchangein density.
b) a reductionin density.
in density.
c) an increase
d) erraticvariationsin density.
Refpara1.6
5 The absoluteceilingof an aircraftis the altitudeat which the:
a) rateof climb falls to zero.
b) rate of climb falls to 50ft/min.
c) rateof climb falls to l00ft/min.
d) rateof climb hasa negativevalue.
Ref para 1.7
22
-rfi3il. Principles
Aerodynamics
of
2.1 AtmosphericPressure
In the previouschapterit wasshownthat the atmosphere
exertspressure
at all times.This type of pressure,which exertsa force on all bodies,is
calledstaticpressureand acts equally in all directions.When air is in
motion, however,it possesses
an additionalenergy(kineticenergy)due
to thefactthat it is moving,andthefasterit movesthemorekineticenergy
it has.If movingair is now broughtto restagainstsomeobject,thekinetic
energyis turnedinto pressureenergy.This pressureon the surfaceof the
body whichcausesthe movingair to stop is calleddynamicpressare.The
valueof dynamicpressuredependson the densityof the air and its speed
as:
and may be expressed
Dynamicpressure'=
%pV2
This is an important equationwhich affectsall aerodynamicstudies.
staticpressure
As shownin Fig 2-l anyobjectin still air will experience
in all directionsbut an objectwhich is moving,or is placedin a moving
an additionalpressuredue to the moving air
airstream,will experience
beingbroughtto rest.
MovingAir
S t i l lA i r
Figure2-1
If the speedof the moving air is comparativelyslow,say 100kt, the

dynamic pressureexertedby it is quite small in relation to the static
23
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
will only amountto less
pressureat sealevel.In fact the dynamicpressure
is increasedto, say
speed
however,
the
pressure.
If,
static
ihan2% of the
30%o
of the static
to
about
piessure
rises
considerably,
450kt, thedynamic
of the air
density
the
low
speeds
that
at
note
to
imporlant
It
is
pressure.
air can
the
pressure
and
in
changes
these
by
affected
is not significantly
sayin
however,
At
high
speeds,
fluid.
be consideredasan incompressible
the
changes
and
made
longer
be
no
excessof 300kt, this assumptioncan
becomesignifrcant.
in densitydue to compressibility
2.2 Streamline Flow
It is usefulto illustratethe path followedby air when it passesaround
A streamlineis the
fixedobjectsand the idiom usedis that of streamlines.
path trated out by a singleparticleof airflow suchthat this particledoes
not crossthe path of any other.This can be illustratedby droppingdye
into a streamof water and watchingthe visiblepath of the dye when it
areillustratedinFig2-2moveswith the water.Streamlines
Figure2-2 Streamlines
2.3 FlowContinuity
when waterflows down a tubethe principleof continuityof flow applies
and the massflow in the tube is the sameat anypoint along its length.
This rule appliesevenif the tube is not of constantdiameterand this is
clearlyshowhin the diagramat Fig 2-3.Themassflow at A, B and c is
the sameso if the densityof the wateris p the crosssectionalareaof the
tube'a'andthespeedof thewateris'v'then:
Massflow = pav
=
The continuitytheoremstatesthat the massflow at any point A the
massflow at point B = the massflow at point C.
24
- BASICPRINCIPLES
OF AIRFLOW
AERODYNAMICS
Figure 2-3 Mass Flow
2.4 VenturiEffect
In a venturi tube,that is a tube that hasa constrictionin it, as shownin
Fig2-4,thepreviousrule still applies;massflow is alwaysa constanteven
if ihe tubels not of constantdiameter.If, therefore,the pressureis
measuredat points I and2 in the venturi,it can be said:
=
P,O,V, PrOrY,
thenasthecrosssectionalarea
Consideringthefluid asincompressible,
biggerthan the crosssectionalareaa2thespeedv' must
a, is considerably
through
be lessthan the speedvr. In other words,as the flow passes
Point 1
P o i n t2
Figure24 Venturi
This can often be seenwhen

the venturi the speedof the fluid increases.
watchingthe flow of a river through the arch of a bridgeobservinghow
the water\peedsup as it flows through the arch or constriction.The
with this flow are shownin Fig 2'4.|t can be seen
associated
streamlines
draw closertogetherastheypassthroughtheventuri.
that thestreamlines
Moving awayfrom the conceptof the tube to that of an aircraftwing,
asillustratedin Fig 2-5it canbe seenthat dueto thecurvatureof the wing
on its uppersurfacea venturihasbeencreatedbetweenthe uppersurface
and the undisturbedair somedistanceaboveit. The streamlineswill be
similar to those in Fig 2-4 and, of course,the flow of the air will be
increasedin speedasit passesthroughthe venturi.
25
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I G H T
-t-f
Point1
P o i n t2
Figure2-5 Aerofoil
(a) Bernoulli'sTheorem.
During the lastcenturyBernoulliput forwardhis theoremstatingthat the
total pressure(iestatic+ dynamic)in a fluid is constantif no work is done
by it or on it.
TotalpressureH= S + YrpY'-constant.
Referringback to Fig 2-5 and looking at the point aheadof the wing
marked I we can find the total pressureat this point:
H , S ,* Y I P , Y , t .
Similarlythe total pressureat thepoint marked2 canalsobeexpressed
AS:
Hr = S, + VrPrY
r'
However,Bernoulli'stheoremstatesthat the total pressurein a fluid is
constant,thereforethesetwo expressions
must equal each other.
Therefore:
S, + %p,V,'= S, * t/rprYrt
Consideringthe densityto be a constantfactor and knowingthe speed
at point I is lessthan the speedat point 2, it follows that the pressureat
point I must be higherthan the pressureat point 2. To put it differently
thereis a reductionin pressureover the upper surfaceof the wing as a
result of Bernoulli'sTheorem.It is this reductionin pressureover the
uppersurfaceof the wing of an aircraftthat createslift and is the reason
an aircraft can fly.
2.5 Stagnation
Referringto Fig 2-6notetheflow of air aroundan object.Noticehow the
air divides- someflows over the top of the wing and somebelowit and
right in the centre,at the leadingedgeof the wing, the air is brought
completelyto restat point A. This point is calledthe stagnationpoint and
26
_ BASIC
AERODYNAMICS
PRINCIPLES
OFAIRFLOW
it is wherethefull dynamicpressurepluswhateverstaticpressureis effective at the time will be felt.
Point
Figure2-6 Stagnation
2.6 MeasuringAirspeed
The principle of the stagnation point is used in the measurementof
airspeed.Air is directed from a pitot tube facing into the airflow to a flexible diaphragm in the airspeedindicator. This flexible diaphragm, in the
form of a capsule,in fact is a stagnation point and will feel the full effect
of dynamic pressure.Static pressureis fed to both sidesof the capsuleso
that it cancelsout. The resultant movement of the diaphragm can be
taken by a suitablelinkage to a dial, thus indicating airspeed.It should
be noted that the airspeedindicator is in fact a dynamic pressureindicator
but is calibrated suitably in knots. As it measuresdynamic pressure
directly it is extremelyusefulwhen flying the aircraft asmost aerodynamic
functions of the aircraft are directly related to dynamic pressure. For
instance,the stalling speedof an aircraft is always measuredin indicated
airspeedand remains, for the same weight, pretty well a constant figure
regardlessof altitude. No mention has been made yet of compressibility
and in fact this should be taken into account. The airspeedindicator
reading (correctedfor instrument and position errors), when correctedfor
compressibility at all speedsis called equivalent air speed(EAS).
I The airflow over the upper surface of a cambered wing:
a) increasesin velocity and pressure.
b) increasesin velocity and reducesin pressure.
c) reducesin velocity and pressure.
d) reducesin velocity and increasesin pressure.
Ref para2.4
27
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
As the camberof an aerofoilsectionis increased:
a) velocityof the airflow is decreased.
b) pressureoverthe uppersurfaceis decreased.
c) pressureoverthe uppersurfaceis increased.
d) pressureoverthe uppersurfaceremainsthe samefor any camber.
Ref para 2.4
The stagnation point on an aerofoil in flight is:
a) located at the point ofdeepest section.
b) air at rest at the section leading edge.
c) air at rest between the trailing edge streamlines.
d) air at rest on the upper surfaceof the wing.
Refpara2.5
The stagnation point is:
a) static pressureplus dynamic pressure.
b) static pressureminus dynamic pressure.
c) static pressureonly.
d) dynamic pressureonly.
Ref para2.5
In generalterms
'Lift' is a result of:
a) an increaseofpressure under the wing.

b) a reduction ofpressure over the wing upper surface.
c) a reduction ofpressure over the upper and lower surfaces'
d) an increaseofpressure above and below the wing'
Ref para 2.4
2B
- Aerofoilsand Actions
Aerodynamics
(Definitions)
3.1 ChordLine
The chord line of an aerofoil is the straight line joining the leading edge
to the trailing edge.It is normally used as a referencelini when meaiurine
the angular position of the wing related to the airflow. Fig 3-l
Radius
camber Line
Figure3-1
3.2 MeanCamberLine
A ling whichjoins the leadingedgeto the trailingedgesuchthat it is
equidistant
fromtheuppersurface
andlowersurfaieofthe aerofoil.If it
is curved the aerofoil is describedas cambered. Fis 3-l
3.3 Thickness/ChordRatio (,,Fineness

Ratio,,)
This is the ratio of the maximumthickness
of the crosssectionto the
chord,andis usuallyexpressed
asa percentage.
Fig 3-l
3.4 Angle of Attack
Theangleof attackis theanglebetween
thechordlineof thewingand
thedirectionof therelativeairflow.Fig3-2
29
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
Angle
I
I
o,iJ.*
/
_I
RelativeAir Flow
Figure3-2
3.5 Angle of lncidence

This is the angleat which the aerofoilis attachedto an aircraft fuselage
whenthe aircraft is in riggingposition.
The term rigging position is essentiallyan aircraft engineer'sterm
whichmeansthe aircraftisjackedclearof the groundand is laterallyand
in levelflight.
longitudinallyin the attitudeit would possess
3.6 Wash Out
in wing angleof incidencefrom root to tip.
A decrease
3.7 Wash In
An increasein angleof incidencefrom root to tip.
Root chord
rt
Chord
3.8 Wing Area

The area enclosedby the wing outline and extending through the fuselage
to the centreline.
3.9 MeanChord (Geometric)

Thewingareadividedby thespan.
30
- AEROFOILS
AERODYNAMICS
AND ACTIONS(DEFINITIONS)
3.10 TaperRatio
Theratioof theroot chordto tip chord.Fig 3-3
3.11 AspectRatio
The ratio of thewingspanto themeanchord,or alternatively
to
span2
wingarea.
3.12 Wing Loading
Theweightof theaircraftdividedby thewingarea.
3.13 SweepAngle
The angle between the lateral axis and the % chord line (may be referred
to as the leading edge).Fig 3r-3 ^ ;).I
3.14 Dihedral
Theupwardinclinationof thewingto theplanethroughthelateralaxis.
Fis 3-4
Figure3-4
3.15 Anhedral
The downwardinclinationof the wing to the planethroughthe lateral
axis.Fig 3-5
Figure3-5
31
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLICHT
3.16 Axesand FlightControls(PrimaryControls)

(a) Elevators
The elevatoris attachedto the trailing edgeof the tailplaneand controls
thepitchingmomentaboutthelateralaxis.A backwardmovementof the
controlcolumnmovestheelevatorup andcausestheaircraftnoseto pitch
up. Fig 3-6
l xis.
P i t c h i n oR o t a t i o na b o u t t h e L a t e r a a
C o n t r o lb y E l e v a t o r s( l o n g i t u d i n acl o n t r o l )
Figure
3-6 Pitching
Controlby Elevators
(b) Ailerons
The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edgesof the wings or
mainplanes and controls the rolling motion about the longitudinal axis.
If the control column is moved to the right the right aileron moves up and
the left aileron down, causing a roll to the right. Fig3-7
R o l l i n oR o t a t i o na b o u t t h e L o n g i t u d i n aal x i s .
C o n t r o lb v A i l e r o n s( L a t e r acl o n t r o l )
Figure3-7
(c) Rudder
The rudder is attachedto the rear edgeof the fin and causesthe aircraft
to yaw about the normal axis. Movement of the right rudder pedal
32
- AEROFOILS
(DEFINITIONS)
AERODYNAMICS
ANDACTIONS
forward movesthe rudderto the right causingthe aircraft to yaw to the
right aboutthe normal axis.Fig 3-8
Y a w i n-q R o t a t i o na b o u t t h e N o r m a l a x i s
Control bv Rudder (Directionalcontrol)
Figure3-B
3.17 AlternativeFormsof Control

(a) Stabilator
or All-MovingTail
elevatorcontrol.
usedin placeof separate
Sometimes
Figure3-9 Stabilator
(b) Spoilers
May be usedinsteadof or in addition to ailerons.when the spoileris
operatedit causesa lossof lift on the sideit is raised,thus causinga roll
to that side.Movementof thecontrol columnto the right causesthe right
spoilerto risebut the left spoilerto remainretracted.
F i g u r e3 - 10 S p o i l e r
FFLICHT
P R I N C I P LO
ES
I The thickness/chordratio of a wing is also known as the:
a) aspectratio.
b) mean chord ratio.
c) Finenessratio.
d) incidenceratio.
Ref para3.3
2 The angle of attack of an aerofoil section is the angle between the:
a) chord line and the mean chord line.
b) chord line and the relative airflow.
c) undersideof the surface and the relative airflow.
d) mean camberline and the relative airflow.
Ref para 3.4

3 The Mean Chord (Geometric) is the:
a) wing area divided bY the sPan.
b) ratio of root chord to tiP chord.
c) ratio of the wing span to the mean chord.
d) wing area multiplied by the span.
Ref para 3.9
4 A High Aspect Ratio wing is a wing with:
a) long span,long chord.
b) long span,short chord.
c) short span, short chord.
d) short span, long chord.
Ref Para3.1I
5 The angle betweenthe lateral axis and the % chordline is known as:
a) the dihedral angle.
b) the sweepangle.
c) the incidenceangle.
d) the chord angle.
Refpara3.13
. A
J+
Drag
4.1 lntroduction
It is convenientto studythe subjectof drag undertwo distinctheadings:
ProfileDrag or'ZeroLift Drag'
InducedDrag or'Lift DependentDrag'. (SeeChapter6)
4.2 Profile Drag (ParasiteDrag)
Profiledragis discussed
underthreesub-headings:
(i) SkinFrictionDrag
(ii) Form or PressureDrag
(iii) InterferenceDrag.
(a) Skin FrictionandBoundaryLayer
Considera flat smoothsurfaceoverwhich an airstreamis flowing.What
may seemto be a smoothsurfaceto an observer,will, to a moleculeof air,
seema veryroughone.Air is a viscousmedium,and anysurfacesubjected
to a movingairstreamwill inevitablyhave,through viscousadhesion,a
minutelythin layerof air at its surfacewhich haszerorelativevelocity.
layersadjacentto the surfacewill, throughthesameviscous
Succeeding
action,be subjectto retardation,but to a lesserdegreewith increasing
distance(albeita very small one) from the surface.A point is therefore
reachedwherethe airflow will be unaffected,and its velocitywill be that
of the 'freestream'airflow.
This layer of air from the surfacewherethereis zero velocity,to the
point wherethereis no retardation,is referredto asthe'BoundaryLayer'
and is normallydefinedas the regionin which the velocityof flow is less
than99o/oof the free streamvalue.
The boundarylayer existsin two forms: (a) Laminar Flow, and (b)
TurbulentFlow.
Physicallawsdictatethat at somepoint alonga surfacewhichis subject
to a moving airstream,the flow will changefrom laminar to turbulent.
This point is of importancein the study of drag, the significantfeature
beingthat the drag is greaterin the turbulentlayerthan in the laminar.
The main variableswhich dictatethe chaneefrom the laminarstateto
35
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
the turbulentare:(a) Velocityof flow, (b) Viscosityof thefluid, or air, (c)
Sizeof the object.
Generallyspeaking,the transitionpoint for an aerofoilsectionwill be
at the point of maximum sectiondepth where the velocity of flow is
(referto Venturi effect).As can be clearlyseen,it paysto maingreates-t
iain laminar boundary layer flow as long as possibleover an aerofoil
sectionin order to reducedrag, and to keep the surfaceas smooth as
possible.
One method of ensuringa greaterpercentageof laminar flow is to
maintainan increasingdepthof sectionasfar backfrom theleadingedge
as possible,therebylocatingthe point of maximumvelocityfarther aft.
This resultsin a wing sectionknown asa laminarflow wing;a description
whichis, of course,only partiallytrue; Fig 4-l indicatesnon-laminarand
laminarsections.
>t
Laminar Flow Section
ConventionalSection
and LaminarFlowSections
Figure4-1 Conventional
Figure4-2 showssomeimportantfeaturesof the transitionfrom laminar

to turbulentflow, thesebeing:
(i) The depthof the laminarlayertypicallygivenas 0.07in.
(il The depthof the turbulentlayertypicallygivena-s0.7in'
iiii) fn. veiocitygradientsof the two layersbeingdifferentleadsto the
greatershearingor friction effectoccuringin the turbulentlayer.
Distancefrom
Surface0.7in
Laminar Sub-Layer
Figure4-2 The BoundaryLayer

36
DRAC
I
(b) Form or PressureDrag

When an objectis placedin a viscousfluid, suchas air, which is moving
a resistance
relativeto the object,it will experience
owing to the formation of vorticeswhich createturbulentas opposedto streamlinedflow.
If we regarda flat plateat right anglesto an airflow (Fig 4-3) as being
an extremecase,the kineticenergyof the airstreamis largelybrought to
rest and convertedto pressureenergy:the diagramalso showsthe point
'S'which is referredto as the stagnationpoint. The pressurebrought to
rest,is referredto asthe'Dynamic Pressure';it is of considerableimportance,and is the pressureexperiencedby any object when a moving
airstreamis brought to rest:it is quite distinctfrom staticpressure.The
formula for dynamicpressureis YzpY2wherep = air densityand V is
velocity.
It may be seenfrom Fig 4-3,that the flow behindthe plateis composed
of vortices,and sincethesehavelow pressurein the centre,we now have
in front andlow behindthe plate:this resultsin a dragforce
high pressure
in thedirectionof themovinsairstream.
,t-3 Turbulent
Figure
Wake
(c) Reduction of drag with streamlining
It is clear from the extreme case of the flat plate at right angles to the
airflow, that it representsthe maximum generation of vortices and turbulence; in other words, maximum resistanceor drag. The production of
vortices require the expenditure of energy in order to generatethem, and
this of course, is wasteful. By substituting a cylindrical section for the
plate, as in Fig 4-3, we produce a less abrupt change in the path which
the airflow is trying to follow. In this case,fewer vortices are generated;
there is lessdifferencein pressurefrom the front to the rear of the shape,
'streamlining'
has been achieved.
and a degreeof
Taken a step further, referenceto Fig 4-4wlll show a more streamlined
shape as in a symmetrical aerofoil section. This shape allows the airflow
a much more gradual passagefrom the front of the sectionto the rear than
in the caseof the cylinder. The end result therefore, of streamlining, is to
produce much less vortex generation, reduced turbulence, and greatly
reduced drag.
37
FFLICHT
P R I N C I P LO
ES
Aerofoil
Figure4-4 TheStreamlined
form
Although by carefulstreamliningconsiderablereductionsin the 'fineThe
method.
the
of
extension
to
limit
is
a
there
drag are Jchieved
and is
ness'ratio'ofan aerofoilsectionis a measureof its streamlining,
section
a
4-5
shows
Figure
ratio.
length
chord
to
thickness
definedasthe
of conventionalratio, but if this ratio is too great,the resultingvery thin
sectionleadsto attendantconstructionaldifficulties'
Figure4-5 A Conventional FinenessRatio
drag
(d) Interference
ilir u.o.pfete aircrlft, thetotal dragis greaterthan the sumof thevalues
for the individualparts of the aircrift. This additionaldrag is the result
juncwing/nacelle
of 'flow interference'in suchareasas wing/fuselage,
tions,and in fact any areaswheresuchjunctionsexist'
The interferencelLadsto modificationsof boundarylayers(discussed
later)and createsgreaterpressuredifferencesbetweenfore and aft areas
on the surfacesconcerned,this in turn leadingto greatertotal drag.This
in
Oiug.un be reducedin valueby carefulfairing or the additionof fillets
the areasconcerned.
(e) The Drag Formula
that, within certainlimitationsof flow velocity,
iiir fo""a b-yexperience
the resistanciofan objectin a moving airstreamis proportionalto:
(i) The shapeof the objectand frontal area
(ii) The squareof velocitY
(iii) The densityof the fluid
p*pV2S or R = KpV'S
As a basicformula this is written ns
DRAC
{
':-
In Fig 4-3,clearly,not all the air is beingbroughtto restby the plate,

as someof it is seento be flowing round the edges.This meansthat the
full conversionof kinetic energyto pressureenergyis not realised.For
'K' in the secondformulawill vary accordingto
this reason,the valueof
systemofvortices:the valueof
the shapeofthe objectand its associated
'K'is foundby experiment.
The importanceof the unit of dynamicpressurehas alreadybeen
andtheabovebasicformulais now modifiedby its inclusion.
emphasised,
The newformula therefore,becomes:
CoYtpY2SwhereCo is the'coeffrcientof drag',and S the wing area.
'q'
The unit of dynamicpressurelrpY', is very often written simply as
ofits frequentuse.
because
As a point of interest,the valueof K in the basicformulais about0.6
for a flat plate,but sinceC = 2K, wenow havea valueof 1.2.Othervalues
ofthe dragcoefficientthat areofinterestare:
A cylindricalsection- 0.6
A streamlinedsection- 0.06
A pitot tubehasa valueof unity.
To conclude,the combineddrag due to skin friction, form drag and
'Profile drag', increasesin the
interferencedrag under the headingof
mannershownin Fig 4-6.
in the
The subjectof InducedDrag or'lift dependentdrag' is discussed
chapteron Lift.
o
g
d
IAS(indicatedair speed)resultsin
Figure4-6 Increasing
increasing
profiledrag
39
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
I In levelflight a sectionof theflow aheadof a givenpoint overtheuppersurface
of the wing is laminar,that point is termedthe:
a) C ofP.
b) separationPoint.
c) laminarpoint.
d) transitionpoint.
Ref Paraa.2 @)
2 With increasingspeedin levelflight:
a) induceddrag increasesb) profile drag increases.
c) profiledrag remainsconstant.
d) induceddrag remainsconstant.
Ref Para4.2(e)
3 Generallyspeaking,the transitionpoint for an aerofoilsectionis the:
a) point of maximumsectiondePth.
b) separationPoint.
c) point of greatestPressure.
d) leadingedge.
Ref Paraa.2 @)
of laminarflow is achievedoverthewing upper
4 To ensurea greaterpercentage
surface:
a)thesectionmaximumdepthshouldbeasneartotheleadingedgeas
possible.
as
b) the sectionmaximumdepthshouldbe as nearto the trailing edge
possible.
c) ihe sectionmaximum depth should be at the Y+chord'
d) the sectionshouldbe of a bi-convexshape'
Ref para4.2 (a)
5 As the angle of attack of a wing is increased:
a) the C of P moves aft.
bi the boundarY laYer thickens.
c) the boundary layer becomesthinner'
d) the boundary layer thicknesswill remain the same'
Ref para4.2
40
Lift
5.1 Introduction
It has been shown that if a streamlined body is placed in a moving
airstreamit producesdrag, a force in the direction of the airflow. It should
be noted that the streamlinedbody we were examining was symmetrical
in shape.This drag force was the total force produced by the streamlined
body. If we now incline the streamlined body at a small angle to the
airflow the total force is now no longer in the direction of the airflow and
this is illustrated in Fig 5-1. The total force can now be resolvedinto two
forces,drag and the one at right anglesto it, lift.
Lift
II
F i g u r e5 - 1
41
Resultant
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
5.2
The diagrammay give the impressionthat the lift and drag forcesare
approxiiratelyequil, but it haaonly beendrawn this way for the sakeof
"iu.lty. An aeiofoil sectionin fact,produceslift many timesgreaterthan
the valueof dragit alsoproduces.In Chapter2 Bernoulli'stheoremindicatedthat therewill be i reductionin pressureover the uppersurfaceof
the wing; this reductionprovidesapproximatelytwo thirds.of the lift
by a wing. The generalpressuredistributionover the surfaces
produce-d
bf a wing ai a smallangleof attackis illustratedin Fig 5-2'
S t a-q n a t i o n
Point
+++ +
A B
Figure5-2
(a) Pressuredistribution
itt. upp.r surfaceof the wing producesa considerablereduction in
pr.rru.. but the lower surfaCeiproduce a mixture of increaseand
b""r.ur" in pressureas well. The detail of the diagram.th9rytthat at the
i.uOing edgeof the wing, point A, the full pressureis^felt,this being
tttestugnatlonpoint. As the air movesoverthe uppersurfaceof the wing,
toward"sstation B, it is approaching an areaof lower pressureand at
stationB thepressureisjuifatmosphericor static.PaststationB thepressuresteadilyieducesuttiil it reachesits minimum valueat C as indicated
by the longist vector,and after C as the air movestowardsthe trailing
is now gradalthoughbelowstaticpre_ssure,
edgeof th;wing thepressure,
uuily in"."usin!. fne fact that the air travellingfrom C towardsD at the
traiiing edgeis-now moving againstan adversepressuregradientis of
importancewhin we cometo discussstalling.On the underconsid"erab'ie
wing at point A the pressurewas abovestatic,in fact the
the
surfaceof
wasfelt thereandto someextentan increasein presp.essu.e
full dynamic
A1
AL
LIFT
1
I
It
il
I
I
.,|
I{
1
t
,t
t
I
{
II
Figure5-3
I
a
i
I
\
'l
I
It
1
I
of thewing up to aboutpoint E. Thereafter

sureis felt on theundersurface
producesa smallventuri of its own which givesa
the wing undersurface
andin orderto limit this reductiontheundersurface
reductionin pressure,
of the wing is givenconsiderablylesscurvaturethan the upper.
The preisuredistributionas shownin Fig 5-2, is for a c_omparatively
smallangleof attack,sayabout4'. Changesin the angleof attackof the
aerofoilf,roducevery considerablechangesin the pressuredistribution
and Fig 5-3illustratesthe pressurepatternat a high angleof attack,say
about 12o.
(b) Pressuregradients
ihe most obviousdifferencebetweenthis diagram and Fig 5-2 is the
changeof shapeof the belowstaticpressureon top of thewing.The main
featuie of thii new shapeis that the point of minimum pressureis very
muchnearerthe leadingedgeof the wing than it wasbefore.This means
that the air travellingfiom C to the trailing edgeof the wing hasto deal
with a very much longerand largeradversepressuregradient.The only
meansayailableto the air to travelagainstthis adversepressuregradient
is its own kinetic energy- its energyof motion - and if that adverse
pressuregradientprovei to be too greatfor the kinetic energyof the air,
ih. flo* *itt in fact break awayfrom the wing. This situationis calleda
of the wing
stall and is dealtwith in a later section.On the undersurface
providing
morelift
thus
pressure
is
enhanced,
in
increase
the
the effectof
43
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
C. l
I
-"t
I
II
*t.ol
Criticalor
Stalling
Angle
(About 16')
*'i
Figure5-4
and the smallamount of negativepressuretowardsthe trailing edgehas

in the angleof attackis to
beenreduced.The overalleffectof the increase
out to a certainpoint and
carried
be
process
can
only
this
lift
but
increase
relationshipbetweenthe
The
stalls.
wing
the
point
is
reached,
thii
when
It
canbe seenthat thereis
Fig
5-4.
in
is
illustrated
lift
and
angleof atlack
and then a sudden
increases
of
attack
angle
as
the
in
lift
a sGadyincrease
16o.
at
about
which
occurs
angle
at the stalling
decrease
(c) Lift Equation
ifie basicfactor controlling the value of lift is dynamicpressure.The
equationfor this, as alreadynoted,is:
Lift = YrpY'
The sizeof a wing will obviouslyaffectthe amountof lift producedand
this mustthereforebe addedto the equation:
Lift = YtpY'l, whereS is the wing area.
The shapeof a wing will alsoinfluencethe amountof lift that can be
generated
and this producesa factor,dependentupon the cross-sectional
irea of the wing, citled the coefficientof lift, cL. As demonstratedwith
angleof attackihis will havean influenceupon the amountof lift gener44
LIFT
cL
Anoleof
Att;ck
Figure5-5
ated.The coefficientof lift is in fact a derivativeof the wing shapeand its

angleof attack.The full lift equationcan thereforebe written:
Lift = t/2pvzSCL
The shapeof the lift curvefor any wing will be more or lessthe same
but it shouldbe notedthat the higherthe camberof the wing the greater
the lift it will develop.This is illustratedin Fig 5-5 wherea cambered
sectionis comparedto a symmetricalsection.A point of interestis that
lift at a zeroangleof attack
althoughthe camberedsectionstill generates
the symmetricalsectiondoesnot.
(d) Lift/Drag Ratio
The total resultantforcederivedfrom airflow overa wing canbe resolved
is of course
into two forces,lift and drag.The wholeobjectof the exercise
to producelift and in an idealsituationwould be donewithout incurring
drag.Unfortunately,this is neverpossiblebut it is of greatimportanceto
know the ratio betweenlift and drag so that the aircraftcan be designed
to providethemaximumamountof lift for theminimumamountof drag.
Lift and dragvary with the angleof attackand thevariationsof thesetwo
are shownin Fig 5-6(a) and (b).
45
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
i{Hi?"
- +
Figure5-6 (a)
0.32
'I
usual
A n g l e so f F l i g h t '
0.28'
0.24
o
.go
= a
0.20
dE/
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
I
10'
5'
Angle of Attack
Figure5-6 (b)
46
LIFT
If thesetwo ftguresare combinedmathematicallythey producea curve
as shown in Fig 5-7.It can be seenthat there is a steadyincreasein the
lift/drag ratio, which is what is desirable,until an angleof attack of about
4". Thereafterthe situationdeterioratesas the lift/drag ratio lessensuntil,
at an angleof attack of around 15",it tails right off, this being the stalling
angle. The highestpoint on this curve where we are getting the largest
amount of lift for the smallestamount of drag, occursat about 4'and this
is thereforethe optimum angleof attack. Obviously, the combination of
most lift for leastdrag is the most efficient and why aircraft are usually
flown at the optimum angleof attack.
o
I
5"
10.
15'
ZO.
25"
Angle of Attack
F i g u r e5 - 7
(e) Movement of the Centre of Pressure

In Chapter4 the centreof pressurewas definedas that point on the chord
line through which the lift can be consideredto act. The vector representing lift through the centre of pressurepassesthrough the point of
minimum pressureon the upper surfaceof the aerofoil. This is illustrated
in Fis 5-8.
47
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Figure5-B
(f) SpanwiseDistributionof Pressure

i'tr. u*ount of lift producedby the uppersurfaceof the wing will gradufrom root to tip. This meansthat althoughthe pressureon
ally decrease
it is much lower nearthe root
toi of the wing is all belowslaticpressure,
wing the revelseappliesand
the
of
than it is neart-hetip. On theundeiside
it is nearthe tip. Looked
than
higher
the pressurenear the root is much
the upper surfaceof
over
flowing
aii
ui iti ptun view, this will causethe
Figure5-9
4B
LIFT
the wing to be deflectedinwards and the air flowing over the underside
of the wing to be deflectedoutwards.This is illustratedin Fig 5-9.
When the two airflows meet at the trailing edgeof the wing they are
moving in different directionsand the resultis to form a sheetof vortices.
If onewereto be ableto seethe air and standbehindthe trailing edgeof
the wing, the vorticeson the right-handwing would be rotating anticlockwiseand on the left-handwing rotating clockwise.The result of
thesevorticesis to impart a downwardvelocityto the airflow. This downoverthe trailing edgeof the wing is
ward movementof the air asit passes
calleddownwash.
I For a camberedwing sectionthe zero lift angleof attack will be:
a) positive.
b) 4".
c) zero.
d) negative.
Ref para 5.2(c)
2 lf the angle of attack of a wing is increasedin flight the:
a) C of P will move forward.
b) C of G will move aft.
c) C of P will remain in the sameplace.
d) C of P will move aft.
Ref para 5.2(a)

3 When maintaining level flight an increase of speed will:
a) have no effect on the C ofP position.
b) causethe C of P to move forward.
c) causethe C of P to move aft.
d) causethe C of G to move forward.
Ref para 5.2(c)

4 For the same angle of attack a cambered wing will produce:
a) lesslift than one with no camber.
b) more lift than one with no camber.
c) the same lift regardlessof camber.
d) lesslift and drag than one with no camber.
Ref para 5.2 (c)

49
q-:
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
5 The Lift/Drag ratio of a wing sectionat its stalling angleis:
a) moderate.
b) of a negativevalue.
c) low.
d) high.
Ref Para5.2(d)
50
1
I
lnducedDrag
\
t
II
i
t
6.1 Introduction
Pressuredistributionover the upperand lower surfacesof the wing was
examinedin Chapter5. As high pressureexistsunderneaththe wing and
will
low pressureon top of the wing, the oneplacewherethesepressures
attemptto equalizeis aroundthewing tip. The high pressureunderneath
the wing movesupwardstowardsthe low pressureon the upper surface
a rotary motion.This rotary motion spiralsback
and in doing soassumes
from the wing tip, moving in an anticlockwisedirectionfrom the righthand wing tip as viewedfrom behindand in a clockwisedirectionfrom
the left-hand wing tip. Energy is required to produce this rotational
vortexfrom eachwing tip and thisenergycancomeonly from thrust.The
vorticesthereforecreatedrag and this drag is calledinduceddrag.
6.2 Drift effect
The larger the lift beingproducedby the wing, the biggerthe pressure
differencebetweenthe lower and uppersurfaces.The largerthe pressure
differencethe strongerthe vortex producedand it can thereforebe said
that induceddrag is proportional to lift. In straightand levelflight lift
and
thenlift mustbeincreased
mustequalweight,soif weightis increased
thereforeinduceddrag will be larger.The sameis also true for a turn
Figure6-.1 Tip Vortices

51
producingmore induceddrag althoughthe
wherelift must be increased,
gravitationalweight has not beenchanged.Vorticesare showndiagramaticallyin Fig 6-1.
6.3 Downwash
The effectof the vortex is to deflectthe air downwardsas it passesover
the trailingedgeof thewing,in otherwordsproducingdownwash.As the
maximumstrengthof this movementis closeto the vortex,asonemoves
from the wing tip towardsthe fuselagethe downwashsteadilydecreases.
Thus for a givenstrengthof vortex,the largerthe wing spanthe lesswill
be the effectof this downwashvelocity.
The angulardeflectionof the airflow will dependon the speed.For a
givendownwashvelocitythedeflectionanglewill begreaterat low speeds
than at high speeds,as shownin Fig 6-2.
o1
----_
Downwash
Angle
Downwash
Angle
-------\
--\
Angle
Figure6-2 Downwash
The total reaction force of a wing is at right angles,not to the initial direction of the airflow, but to the resultant betweenthe original direction and
the final direction. It will be readily seenthat the more the final flow is
deflected downwards - in other words the bigger the downwash - the
more the total reaction is tilted rearwards, and this is clearly illustrated in
Fig 6-3. The actual usable lift in level flight has to be perpendicular. This
leavesa small rearward component of the total reaction force and this is
induced drag.
From Fig 6-3 it will be seenthat the larger the lift component the bigger
will be the rearward component Di, induced drag. Induced drag is in fact
proportional to lift'.
6.4 Spaneffect
The wing span of the aircraft has a marked effect on the amount of
induceddrag. The strengthof the vortex diminishesfrom the wing tip
towardsthefuselageandthereforethedownwashcreatedby it alsodiminishes.For a given strengthof tip vortex, therefore,the longerthe wing
spanthe lower will be the averagedownwashand the lower the induced
drag. For a given amount of lift, the longer span and short tip chord
52
INDUCEDDRAC
FinalFlow
(Downwash)
Angle
Figure
6-3 Downwash
producesa weaker vortex than a wing with a short span and long tip chord
and will therefore give lessinduced drag. In other words, the higher the
aspectratio, the lower the induced drag.
6.5 Summaryof ffects

The amountof induceddragcreatedby a wing dependsupon the amount
of downwashandwe sawfrom Fig6-2 that theslowerthespeedthebigger
the angulardeflectiondownwardsof the air. This thereforemeansthat
the induced drag is largest at low speedsand decreasesas the speed
We can sayfrom this that induceddrag variesinverselyas the
increases.
squareof the speedor, induceddrag is proportionalto -1
speed'
To summarisethe effectsof induceddrag,then:
(a)
(b)
Induced drag increaseswith an increasein weight.

Induced drag decreaseswith wing span, that is, high aspectratio
(c)
reducesinduceddrag.
induceddrag decreases.
Speedincreases,
Severaldeductionscan be made from this summary.It becomes

apparentthat glidersand sailplaneshaving very long, narrow wingswings with a high aspectratio - and normally flying at very low speeds
when induceddrag is at its highest,thereforebenefit from high aspect
ratio wingsto reducethis dragto a minimum.Conversely,largejet transport aircraftdo not usuallyhavehigh aspectratio wingsand,in addition,
ire usuallyof veryhigh weight.From this it is apparentthat at low speed
they will havevery high induceddrag.
53
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
Further referenceto Induced Drag is made in Chapter l0 Wing
Planforms.
Key Points To Noie
InducedDrag is proportionalto Lift.
InducedDrag is inverselyproportionalto Speed.
InducedDrag is greatesttoward the wing tip.
InducedDrag is lesswith greaterwing aspectratio.
A High AspectRatio Wing hasa long spanand a shortchord.
The amount of lift generatedby the wing upper surfaceis greatest
towardsthe wing root.
7 The airflow over the upper surfaceof the wing in flight tendsto flow
towardsthe root.
8 In flight, the angleof attack at which the largestamount of lift is
generatedfor the smallestamount of drag is at approximately4o.
This is known asthe optimum angleof attack.
9 lt can be said that from an angle of attack of zero up to 4o the
LiftlDrag ratio increases.Above 4oit decreases.
10 Atzero angleof attack a camberedaerofoilproducessomelift and
somedrag.
l1 At zeroangleof attacka symmetricalwing producesno lift but some
drag.
l2 On a wing in flight, 2ltof thelift is producedby the uppersurfaceand
the remainderbv the lower surface.
I
2
3
4
5
6
I Induceddrag is:
a) greatesttowardsthe wing root and downwashis greatestat the tip.
b) greatesttowardsthe wing tip and downwashis greatesttoward the root.
c) balancedfrom root to tip.
from tip to root.
d) greatesttoward the tip and downwashdecreases
Ref para 6.5
2 Airflow over the uppersurfaceof the wing generally:
a) flows towardsthe root.
b) flowstowardsthetip.
c) flows straightfrom leadingto trailing edge.
d) produceshigherpressurethan that flowingoverthe undersurface.
Ref para 6.5
54
INDUCEDDRAC
3 Induceddrag:
a) increases
asthe squareofthe speed.
b) variesinverselyasthe squareofthe speed.
c) reduceswith increasedangleof attack.
d) remainsconstantfor a given speedregardlessof angleof attack.
Ref para 6.5
4 For a givenangleofattack induceddrag is:
a) greateron a high aspectratio wing.
b) greatertowardsthe wing root.
c) greateron a low aspectratio wing.
d) balancedacrossthe spanof the wing.
Ref para6.5
5 Induceddrag:
with increasein speed.
a) increases
b) increaseswith increasein aircraft weight
cjreduceswith an increasein angleof at"tact.
d) reduceswith altitudeat constantLA.S.
Ref para 6.5
55
TotalDrag
7.1 lntroduction
In precedingsectionsit has beenshownthat the aircraft is subjectedto
two typesof drag,profile drag and induceddrag. Profile drag increases
with speedand is proportional to the squareof the speed,and induced
drag dlcreaseswith speedand is inverselyproportionalto the squareof
thespeed.Thesetwo curvesof profile andinduceddragareshownagainst
speedin Fig 7-1. The two curvescan be amalgamatedto give the total
dragcurveof the aircraft.The lowestpoint on this total dragcurvegives
the speedat which the total drag is a minimum.This speedis calledthe
minimumdragspeed,V-a. For a constantweightandin straightandlevel
flight the V-a will be a constantindicatedairspeedfor all altitudes.It
would be reasonableto assumethat one would be better off flying the
thedragis leastat this speed.In practicehowever,
aircraftat V-a because
aircraft are not normally operated at this speedbecausethe overall
efficiency,especiallythat of the engine,may be betterat a higherspeed.
E
I
o
3l
c
ir
<kE ="_.--_
Speed
Figure7-1
56
TOTALDRAU
It is of someimportancewhenhandlingan aircraft to know if the speed
is stable.By this it is meantthat if for somereasonthe speedincreases,
perhapsdue to temporaryturbulence,doesthe speedtend to decayback
to its original value or not? The answerto this questioncan be found by
examiningthe total dragcurvewhich is shownagainin FigT-2.
SPEED
Figure7--2
consideran aircraftflying at speedX. In straightand levelflight thrust
= dralso the thrust requiredis indicatedby the horizontalline Tr. If for
from X to Y, the thrust remaining
somereasonthe speedincreases
the thrust so the speedwill drop back
unchanged,the drag now exceeds
to its originalvalueat X. If, on the other hand,the speeddecaysto point
Z, thrustis now greaterthan dragand the speedwill automaticallyreturn
to its originalvalueat X. It shouldbe notedthat the two speedsquoted
hereareaboveV-0. On the othersideof the curvewith the aircraftflying
at speedA the thrust levelis now Tz. If the speednow reducesto B the
higherthan thethrustand the speedwill continueto decay.
dragbecomes
to point C, the thrust becomeshigher
If, conversely,the speedincreases
Thesesecondexamthan the dragandthespeedwill continueto increase.
ples are speedsbelow V-0. This simpleillustration makesclear why at
ipeedshigherthan V-o the speedtendsto be stableand at speedsbelow
V-a the speedis not stable.
This speedinstability below V-a is most marked on jet transport
aircraft.the greatweightof someof thelargertypesof suchaircrafttoday
producesveiy high induced drag values and makes handling on the
ipproach somewhatdifficult. Considerableanticipationis requiredto
click either increaseor decreasein speed,the whole thing being
57
ofjet engines.It would be fair to saythat
to the slowresponse
aggravated
this typeof aircraftrequiresmoreprecisehandlingon the approachthan
aircraftand is lessforgivingof imprecisehandling.
the piston-engined
In the sectionon induceddrag it was shownthat if weightis increased
The minimumdrag speedoccursat the
theninduceddrag alsoincreases.
the curvefor induceddrag.
point wherethe curvefor profile dragcrosses
-l
the
value
of the induceddragis
As will be seenfrom Fig 7 , at this speed
the sameas that of profile drag. In other words profile drag equals
induceddrag and total drag is doublethe valueof eitherone.
Figure 7-3 illustratesthe fact that an increasein aircraft weight will
raisethe speedat which Vmaoccurs.
SPEED
Figure 7-3
It was shownin the previousChapterthat the effectof an increasetn

induceddrag.From this it followsthat aircraft
aspectratio is to decrease
with high aspectratioswill havea lowerV-o than aircraftwith low aspect
ratios.
7.2 Wave Drag
It hasbeenshownthat drag is the sameat any altitudefor a givenIAS
but an aircraft climbing at this constantIAS has a steadilyincreasing
Mach number.When this Mach numberreachesa certainvaluethe drag
startsto increasebecauseof compressibilityeffects.This drag is known
aswavedragand its effecton thetotal dragcurveis illustratedin Fig 7-4.
5B
TOTALDRAG
tI
---------*
sPEED
Figure74
7.3 SUMMARY:CheckList.
From the previous paragraphs'thefollowing has been established:
an increase in angle of attack will produce an increase in lift brought
about by the velocity of the airflow over the upper surface of the wing
being increased.
An increasein the angle of attack will cause:
(a)
The Centre of Pressureto move forward.
(b)
The Transition Point to move forward.
(c)
The Separation Point to move forward.
(d)
The Stagnation Point to move down and aft towards the undersurface of the wing.
The Centre of Pressurewill reach its farthest forward point at just

below the stalling angle.
Induced Drag is directly related to lift becauseas the angle of attack is
increased the induced drag will increase. Due to the greater pressure
difference between the upper and lower surfacesof the wing, the tip vortex
(the basic origin of induced drag) will become intensified. For a given
speedthe greater the angle of attack the greater the induced drag.
It is important to realise that although induced drag increaseswith
increased lift when increasing angle of attack, the increase in lift will
always be much greater than drag up to and including the stalling angle.
59
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
Rememberthe stalling angleis the angleabovewhich a given aerofoil
will stall.
Induced Drag is influet'rcedby the aspectratio of the wing, the higher
the aspectratio for a givenwing areathe lessthe induceddrag produced.
Induced drag is always greatesttowards the wing tip where the tip
vortex is generatedby air flowing from the undersideof the wing to the
uppersurface,whereit thenflows aft and down behindthe wing and tends
to convergebehind the aircraft. It can alsobe said the flow on the upper
surfaceof the wing tendsto flow aft and towards the wing root, and on
the undersurfaceof the wing, aft and towards the wing tip, as a direct
result of the influenceof the vortex at the wing tip. The flow towards the
root and tip on the upperand lower surfacescausenumerousvorticesto
form at the trailing edgeof the wing.
The greater the chord length at the wing tip the more intensethe tip
vortex becomesand so the greaterthe induceddrag. Hencea high aspect
ratio wing with a long spanand a short chordwill producelessinduced
drag than a low aspectratio wing with a short spanand a long chord.
The Lift/Orag ratio of an aerofoil increasesrapidly up to approximately3" to 4" at whichanglesthe lift is some24 timesthe drag,the ratio
until at the stallingangle,approximately15",the
then falh progressively
12
times as greatas the drag. Above the stalling
10
or
be
may
only
lift
until an angleof attack of 90ois reached
further
ratio
falls
still
the
angle
zero.
lift
will
be
when
The bestall round angleof attackis 3" to 4" wherethe Lift/Drag ratio
is greatest,and this angleof attackis alsoknown as the optimum angle
of attack.
It is alsoimportant to note that a camberedaerofoil, evenat zero angle
of attack will producesomelift and somedrag. Even at somenegative
anglesof attacka camberedaerofoilwill producesomelift and drag.But
remember,asymmetricalaerofoil atzeroangleof attack will produceno
lift but somedrag.
of the Principlesof Flight it is imporTo obtain a goodunderstanding
tant to interrelatethe variouspoints that are madeat eachstageand to
avoidconsideringthemas separateentities.
I With an increasein aspectratio for a givenIAS induceddrag will:
a) remainconstant.
b) increase.
c) reduce.
d) noneofthe above.
Ref Para7.1
60
TOTAL DRAG
2 Induceddrag:
a) is only equalto profile drag when the aircraft is at rest.
b) is equalto profile drag at the stalling angle.
c) is equalto profile drag at V.a.
d) is neverequalto profrledrag.
Refpara7.1
3 With an increase in aircraft weight:
a) V-a will be at the same value.
b) V-o will be at a lower speed.
c) V-a will be at a higher speed.
d) total drag will be unchanged.
Ref para7.1
4 With an increasein aspectratio the value of V-a will:
a) remainthe same.
b) be reduced.
c) be increased.
d) noneofthe above.
Refpara7.1
5 For a given IAS an increasein altitude will result in:
a) no changein the valueofinduceddrag.
b) an increasein induceddrag.
c) a reductionin profile drag.
d) a reductionin induceddrag.
Ref para 7.1
61
Stalling
8.1 Introduction
It has already been shown that the lift produced by a wing steadily
increasesas the angle of attack is increased,but only up to a certain point.
Past this angle of attack the lift decreasesrapidly and the angle at which
this occurs is known as the stalling angle.
8.2 The DeterminingFactor

A stall is produced when the airflow has broken away from most of the
upper surface of the wing. The determining factor in this is the angle of
attack: the wing always stalls at a fxed angle, usually in the region of l5'.
8.3 The Cause

Thecauseof thestallis theinabilityof theair to traveloverthe surface
of the wing againstthe adversepressuregradientbehind the point of
distributionover
Figure8-1(a)illustratesthepressure
minimumpressure.
theuppersurfaceof the wing at a smallangleof attack,sayabout4'. The
minimum pressurepoint is at B, and the air travelsfrom A to B without
difficulty as it is moving from high to low pressure.However,from B to
that is, againstan
C it is beingforcedte travelfrom low to high pressure,
adversepressuregradient.This posesno problemsat low anglesof attack
becausethe kineticenergyof the air is adequateto take it to the trailing
Figure8-1 (a)
62
STALLING
Figure8-1 (b)
edge.As angle of attack is increasedhowever,the minimum pressure

until at the stalling
point movesforwardand thedistanceB to C increases
angleit coversmost of the wing. This is illustratedin Fig 8-1(b).When
the angleof attack reachesa certain value the air runs out of kinetic
energyandbreaksawayfrom thesurfaceof thewing in a randommanner'
considerably.
sharplyand drag increases
Lift decreases
8.4 Alleviation
Variousdesignfeaturescanbe incorporatedin the wing whichwill assist
in ensuringthat the root of the wing stallsbeforethe tip' Theseare:
(a) The wing may be twistedso that the tip is at a smallerangleof incidencethan the root, which will ensurethat the root reachesits
stallinganglebeforethe tip.
of the wing tip may be givena highercamberthan
(b) The cross-section
the root, which will giveit a highercoefhcientof lift.
(c) A stall-inducermay be fitted to the wing root as illustratedin Fig
8-2. Thesestrips reducethe effectivecamberof the root. This
reducesits coefficientof lift and will causeit to stallbeforethe tip.
63
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
FigureB-2
8.5 The Effectof EnginePower

compared
poweris on therewill bea reduction
of stallingspeed
If engine
aircraftthis is
With propeller-driven
with thepower-offstallingspeed.
due to:
(a)
Vertical component thrust
(b)
The propeller slipstream over the wings.
8.6 Constancy
In straight and level flight at the stall, for a given wing area, cross-section
and weight, the lift is of fixed value. This is a most fortunate occurrence
when one considersthe lift equation:
* angleof attack
Lift = VzpY2Sc,
As lift at the stall is a fixed value and angleof attack,wing areaand
coefficientof lift are alsoconstant,the total valueof lzpY2must alsobe
is dynamicpressureshownon the airspeedindicatorand
constant.YzpY2
it is for this reasonthat for a givenweightan aircraftwill alwaysstall at
of height.
the sameindicatedairspeedregardless
8.7 Weight Effect

Any changeof weightwill requirea differentvalueof lift for straightand
64
STALLINC
level flight, an increasein weight requiring an increasein lift. At the
stalling angle in level flight, the greater the weight the more the lift
required and, therefore,the higher the stalling speed.A useful rule of
increasein stallingspeedis
thumb in this contextis.that the percentage
percentage
in
weight.
Thus:
increase
half the
Weight 2000lb, normal stallingspeed100kt.
Weight 2200 lb, percentageincrease10%, stalling speed
5oh,ieto 105kt.
increases
8.8 Loading ln Turns
The sameeffect is produced during manoeuvreswhich produce a G
loading,for instance,turns.During a turn thelift not only hasto balance
the weight but also the centrifugal force resulting from the aircraft
of this the lift hasto be greaterthan in
movingin a curvedpath. Because
levelflight and,providedthespeedis kept constant,theonly way that this
extralift can be derivedis by an increasein angleof attack.This increase
in angleof attackputs the aircraft wing nearerto the stallingangle.The
result of having to produce effectivelymore lift from the wings is that
the aircraft's weight appearsto be increased,hencethe expressionG
loading.The increasein stallingspeedis calculatedby taking the normal
stallingspeedin levelflight for the aircraft'sweightand multiplyingit by
the squareroot of the G loading.For example:
Normal stallingspeed100kt,
Stallingspeedin a 2 G turn = 100x squareroot?
= 1 0 0x 1 . 4
= 140kt.
Further details of calculatingstalling speedsare given later in this
chapter.
8.9 Effect of Shape
the
A wing doesnot normallystall over its entirelengthsimultaneously;
stall beginsat one part of the wing and then spreads.The main factor
governingwherethe stallbeginsis the shapeof the wing,and will bedealt
with in a later section.It is plainly undesirablethat a wing stallsfrom its
tip first as this can lead to control difficulties.Any tendencyto drop a
of having
wing at the stallmay well leadto spinning.Further advantages
a wing stallfrom its root ratherthan tip first are that aileroncontrol can
bemaintainedup to the point of full stall and the separatedairflow from
the wing root will causebuffet over the tail which servesto act as a stall
warnins.
65
to high valuesthe upward inclinaWhen the angleof attackincreases
tion of the thrustline providesa verticalcomponentwhich actsin concert
with the lift to support the aircraft'sweight. The slipstreamfrom the
propellerincreasesthe speedof the air flowing over the wing, thus
in power-onstallsas their
delayingthe stall.Cautionshouldbe exercised
effeit rnay resultin a tip stall on a wing which normally stallsfrom the
root.
8.10 The Position of the Centre of Gravity
The stallingspeedwill be affectedby the positionof the centreof gravity.
If the centri of gravityis forwardof the centreof pressurea down-loadis
requiredfrom the horizontalstabilizer.The effectof this is that the lift
is iupporting not only the weightthrough the centreof gravity but also
the down-loid on the tail, thereforethe lift will haveto be higherand in
turn the stallingspeedwill behigher.The nearerthat thecentreof gravity
approachesto ihe centreof pressure,the lesswill be the down-loadand
be reduced.
the stallingspeedwill consequently
l : _ l o o o o o o o . o o a o oc E o c t o o c c ! c D g i c !
L
J
-
FwdCG limit
lJ
t
, , o , a o . . . , r o o ! 6 c c o o ! D c a o gD r r
r
-
Figure8-3 The locationof the centreof gravityaffectsthe tail loadingand hence

the stallingspeed.
66
STALLING
8.11 lcing
Theeffectof iceformationon a wing is to corruptthe camberof the wing
and so considerablyto reducethe coefficientof lift. This can be brought
about by extremelythin layersof ice - evenhoar frost - and the utmost
caremust be taken to de-icethe wings of an aircraft prior to takeoff if
thereis any suggestion
that ice may be presenton the wings.The drastic
effectof ice in reducingthe coefficientof lift and, as a result,causingthe
stallingspeedto be much higherthan normal,is illustratedin Fig 8-4.
H \
<t^
oril
ztt)
fr-
il
bl
ANGLE OF ATTACK
FigureB-4
8.12 StallWarning Devices

It is not normalto haveanangleof attackindicatoron theflightdeck;it
by a
is usualinsteadto havesomeform of stallwarningalarmoperated
switchwhich is sensitiveto angleof attack.The warning may take the
followingforms:
(a) A visualwarning,examplea flashinglight.
(b) Audiblewarnings,examplea horn or stickknocker.
(c) A stickshaker.
8.13 Spinning
Followinga stallinvolvinga wing drop, a spinmay develop.Referringto
its effectiveangle
the diagramin Fig 8-5,the wing which dropsincreases
of attackdue to having acquireda downwardvelocity.This increasein
in lift and an increasein drag.
angleof attack causesa further decrease
a decrease
in angleof attackand
Theupgoingwing, however,experiences
67
an increasein lift. As the lift hasbeenreducedon the downgoingwing it
will continueto drop and any attempt to raiseit by the useof ailerons
the angleof attack
the situationbecauseit will increase
merelyaggravates
still further.At the sametime theincreasein dragon thedowngoingwing,
coupledwith a decreasein drag on the upgoingwing, will producea
yawingmomenttowardsthe droppedwing. From this it canbe seenthat
the aircraftwill roll and yaw towardsthe droppedwing, and this motion
the motion is describedasa
If it is self-sustaining,
may be self-sustaining.
in detail in Chapter9.
spin.Spinningis discussed
0
-1 8'
RISING
WING
LESS
BECOMES
"@e*tteo
FigureB-5
8.14 The Deep Stall

Conventionalrecoveryfrom a stallis by easingthe stickforward to lower
the noseand then applying power. However,someaircraft of current
designwill enterinto what is known as a deepstall,or a super-stall,from
which normal recoveryis not possible.Broadly speaking,theseaircraft
havesweptbackwings,high speedwing sectionsand a high T-tail.
The aiiflow following a stall in a conventionalaircraft is illustratedin
Fig 8-6.It canbe seenthat althoughthe air hasbrokenawayin a random
mannerfrom the uppersurfaceof the wing, the horizontalstabilizerand
theelevatorsarestill in undisturbedair. The resultof this is that the horizontal stabilizerwill produce a sharp nosedown pitch which may be
assisted
by applicationof elevator.
6B
STALLINC
Figure8-6
This can be contrastedwith the state of affairs when an aircraft with a

highT-tail is stalled.This time the separated
air from thewings,following
the stall,entirelycoversthe horizontalstabilizerand elevators,virtually
reducingtheir effectiveness
to nil. In the caseof aircraftwith sweepback
on thewings,thewingitselfmay developa noseup pitchingmomentafter
the stall.This is dueto the tendencyof a sweptwing to stall at the tip and
so causethe centreof pressureto move forwards.The situationis often
aggravatedbecausethe aircraft has now acquireda verticaldownward
velocitywhich will progressively
increasethe angleof attackway beyond
thestallingangle.Finally,this typeof aircraftis oftenequippedwith rearmountedenginesandtheeffectof turbulentair enteringtheengineintakes
may be to causethemto flameout, causinga completelossof power.
Obviouslyan aircraftwith thesecharacteristics
cannotbe permittedto
is
frrst
stall.Whensuchan aircraft
built, it is equippedwith a tail-mounted
parachutefor usein testflying to bring the nosedown in the eventof it
enteringa super-stall.For generalairlineoperation,aircraft of this type
are fitted with equipmentcalleda stick pusher.This is actuatedby an
angleof attacksensoron the fuselage(usuallyde-iced)which senses
that
the angleof attack is approachingthe stall. Signalsare then sentto an
electro-hydraulic
system,the rams of which physicallypush the control
stickforward, thus preventingthe aircraft from enteringthe stall.
69
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
8.15 Detail Calculationsand FactorsAffectingStallingSpeed

and StallingAngle
Calculationof thestallingsPeed:
During levelflight, lift is exactlyequaland oppositeto the weight'
Therefore:
(i)
Lift
Weight
The lift formula is:
(ii)
Lift
C'YrpY2S
It standsto reasonthat whenthe C, is maximum,V must be a minimum

value(low speed,high angleof attack).
This minimumvalueof velocityis, therefore,the stallingspeed(V.),when
the C' is at maximumvalue.
=
S
Weight = Ct(max) YzpY,2
(iiD
Lift
Therefore:
So,rearrangingthe formula,it becomes:
Cr(max)%pV,'S
(iv)
Weight=
Thus,to obtain the v, (stallingspeed),the formula is so rearranged:
=
Vr'
(v)
Weight
Therefore
Cr(max) % pS
(Cr%pstransPosed)
il::f"t""u (vi) vs
r@V Cr(max)% pS
Factorsaffectingthestallingspeedof an aircraft.
1.
Weight
2.
Load Factor
3.
Wing Area
4.
Changein C1(max)
5.
Powerand Slipstream
1. Weight
Any ch"angein the weight of an aircraft will affect the stalling speed.It
will be notedfrom the formula:
STALLINC
Weight
Cr(max) % p S
that if the weightincreases,
the
divisionthereofby C,-(max)S resultsin
an increased
stallingspeed(V.).
2. Load,Factor
Any manoeuvrethat requiresan increasein total lift without a correspondingincreasein wing area,must increasethe effectivetotal weight
actingon the aerofoils.
This apparentweight increaseis known as a load factor, which is
definedas the ratio of the load acting on the aircraft during the
manoeuvreto theloadingactingon theaircraftin straightandlevelflight.
=
Total Lift
Total Weight
Load Factor =
Aircraft Weisht
Actual Weight
As demonstrated
in thepreviousparagraph,anyincrease
in weightresults
in a higherstallingspeed.This newstallingspeedmay becalculatedfrom
the followingformula:
New V, = Old V, x
3. Wing Area (S)
Whereincreased
wing areais obtainedby theuseof Fowlerflaps,thedivisionof a givenweightby an increased
valueof (S)resultsin a lower value
of V.
4. Changein C"(max)
The useof flapsincreases
the C, of that wing.Onceagain,the divisionof
a givenweightby a larger value of C, resultsin a lower stallingspeed.
This is the advantageof the useof flap during the landingmanoeuvre
because
it permitstheoriginalvalueof lift to be retainedat a lower speed.
It is particularlyusefulin the loweringof the approachspeed.
5. PowerandSlipstream
When power is applied at the stall, the already nose-highattitude
producesa verticalcomponentoflift. This consequently
reducesthework
load (ieweight)of thewingsand allowsa muchlower stallingspeedto be
attained.The slipstreamat high power settingsprovidesan extra boost
to thestagnatingairflow overthe aerofoiland thuscontrolstheboundary
layer.SeeFig 8-7.
71
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
vertical component of lift

(300 lb)
Figure8-7
8.15 WingTip Stalling

An aircraft wing is designedto stall progressivelyfrom the root section
to the tips. The reasonsfor this are asfollows:
An earlybuffetingis inducedoverthe tail sections'
l.
2.
3.
is maintainedup to the stallingangleof attack'

Aileron effectiveness
Large rolling momentsof the aircraft are preventedin the eventof
onewing tip stallingbeforethe other-
Methodsusedin thepreventionof tip stalling:

l. Washout:
reductionof wing incidencefrom the root to thetip.
fnlr ir a progressive
This resultsIn the wing root reachingthe critical angleof attack before
the tip.
2. Rootspoilers:
strip fixed to the leadingedge
ittir -"tttod employsa triangular-section
of attack, the.airflow is
angles
high
At
root.
the
n"ur
"itfr. trirg
edgeand this resultsin
leading
of
the
contour
the
in
following
obstructed
is inducedat the wing
stall
early
an
whereby
aiiflow
the
of
a breakdown
root.
3. Changeof aerofoilsection:
the camber
The aerofoifsectionmay be graduallychangedby decreasing
in a slight
results
slightly at or near the tips, or by sweepback.This
72
STALLINC
decreasein lift at the tips thus giving an aerofoil with more gradual
stallingcharacteristicsfrom the root to the tip. The effect of sweepback
is to increasethe stallingangle.
4. Slatsand Slots
By employingslatsand slotson the outboard sectionsof the wing, the
Thus, when
effectiveangleof attack at that part of the wing is decreased.
remain
tip
sections
critical
angle
of
attack,
the
reaches
the
root
section
the
unstalled.
Note:Taperingthe aerofoil from root to tip gradually reducesthe C.
towardsthetips;thisin itselfreducesthehighrollingmomentwhich
would occur if the one tip stalledbeforethe other.
c
o
o
Angle of Attack
Figure8-8 Effectof Flapsand Slotson Maximumliftsat StallingAngle.
73
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
8.17 The effectof aspectratio on the stallinganSle:

Nole: When referring to stalling angle, it is that angle with the horizon as
viewed abeam by the pilot from the flight deck.
As discussedunder wing tip vortices, the net direction of the airflow is
altered.
Angle of Attack
of AspectRatioon theC.(max).
FigureB-9:Effect
Aircraft having high aspectratios (long span and short chord) have very
little induced downwash and, therefore, the net direction of the airflow
remains largely unaltered. Conversely, aircraft with low aspect ratio
wings (broad tips) induce a large amount of downwash which alters the
net direction of the airflow significantly.
Becauseof this altered airflow, low aspectratio wings have significantly
higher stalling anglesthan do wings of high aspectratio. (SeeFig 8-10).
74
STALLINC
EffectiveStalling Angle of Aftack Reduced

* R'AJ,
Non-EffectiveStalling
Angle of Attack
S t a l l i n gA n g l e H i g h e r
Direction of the R.A.F
Figure8-10
Nole:This explainswhy rectangularwingsusuallystall from the root to

the tip. The effectivestallingangleof attack is reducedat the tips
dueto the presence
of thewing tip vortex resultingin the net direction of the airflow beins altered.
8.18 The Effectof Sweepbackon the stallingangle:

In itself, a sweptwing has a low aspectratio and thus fhe presenceof wing
tip vortices are marked and give rise to a downwash that alters the net
direction of the relative airflow. Since an aerofoil stalls when the critical
anglebetweenthe chord line and the relative airflow is exceeded,the presenceof the downwash alters this relative airflow and, having a downward
component, results in the stalling angle being higher when the critical
angle of attack is reached.
Swept wings therefore, have higher stalling angles than those of
unsweptwings (Fig 8-l l).
FigureB-11
75
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SFLICHT
8.19 Theeffectof Flapon the stallingangle:

With each successiveincreaseof flap, the characteristicsof the aerofoil
are changed, ie the chord line assumesa steeperinclination, being the
straight line from leadingedgeto trailing edge.The critical stallingangle
(about l5 degrees)is therefore reachedwith little or no inclination of the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft (ie aircraft in straight and level attitude).
Any further increasein flap setting in this attitude would result in the
critical stalling angle of attack being exceeded.To prevent this,
the aircraft would have to be placed in a nose down attitude, thereby
reducing the critical angle of attack to within limits (about 15 degrees).
Fig 8-12.
S t r a i g h ta n d L e v e l
N o F l a pL / D1 4 "
-!*u
,'o.,
Lower Nose Attitude
Reduced.
Aircraft Unstalled.
F l a pD o w n
Aircraft Stalled
Figure
B-1-
Thus, the effect of flap reducesthe stalling angle although the critical
angle of attack remainsabout l5 degrees.
Note:The stalling angle, or level flight stalling angle,is increasedwhen
leadingedgeflaps are employed.
Further referenceto wing planforms and their stall characteristicsare
discussedin Chapter 10.
Key Points to Remember
With increasedangle of attack, whilst maintaining level flight,
induced and profile drag will increase.
Whilst maintaininglevelflight, at a constantaltitude,an increasein
speedwill result in a reduction in induced drag.
Profile drag equals induced drag at V.,r.
76
STALLINC
High Taper Wing
Figure8-.13 Wing Planforms(Exaggerated)

and their stall patterns.
Profiledragis proportionalto speed.
Induceddrag is inverselyproportionalto speed.
With an increaseof weightof the aircraft the Vâ will increase.
With an increasein altitudethe stallinganglewill remainthe same.
With an increaseof speedthe stallinganglewill remainthe same.
Washoutof a wing will ensurethe root of the wing stallsfirst.
l0
Stall inducersmay be fitted to the leadingedgeof the wing root to

ensurethat the wing stallsat the root first.
ll
Stallwarningsensors
arenormallyfitted at, or near,thewing leading
edge.
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
l2
If the centreof gravity is forward of the centre of pressurea down

load will existon the tailplane.
l 3 If thecentreof gravityis forwardof thecentreof pressurethestalling

speedwill be increased.
t 4 The nearerthecentreof pressureis to thecentreof gravitythe lower

the stallingspeedwill be.
At the point a wing entersa stalledcondition:
a) Lift and Drag rapidly reduce.
b) Lift slowlyreducesand Drag rapidly increases.
increases.
c) Lift reducessharplyand Drag considerably
slightly.
d) Lift rapidly reducesand drag increases
Ref Para8.3
A wing will stall:
a) at the stallingangle.
b) at the optimumangleof attack.
c) just belowthe stallingangle.
d) just abovethe stallingangle.
Refpara8.I
With increasingaltitudethe angleat which a wing will stall:
a) remainsthe same.
b) reduces.
c) increases.
Ref para 8.2
As the angle of attack of a wing is increasedin level flight:
a) the C of G moves aft and the C of P forward.
b) the C of P and transition point move forward.
c) the C of P moves aft and the separation point forward.
d) the C of P moves forward and the stagnation point aft over the upper
surface.
Ref para8.3
7B
STALLINC
5 Stallinducersmay be fitted to a wing:
a) at the tip to causethe root to stall first.
b) at the root to causethe tip to stall first.
c) at the root to causethe root to stall first.
d) at the tip to causethe tip to stallfirst.
Ref para 8.4
79
Spinning
9.1 Introduction
Spinningis a complexsubjectto explainin detailand cannotbe described
in generiltermswhicharetruefor all typesof aircraft.Onetypeof aircraft
miy behavein a certainmannerin a spinwhilst anothertypewill behave
quiie differentlyunderthe sameconditions.In the examplegivenin this
chapterthe spinis takento be deliberatelyinduced,erectand to the right.
9.2 Phasesof the Spin
The full spinmanoeuvreconsistsof threefundamentalphases:
(a) The incipientspin.
(b) The fully developedspin.
(c) The recovery.
(d) The steadyerectsPin.
(a) TheIncipientSpin
ingredientof a spinis the aerodynamicmovementknown as
A necessary
autorotation.this is basicallythe rotational movementof the aircraft
about its normal axis,and it leadsto an unsteadymotion which is a
combinationof:
i) The ballisticpath of the aircraft, which is dependenton the entry
attitude.
ii) An increasingangularvelocitygeneratedby the autorotativerolling
momentand the drag inducedyawingmoment.
(b) TheSteadySpin
The incipientitage of the spin may continuefor sometwo to six turns
after which the aircraft will settledown into a steadystablespin.There
will be somesideslipand the aircraft will rotate about all threeaxes.In
by a
most casesthis sta6lecondition, the steadyspin, is characterised
steadyrateofrotation and a steadyrateofdescent.
SPINNINC
(c) TheRecovery
The recoveryis initiatedby the pilot's operationof the controlsfirst to
opposethe autorotation and then to reducethe angle of attack so as
to unstall the wings. A steepdive thereuponensuesfrom which the
aircraftmay be normallyreturnedto straightand levelflight.
(d) TheSteadyErect Spin
During rotation the aircraft will describea ballistic trajectory the
characterof which will be dependantupon the entry manoeuvre.To
the pilot this will appearas an unsteady,oscillatoryphaseuntil the
aircraft settlesdown into a stablespinwith steadyratesboth of descent
and of.rotation about the axisof the spin.This will occurif the aerodynamicand inertiaforcesandmomentsachievea stateof equilibrium.The
attitudeof the aircraftat this stagewill dependon the aerodynamicshape
of the aircraft, the positionof the controlsand the distributionof mass
throughoutthe aircraft.
9.3 Motion of the Aircraft

Themotion of thecentreof gravityin a spinhastwo primarycomponents:
i)
A verticallinearvelocity(rateof descent= V fps).
ii)
An angularvelocity(=O radiansper sec)abouta verticalaxis,called

the spin axis.The distancebetweenthe CG and the spin axisis the
radiusof the spin(R) and is normallysmall.
The combinationof thesemotionsresultsin the aircraftdescending

in
a verticalspiral or helix.The helix angleis usuallysmall generallyless
than 10".Fig 9-l showsthe motion of the aircraftin a spin.
As the aircraft alwayspresentsthe samefaceto the axisof the spin,it
lollows that it must be rotatingabout a verticalaxispassingthroughthe
centreof gravityat the samerateastheCG is rotatingaboutthe spinaxis.
The angularvelocitymay be resolvedinto componentsof roll, pitch
and yaw with respectto the axesof the aircraftitself.In the spin shown
rn Fig 9-lb the aircraftis rolling right. For convenience
the directionof
the spinis definedby the directionof yaw.
In order to understandthe relationshipbetweenaircraft attitudeand
theseangularvelocitiesit is usefulto considerthreelimiting cases:
ta) LongitudinalAxis Vertical
\\'hen the longitudinalaxisis verticalthe angularmotion will be a roll.
B1
(b) LateralAxis Vertical
For the aircraftto presentthe samefaceto theaxisof the spin,the aircraft
must rotateabout the lateralaxis.The angularmotion is all pitch.
(c) Normal Axis Vertical
For the aircraft to presentthe sameface(inner wing tip) to the axis of
rotation,the aircraftmust rotateaboutits normal axisat the samerateat
which it rotatesaboutthe axisof rotation.Thus the angularmotion is all
yaw.
Although theseexamplesare hypotheticaland may not be possiblein
practicalterms,theyillustratethe relationshipbetweenthe aircraft'sattiiude and angularvelocities.Betweenthe extremesquotedin the previous
paragraph,the motion will be a combinationof roll, pitch and yaw, and
dependson:
The rate of rotation of the aircraft aboutthe spin axis.
(ii) The attitudeof the aircraft.This is usuallydefinedin terms of the
pitch angleand the wing tilt angle.Wing tilt angle(whichmust not
be confusedwith bank angle),involvessimultaneousdisplacement
about the normal and the longitudinalaxes.
The aircraft'sattitude in the spin also has an important effecton the
sideslippresent,as shownin Fig 9-lc. If the wingsarelevel,therewill be
(i)
Axis (Symbol)
Longitudinal (x)
Lateral (y)
Normal (z)
PositiveDirection
Forwards
To right
Downwards
Designation
Roll
Pitch
Yaw
Symbol
PositiveDirection
to right
nose-up
to right
Designation
rolling moment
pitching
moment
yawlng
moment
Symbol
PositiveDirection
to right
nose-up
to right
AngularVelocity
Momentsof Inertia
Moments
Usedin thisChapter.
Table1: SignConventions
82
SPINNING
outwardsideslip;that is, the relativeairflow will be from the directionof
the outsidewing (to port in the diagram).If the attitudeof the aircraftis
changedsuchthat the outer wing is raisedrelativeto the horizontal,the
sideslipis reduced.This attitudechangecan only be due to a rotation of
the aircraftabout the normal axis.The anglethroughwhich the aircraft
is rotated,in the planecontainingthe lateral and longitudinalaxes,is
known asthe wing tilt angleand is positivewith the outerwing up. If the
iving tilt can be increasedsufficientlyto reducethe sideslipsignificantly,
the pro-spinaerodynamicrolling momentwill be reduced.
a FORCES
Lift= Centripetal
Force
wv2
wo2R
_
_
- g R s
Spinto Right
(Q Radians
PerSec)
Weight
b ANGULAH
VELOCITIES
r = Rateof Yaw
l--'f
o=,","J:"*
c SIDESLIP
Wing Titt
Angle
(Positive)
Figure9-1 Themotionof an aircraftin an ErectSpinto the right
83
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
9.4 Balance of Forces in the SPin

only two forcesareactingon the centreof gravity while it is moving along
its helicalpath, ascan be seenin Fig 9-1 a:
a)
Weight
The aerodynamicforce (N) coming mainly from the wings

The resultant of thesetwo forcesis the centripetalforce necessaryto
producethe angularmotion.
Sincethe weight and centripetalforce act in a verticalplanecontaining
the spin axis and the CG, the aerodynamicforce must also act in this
plane,ie it passesthrough the spin axis. When the wing is stalled,the
iesultant aerodynamicforce acts approximately perpendicularto
calledthe wing normal force.
the wing. For this reasonit is sometimes
thenfrom the balanceof
(lateral
horizontal),
axis
level
are
If thewings
a:
forcesin Fig 9-l
a. Weight = DraB = CoY' PY2S
b)
!= rE
V
b.
C"%pS
Lift = Centripetalfbrce
Wc)2R
CyYtPY2S =
p = gCr%pV'S
---
wo-
where: R = spinradius,S= area

! = rateof descent,W = weight
If thewingsarenot level,the departurefrom the levelconditioncanbe

regardedasi rotation of the aircraft about the longitudinaland normal
axis. Usuallythis angle,the wing tilt angle,is small and doesnot affect
the followingreasoning.
9.5 Effect of Attitude on Spin Radius
by a nose-upchangein
If for somereasonthe angleof attackis increased
the aircraft'sattitude,Figg-2, the verticalrate of descentV will decrease
becauseof the higher Co. The increasedalpha on the other hand, will
C, which, togetherwith the lower rate of descent,resultsin a
decrease
SPINNINC
decreasein spin radius. It can also be shown that an increasein pitch
increasesthe rate of spin,which will decreaseR still further.
The two extremesof aircraft attitude possiblein the spin are shownin
Fig 9-2. The actual attitude adopted by an aircraft will dependon the
balanceof moments.
Steep Spin
Figure9-2Simplified
diagramof PitchAttitude.
The effectsof pitch attitude are summarised below:
An increasein pitch (ie a flatter spin) will:
a Decreasethe rate of descent.
b Decreasethe spin radius.
c Increasethe spin rate.
nr can also be seenthat an increasein pitch will decreasethe helix angle.
9.5 AngularMomentum
isachieved
and
ln a steady
spin,equilibrium
by a balance
of aerodynamic
Theinertiamomentsresultfrom a changein angular
mertiamoments.
due to the inertiacrosscouplingbetweenthe threeaxes.The
nm,omentum
angularmomentumabout an axis dependson the distribution of mass
emdthe rate of rotation. It is important to get a clearunderstandingof
rhe effectsof mass distribution in order to understandthe spinning
of different aircraft and the effect of the controls on
ch,aracteristics
ruaoveryfrom the spin.
B5
Moment of Inertia (I)
to compreTo predictthe behaviourof a rotating systemit is necessary
not
hend the natureof inertia moments.A moment of inertia expresses
only the amountof a massbut alsoits distributionaboutthe axisof rotation. It is usedin the sameway that massis usedin linear motion. For
themomentum
example,theproductof massandlinearvelocitymeasures
line' Similarly,
in
a
straight
moving
a
body
of
io mouement
or reslstance
velocity
angular
and
(mass
distribution)
inertia
theproductof momentof
illustrates
9-3
Figure
body.
a
rotating
of
meisurestheangularmomentum
how the distributionof massaffectsangularmomentum.
Small
'l'
Radians
Per Sec
>
F - l
[,J
L
E=
Angular
MomentumSmall
r",ntlnt"il",n"
Figure9-3 Two rotorsof the sameweightand
angularvelocity
The conceptof momentof inertiamay be appliedto a spinningaircraft

by measuringtttedistributionof massabout eachof the body axesin the
following way:
LongitudinalAxis.
The-distributionof the massabout the longitudinalaxis determinesthe
momentof inertiain the rolling planewhich is denotedby A. An aircraft
with fuel storedin wing fuel tanks will havea largevalueof A, particularly if the fuel tanks are closeto the wing tips. On someaircraft types
somefuel may alsobe storedin fuselagefuel tanks, and this combined
with a lower ispect ratio will resultin a reductionof A for suchaircraft
types.
86
SPINNINC
LateralAxis.
The distributionof massaboutthe lateralaxisdeterminesthe momentof
inertia in the pitching plane which is denotedby B. The increasing
complexityof modernaircrafthasresultedin an increasein thedensityof
the fuselagewith massbeingdistributedalong the whole length of the
fuselagewith a consequent
increasein the valueof B.
\ormal Axis.
The distributionof massabout the normal axis determinesthe moment
urfinertia in the yawingplanewhich is denotedby C. This quantity will
heapproximatelyequalto the sumof themomentsof inertiain therolling
andpitchingplanes.C, therefore,will alwaysbelargerthanA or B. These
rnomentsof inertia measurethe massdistribution about the body axes
and are decidedby the designof the aircraft.It is thus implicit that the
".aluesof A, B and C for a particularaircraftwill be changedif the dispoirtion of equipment,freight and fuel is altered.
9.7 Inertia Moments in a Spin
fip//
nris difficult to represent

the rolling momentsusingconcentrated
masses,
a.:is donefor theotheraxes.For an aircraftin the spinningattitudeunder
(innerwing down,pitchingnoseup), the inertiamomentis
consideration
anti-spin,ie tendingto roll the aircraftout of the spin.The equationfor
tireinertiarollingmomentis:
L- - (C-B) rq
Prrrlr
T'heimaginaryconcentrated
masses
of thefuselageasshownin Figure9-4
rc:d to flattenthe spin.
Inertia Moment
Figure9-4 Inertiapitchingmoment.
B7
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Yaw
The inertia coupleis complicatedby the fact that it is comprisedof two
opposingcouplescausedby the wingsand fuselage,as shownin Fig 9-5.
Dependingon the dominantcomponent,the couplecanbe of eithersign
and of varyingmagnitude.The inertiayawingmomentcan be expressed
as:
N = (A - B)pq, is negativeand thus anti-spin
whenB > A; positiveand pro-spinwhenA > B.
The B/A ratio hasa profound effecton the
of an aircraft.
spinningcharacteristics
F u s e l a g e( B )
lnertia Moment
Figure9-5 lnertiayawingmoments.
9.8 AerodynamicMoments
to examinethe contributionsmadeby aeroAt this stageit is necessary
dynamicfactorsin the balanceof momentsin roll, pitch and yaw. These
separatelybelow.
are discussed
AerodynamicRolling Moments
The aerodynamiccontributionsto the balanceof momentsabout the
longitudinalaxisto producea steadyrate of roll areas follows:
(a) Rolling Moment dueto Sideslip
The designfeaturesof the aircraft which contribute towards positive
lateral stabilityproducean aerodynamicrolling moment as a result of
sideslip.Evenat anglesof attackabovethestall,this still remainstrue and
the dihedraleffectinducesa rolling momentin the oppositedirectionor
senseto the sideslip.In the spin the relativeairflow is from the direction
of the outerwing (outwardsideslip)and the resultis a rolling momentin
8B
SPINNING
the directionin which the aircraftis spinning;this contributionis therefore pro-spin.
@) AutorotativeRolling Moment
It canbe shownthat thenormaldampingin roll effectis reversedat angles
of attackabovethe stall.This contributionis thereforepro-spin.
(c) Rolling Moment dueto Yaw
Theyawingvelocityin the spininducesa rolling momentfor two reasons:
{i) The differencein speedof the wings
and that of theinnerwing decreased
Lift of theouterwingis increased
inducinga pro-spinrolling moment.
(ii) Differencesin angleof attackof the wings
In a spin the direction of the free streamairflow is practicallyvertical
whereasthe directionof thewing motion dueto the yaw is parallelto
thelongitudinalaxis.Theyawingvelocitythereforechangesnot only
the speedbut alsothe angleof attackof the wings.Fig 9-6illustrates
the vectoraddition of the yawingvelocityto the verticalvelocityof
the outerwing.The effectis to reducethe angleof attackof the outer
thewingsarestalled
that of theinnerwing.Because
wingandincrease
(slopeof C, curveis negative),the outerwing Ct is increasedand the
C, of the inner wing decreased,thus producing another pro-spin
rolling moment.
(Outer Wing lllustrated)
Rateof Descenl
Figure9-6 Changein angleof attackdue to yaw

(outerwing)
B9
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
(d) Aileron Response
Experiencehas shown that aileronsproducea rolling moment in the
conventionalsenseeventhoughthe wing is stalled.
AerodynamicPit chingMoments
The aerodynamiccontributionsto the balanceof momentsabout the
lateralaxis to producea steadyrate of pitch are as follows:
(e) PositiveLongitudinalStatic Stability
In a spinthe aircraftis at a high angleof attackand is thereforedisturbed
in the nose-upsenseby the trimmedcondition.The positivelongitudinal
stability respondsto this disturbanceto producea nosedown aerodynamicmoment.This effectmay be considerablyreducedif the tailplane
liesin the wing wake.
(f) Dampingin Pitch effect
When the aircraft is pitchingnoseup the tailplaneis moving down and
The pitchingvelocitythereforeproduces
its angleof attackis increased.
a pitching momentin a nosedown sense.The rate of pitch changein a
the dampingin pitch
spinis, however,usuallyvery low andconsequently
contributionis small.
(g) Elevatorresponse
the
The elevatorsact in the conventionalsense.Down elevatorincreases
nosedown aerodynamicmomentwhereasup elevatorproducesa noseup
aerodynamicmoment.It shouldbe noted,however,that down elevator
the shieldedareaof the fin and rudder.
usuallyincreases
AerodynamicYawingMoments
The overallaerodynamicyawingmomentis madeup of a largenumber
of separateelements,some resultingfrom the yawing motion of the
aircraftand somearisingout of thesideslippingmotion.The maincontributions to balancingthe momentsabout the normal axis to producea
steadyrate of yaw are as follows:
(h) PositiveDirectionalStatic Stability
When sideslipis presentthe keel surfaces(Fin and Fuselage)aft of the
CG producean aerodynamicyawingmomenttendingto turn the aircraft
into alignmentwith the sideslipvector(ie directionalstatic stability or
weathercockeffect).This is an anti-spineffect,the major contributionto
which is from the verticalfrn.
forwardof theCG will tendto yaw the aircraftfurther
Verticalsurfaces
into the spin, ie they havea pro-spineffect.Outward sideslip,however,
usuallyproducesa net yawingmomenttowardsthe outer wing, ie in the
90
SPINNINC
anti-spinsense.Becauseof possibleshieldingeffectsfrom the tailplane
and elevatorand also becausethe fin may be stalled,the directional
stabilityis considerably
reducedand this anti-spincontributionis usually
r-erysmall.
fi) Dampingin Yaw effect
It hasbeenseenthat the keel surfacesproducean aerodynamicyawing
momentto opposethe yaw. The greatestcontribution to this damping
momentis from therearfuselage
and fin. In thisrespectthecrosssectional
shapeof the fuselageis criticaland hasa profoundeffecton the damping
moment.
Fuselage
strakes,seeFig 9-7, areusefuldevicesfor improvingthe characteristicsin a spin on sometypes of aircraft. The anti-spindamping
momentis verydependenton the designof the tailplane/fincombination.
Shieldingof the fin by the tailplanecan considerablyreducethe effecmveness
of the fin. Combiningfin and tailplaneinto a V or Butterfly tail
hasoccasionallybeenusedto improve spin recoveryand has the additronaladvantages
of lighterconstructionand lessdrag.
Figure9-7 Fuselage
Strakes.
Rvdder Response
The rudder acts in the conventional sense,ie the in-spin rudder produces
pro-spin yawing moment and out spin rudder produces anti-spin yawing
nmoment.Becauseof the shielding effect of the elevator it is usual during
recoveryto pause after applying out of spin rudder so that the anti-spin
yauing moment may take effect before down elevator is applied.
91
PRINCIPLES
OFFLIGHT
Balanceof Moments
It can be seenthat the balanceof forcesin a spin has a strong influence
on the rate of descent.It doesnot, however,determinethe rate of rotation, wing tilt or the incidenceat which the spin occurs;the balanceof
momentsis much more critical in this respect.The actual attitude,rate
of descent,sideslip,rate of rotation and radius of spin of a spinning
aircraft can be determinedonly by applying specificnumericalvaluesof
the aircraft'saerodynamicand inertia data to the generalrelationships
below.
discussed
Rolling Moments
The balanceof rolling momentsin an erectspinis:
a. Pro-spin:The following aerodynamic
rolling momentsin an erectspin are:
(i) Autorotativerolling moment.
(ii) Rolling momentdue to sideslip.
(iii) Rolling momentdue to yaw.
b. Anti-spin:The inertia rolling
moment- (C - B)rq, is anti-spin.
to achievea
Thesefactorsshowthat autorotationis usuallynecessary
larger
stablespin.A smallautorotativerolling momentwould necessitate
sideslipto increasethe rolling momenteffectdueto sideslip.This in turn,
wouldincreasethe amountof wing tilt and makethebalanceof moments
in yaw moredifficult to achieve;however,the balanceof momentsin this
axisis not as important asin the other two.
PitchingMoments'
It hasbeenpreviouslystatedthat the inertiapitchingmoment,(C-A)rp,
of the aircraft is alwaysnoseup in an erectspin.This is balancedby the
nosedown aerodynamicpitching moment.The balancebetweenthese
two momentsis the main factor relatingangleof attack to rate of rotation in any given case,and equalibriumcan usuallybe achievedover a
widerange.Increasein pitch will causean increasein the rateof rotation
the spinradius'
(spinrate).This in turn will decrease
YawingMoments
The balanceof yawingmomentsin an erectspin
a. Pro-spin:
(i) Yawing momentdue to appliedrudder.
SPINNINC
A smallcontributionfrom thewing,dueto yaw,is possible
at largeanglesof attack.
Yawingmomentdue to sideslip(verticalsurfacesforward
of CG).
(iv) Inertia yawingmoment,(A - B)pq, if A > B.
h. Anti-spin:
Inertiayawingmoment,if B > A.
Yawingmomentdueto sideslip(verticalsurfacesaft of the
CG).
Dampingin yaw effect.
It can be seenthat in-spin rudder is usually necessaryto achievebalance
urfthe yawing moments and hold the aircraft in a spin.
Jormal Axis
For conventional aircraft (A and B nearly equal), it is relatively easy to
achieve balance about the normal axis, and the spin tends to be limited
to a singlesetof conditions (incidence,spin rate and attitude). For aircraft
rn which B is much larger than A, the inertia yawing moment can be large
and, thus difficult to balance. This could be the causeof the oscillatorv
spin often found with such aircraft.
Yow and Roll Axis
The requirementsof balanceabout the yaw and roll axesgreatly limit the
range of incidence in which spinning can occur, and determine
rrheamount of sideslipand wing tilt involved. The final balanceof yawing
rnoments is achievedby the aircraft taking up the appropriate angle of
attack at which the inertia moments just balance the aerodynamic
moments. This particular angle of attack also has to be associatedwith
the appropriate rate of spin required to balance the pitching moments
and the appropriate angle of sideslip required to balance the rolling
moments.
9.9 SpinRecovery
E-ffect
of Controlsin Recovery
from a Spin
The relative effectivenessof the three controls in recoveryfrom a spin will

now be considered.Recovery is achievedby stopping the rotation and this
nn turn is achieved by reducing the pro-spin rolling moment andlor
mcreasingthe anti-spin yawing moment. The yawing moment is the more
unportant but, becauseof the strong cross-coupling between motions
about the three axes, the rudder is not the only means by which yawing
93
may be inducedby the pilot. Oncethe rotation hasstoppedthe incidence
is reducedand the aircraft recovers.
has shownto be generally
The control movementswhich experience
beenknown and in use
have
spin
from
the
recovery
to
most favourable
then move the stick
and
rudder
opposite
full
ie
apply
for a long time,
neutral.The rudder
ailerons
the
maintaining
itops,
forwardrintil the spin
momentsare
inertia
the
because
but,
is normally the primary control
important.
is
also
deflection
aileron
generallylirge in modern aircraft,
spin the
the
in
is
reduced
to
rudder
fuh".. th" .esponreof the aircraft
final
the
in
although,
primary
control
aileron -uy .i.tt becomethe
work.
it
makes
which
moment
yawing
analysis,it is its effecton the
The initial effectof applyinga control deflectionwill be to changethe
aerodynamicmomentabout one or more axes.This will causea change
in airiraft attitudeand a changein theratesof rotationaboutall the axes.
Thesechangeswill, in turn, changethe inertiamoments.
Effect of ailerons
Bu"n uittt. high angleof attackin the spinthe aileronsact in the normal
Applicaiiondf uil.tott in thesamedirectionastheaircraftis rolling
sense.
rolling moment.Thiswill increase
theaerodynamic
will theriforeincrease
the roll rate(p) andaffecttheinertiayawingmoment,(A-B)pq.The effect
of an increatein p on the inertia yawingmoment dependson the mass
distributionor B/A ratio:
(a) B/A>1: In an aircraft whereB/A>1, the inertia yawingmoment is
still further,
anti-spin(negative)and an increasein p will decrease.it
ie maiceit more anti-spin.The increasein anti-spininertia yawing
momentwill tend to riise the outer wing (increasewing tilt) which
the outward sideslip.This will restorethe balanceof
will decrease
moment
the pro-spinaerody-namic
rolling momentsby decreasing
the
cause
also
will
tilt
wing
in
increase
The
stabiiity.
due t6lateral
turn:
in
will,
which
g,
increase,
pitch,
to
rate of
(D Causea smallincreasein the anti-spininertiarolling
moment, (C-B)rq, (C>B) and thus help to restore
balanceabout the roll axis.
yawing
(ii)
Further increasesthe anti-sPin
moment.
(b) B/A<1: A low B/A ratio will reversethe effectsdescribedabove.The
inertiayawingmomentwill be pro-spin(positive)and will increase
with an increasein p.
Due to secondaryeffectsassociatedwith directional stability, the
reversalpoint actuallyoccursat a BIA ratio of 1.3.Thus:
94
SPINNING
r a ) B/A>1.3:Aileronwith roll (in-spin)hasan anti-spineffect.
ib)
B/A<1.3:Aileronwith roll (in-spin)hasa pro-spineffect.
Pro-Spin
Figure
9-BYawingMoment(N)perdegree
' of Aileron
Someaircraft have their B/A ratio changedin flight through consumptron of stores and fuel. The pilot has no accurateindication of the value
.rf B/A ratio and, where this value may vary either sideof 1.3,it is desirable
.nuring a spin to maintain ailerons neutral to avoid an unfavourable
responsewhich may delay or even prohibit recovery.
.A,nadditional effect of aileron applied with roll is to increasethe anti,.prinyawing moments due to aileron drag.
E[fect of Elevators
Ir has already been stated that down-elevator produces a nose-down
aerodynamic pitching moment. This will initially reduce the nose-up
pritchingvelocity (q). Although this will tend to reduce alpha, the effect
on the inertia yawing and rolling moments is as follows:
rxl
Inertia Yawing Moment (A-B)pq. If B > A, the inertia yawing

moment is anti-spin. A reduction in q will make the inertia moment
lessanti-spin, ie a pro-spin change. When A > B, however, downelevator will cause a change in inertia yawing moment in the
anti-spin sense.
ru) Inertia Rolling Moment (C-B)rq. The inertia rolling moment is

always anti-spin becauseC > B. A reduction in q will thereforemake
it lessanti-spin, which is again a changein the pro-spin sense.
95
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
The result of thesepro-spin changesin the inertia yawing and rolling
thewing tilt, thusincreasingthesideslipangle(Fig
momentsis to decrease
9-9)and rateof roll. The rateof rotation aboutthe spinaxiswill increase.
Although thechangein the inertia yawingmomentis unfavourable,the
increasedsideslipmay producean anti-spinaerodynamicyawingmoment
if the directionalstability is positive.This contribution will be reducedif
the shieldingof the fin and rudder.
the down elevatorseriouslyincreases
Pro-Spin
Figure9-9YawingMoment(N)perdegreeof DownElevator
The overall effect of down-elevator on the yawing moments therefore
dependson:
(a) The pro-spin inertia moment when B > A.
(b) The anti-spin moment due to directional stability.
(c) The loss of rudder effectivenessdue to shielding.
In general, the net result of moving the elevators down is beneficial
when A > B and rather less so when B ) A, assuming that the elevator
movement does not significantly increase the shielding of the fin and
rudder.
Effect of Rudder
The rudder is nearly always effective in producing an anti-spin aerodynamic yawing moment although the effectivenessmay be greatly reducd
when the rudder lies in the wake of the wing or tailplane. The resulting
increase in the wing tilt angle will increase the anti-spin inertia yawing
moment (when B > A) through an increase in pitching velocity. The
overall effect of applying anti-spin rudder is always beneficial and is
enhancedwhen the B/A ratio is increased.
96
SPINNING
Figure9-10YawingMoment(N) per Degreeof Anti-spinRudder
Inverted Spin
Figure 9-l I shows an aircraft in an inverted spin but following the same
flight path as in Fig 9-1. Relative to the pilot the motion is now
compounded of a pitching velocity in the nose-down sense,a rolling
velocity to the right and a yawing velocity to the left. Thus roll and yaw
are in opposite directions, a fact which affectsthe recovery actions,paiticularly if the aircraft has a high B/A ratio.
The inverted spin is fundamentally similar to the erect spin and the
principles of moment balance discussedearlier are equaliy valid for
the inverted spin. The values of the aerodynamic moments, however, are
unlikely to be the samesense;in the inverted attitude, the shielding effect
of the wingand tail may change markedly.
The main difference will be causedby the change in relative positions
of the fin and rudder and the tailplane. whereas an aircraft wiih a lowmounted tailplane will tend to have a flatter erect spin and recovery will
be the more difficult due to shielding of the rudder, the same aircraft
inverted will respond much better to recovery rudder sinceit is unshielded
and its effectivenessis increased by the position of the tailplane. The
converse,however, is true for an aircraft with a high tailplane.
The control deflectionsrequired for recovery are dictated by the direction of roll, pitch and yaw, and the aircraft's B/A ratio. These are:
(a) Rudder to oppose yaw as indicated by the turn needle.
(b) Aileron in the same direction as the observed roll, if the
B/A ratio is hish.
97
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SFLICHT
'l
Figure9-1 The InvertedSpin.
(c) Elevatorup is generallythe casefor conventionalaircraft

but, if the aircraft has a high B/A ratio and suffersfrom
this may be
the shieldingproblemspreviouslydiscussed,
pro-spin.
lessfavourableand may evenbecome
SPINNING
OscillatorySpin
A combinationof highwing loadingand high B/A ratio makesit difficult
for sucha spinningaircraft to achieveequilibriumabout the yaw axis.
This is thoughtto bethemostprobablereasonfor the oscillatoryspin.In
this type of spin the rates of roll and pitch are changingduring each
oscillation.In a mild form it appearsto the pilot as a continuously
changingangleof wing tilt, from outer wing well abovethe horizonback
to the horizontaloncein eachturn; the aircraft seemsto wallow in the
spin.
In a fully-developed
oscillatoryspin the oscillationsin the ratesof roll
and pitch can be quiteviolent.The rate of roll during eachturn canvary
from zeroto about 200degreesper second.At the maximumrate of roll
the risingwing is unstalledwhich probably accountsfor the violenceof
this type of spin.Largechangesin attitudeusuallytake placefrom fully
nose-downat thepeakrateof roll, to nose-upat theminimumrateof roll.
The useof thecontrolsto effecta changein attitudecanchangethecharacteristicsof an oscillatoryspin quite markedly.In particular:
(a) Anything which increases
the wing tilt, (egin-spinaileron
or anti-spinrudder)will increasethe violenceof the oscillations.

(b) A decrease
in the wing tilt angle(eg out-spinaileron or
down-elevator)
will reducetheviolenceof theoscillations.
The recoveryfrom this type of spin has beenfound to be relatively easy,
although the shortest recovery times are obtained if recovery is initiated
rvhen the nose of the aircraft is falling relative to the horizon.
Conclusions
The characteristicsof the spin and the effect of controls in recovery are
specificto type. In generalthe aerodynamic factors are determinedby the
geometry of the aircraft and the inertial factors by the distribution of
the mass.
9.10 GyroscopicCross-coupling
BetweenAxes
The effectsof the inertia moments have beenexplained by consideringthe
massesof fuselageand wings acting either side of a centreline.The effect
.'rf theseconcentratedmasseswhen rotating, can be visualised as acting
rather in the manner of the bob-weightsof a governor.
Another, and more versatile, explanation of the cross-couplingeffects
can be given by analogy with gyroscopic precession,regarding the aircraft
as a rotor.
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
Inertial Momentsin a Spin
The inertial momentsgeneratedin a spin are essentiallythe sameas the
gyroscope.
Figures9-12,9-13and 9-14
torqueexertedby a precessing
gyroscopic
moments
about the body axes.These
inertial
or
illuslratethe
below:
effectsare described
(a) Inertial Rolling Moments(Fig 9-12)
The angularmomentumin the yawingplaneis Cr, and by imposingon it
a pitchingvelocityof q, an inertiarolling momentis generatedequalto
-Crq, ie in the oppositesenseto the directionof roll in an erectspin.The
inertiarollingmomentdueto imposingtheyawingvelocityon theangular
Figure9-12 TotalInertiaRollingMoment.
100
SPINNINC
momentumin the pitchingplaneis in a pro-spinsenseand equalto +Brq.
The total inertiarolling momentis thereforeequalto (B-C)rq,or sinceC
> B: -(C-B)rq.
(b) Inertial PitchingMoments(Fig 9-13)
The angularmomentumin the rolling planeis Ap and imposinga yawing
velocityof r on the rolling plane'rotor' causesit to precessin pitch in a
nose-downsensedue to inertia pitching moment (-Apr). Similarly,the
angularmomentumin theyawingplaneis Cr, and imposinga roll velocity
of p on the yawing plane 'rotor' generatesan inertia pitching moment
Inertia Pitching
Moment = -Apr
Angular
Momentum= Cl
Moment = +Crp
z
Figure9-13 TotallnertiaPitchingMoment.
101
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
(+Crp) in the nose-upsense.The total inertia moment is therefore(CA)rp. In an erectspin,roll and yaw are alwaysin the samedirectionand
C is alwaysgreaterthan A. The inertiapitchingmomentis thereforeposi
tive (nose-up)in an erectspin.
(c) Inertial YawingMoments(Fig 9-fa)
Regardingthe aircraft as a rotor havingthe samemoment of inertia in
the rolling plane,its angularmomentumis the productof the momentof
inertiaand angularvelocity(Ap). Imposinga pitchingvelocity(q) on the
lnertia Yawing
Moment = +Apq
Note
The Direction of
Motion illustrates
the right-hand
E r e c tS p i n i n F i g 1
Figure9-14 TotalInertiaYawingMoment
102
SPINNINC
rotor will generatea torquetendingto precess
the rotor aboutthenormal
axisin thesamedirectionasthespin.Thisinertialyawingmomentis equal
in value to_+Apq where the positivesign indicatesa pro-spin torque.
similarly,the angularmomentumin thepitchingplaneiJequaito Bq, ind
imposinga roll velocityof p on the pitchingplanerotor will generatean
inertial yawing moment in an anti-spinsenieequal to -Bpq. The total
inertial yawingmomentis thereforeequalto (A-B)pq, or iT b > A: -(B_
A)pq.
Key Points to Note:
l.
A necessary
ingredientof a spin is the aerodynamicmovement
known as autorotation.
2.
Autorotation basicallyis the continuousrotation of the aircraft

about its normal or verticalaxis,(or spin axis).This will normally
be coupledwith a rolling moment.
3.
In most casesa steadyspin is qualifiedby a steadyrate of rotation

and a steadyrate ofdescent.
4.
Recoveryfrom a spinis initiatedby thepilot'scontroloperation,first

to opposethe autorotationand then to reducethe angleof attack.
5.
In a spin, the angleof attack of the inner wing is greaterthan the

angleof attack of the outer wing.
6.
In a spin,the innerwing is fully stalledand the outer wing partially

stalled.
7.
An increasein pitch in a flat spin will:

(i) Decreasethe rate of descent
(iD Decreasethe spin radius
(iii) Increasethe spin rate
8.
Evenwhena wing is stalledthe aileronsproducea roiling moment.
9.
In a spin,the aircraftis at a high angleof attack.
10. Shieldingof the fin by the tailplanecan considerablyreducethe

effectiveness
of thefin asa stabilisingsurfaceduringa spin.This has
led to the employmentof a V, or ButterflyTail on someaircraft as
an aid to betterspinrecovery.
FFLICHT
P R I N C I P LO
ES
I When recoveringfrom a spin the pilot shouldfirst:
a) reducethe angleofattack.
b) opposethe autorotation'
c) increasethe angleofattack'
d) increasethe drag yawingmoment.
Ref para9.10
2 In a spin:
a) the angleof attackis the sameon both wings.
b) the angleof attackis greateron the inner wing.
c) the angleof attackis greateron the outerwing.
d) both inner and outerwingsare fully stalled.
Refpara9.10
3 At high anglesof attackin the spin:
act in the oppositesense.
a) elevators
b) aileronsact in the normal sense'
c) aileronsare totally non effective.
d) ruddercontrol is lost.
Ref Para9.10
The centripetalforcein a spinis a componentoft
a) weightonly.
b) weightand centrifugalforce.
c) lift.
d) lift and weight.
Ref Para9.10
In a spin:
a) both wingsarefully stalled.
b) the outer wing is fully stalledand the innerwing partially stalled.
c) both wingsarepartially stalled.
d) the inner wing is fully stalledand the outerwing partially stalled.
Ref para9.10
10
Wing Planforms
10.1 lntroduction
Thepreviouschaptershaveconsidered
thebasicsof lift, drag,stallingand
spinningand explainedthecausesof thesephenomena.
It is however,also
necessary
to studyanotherimportantaspectof the designof wings,ie the
planform.The planform is the geometricalshapeof the wing as viewed
from above;it largelydeterminesthe amountof lift and drag obtainable
from a givenwing area,andhasa markedeffecton thevalueof thestalling
angleof attack.
This chapteris concernedmainly with the low-speedeffectsof various
wing planforms.The high-speed
effectsare dealtwith in the chapterson
high-speed
flight.
10.2 Aspect Ratio
The aspectratio (A) of a wing is found by dividingthe squareof thewing
spanby the areaof the wing:
o=F*"
Ifa wing hasan areaof250 squarefeetand a spanof30 feet,the aspect

ratio is therefore3.6.Another wing with the samespanbut with an area
of 150squarefeetwould havean aspectratio of 6. An alternativemethod
of determiningaspectratio is by dividing the spanby the meanchord of
the wing.Thus, a spanof 50 ft with a meanchord of 5 ft givesan aspect
ratio of 10.
From theprecedingexamplesit canbe seenthat the smallerthe areaor
meanchordin relationto the span,the higheris the aspectratio. A rough
ideaof theperformanceof a wing canbe obtainedfrom knowledgeof the
aspectratio.
10.3 Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag
The origin and formation of trailing edgeand wing tip vorticeswas
explainedearlierand it wasshownthat induceddownwashwasthe cause
of induceddrag.The induceddragproducedby a wing is proportionalto
the lift generated.
105
The amount of induceddrag under a given set of conditionscan be
floundfrom the formula:
Induceddrag = kC,'9S,
nA
Where Crt = the coefficientof induceddrag,
TEA
and A = aspectratio.
From the formula it canbe seenthat induceddragis inverselyproportional to aspectratio. A graphshowingthe curvesof two differentaspect
ratio wingsplotted againstCo and angleof attackis givenin Fig 10-1.
cD
0.16
0.12
0.08
Figure10-1 Effectof AspectRatioon Co
10.4 AspectRatioand StallingAngle

paragraphit canbe seenthat asthe aspectratio is
From the previoUs
It wasalsostatedthatthestall
dragisincreased.
theinduced
decreased,io
occurs when the effective angle of attack reachesthe critical angle. Thus
for a given aerofoil section the higher the aspect ratio, the lower is the
stalling angle of attack. For a simple example, consider a wing in level
flight: if there were no induced downwash (and hence no induced drag)
then the wing would stall when the angle of attack reached its critical
angle relative to the'horizontal' total airstream past the wing.
However, all wings have vortices and so induce a downward component in the direction of the total airflow; thus the lower the aspectratio,
106
WINCPLANFORMS
the largerthe vorticesand the greaterthe induceddownwash.The stall
will thereforeoccurwhen the effectiveangleof attack,which now hasa
downwardcomponent,reachesthe critical angle.In the two caseswhich
havebeenconsidered,
the stallingangleof the wing with no induceddrag
is the lower by, approximately,the angulardegreeof the induced
downwash.
The reducedeffectiveangleof attackof very low aspectratio wingscan
delay the stall considerably.Somedelta wings have no measureable
stallingangleup to 40oor moreinclinationto the flight path. At this sort
of anglethe dragis so high that the flight path is usuallyinclineddownwards at a steepangleto the horizontal.Apart from a rapid rate of
descent,and possiblelossof stabilityand control,suchaircraftmay have
The condition
a shallowattitudeto the horizonand this canbe deceptive.
is calledthe superstall or deepstall,althoughthe wing may in fact be far
from a true stall and still be generatingappreciablelift.
10.5 Use of High Aspect Ratio
While a high aspectratio wing will minimize induceddrag, long thin
increaseweightand haverelativelypoor stiffnesscharwingsconversely
Also theeffectsofverticalgustson theairframeareaggravated
acteristics.
by higheraspectratio. Broadly it can be saidthat the lower the cruising
speedof the aircraft, the higher the aspectratios that can be usefully
employed.Aircraft configurationswhich are developedfor very high
speedflight (especiallysupersonicflight) operateat relativelylow lift
This usually
coefficientsand demandgreat aerodynamiccleanness.
resultsin the useof low aspectratio planforms.
10.6 The Effectsof Taper
The aspectratio of a wing is the primary factor in determiningthe threeof the ordinary wing and its drag due to lift.
dimensionalcharacteristics
Certainlocaleffects,however,takeplacethroughoutthespanof thewing
and theseare due to the distribution of areathroughoutthe span.The
typicallift distributionis arrangedin someellipticalfashion.
The naturaldistributionof lift alongthe spanof wing providesa basis
for appreciatingthe effectof areadistributionand taperalongthe span.
If the ellipticallift distributionis matchedwith a planformwhosechord
is distributedin an ellipticalfashion(theellipticalwing),eachsquarefoot
of area along the span producesexactlythe samelift pressure.The
ellipticalwing planform then has each sectionof the wing working at
exactly the samelocal lift coefficient and the induced downflow at the
the ellipwingis uniformthroughoutthe span.In the aerodynamicsense,
tical wing is the most efficientplanform becausethe uniformity of lift
107
PRINCIPLES
OFFLIGHT
coefficientand downwashincursthe leastinduceddrag for a givenaspect

ratio. The merit of any wing planform is then measuredby the closeness
with which the distribution of lift coefficient and downwashapproach
that of the ellipticalplanform.The effectof the elliptical planform is illustrated in Fig 10-2 by the plot of local lift coefficient C, to wing
coefficient,c/c.,againstsemi-spandistance.The elliptical wing produces
= L0 throughoutthe spanfrom root to tip. Thus,
a constantvalueof c)/c,
the local sectionangleof attack oo and local inducedangleof attack, c'
are constantthroughoutthe span.If the planform area distribution is
anythingotherthanellipticalit may beexpectedthat thelocalsectionand
inducedanglesof attackwill not be constantalongthe span.
is the simplerectangularwing which
A planformpreviouslyconsidered
of therectangularwing is a strong
hasa taperratio of 1.0.A characteristic
vortex at the tip with local downwashbehindthe wing which is high at
thetip andlow at theroot. This largenon-uniformityin downwashcauses
similarvariationin the local inducedanglesof attackalongthe span.At
the tip, wherehigh downwashexists,the local inducedangleof attack is I
greater than the average for the wing. Since the wing angle of attack
is composed of the sum of u, and cl,o,a large, local c' reducesthe local o.
creating low local lift coefficientsat the tip. The reverseis true at the root
of the rectangular wing where low local downwash exists.This situation
creates an induced angle of attack at the root which is less than the
average for the wing, and a local section angle of attack higher than
the averagefor the wing. The result is shown by the graph in Fig l0-2
which depicts a local coefficient at the root almost 20oh greater than the
wing lift coeffitcient.
The effect of the rectangular planfonn may be appreciated by matching
a near elliptical lift distribution with a planform with a constant chord.
The chords near the tip developlesslift pressurethan the root and consequently have lower section lift coefficients. The great non-uniformity of
local lift coefficient along the span implies that some sectionscarry more
than their share of the load while others carry less. Hence, for a given
aspectratio, the rectangular planform will be lesseffrcient than the elliptical wing. For example, a rectangular wing of ,4'=6 would have 16o/o
higher induced angle of attack and 5% higher induced drag than an elliptical wing of the sameaspectratio.
At the other extremeof taper is the pointed wing which has a taper ratio
of zero. The extremely small area at the pointed tip is not capable of
holding the main tip vortex at the tip and a drastic change in downwash
distribution results.The pointed wing has greatestdownwash at the root
and this downwash decreasestowards the tip. In the immediate vicinity
of the pointed tip an upwash is encounteredwhich indicates that negative
induced anglesof attack exist in that area.The resulting variation of local
lift coefficient shows low C, at the root and very high C, at the tip. The
108
WINC PLANFORMS
Cr
1.0
Spanwise Lift Distribution
Root
TaperRatio,ll.t =rI!D$d.
El.Iptjcal
Rectangular
1 - 1 n
Sweepback
PointedTio, l, = 0
Figure
10-2 LiftDistribution
andStallPatterns.
effect may be appreciated by realizing that the wide chords at the root
produce low lift pressureswhile the very narrow chords towards the tip
are subjectto very high lift pressures.The variation of t)/c.throughout the
span of the wing of taper ratio = O is shown on the graph of Fig l0-2. As
with the rectangular wing, the non-uniformity of downwash and lift
distribution result in the inefficiency of this planform. For example, a
109
pointedwing of 4=6 would havelTohhigherinducedangleof attackand
i:X ttigt.. induceddragthan an ellipticalwing of the sameaspectratio.
Betwienthe two extremesof taper will existplanformsof more tolerth. for a wing of taper ratio =0.5 are
able effrciency.The variationsof
similarto theiift distributionof the ellipticalwing and the dragdueto lift
are nearlyidentical.A wing of 4=6 and taper ratio =0.5
characteristics
has only 3% highercxrand llh greaterco, than an ellipticalwing of the
sameaspectratio.
The ellipticalwing is the ideal of the subsonicaerodynamicplanform
sinceit providesa minimum of induceddrag for a given aspectratio.
However,the major objectionto the ellipticalplanform is the extreme
difficulty of mechlnicallayout and construction.A highly taperedplanform is desirablefrom the siandpointof structuralweightand stiffness,
and the usualwing planform may have a taper ratio from 0.45to 0.20'
are important in the developmentof an
Sincestructuralconsiderations
for an efficientconfigurais a necessity
planform
aeroplane,the tapered
however,the planform
efficiency,
preserve
aerodynamic
tion. In order to
asnearaspossible
to
obtain
variation
section
and
twist
is tailoredby wing
the elliptic lift distribution.
10.7 Stall Patterns
An additionaloutcomeof planform areadistributionis the stall pattern
of the wing. The desirableitall patternof any wing is onewherethe stall
of the_roôtstallingfirst
beginsat tlheroot sectionsfirst. The advantages
of
attack,favourablestall
high
angles
at
effective
remain
urJthut ailerons
and aft portion of the
tailplane
the
on
buffet
the
warning resultsfrom
usuallyprovidesa
root
the
behind
downwash
fuselagJ,and the loss of
is favoured
pattern
a
stall
Such
aircraft.
to
the
moment
stable-nose-down
configurations.
wing
certain
with
to
obtain
but may, in fact, be difficult
The typesof stallpatterninherentwith variousplanformsar.eillustrated
in Fig iO-2. f.ne variousplanform effectsare separatedasfollows:
(a) The ellipticalplanformhasconstantlift coefficientsthroughoutthe
spanfrom root to tip. Sucha lift distributionmeansthat all sections
will reachthe stall at essentiallythe samewing angleof attack and
the stall will both begin and progressuniformly throughout the
span. While the elliptical wing would reach high lift coefficients
beforean incipientstall,therewould be little advancewarning of a
when the
completestall^.Also, the aileronsmay lack effectiveness
wing operatesnearthe stall and lateralcontrol may be difficult.
(b)
The lift distributionof the rectangularwing exhibitslow local lift

at thetip, andhighlocallift coefficientsat theroot' Since
coefficients
the wing will initiate the stall in the areaof highestlocal lift coeffi110
WINCPLANFORMS
cients,the rectangularwing is characterized
by a strong root-stall
tendency.This stall pattern is of course,favourablesincethere is
and
adequatestall warning buffet, adequateaileron effectiveness,
usuallystrongstablemomentchangeson theaircraft.Because
of the
great aerodynamicand structural inefficiencyof this planform,
however,the rectangularwing finds limited application,chieflyto
low cost,low speed,light planes.
(c) The wing of moderatetaper(taperratio =0.5)hasa lift distribution
whichis similarto that of the ellipticalwing. Hencethe stallpattern
is much the sameasthat of the ellipticalwing.
(d) The highly taperedwing of taper ratio =0.25 showsthe stalling
tendencyinherentwith high taper. The lift distribution of such a
wing hasdistinctpeaksjust inboardfrom thetip. Sincethewing stall
is startedin thevicinity of the highestlocallift coefficient,this planform hasa strong'tip stall' tendency.The initial stall is not started
at the exacttip but at that stationinboard from the tip wherethe
highestlocal lift coefficientsprevail.
(e) The pointedtip wing of taperratio equalto zerodevelopsextremely
high local lift coefficients at the tip. For all practical
purposesthepointedtip will be stalledat any conditionof lift unless
extensivetailoring is appliedto the wing. Sucha planform has no
practicalapplicationto an aircraft which is definitelysubsonicin
performance.
(l)
Sweepback
appliedto a wing planformaltersthe lift distributionin
the taper ratio. The full significanceof
way
a
similarto decreasing
in
the
followingparagraphs.
arediscussed
sweepback
10.8 Sweepback
LeadingEdges
Swept-back
This type of planform is usedon high speedaircraft and may take
the form of a swept-backwing, or of a deltawith or without a tailplane.
The reasonfor the useof theseplanformsis their low drag at the higher
are however,gainedat the
The high speed/lowdrag advantages
speeds.
costof a poorerperformanceat the lower end of the speedscale.
Effect of Sweepbackon Lift
If a straightwing is changedto a sweptplanform,with similar parameis reduced.
tersof area,aspectratio, taper,sectionandwashout,the C,_-o*
premature
flow separationfrom the upper surfaceat the
This is due to
wing tips. For a sweepangleof 45", the approximatereductionin Cr-o*
is around30%.Figurel0-3 showstypicalCr curvosfor a straightwing,a
.t1.1
simplesweptback wing and a taillessdelta wing of the samelow aspect
ratio.
Lift Coefficient
1.
1.4
Tailless Delta
WingA=2
Figure10-3Effectof Planformon C.-",
The main reasonsfor the lowering of the Cr- slope is best explained by
examinationof Figs l0-4 and 10-5.From Fig l0-4 it can be seenthat the
velocity V can be divided into two components, V1 parallel to the leading
edge which has no effect on the lift, and Vz normal to the leading edge
which does affect the lift and is equal to V cos A. Therefore, all other
factors being equal, the Cr of a swept wing is reduced in the ratio of the
cosine of the sweepangle.
Figure 10-5 shows that an increasein fuselagegeometric incidenceA*
will only produce an increasein the angle of attack A* cos A in the plane
perpendicular to the wing quarter chord line. Since it has already been
said that it is airflow in the latter plane which effects Cr, the full increment of lift expectedfrom the A* change is reduced to that of a A* cos A
change.
Considering Figure l0-3, the stall occurs on all three wings at anglesof
attack considerably greater than those of wings of medium and high
aspectratios. On all aircraft it is desirable that the landing speedshould
be close to the lowest possible speed at which the aircraft can fly; to
achieve this desirableminimum the wing must be at the angle of attack
corresponding to the C.-o^.
112
WINC PLANFORMS
.l
Figure0-4FlowVelocities
on a SweptWing
On all wings of very low aspect ratio, and particularly on those with a
swept-back planform, the angles of attack giving the highest lift coefficients cannot be used for landing. This is becauseswept-back planforms
have someundesirablecharacteristicsnear the stall and becausethe exaggeratednose-up attitude of the aircraft necessitates,among other things,
excessivelylong and heavy undercarriages.The maximum angle at which
an aircraft can touch down without recourseto such measuresis about
l5o, and the angle of attack at touch-down will therefore have to be something of this order. Figure l0-3 shows that the CL corresponding to this
angle of attack is lower than the Cr--u*for each wing. Compared with the
maximum usable lift coefficient available for landing aircraft with
unsweptwings, those of the swept and delta wings are much lower, necessitating higher landing speedsfor a given wing loading. It is now apparent
that, to obtain a common minimum landing speedat a stated weight, an
unswept wing needs a smaller area than either of the swept planforms.
The simple swept wing needsa greater area, and so a lower wing loading,
in order that the reducedCr can support the weight at the required speed.
The tailless delta wing needs still more area, and so a still lower wing
loading, to land at the required speed.Figure l0-6 shows typical plantbrms for the three types of wing under consideration,with areasadjusted
to give the same stalling speed.The much larger area of the delta wing is
evident.
113
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
F i g u r e1 0 - 5 Effecton Angleof Attackby Incidence

Change
Areasgivinga Common
10-6Planform
Figure
Speed
Stalling
Effect of Sweepbackon Drag

The main r"uion for employing sweepback as a wing planform is to
improve the high speedcharacteristicsof the wing. Unfortunately this has
adverseeffectJon the amount of drag produced at the higher range of
anglesof attack. The induced drag increasesapproximately in proportion
to
as alreadyexplained,c,_is reducedby sweeping

This is because,
l
cosA
114
WINCPLANFORMS
the wing, and thereforeto maintainthe samelift the angleof attack has
to be increased.This increases
the induceddownwashand hencethe induced
drag.
The practicalsignificance
of this high increasein drag is the handling
problemsit imposesduring an approachto landing. Becauseof the
greaterinduceddrag, the minimum drag speedis higherthan that for a
comparablestraightwing,and the approachspeedis usuallylessthan the
minimum drag speed.Therefore,if a pilot makesa smalladjustmentto
the aircraft'sattitudeby, for exampleraisingthe noseslightly,the lift will
be increasedslightly,but there will be a large increasein drag which
will resultin a rapidfall off in speed,with a largeincreasein powerneeded
to restoreequilibrium.In fact, the stagemay be reachedwhereeventhe
useof full power is insufficientto preventthe aircraft from descending
rapidly.
Drag
V App
Figure10-7lmprovement
in ApproachSpeedStability
On someaircraft this problem is overcomeby employinghigh drag

devices,
suchasairbrakesor drag-chutes,
to increase
theprofiledrag.This
resultsin a flatter drag curvewith the minimum drag speedcloserto the
approachspeed,seeFig l0-7. A further advantageis that more power is
requiredon theapproach,which on turbojetaircraft,meansbetterengine
response.
115
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Pressure
Gradient
Across Wing
lsobars
P o o l i n go f
Boundary
Layer at TiP
Layer.
10-BOutflowof Boundary
Figure
Effect of Sweepback on Stalling

when a wing is swept back, the boundary layer tends to changedirection
and flow towards the tips. This outward drift is causedby the boundary
layer encountering an adversepressuregradient and flowing obliquely to
it over the rear of the wing. The pressuredistribution on a swept wing is
shown by isobars in Fig l0-8. The velocity of the flow has been shown by
two components, one at right anglesand the other parallel to the isobars.
Initially, when the boundary layer flows rearwards from the leading edge_
it moves towards a favourable pressuregradient, ie towards an area of
lower pressure.Once past the lowest pressurehowever, the component at
right anglesto the isobars encountersan adversepressuregradient and is
reduced. The component parallel to the isobars is unaffected, therefore
the result is that the actual velocity is reduced (as it is over an unswept
wing) and also directed outwards towards the tips.
The direction of the flow continues to be changed until the component
at right anglesto the isobarsis reducedto zero, whilst the parallel compo116
WINCPLANFORMS
'pool'
nent,becauseof friction, is alsoslightlyreduced.This resultsin a
of slowmovingair collectingat the tips.
The spanwisedrift initiatesa tendencytowards tip stalling, sinceit
thickensthe boundarylayerover the outer partsof the wing and makes
to separation,bringingwith it a suddenreductionin
it more susceptible
Cl-u* ovr the wing tips.
At the sametime as the boundarylayer is flowing towardsthe tips, at
high anglesof attack, the airflow is separatingalong the leadingedge.
behinda short'separationbubble',
Overtheinboardsectionit re-attaches
only on thetrailingedgeor fails
but on the outboardsectionit re-attaches
to attachat all. The separatedflow at the tips combineswith the normal
wing tip vorticesto form a large vortex (the ram's horn vortex). The
factorswhich combineto form this vortex are:
(a) Leadingedgeseparation
(b) The flow aroundthe wing tips
(c) The spanwiseflow of the boundarylayer.
of the vortex
Thesefactorsareillustratedin Fig 10-9and the sequence
developmentand its effecton the airflow over the wing is shownin Fig
10-10.From the latter it can be seenthat the ram's horn vortex has its
origin on the leadingedge,possiblyas far inboardas the wing root.
The effectof the vortexon the air aboveit (theexternalflow) is to draw
the latter down and behindthe wing, deflectingit towardsthe fuselage
(Fiel0-11).
Flow
Around
Wing
Tips
Figure10-9 VortexDevelopment.
117
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
B o u n d a r yl a y e r
of Ram'sHorn Vortex
Figure10-10 Formation
Figure10-11 Influenceon ExternalFlow.
WINGPLANFORMS
The spanwiseflow of theboundarylayerincreases
asangleof attackis
This causes
thevortexcloserinboardto becomedetachedfrom
increased.
the leadingedge(seeFig 10-12).As a result,outboard aileronssuffera
in response
with increasingangleof attack.This,in turn,
markeddecrease
to
meansthat comparativelylarge aileron movementsare necessary
may be correthe aircraftresponse
manoeuvrethe aircraftat low speeds;
spondinglysluggish.Thiseffectmay becounteredby limiting theinboard
of thevortexasdescribedbelow,or by movingtheailerons
encroachment
inboard.Another possiblesolutionis the useof an all-movingwing tip.
10.9 Alleviatingthe Tip Stall
Most of the methodsusedto alleviatethe tip stall aim either at mainthe
taining a thin and thereforestrongboundarylayer,or re-energizing
weakenedboundarylayer:
(a) BoundaryLayerFences
Used originally to restrict the boundary layer out-flow, fencesalso
checkthe spanwisegrowth of the separationbubble along the leading
edge.
(b) LeadingEdgeSlots
the boundarylayer.
Thesehavethe effectof re-energizing
(c) BoundaryLayerSuction
Suitablyplacedsuctionpointsdraw off theweakenedlayer;a newhighenergylayeris then drawndown to take its place.
(d) BoundaryLayerBlowing
High velocity air is injectedinto the boundary layer to increaseits
energy.
(e) Vortex generators
the boundarylayer by
The purposeof thesedevicesis to re-energise
The
increased
turbulence
resultsin high-energy
makingit moreturbulent.
retarded
layer beingmixed
air in layersimmediatelyabovethe seriously
generators
are most
in and so re-energizing
the layer as a whole.Vortex
commonly fitted aheadof control surfacesto increasetheir effect by
speedingup and strengtheningthe boundary layer. Vortex generators
also markedly reduceshock-inducedboundary layer separation,and
reducethe effectsof the uppersurfaceshockwave.
119
OF FLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
Figure10-12 Shiftof Ram'sHorn Vortex
(f) LeadingEdgeExtension
leadingedgeis
edge,the extended
Also knownis a'sawtooth'leading
a commonmethodusedto avoid the worst effectsof tip stalling.The effect
of the extensionis to cut down the growth of the main vortex.A further
smallervortex, starting from the tip of the extension,affectsa much
smallerproportionof tlie tip areaand in lying acrossthewing,behindthe
tip of the eitension,it has the effectof restrictingthe outward flow of
the boundarylayer.In this way the severityof the tip stall is reducedand
with it thepiich-uptendency.Furthereffectsof theleadingedgeextension
are:
(i) The t/c ratio of the tip areais reduced,with consequent
benefitsto the criticalMach number.
(ii) The CP of the extendedportion of the wing lies aheadof
what would be the CP positionif no extensionwerefitted'
The mean CP position for the whole wing is therefore
farther forward and, when the tip eventuallystalls,the
forward shift in CP is lessmarked, thereforereducing
the magnitudeof the nose-upmovement'
(g)
LeadingEdgeNotch
'"The
notJhedleadingedgehas the sameeffectas the extendedleading
edgein sofar asit cauiesa similarvortexformationtherebyreducingthe
mignitude of the vortexoverthe tip areaand,with it, the tip stall.Pitcharethereforereduced.The leadingedgenotch canbe used
up lendencies
in conjunctionwith an extendedleadingedge,theeffectbeingto intensify
the inboard vortex behind the devicesto createa strongerrestraining
effecton boundarylayer outflow. The choicewhetherto useeither or
WINCPLANFORMS
both of thesedeviceslies with the designerand dependson the desired
flight characteristicsof the aircraft.
10.10 Pitch-up
LongitudinalInstability
Longitudinalinstabilityresultswhen the angleof attackof a sweptwing
increases
to the point of tip stall.The instabilitytakesthe form of a noseup pitchingmoment,calledpitch-up,andis a self-stalling
tendencyin that
the angleof attack continuesto increaseoncethe instabilityhas set in.
The aerodynamiccausesof pitch-up are detailed in the following
paragraphs.
Centreof,PressureMovement
When the swept-backwing is installed,the CP lies in a certainposition
relativeto the CG, the exactposition being the mean of the centresof
pressurefor everyportion of the wing from the root to the tip. When the
tip stalls,lift is lost over the outboard sectionsand the meanCP moves
rapidly forward; the wing moment (Fig l0-13) is reducedand a nose-up
pitchingmomentresultswhich aggravates
the tendency.
F i g u r e1 0 - 1 3N o s e - u pP i t c h i n M
g oment
Resulting
fromTip Stalling
Changeof Downwashoverthe Tailplane

Figure 10-14showsthat the maximum downwashfrom a swept-back
r*'ingin unstalledflight comesfrom the tip portions;this is to be expected
sincethe C, is highestover theseparts of the wing. When the wing tips
stall,effectivelift productionis concentratedinboard and the maximum
'Jownwash
now operatesover the tailplaneand increases
the tendencyto
pitch up. This effectcan be reducedby placing the tailplaneas low as
possiblein linewith, or below,thewingchordline,sothat it liesin a region
rn which the downwashchangeswith angleof attack arelessmarked.
121
WashoutDue to Flexure
Whena sweptwing flexesunderload, all chordwisepointsat right angles
to themain sparare raisedto the samedegree,unlessthe wing is specially
sothat this is not so.Thereforein Fig l0-15,thepointsA and B
designed
risethroughthe samedistanceandthepointsC andD risethrougha same
distancebut one that is greaterthan A and B. ThereforeC risesfarther
than A and there is a consequentloss in incidenceat this section.This
'washoutdue to flexure',and it is obviously
aeroelasticeffectis termed
greatest
at thewing tips.
Unstalled
Tip Stalled
Max Downwash
Max Downwash
Resultant
Downwash
( (t, .T|_
|,?""n",,i1"o-"",
Tail Moment -J
Increased
Iil
\
I
Increased
Tail Moment
\
Wing Moment
Decreased
Figure 10-14 Variation of Downwash
It is most noticeable during high g manoeuvreswhen the loss of lift at

the tips and the consequentforward movement of the centre of pressure
causesthe aircraft to tighten up in the manoeuvre. A certain amount of
washout due to flexure is acceptable provided the control in pitch is
adequateto compensatefor it, but it can be avoided by appropriate wing
design.
L-
WINC PLANFORMS
Figure10-15Washoutdueto Flexure
Pitch-upon Aircraft with Straight Wings

On aircraft with low aspectratio, short-spanwings, pitch-up can be
causedby the effect of the wing tip vortices.As the angleof attack is
increased
the vorticesgrow largeruntil, at or nearthe stall,they may be
large enoughto affect the airflow over the tailplane. As each vortex
rotatesinwards towardsthe fuselageover its upper half, the tailplane
givingriseto a pitch-uptendency.
incidenceis decreased
Rateof Pitch-up
From the pilot's point of view,pitch-upis recognized
whenthe pull force
on thecontrol columnwhich is beingappliedto the aircraftnearthe stall
hasto be changedto a pushforceto preventthenosefrom risingfurther;
themorethespeeddecreases
thefartherforwardmustthecontrolcolumn
be movedto restrainthe nose-uppitch. Pitch-upin levelflight or in any
I g stall is usuallygentle,sincethe rate at which the stall is spreadingis
comparativelyslow and is usuallyaccompaniedby the normal pre-stall
buffeting.When the stall occursin a manoeuvreincurringaccelerations
due to g force, the onsetof pitch-up can be violent and sudden,correspondingto the rate of spreadof the stall.
The CrescentWing
The crescentwing planform combinesvariablesweepwith a changing
ritio. At the root sectionwherethe'wingis thickest,the
thickness/chord
angle of sweepis greatest.As the t/c ratio is reducedspanwise,so is
the angleof sweep,so that the outboardsectionsarepracticallyunswept.
Hencelhereis litile or no outflow of the boundarylayet at the tips. The
wing are:
of thecrescent
advantages
(a) The criticaldrag riseMach numberis raised.
(b) The peakdrag riseis reduced.
(c) Because
of thelack of outflow of the boundarylayerat the tips,
tip-stallingis prevented.
10.11 Forward SweeP
General
The benefitsof wing sweepcan be achievedby sweepingthe wing backwards or forwards,yet only in recentyearshas the forward sweptwing
The reasonfor this
(FSW), becomea seriousalternativeto sweepback.
load.
under
liesin the behaviourof wing structures
lie in the sub/transonicregime.Taking the 70,'h
The main advantages
chordline as the averageposition for a shock-waveto form when the
critical Mach numberis approached,the sweepangleof this chordline
influenceswavedrag.
The FSW can maintainthe samechord-linesweepas the swept-back
this with less
wing (SBW) but due to a geometricadvantage,achieves.
from this
accruing
the
advantages
lead'ingedge sweepand enjoys
subsonically.
The deciiion to employ FSW or SBW will depend,inter alia, on the
for the design.Due to betterlift/drag ratio in the
speedregimeenvisaged
sub-soniiand neariransonicspeedrange- typical combat air patrol
fuel consumptionis improvedoverthe sBw. For a high speedsupersonic
drag is a disadvantage.
interceptionthe highersupersonic
Wing Flexure
Undir flexural load the airflow seesa steadyincreasein effectiveangleof
attackfrom root to tip, the oppositeeffectto aft-sweep.Under g loading,
lift will be increasedit the tipi, leadingto pitch-upas the centreof pressuremovesforwards.Additionally, the increasedangleof attack at the
tips now leadsto increasedwing flexure,which itself leadsto increased
effectiveangleof attack at the tips. The result of this aeroelasticdivergenceis likely to be structuralfailure of the wing, so it is not surprising
124
WINC PLANFORMS
that sweepbackwasconsideredto be a better option until comparatively
recently.What changedthe situationwasthe developmentof carbonfibre
technology,which made possiblecontrolled wing twist under load; so
allowing the effectdescribedto be eliminated.
Vortex Generation
Figure 10-16showsthe differencein ram'shorn vortexbehaviour.Inthe
sweptforward designthe ram's horn vortex developsinwardstowardsthe
root, not outwardstowardsthe tips.
There will, of course,still be vorticesfrom the wing tips, but theseno
longer reinforceand aggravatethe ram's horn vortex, which now lies
alongthefuselage,
or slightlymoreoutboardif a smallsectionof thewing
root is sweptback.
Figure10-16Comparison
of Ram'sHorn VortexBehaviour
Stalling
A sweptforwardwing will tend to stall at the root first. This stall can be
controlledin a numberof ways.Sincea conventionaltailplanewould tend
to lie in a vortex,the popularoption is to combineforward sweepwith a
canardforeplane.Downwashfrom a carefullyplacedcanardcan delay
root stall,and eventhe vorticesfrom the canardcan be usedto energise
theairflowoverinboardsectionsof thewing,maintaininglift up to higher
anglesof attack.
give bettercontrol at the stall as aileron
The root-stallcharacteristics
controlis retained,but may incur a penaltyin directionalcontrol asthefin
andrudderareactingin the chaoticturbulencefrom the root separation.
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
10.12 DeltaWings
Tailless Delta
on aircraft using this type of wing the angle of attack is controlled by
movement of the trailing edge of the wing: an upward movement
produces a downward force on the trailing edgeand soincreasesthe angle
of attack. When compared with an identical wing which usesa separate
tailplane to control the angle of attack, the taillessdelta revealstwo main
differences:
(a) The C.-u* is reduced
(b) The stalling angle is increased
Reduction of Cr,-.*
The chord line of a wing is defined as being a straight line joining the
leading edgeto the trailing edge.If a given wing/aerofoil combination has
a hinged tiailing edge for use as an elevator, then when the trailing edge
is moved from one angular position to another, the effective aerofoil
section of the wing has been changed.
When such a wing reachesits stalling angle in level flight, the trailing
edge elevator must be raised to impose a downward force on
thJtrailing edgeto maintain the wing at the required angle of attack. The
raised trailingidge has two effects:it deflectsupwards the airflow passing
over it and so reducesthe downwash (the amount of which is proportional
to the lift) and it reducesthe extent both of the low-pressurearea over the
upper surface of the wing and the high-pressure area below, thereby
lowering the Ct.
The curvesof Fig I 0- 17 show that any sectionwith a raisedtrailing edge
must suffer a decreasedCrmaxcoffiParedto the basic section.
Increasein Stalling Angle
The planform of the delta wing givesit an inherently low aspctratio and
therefore a high stalling angle and a marked nose-up attitude at the stall
in level flight. If a given delta wing is used without a tailplane, ie the
trailing edge is used as an elevator, then the stalling angle is higher than
when the samewing is used in conjunction with a tailplane'
All elsebeing equal (planform, aspect ratio, area, etc), changesin the
amount of cambei (by altering the angular setting of the trailing edge
elevator) do not affect the stalling angle appreciably. That is, the angle
between the chord line and the direction of the airflow remains constant
when at maximum cr irrespective of the setting of the hinged trailing
edge. Figure 10-18illustrates this point and it can be seenthat for both
'tailed' and 'tailless' aircraft the stalling angle is the same when
the
measuredon the foregoing principles.
126
WINC PLANFORMS
aS
Basic Section
Angle of Attack
Figure10-17 Effectof HingedTrailingEdgeon CL-""and StallingAngle.
It is however, normal practice and convention to measurethe stalling

anglewith referenceto the chord line obtained when the moveable trailing
edge is in the neutral position, and not to assumea new chord line with
each change in trailing edge movement. When the stalling angle is
measured with referenceto the conventional fixed chord line, it can be
seenfrom Fig l0-18 that the angleis greater.Figure l0-18 also showsthat,
becausethe wing proper is set at a greater angle at the stall when a trailing
edgeelevator is used,the fuselageattitude is more nose-up,giving a more
exaggeratedattitude at the stall in level flight.
Since it is easierto refer to angle of attack against a fixed chord line,
the basic chord line is always used as the referencedatum. This convention is the reasonfor the apparently greater stalling anglesof taillessdelta
wings; it is perhaps a more realistic method, as the pilot is invariably
aware of the increasedattitude of his aircraft relative to the horizontal.
but is not always aware of increasesin the angle of attack.
PRINCIPLES
OF FLIGHT
of StallingAngle.
Figure10-18 Comparison
The C" Curve

Reference to Fig 10-3 shows that the peak of the curve for the lift
coefficient is very flat and shows little variation of Cr over a comparatively wide range of angles.This very mild stalling behaviour enablesthe
delta wing to be flown at an angle of attack considerably higher than that
of the C.-u*, possibly with no ill effects other than the very marked
increasein the drag. The flat peak denotesa gradual stall, with a consequent gradual loss of lift as the stalling angle is exceeded.
The Slender Delta
The slender delta provides low drag at supersonicspeedsbecauseof its
low aspect ratio. This, combined with a sharp leading edge, produces
leading edge separation at low angles of attack. Paradoxically, this is
encouraged.Up to now the vortex so produced has been an embarrassment as it is unstable, varies greatly with angle of attack, causesbuffet,
increasesdrag and decreasesC.-u*. By careful design,however, the vortex
can be controlled and used to advantage.
Vortex Lift
The vortex on a slenderdelta is different in character from that on a wing
of higher aspectratio (greaterthan 3). On the slenderdelta the vortex will
cover the whole leading edgefrom root to tip, rather than start at the tip
and travel inwards at higher anglesof attack. Its behaviour is therefore
more predictable, and, as it is present during all aspects of flight, the
following characteristicsmay be exploited:
(i)
Leading edge flow separation causesCP to be situated nearer

mid-chord. Hence there will be less difference between CP
subsonic and CP supersonicthan before, and longitudinal
stability is thereby improved.
128
WINCPLANFORMS
(ii) The vortex core is a region of low pressure,thereforean
increasein Cr maj be expected.
On the conventionaldeltathis
cannotbe utilizedas the vortex seldomapproachesanywhere
nearthe wing root and most of its energyappearsin the wake
behindthe wing, whereit produceshigh induceddrag.On the
slenderdelta the low pressurein the vortex is situatedabove
the wing and can resultin an increasein Cr_of asmuch as 30oh
underfavourableconditions.
10.13 Polymorphic
Aircraft
General
An aircraft which is designedto fly at supersonicspeedsmost of the time
usually has poor low speed characteristicswhich have to be accepted,
although various high lift devicesare available for reducing take-off and
landing speedsand improving the low speedhandling qualities. In order
to achieve the desired high speed performance, the aircraft has thin
symmetric wing sectionsand highly swept or delta wing planforms; these
wings are very inefficient at low speedswhere unswept wing planforms
and camberedwing sectionsare required.
In the caseof an aircraft which is required to be operated efficiently at
both high and low speeds,variable wing sweepis a desirablefeature to be
incorporated in the design. The wings can thereby be swept back when
the aircraft is being flown at high speedsand swept forward again
when flying at low speeds.Such aircraft are often labelled 'swing wing'.
Stability and Control Problems
When the wing of an aircraft is swung backwards the aerodynamic centre
moves rearwards. The CG of the aircraft also moves back at the same
time, but, since most of the weight of an aircraft is concentrated in the
fuselage,the CG movement is lessthan that of the aerodynamic centre.
The rearwards movement of the aerodynamic centre produces a nosedown changeof trim and an increasein the longitudinal static stability of
the aircraft. Additional up-elevator is required to trim the aircraft and
this results in additional drag called 'trim drag'. This extra drag can form
a relatively large part of the total drag of an aircraft at supersonicspeeds
and it is essentialthat it should be kept as small aspossible.Various design
methods are available for reducing or eliminating the trim changes
produced by sweepingthe wings.
Wing Translation
Theierodynamic centrecan be movedforward againby translatingthe
wing forwirds asit is sweptback.This methodinvolvesextraweightand
structuralcomplications.
Movement
The aircraftcanbe designedso that the CG movesrearwardsin stepwith
the aerodynamiccentreby mountingsomeweightin the form of engines,
etc at the wing tips.As, however,engineswould haveto swivelto remain
alignedwithlhe airflow, additionalweight an{ 9!her complications
r.rirlt. Another possiblemethodof movingthe CG is by transferringfuel
to suitabletrim tanksin the rear fuselage'
LeadingEdgeFillet andPivot Position
outboard
canbeobtainedby positioningthepivot point
AnothJr soi"ution
'glove'. The
a
called
fillet,
edge
leading
a
fixed,
of the fuselageinside
optimum pivot position for minimum movementof the CP dependson
the wing planfoim, but it is usuallyabout 20o/oout along the mid-span.
HowevJr,the fixed glove-fairingpresentsa highly sweptportion of the
Glove-FairingPivot
S m a l lC PS h i f t
Figure10-19Movement
WINCPLANFORMS
minimum-sweep
spanat low-speed,
settings.This incursthe undesirable
penaltiesthat variablegeometryis designedto overcome.A compromise
betweensweepingthe wholewing and a long glovegiving the minimum
CP shift,is usuallyadoptedasindicatedin Fig 10-19.
10.14CanardDesign
A canard-typeconfigurationis onewhichhasa foreplanelocatedforward
of thewinginsteadof themoreconventionaltailplane.On an aircraftwith
a long slenderfuselage
with enginesmountedin thetail and a CG position
well aft, this layout has the obvious geometricadvantageof a longer
momentarm.This enablesthe stabilityand trim requirements
to be satisforeplane
fied by a
of smallerareathan that of a tailplane.The trim drag
problemwill alsobe reducedbecause,
at high speeds,an up-loadwill be
requiredon theforeplaneto trim the aircraft.Thereare,however,certain
with this layout:
disadvantages
(a) Stalling problems
On a 'conventional'tailplaneconfiguration,the wing stallsbeforethe
tailplane, and longitudinal control and stability are maintainedat
the stall. On a canardlayout, if the wing stallsfirst, stabilityis lost, but
if the foreplanestallsfirst thencontrol is lost and the maximumvalueof
Cr is reduced.Onepossiblesolutionis to usea canardsurfaceand a wing
trailing edgeflap in combination,with one surfaceactingas a trimming
device,and the other as a control. Alternatively,an auxiliaryhorizontal
tailplaneat the rearmay be usedfor trim and control at low speed.
(b) InterferenceProblems
In the sameway as the airflow from the wing interfereswith the tail unit
on the conventionaltail layout, so the airflow from the foreplaneinterfereswith the flow around the main wing and vertical fin in a canard
layout.This can causea reductionin lift on the main wing, and can also
result in stability problems.The interferencewith the vertical fin can
causea markedreductionin directionalstaticstabilityat high anglesof
attack.The stabilitymay be improvedby employingtwin verticalfins in
placeof the singlecontrol verticalfin.
10.15 Summary
Planform Considerations
Planformis the geometricalshapeof the wing whenviewedfrom above,
and it largelydeterminesthe amount of lift and drag obtainablefrom a
givenarea,it alsohasa pronouncedeffecton the stallingangleof attack.
131
OFFLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
Aspectratio (A) is found by dividing the squareof the wing spanby the
areaof the wing:
o =F.* o'v#&a;a
are affectedby aspectratio:

The followingwing characteristics
a) Induceddrag is inverselyproportionalto aspectratio'
b) The reducedeffectiveangle of attack of very low aspectratio

wingscan delaythe stall considerably.(Somedeltawingshave
stallingangleup to 40')'
no measurable
In the aerodynamicsense,the ellipticalwing is the most efficientplanform becaur. ih. uniformity both of lift coefficientand of downwash
incursthe leastinduceddragfor a givenaspectratio.
Any swept-backplanform suffers a marked drop in CI--u*when
compired with an unsweptwing with the samesignificantparameters;
alsoihe boundarylayer tendsto changedirectionand flow towardsthe
tips.
The spanwisedrift of the boundarylayer setsup a.tendencytowards
tip stallingon sweptwing aircraft.This may be alleviatedby the useof
one or more of the following:
(a)
Boundarylayerfences.
(b)
Leadingedgeslots.
(c)
BoundarylaYersuction.
(d)
BoundarylaYerblowing.
(e)
Vortex generators.
(0
Leadingedgeextension.
(g)
Leadingedgenotch.
The factorseffectingpitch-upare:
(i)
LongitudinalinstabilitY.
movement.
(iD Centreof Pressure
(iii) Changeof downwashover the tailplane.
(iv) Washoutdue to flexure.
of a crescentwing are:
The advantages
(a) The criticaldrag riseMach numberis raised.
:
It
I
(b) The peakdrag riseis reduced.

132
WINCPLANFORMS
(c) Becauseof the lack of outflow of the boundarylayer at
the tips, tip-stallingis prevented.
A FSW stallsat the roor first, prolongingaileroncontrol.The configuration may offer an advantagein L/D ratio over sweepbackin the
appropriatespeedrange.
Whencomparedwith a deltawhichusesa separatetailplaneto control
angleof attack,the taillessdelta revealstwo main differences:
(a) The Cr--* is reduced.
(b) The stallingangleis increased.
Vortex lift hasthe followingcharacteristics:
(i)
Leadingedgeflow separationcausesthe CP to besituated

nearerto midchord.
The vortexcore is a regionoflow pressure,thereforean
increasein Cs may be expected.
The canard configuration has the following

disadvantages:
advantages and
Advantages
(a)
The control surface is ahead of any shocks which may

form on the mainplane.
(b) On an aircraft with a long slenderfuselagewith engines

mountedin the tail and the CG positionwell aft, theforeplanehasthe advantageof a long momentarm.
(c)
The stabilityand trim requirementscan be satisfiedwith

a smallerforeplanearea.
(d) Because
upJoadswill be required,the trim dragproblem
is reduced.
Disadvantages
(i)
If the wing stallsfirst stabilityis lost.
(ii)
If the foreplanestallsfirst control is lost.
(iiD In the sameway as the airflow from the wing interferes

with the tail unit on the conventionaltail layout, so the
airflowfrom theforeplaneinterfereswith theflow around
themainwing andverticalfin of thecanardconfiguration.
133
FFLICHT
P R I N C I P LO
ES
I Sweptwingsareusedon someaircrafttypesto:
a) delayM".',.
b) giveimprovedlow speedhandling.
c) producegreaterlift for a givenwing area.
d) reducelateralstabilitY
Refpara10.8
Induced drag is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
proportional to asPectratio.
inversely proportional to aspectratio.
inversely proportional to lift.
proportional to sPeed.
Refpara 10.5
The higher the aspectratio of a wing:

a)
b)
c)
d)
the greater the induced drag.

the greater the rigidity of the wing.
the lower the stalling angle.
the greater the vortex drag.
Ref Para10.5
Spanwisemovementof airflow on a sweptwing may be reducedby:
a) high camberedivings.
b) non slottedtrailing edgeflaPs.
angleofincidence.
c) increased
d) wing fences.
Ref para 10.8
As a swept wing passesthrough the transonic speedrange:
a)
b)
c)
d)
a nose up pitching moment is experienced.

the wing C of P moves forward.
the wing C of G moves aft.
a nose up trim will be required.
Ref para10.10
134
,r1
FlightControls
11.1 Introduction
The purpose of flight controls is to enablethe aircraft to be rotated about
its three axes.Control in pitch is exercisedby elevators which move the
aircraft about its lateral axis, control in roll by the ailerons which move
the aircraft about its longitudinal axis and control in yaw by the rudder
which moves the aircraft about its normal. or vertical. axis. Controls
usually take the form of hinged aerofoils mounted on the trailing edge of
the wing, the horizontal stabiliser or tailplane, and the rudder normally
attached to the trailing edge of the fin. When they are moved they alter
the effectivecamber of the section to which they are attached and therefore alter the amount of lift being generated.Within reason,controls are
positioned as far away as possiblefrom the axis of rotation about which
they are effective, so that they create the largest moment for the least
amount of force.
When a control surface is deflectedthe forces acting on it try to return
it to the neutral position. The total returning force is the lift force on the
control surface multiplied by the distance of the centre of pressure of
the control surfaceto the hinge. This force is called the hinge moment and
is shownin Fis 11-1.
Hinge
Moment
+i
xF
Hinge t\4oment= FX
F i g u r e11 - 1
Obviouslythis hingemomenthas to be opposedby someforce if the

control is to remain deflected,and this force is suppliedby the pilot
13s
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
through the control column or rudder bar. The degreeof lift force generated by a control surface will depend on the square of the speed,and as
the speedincreasesit can reach considerablemagnitude. Becauseof this,
on any but very low speedaircraft the amount of control force required
will be far too high for easyoperation of the controls without some form
of assistance.This assistanceis called aerodynamic control balancing.
Various forms of aerodynamic balancing are used, and they all operate
on the principle of either reducing the hinge moment or producing a force
which will help to balance the hinge moment by acting in the opposite
direction. The various types of aerodynamic balancing used on current
aircraft are discussedin the following paragraphs:
1 1 . 2 I n s etH i n g e
This type of aerodynamic balancingis commonly usedon modern aircraft
and athieves its reduction of control column loading by positioning the
hinge so that part of the control surfaceleading edgemoves in the opposite direction to the remainder of the control surface. Fig 1l-2 shows an
example of this type of aerodynamic balance.
--!
I
I
X
InsetHinge
11-2
Figure
Care must be taken in the design of this type of balance to ensurethat

the centre of pressure is not too near the hinge line. When a control
surfaceis defleited its centreof pressuremoves forward, and if the margin
betweenthe centre of pressureand the tringe line is too small it is possible
that the centre of pressurewill move forward of the hinge line and so lead
to the surface overbalancing.
FLIGHTCONTROLS
1 1 . 3 H o r n B a la n ce
In this type of systema portion of the control surfaceitself acts ahead of
the hinge line, so producing a force in opposition to the hinge moment.
Such a balanceis shown in Fis 11-3.
HornBalance
F i g u r e11 - 3
11 . 4 B a l a n c e
Ta b
This type of system has the same effect as the horn balance but is
produced by attaching a small aerofoil to the trailing edge of the control
surface and is arranged so that when the control surface is moved the
balance tab is automatically moved in the opposite direction
mechanically. (Fig I l-a)
F i g u r e11 - 4
The balancetab, althoughquite small,is acting at a considerable

distancefrom the hingeline of the main control surface,and therefore
producesa considerableassistance
in moving it. There is someloss of
overalleffectof the control in this systemand alsoa smalldrag penalty
is incurred. It should be noted that when the main control surfaceis
deflectedthe tab movesin the oppositedirection,but, the chord line of
the tab remainsparallelto the chordline of the fixed surfaceas shownin
Fig ll-4. This balancedmotion achievesthe requiredobjectiveswhilst
avoidingany excessive
dragpenalties.
137
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
11.5 ServoTab
This type of tab is usedon largersubsonicaircraft as an aid to the pilot
in overcomingheavycontrol loads.with this type of systemwhen the
controlcolumnis movedthetab is movedby thecontrolinput whichthen
causesthe airflow to be deflectedwhich in turn movesthe control surface.
The systemis shownin Fig I l-5.
Controlrod
Servotab
down
'!"'Freeto pivot
Frompilot'scontrol
Figure11-5 Servotab oPeration
Tab
11.6 Anti-Balance
theloadon thecontrolcolumnwhen
Thistypeof tabis usedto increase
in a similarway
automatically
It operates
isdeflected.
thecontrolsurface
to a balance tab but in the opposite direction. The anti-balance tab is
often used to increasethe'Feel'in a control system.Fig 1l-6 shows an
example of an anti-balancetab.
F i g u r e1 1 - 6
138
FLICHT
CONTROLS
The typesof aerodynamicbalancediscussedso far are quite suitable
for slow and medium speedaircraft but when consideringthe requirementsof high speedaircraft they are no longerof very much value.The
problemsinvolved in flying at high true airspeedsand high Mach
numbersmake it virtually impossiblefor satisfactorycontrol to be
achievedby manual controls.In view of this, power operationof
all control surfacesis desirable.In a conventionalcontrol systemthe
control columnforcesfelt by the pilot conveysa considerable
amountof
information on control deflectionbut as there is no direct connection
betweenthe control columnand the control surfacein a poweredcontrol
system,the 'Feel' felt on the control column due to the air loadsacting
upon it will not be felt as in a manual system.In order to maintain
accuratecontrol ofthe aircraftandto preventoverstressing
ofthe aircraft
artificialfeelmust be provided.As the control surfaceis beingoperated
by hydraulicpowerthetabsaspreviouslymentionedwill havelittle or no
effect.An exampleof a simplepower operatedcontrol systemis shown
in Fig11-7.
F i g u r e11 - 7
11.7 lnternal Balance

Although fairly commonly used,this form of aerodynamic balanceis not
obvious becauseit is contained within the contour of the parent control
surface.When the control is moved, a pressure difference is generated
betweenupper and lower surfaces.This difference will try to deflect the
beak aheadof the hinge-line on the control producing a partial balancing
moment. The effectivenessis controlled in some casesby venting air
pressureabove and below the beak, seeFig I 1-8.
139
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLICHT
F l e x i b l eS e a l
H i n g eL i n e
F i g u r e1 1 - B
11.8 MassBalance
Problemscan arise with oscillatorymovementsof the control surface
causedby variationin themomentof thecontrol surfacecentreof gravity
aboutthe hinge.This variationcanbe broughtaboutthroughthe flexing
of the entire structurewhen a load is appliedto it. It is possibleunder
for theseoscillationsto be divergentand cause
somecircumstances
completefailureof the structure.
'Flutter', and as the main factor
T[is form of oscillationis called
involvedis the momentof the centreof gravityaboutthe control surface
hinge,the possibilityof it beingreducedby movingthe centreof gravity
nearerto the hingeline must be considered.This is usuallyachievedby
addingweightsto the control surfaceso positionedthat they act in front
of the hingeline and therebymove the control surfacecentreof gravity
to, or just in froni of, the hingeline, as shownin Fig 1l-8. On modern
aircraftthe massbalanceweightsare normallyhousedinsidethe control
surfacestructure.
Weightof aileron
Massbalance
i
.l
Figure1 -9
140
FLIGHT
CONTROLS
It wasstatedpreviouslythat eachsetof controlsoperatesaroundone of
the threeaxesof movement.
Elevators
controltheaircraftaboutthelateralaxis,that isinpitch.
Ailerons
control the aircraft about the lonsitudinal axis.that is

in roll.
Rudder
controlsthe aircraft about the normal or verticalaxis.

that is in yaw.
Unfortunatelythe operationof somecontrolscausesadditionalmovement about another axis, and the most obviousexampleof this is the
effect of aileronswhich are designedto give a rolling moment about
thelongitudinalaxis.In orderto achievethis,oneaileronmustbelowered
and the other one raised,and the onewhich is loweredwill alwayscause
additionaldrag and so producea yawingmomentin the oppositedirection to the intendedturn. This effectis called'adverseaileronyaw', and
it is mostmarkedwhenailerondeflectionanglesarelarge,usuallyat low
Therearetwo methodsof correctingthe condition,thefirst being
speeds.
differentialailerons.In this system(Fig l1-10a)the up-goingaileron
movesthrougha greateranglethanthedown-goingand thedragis,therefore, balancedon eachsideof the aircraft.The other methodis by useof
whatis calleda Friseaileron,(seeFig I l-l0b).
\
I L.rg"
upwaro
movemen
D i f f e r e n t i aal i l e r o n s
.l
F i g u r e 1 - 1 0a
F i g u r e11 - 1 0b
The excessdrag from ailerons is generatedby the down-going aileron

so in the Frise system the up-going aileron is mechanically arranged to
project below the undersurfaceof the wing when raised. This createsthe
additional drag to balancethe increaseddrag of the down-going aileron.
Frise ailerons are not in generaluse today as, in particular, they are most
unsuited to high speedaircraft.
141
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
11.9 Adverseroll tendencydue to rudder deflection

to diagram(a) of Fig 11-l l, showsthat if therudderis deflected
Reference
the lift force generatedby the fin and rudder will yaw the
right,
the
to
right. The fin will have a centreof pressureas doesthe
io
the
aircraft
wing, and dependingon the verticalCistancebetweenthe fin centreof
p.esiureand lhe centreof gravityon the longitudinalaxisof the aircraft,
iherewill be a tendencyfor the aircraftto roll to the left in this case.
A tall fin will clearlyproducea greatertendencyto roll than a short
one,(diagram(b) Fig 1l-11).
in view of the fact that the
to roll' is emphasised,
The phrase'tendency
from the fastermoving
lift
roll is normally totally maskedby the extra
wing.Clearlythismaskingeffectwill dependupon thespanof theaircraft;
a greaterspanproducingmorelift, (diagram(c) Fig I l-11).
lf, otr certain aircraft(eg Britanniaand Belfast),thereis a noticeable
roll due to yaw, this can be eliminatedby interlinkageof aileronsand
rudder.It is therefore,most unlikelythat any pilot would evernoticeany
adverseroll whenyawingthe aircraft.
'o'
a,r1
ft/"ll
\t/ |
-__y ul
< _t_f_
L----------J
l'---_----! |
\
\
\ /
q
.-l
LJ-{
--all
.l
Figure 1-11
I
l
The wing structureof an aircraft is flexible and the varying loads

brought about by operatinga control surfacewill tend to twist or bend
Thiseflectis particularlynoticeablewith ailerons,andwhen
thest-ructure.
an aileronis deflecteddownwardsthe resultantforceon theaileronpasses
through its centreof pressureasillustratedin Fig ll-lZThii forcehasa momentaboutthemain structuralmemberof thewing
its angleof incidence.This
which will causethe wing to twist, decreasing
will, of course,decreasethe lift being produced by the wing whe-n
the iequired effect of deflectingthe aileron down is to increasethe lift.
If the wing twist is suchthat thesetwo forcescanceleachother out then
142
FLICHTCONTROLS
Reduction
in CL
Dueto WingTwisl
wino I
rwisj
I
-t
\
F i g u rIe1 - 1 2
the aileron will have no effect, and if the processis continued further the
application of aileron will producea roll in the oppositedirection to that
intended. The force generatedby the aileron is proportional to the square
of the speed,so this effect will be most marked at high speeds.In fact, the
effect can be so marked that on somehigh speedtransport aircraft above
a certain speedthe ailerons are.lockedand roll control is vestedin spoilers
alone.
One of the major problems associatedwith the useof the conventional
elevator is that the application of trim in the longitudinal plane reduces
the effect of the elevator control. Trim tabs will be dealt with in the next
section, but suffice it to say here that to allow an aircraft to be flown
straight and level a certain amount of continuous deflection of the
elevator may be necessary,this deflection being maintained by a trim tab.
Whichever way the elevator is deflectedits full range of movement will be
consequentlyreduced in this direction.
On largejet transport aircraft the changesin longitudinal trim due both
to use of fuel and to speed changes can be large, and a conventional
elevator and trim tab systemis not suitable. It is replacedby a horizontal
stabiliserwhich can move in its own right. Operated by electro-hydraulic
jacks it produces a very powerful leverageabout the lateral axis to cope
with the very large trim changesinvolved. It has the immense advantage
that, whatever position it is set in, it leavesfull elevator control available.
These days, the idea of the all-moving tail plane has been adopted for
use on low speedaircraft as well. The additional force that it generates
enables a smaller horizontal stabiliser to be used with a consequent
reduction in weight and drag.
Mention was made earlier of a type of control called a spoiler. As
shown in Fig 11-13spoilers are panels in the upper surfacesof the wing
that are hinged at their leading edgesand can be openedand shut so that,
when open they reduce the amount of lift being generatedby the wing.
143
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
Spoiler .
-\
F i g u r e l l - 13 S p o i l e r s
Spoilershavethreenormal uses:
(t
When operatedthrough small anglesindependentlyon

onewing or the othertheycanbeusedto augmentaileron
control, or evenreplaceit.
(iD On landing,after the aircraft has actuallycontactedthe

runway,if the spoilerson both wingsarefully openedthe
'lift dumping'.
lift is completelydestroyed;This is called
It enablestheaircraftto sitmorehrmly on thegroundand
thus reducethe distancerequiredto stop and it is alsoof
valuein crosswindlandings.
considerable
(iii) Lift dumpingin high levelflight.
in
Modern jet transportaircraft haveextremelylow drag coeffrcients
the cruisingconfiguration.This makesthem somewhatreluctantto slow
and on someaircraft airbrakesarefitted.
down from high speeds,
An airbrakeusuallyconsistsof a flat sectionwhich can be raisedinto
the airflow so that it createsthe maximumamount of drag whilst at the
sametime not damagingthe lift. Airbrakes are not all that common
however,and resortusuallyhas to be madeto other meansof slowing
down rapidly when required.One of the most commonlyusedmethods
is the loweringof the main gearto createadditionaldrag, but on some
aircraft reversethrust from the enginesmay be selectedin the air aswell
ason the ground.
Someaircraft, notably delta wing types,have a systemwherebythe
aileronsand elevatorsare combinedinto one control calledan elevon.
Whenthe control columnis movedbackwardsor forwardsboth surfaces
moveup and down together,but whenthecontrol columnis movedsideways one elevon comes up and the other goes down. Another
combinationof controlsis that of elevatorand rudder to producea V or
butterflv tail. This is thencalleda ruddervator.
FLIGHTCONTROLS
Single
Rudder
Partial
S p a nT a b
Elevator
( S i n g l eS p a n l
Stabilizer
Double Slotted
Flap
Flaperon
Flap
Aileron
Figure11-14 LargeJetControlSurfaces
and
High LiftDevices
In theexampleaircraftshownin Fig I l-14 all primary control surfaces

are operatedby hydraulic activatorswhich, in turn, are controlledby
electronicsignalsoriginatingfrom the flight deckcontrolsand the auto
flight systems.
Aileron operationis confinedto the lower airspeedenvelopeand at
high speedthe aileronsarelockedout of actionand lateral(Roll) control
is a functionof the spoilersand flaperons.This later functionis to reduce
wing flexureat high speed.
Someaircraft employ two setsof ailerons,one outboard for lower
speedsand the other inboard for high speed.In suchcasesthe outboard
aileronsare lockedout at high speeds.
I Control about the lateral axis is achievedby the:
a) rudder.
b) ailerons and rudder.
c) ailerons.
d) elevators.
Ref para I 1.8
145
P R I N C I P L EOSF F L I G H T
The purpose of a balance tab is to:
a) increasecontrol surfacefeel.
b) reduce the load on the control surface.
c) reduce the load at the control column.
d) reduce control surface flutter.
Ref para ll.4
When a control surface is deflectedwhich is fitted with horn balance:
a) the horn is located aft of the hinge line.
b) the horn moves in the opposite direction to the surface.
c) the horn acts aft of the hinge line.
d) the control column loads will be increased.
Ref para I 1.3
On a differential aileron control system the:
a) up and down going ailerons move through the same angle of deflection.
b) up-going aileron moves through a greater angle of deflection.
c) up-going aileron leading edgeprotrudes below the wing undersurface.
d) down-going aileron moves through a greater angle of deflection.
Refpara I 1.8
Frise ailerons are fitted to:
a) increasethe rate ofroll.
b) reduce control column loads.
c) combat adverseaileron Yaw.
d) prevent overloading of the control system.
Ref para 11.8
146
12
Tabs
12.1 Introduction
Tabs are small aerofoil sectionshingedto the trailing edgesof control
surfaces.
The main purposesfor which they are usedare:
(a)
Trimming
(b)
Aerodynamicbalancing
(c)
Servooperation
For aircraft in flight to be in equilibrium,the momentsabout eachof

the threeaxesof the aircraftmustbalance.If theydo not balancethen an
additionalforcemustbesuppliedby deflectionof thecontrolsto keepthe
aircraft in equilibrium.It is most undesirablethat continuouscontrol
surfacedeflectionbeappliedat thecontrolcolumnbecause
of thephysical
effort involved,and to overcomethis problem trimming tabs are
provided.The actionof a trim tab is bestunderstoodby consideringthe
situationwith an aircraftwhich tendsto flv nosedown continuouslv.To
rabNeutrar
,
pirotHordsErevatorinRequired
Position for Level Flight with Force= CP x d
Tab Trimmed
No Stick ForceSince CP x d = cp x D
Figure
F1
^:
Principleof the Tab

147
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
correct this the elevator must be deflectedupwards and maintained in this
position. To bring this about, the trim tab attached to the trailing edgeof
the elevator is deflected downwards as shown in Fig 12-1. This diagram
indicatesthat the total force exerteddownwards by the elevator is Fl x d,
the distanceof the elevator'scentreof pressurefrom its hinge, A. The trim
tab, having been moved in the opposite direction, exerts a force F2
upwards through its centre of pressure,and although this force is smaller
than Fl it has a much longer arm from the hinge of the main control, B,
therefore its total moment is able to balance out that of the main control.
It should be noted that the action of the trim tab also slightly reducesthe
effect of the main control surface. The final force exerted is F1-F2 and
this will necessitatea slightly larger deflection of the main control surface
with a subsequentsmall increasein drag.
Trimming tabs are normally controlled either by trim wheels in the
cockpit or, alternatively, by electrical switchesactivating motors. These
controls are usually arranged so that they act in a natural sense,that is to
say with the control wheel moved in the direction in which the aircraft is
required to be trimmed, ie aircraft nose high, move the top of control
wheel forward towards the nose to bring it down. On some light aircraft
fixed trimming tabs may be fitted and they consist of small sheetsof metal
which can be bent permanently to correct known out-of-trim forces, but
they cannot, of course, be adjusted in flight. As with any other aerodynamic control surfacethe effect of a trim tab is proportional to the square
of the speed.At high speedsvery small trim adjustmentswill achievethe
desired effect whereas at low speedsa considerable movement may be
required. Figl2-2(a) and l2-2(b).
To Trim
Wheel
FixedTab.
Ad.iustable
on the Ground
T o C o n t r o lC o l u m n
Fixed Tab.
Trim Tab
Figure12-2(b)
F i g u r e1 2 - 2( a )
Balancetabs are a form to easethe load on the controls.They are

mechanicallyarrangedto move in the oppositedirection to the main
control surface,asillustratedin Fig l2-3(a).The operationof this typeof
tab is completelyautomatic, and as can be seenfrom the diagram it
producesa forcein the oppositedirectionto the main control surfacebut
at the costof producinga smallreductionin control effectiveness.
148
TABS
Figure12-3(b)
F i g u r e| 2 - 3 ( a )
In someaircraft, far from requiring assistance

in moving a control
surfaceagainstthe aerodynamicloads,the hingemoment is too small.
This resultsin very low loadsat the control column,a lack of feeland the
possibilityof over-stressing
the airframedue to an excessive
inadvertent
deflectionofthe control surface.It occursbecause
ofthe hingebeingtoo
closeto the centreof pressureof the control surface.In orderto improve
the situation an anti-balancetab is fitted which operatesin the same
directionas the control surface,suchasillustratedin Fig 12-3(b).
On someaircraft,aerodynamicbalanceis not considerednecessary
at
low speedsbut is requiredat higherspeedswhen the aerodynamicloads
increaseconsiderably.
A type of balancetab to dealwith this situationis
calleda springtab. The bisis of the systemis illustratedin Fig l2-4.The
movementof the control column is transmittedto a lever pivoted on
the main control surfacebut not directly operatingit. Operationof the
surfaceis through springs,and at low aerodynamicloadsthe movement
of this pivot arm is transmittedto the main control surfacethrough the
springs,and no alterationin the geometrybetweenthe pivot and balance
tab takesplace.When the aerodynamicloadsincrease,however,transmissionof control columnmovement,via the pivot arm, to the control
surfacecompresses
thespring.This upsetsthegeometryof thesystemand
bringsinto operationthebalancetab on thetrailingedge,thusgivingsome
assistance
in movingthe control surface.
Cgnt_rol
Input
Control
lnput
The Servo-Tab System
Figure'12-4
F i g u r e1 2 - 5
149
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
When manualcontrolsareusedto operatevery largecontrol surfaces
the loads involved, evenwith the assistanceof balancetabs, may be
unacceptable.Under thesecircumstancesservotabs are usedto operate
the control surfaces.A servotab is a small aerofoil section,onceagain
attachedto the trailing edgeof the main control surface,whichis directly
operatedby the control column.In this systemthereis no directconnection betweenthe control column and the main control surfaces,the
control column only operatingthe servotabs. As the systemdepends
entirelyupon aerodynamicforces,any movementof the control column
whenthe aircraftis on the groundwill produceno control surfacemovement,only the servotabswill move.This systemis illustratedin Fig l2-5.
in pre-flightchecksfor full and freemovementof
Caremustbe exercised
tabsare used.
when
servo
control surfaces
mention was made of the variable
flight
controls,
In the sectionon
In
this
systemthe incidenceof the entire
incidencehorizontalstabiliser.
as
required,
to adjustfor longitudinaltrim
horizontalstabiliseris changed,
a
conventional
trim tab. The horizontal
requirementsinsteadof using
point
and moved by electropivoted
about
its
central
stabiliseris
jacks.
which this systemcan
trim
in
longitudinal
The change
hydraulic
and in
very
considerable,
tab,
is
exert,comparedto an ordinarytrimming
a
runaway
the
result
of
viewof this precautionshaveto be takenagainst
in the operatingsystem,winding the horizontalstabilisereitherfully up
or fully down. This is usuallyachievedby havingthe left and right halves
of the horizontal stabiliserentirely separatefrom each other and each
This will obviatethe possibility
systems.
beingoperatedby two separated
running
away
togetherand alsoproducesa
the
stabilizer
of both sidesof
partial
failure of one of the electroof
multipleredundancyin the event
on
longitudinal
trimming is a necessity
hydraulicsystems.This form of
is
jet
and
trim
of
elevator
large aircraft wherethe conventionalsystem
large
frrstly,
by,
about
unableto copewith thelargetrim changesbrought
centreof gravity movements;secondly,wide operatingspeedrangeand,
that as the elevatoris not
finally, high lift devices.It will be remembered
purposes
the full range of
of
trimming,
way
for
the
deflectedin any
control is alwaysavailablefrom it.
On supersonicaircraft, for instance,Concorde,the deflectionof
is undesirabledue
speeds
controlsurfacesat highsubsonicand supersonic
to theaerodynamiceffectsinvolved.Oneway of overcomingthisproblem
is to usefuel in varioustanks to trim the aircraft. When passingfrom
subsonicto supersonicspeedsthereis a markedrearwardmovementof
thecentreof pressurewhichcancausea severeout-of-trimsituation.This
can be overcomeby pumping fuel to move the centreof gravity to be
andin Concordethis is in fact done
coincidentwith thecentreof pressure,
automatically.
TABS
12.2 Control locks
All aircraftrequiresomemechanicalmeansof lockingthe controlsin the
neutral position when on the ground to preventpossibledamagefrom
gustsin high windswhenparked.On smalleraircraft thesemay take the
form of wood or metaldeviceswhich canbe slid overthecontrol surfaces
to lock themin positionand preventtheir movement.On largeraircraft
it is common practiceto have internal locking systems,but obviously
either type of control lock must be removedprior to take-off. In this
contextit shouldbe bornein mind that externallocksfitted to a servotab
operatingsystemwill permit the movementof the control columnon the
flight deck with the locks in placeas only the tabs are being operated,
therefore,on aircraftwith this typeof equipmentit is essentialto confirm
that any externallocksfitted havebeenremoved.Most modernaircraft
with hydraulicallyoperatedcontrolshaveintegralhydrauliclocks.
Chapter 12: Test Yourself.

1 Theeffectiveness
of a trim tab is:
a)proportional
to thespeed.
b) proportionalto the squareofthe speed.
c) inverselyproportionalto the squareofthe speed.
d) not proportionalto the speedin any way.
Ref para l2.l
2 If the hingemomentof a control surfaceis too small:
a) balancetabsmay be required.
b) horn balancemay be required.
c) an anti balancemay be required.
d) massbalancewill be requiredto reducecontrol columnloads.
Ref para 12.1
3 A fixed trim tab may be adjustedby:
a) an engineeronly.
b) a typeratedpilot.
c) a testpilot only.
d) any qualifiedpilot.
Refparal2.l
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLICHT
Ifan aircraftis flying noseheavy,to return the aircraftto levelflight requires:
a) elevatortrim wheelaft, tab up movement.
b) elevatortrim wheelforward, tab up movement.
c) elevatortrim wheelaft, tab down movement.
d) elevatortrim wheelforward,tab down movement.
Ref para 12.l
Whena control surfaceis deflectedthe antibalancetab will:
a) movein the oppositedirectionand increasecontrolcolumnloadscontrol columnloads.
b) movein the oppositedirectionand decrease
c) movein the samedirectionand increasecontrol columnloads.
d) movein the samedirectionand reducecontrol columnloads.
Refpara 12.1
tI
152
13
High Lift Devices

13.1 Introduction
High lift devicesare incorporated on aircraft wings to reducethe distance
required for take-off and landing. The distanceused by an aircraft either
to take off or land dependson the speedinvolved, and this speedin its
turn is related to the stalling speed of the aircraft. An aircraft cannot
approach to land at a speedbelow its stalling speed,therefore the higher
the stalling speedthe longer the distancerequired to complete the landing
run. The sameappliesfor take-off, the aircraft not being able to leave the
ground until it has achieved flying speed, ie above the stalling speed,
therefore the lower the stalling speedunder thesecircumstancesthe less
distanceis required. All high lift devicesproduce the sameeffect, that is
to increasethe coefficient of lift of the wine. The methods used for
increasingthe Cr are:
(a)
Flaps
(b)
Slats
(c)
Boundary layer control
A flap is a hinged aerofoil section which can be mechanically lowered

either from the trailing edge or the leading edge of a wing. The effect of
lowering a flap is to increase the overall camber of the wing and thus
increasingthe coefficient of lift. Some types of flap also increasethe wing
area, thus augmenting the additional camber and producing even more
lift.
13.2 Typesof Flap

There are many different types of flap in common use and some of the
more usual ones are shown below.
(a) Plain flap.
The plain flap (Fig l3-l) is an aerofoil sectionmerely hingeing down from
the trailingedgeof the wing.
153
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
'13-1
Figure
(b) Split fiap.

As illustratedin Fig l3-2, the split flap hingesdown from the undersurfaceof the trailing edge.This hasthe advantagethat the camberof the
uppersurfaceof the wing is not disturbedbut, at the sametime the flap
amountof drag.
will producea considerable
.l
Figure3-2
(c) Slotted flap.

One of the problems with flaps in general is that at large flap anglesthe
air tends to separateaway from the flap upper surface,thus reducing its
effectiveness.This can be minimised by putting a small slot between the
trailing edge of the wing and the leading edge of the flap, as illustrated in
Fig l3-3. The slot produces a venturi which speedsthe air up, thus giving
it more kinetic energy and enabling it to follow the contour of the flap
farther rearwards before breaking away.
I
SLOTTED FLAP
F i g u r e1 3 - 3
154
H I G HL I F TD E V I C E S
(d) Fowlerflap.
The Fowler flap, in addition to moving downwards,also movesrearwardsin sectionswhenit is lowered.Whilst increasingthe camberof the
wing this also enlargesthe wing area,and will result in a very large
increasein the coefficientof lift. It is quite usualfor Fowler flapsalsoto
haveslats,and thistypeis illustratedin Fig l3-4.
FOWLERFLAP
F i g u r e1 3 - 4
(e) Kruegerflap.
This is a leadingedgeflap which increases
the leadingedgecamber,and
is illustratedin Fig l3-5.
.:_
/KRUEGER
FLAP
F i g u r e1 3 - 5
(f) Leadingedgedroop.
In this systemthe entireleadingedgeof thewing is mechanicallylowered,
as shownin Fig 13-6.This has the effectof increasingthe leadingedge
camber.As can be imagined,the mechanismfor lowering the leading
edgemust be extremelycomplicated,and this type of high lift devicehas
not found seneralfavour.
LEADING
EDGEDROOP
F i g u r e1 3 - 6
155
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
The increasein cambercausedby the loweringof flapsproducesmore lift
from the given wing section.If we considerstraight and level flight, on
lowering of flaps the greaterlift will enableeither the angleof attack to
be reducedor the speedto be reduced.Generallyspeaking,a compromise
is reachedbetweenthesetwo factors and the speedis considerably
reducedwith a small reduction in the angle of attack. The effect of
loweringflapsis not constantfrom zeroangledown to their full deployment.A selectionof flapsdownto approximately30'will givea verylarge
increasein lift for a comparativelysmall penalty in drag, but further
lowering, to say 60o,will not produce much increasein lift but will
producea considerable
increasein drag. When consideringthe distance
requiredfor take-offone might first feelthat the lowestspeedfor takeoff would givethe shortestdistance,the whole effectbeingachievedby
largeflap angle.
Unfortunately,as alreadymentioned,alarge flap angleincursa very
high drag penaltywhich reducesthe accelerationof the aircraft, so you
would end up with a rather long distancebeforeyou could reach the
unstickspeed.A lowerflap anglewould givea higherunstickspeed,but,
with lessdrag, better accelerationwould be achieved.In practice,a
compromiseis reachedbetweenthesetwo limits and a flap settingof
in the regionof l0' to l2o is usedfor take-ofl-.
somewhere
The distancerequiredto land dependson the touch-downspeed.The
lowestspeedwill be givenby selectionof full flap, this giving the lowest
stallingspeed.In addition the selectionof full flap will producea very
the aircraft
amountof dragwhich will assistin decelerating
considerable
on landing.
13.3 Leadingedgeslots
(//a
t---J
Slot open
Slot closed
Figure13-7
The leadingedgeslot,when opened,preventsthe airflow from breaking

awayat the normal stallingangle.This allows the wing to be used at
higheranglesof attack,giving higher Cr and so lower speeds.Seealso
F i s sl 3 - 1 4& l 3 - 1 5 .
I
I
lL
156
HICH LIFTDEVICES
Angle of Aftack
F i g u r e1 3 - B
13.4 Slats
Slatsarelift augmentationdevicesthat take the form of a smallauxiliary
aerofoil,highlycambered,adjacentto theleadingedgeof a wing (forming
a slot),usually along the completespan.They are adjustable,control
beingeitherautomaticor manualby the pilot. The effecton the Cr and
angleof stall/attackmay be seenin Fig l3-9, Cr being increasedby
approximately700/o,
and angleof stall by somel0o.
o
o
o
10
15
20
Angleof Attack
F i g u r e1 3 - 9
157
The effectof the slat is to prolong the lift curveby delayingthe stall
until a higherangleof attack.Whenoperatingathigh anglesof attackthe
slatis genlratinga high lift coefficientbecauseof its markedcamber.The
is to flattenthemarkedpeakof thelow
resultint actionlaerodynamically,
pressureenvelope,chinging it to one.with a more gradualgradient,as
may be seenin Fig t:-tO-.This flatteningmeansthat the boundarylayer
does not undergo the suddenthickening due to negotiatingthe steep
peak, so retainingits
pressure
'.r.rgy gradieit that existedbehind the former
a'nd enabling it to penetratealmost the full chord before
separating.
'Figure"l3-10
also showsthat althoughthe_pressuredistributionis
regionis unchangedor evenincreased'
flatte"r,theareaof thelow pressure
by the air
ftr. purrugeof the boundarylayer over the wing is as-sisted
flowing thiough the slot (betweenslat and leadingedge)accelerating
throug-hthe vinturi effect, thus adding to the kinetic energy and so
helpingit to penetrateagainstthe adversepressuregradient'
A
t
\\
WithSlal
NoSlat
Figure13-10Effectof Slatson Pressure

Distribution
To summarisethe foregoingthus far, slatshavethe effectof:

(a) Delayingseparationuntil an angleof attackof 25'to 28o
is attained,during which time:
(b) Lift coeflicienthas increasedby approximately70%' lt
shouldbe evidentthat the stallingspeedof a slattedwing
is significantlyreduced,eg if an unslattedwing stallsat
100f t, its fully slattedcounterpartwould stallat approximately80 kt. The exactamountof reductiondependson
the length of leadingedgecoveredby the slat, and the
chord of the slat.
I
I
L
158
HICHLIFTDEVICES
Automatic slatsare often locatedat the wing leadingedgein front of
aileronsin order to increasethe stalling angleby being iutomatically
extendedwhen the aileronmovesdown. Normally the actionof a down
goingaileronwill reducethe stallingangleof the wing at that point.
13.5 SlatControl
sinceslatsare of useonly at high anglesof attack,somemethodmust be
usedto fair the slatswith theleadingedge,thusprecludingincreased
drag
at normal flight configuration.
If theslatsaresmallandthedragis negligibletheymay befixed,ie nonautomatic.Large slats,however,are invariablyof the automatictype.
They are usuallyof the mechanicalcontrol,hydraulicallyactuatedkind,
their selectionbeingmechanicallymatchedto the seleciionof flap, the
linkagebeingsuchthat slatsareextendedbeforeflap andbeforetheipeed
reachesthat usedfor approachand landing.The reverseoccurson takeoff, whenslatsarefully in only afterflap is up, andat thecorrectairspeed.
In the eventof malfunctioneitherof flapsor slats,it is usualto be able
to 'split' the linkagebetweenthe two, thus isolatingthe inoperative
control, allowing the serviceable
unit to operatenormally. on some
aircraftthe stallsensingunit may be usedto extendslatsonly if the sensor
is activatedby approachto the stall angle.Figure l3-lL illustratesa
typicalslatsegmentof thekind morecommonto aircraftwith sweptback
wlngs.
SlatCIosed
Slat.pen-\
Figure
1 3 - 11
13.6 The BoundaryLayer

This may be bestdescribedas the layer of air extendingfrom the surface
to lhe point whereno drageffectis discernible,or, that regionof flow in
which the speedis lessthan 99ohof the free streamflow, and it usually
existsin two forms - laminar and turbulent.Figure l3-12 illustratesthi
boundarylayer.
159
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
Distancefrom
S u r f a c e0 . 7 i n
Laminar Sub-LaYer
F i g u r1e3 - 1 -
In general,the flow at the front of a body is laminar and becomesturbulent at a point some distance along the surface, known as the transition
point. From Fig 13-10it may be seenthat the rate of changeof velocity is
greaterat the surfacein the turbulent flow than in the laminar. This higher
iate ofchange ofvelocity results in greater surfacefriction drag.
It can be ieen that the nature of the boundary layer is a controlling
factor in the determination of surface friction drag, but more important
still, the nature of the boundary layer also determinesthe maximum lift
coefficient, the stalling characteristicsof a wing, the value of form drag
and, to some extent, the high speedcharacteristicsof an aircraft'
The bound ary layer cannot be eliminated entirely, though some
measure of control of it may be afforded by wing devices,one already
dealt with being LE slots (Fig l3-7), which have the effect of re-energising
the boundary layer. Others are:
(D
Boundary layer fencesto restrict the boundary layer

outflow. They also check the spanwisegrowth of the
alongtheleadingedges.
separation'bubble'
(iD Boundarylayer suction;suitablyplacedsuctionpoints
draw off the weakenedlayer so that a new high energy

layercan takeits place.
(iiD Boundarylayer blowing;high velocityair injectedinto
the boundarylayerto increaseits energy.
the boundarylayer,
thesere-energise
(iv) Vortex generators;
and are usuallypositionedaheadof control surfaces.
160
HICHLIFTDEVICES
(v)
LE extension,also known as 'sawtooth' LE - restricts

the outwardflow of the boundarylayer.
(vi)
LE notch, has the sameeffectas LE extension.These

forms (v) and (vi), are dealtwith in a later chapter.
Slatand slottedflaD
Figure13-13SIatand SlottedFlap
Combination
13.7 Slatand SlottedFlapCombination

The combinationshown at Fig 13-13will provide a75oh increaseof
maximum lift with a basic aerofoil angle at max lift of 25". This will
providemore control of the boundarylayer with an increaseof camber
andwing area.The pitchingmomentthat a trailingedgeflap will produce
on its own can be neutralised.
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
"\u"/
' Y.
...
,,"1 Shown Fully Extended
F i g u r e1 3 - 14
Max Cr
4.0 at 28'
? n
,*\'"Y
.9
E
H ,.0
=
1.0
---1-
-'"4%'r"iZ
Max C.
1. 6 a t 1 5 "
*''q
5'
10'
15.
Angle of Attack
Figure
1 3 - 15
Max Ct
2.4 at 22"
HICH LIFTDEVICES
.:::=::::li=:::::::::t::::..._=
==-=-.i=::_=:-=NS\\\::::':::--==
--==-===:N
:::-:::::-::.-:=S=SN\.\::\=I-----------11-----
Figure13-16 Effectof slot on airflow over an aerofoil

at largeangleof attack
I A Fowler flap is one which when selected:
a) increasescamber and wing area.
b) increaseswing area only.
c) increasescamber only.
d) dumps lift only.
Refpara13.2
2 When the angle of attack of a wing is increased:
a) the boundary layer becomesthinner.
b) the transition point moves aft.
c) the boundary layer thickens.
d) boundary layer thicknessis unaffected.
Refpara13.6
163
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
As the angleof attackof a wing is increasedin levelflight:
a) laminar flow at the front of the wing becomesturbulentat the separation
point.
b) laminar flow at the front of the wing becomesturbulent at the transition
point.
c) boundarylayerseparationat the leadingedge.
d) boundarylayerseparationwill not occurbelowthe stallingangle.
Ref para 13.6
employedon a wing:
Vortex generators
a) ensurethat the root endstallsfirst.
b) ensurethat the tip stallsfirst.
c) arelocatednearthe trailing edge.
d) arenormallypositionedaheadof control surfaces.
Ref para
A vortex generator is designedto:
!
II
i
I
a) enhancewing tip vortices.

b) re-energisethe boundary layer.
c) delay M",i
d) increaseair pressure.
Refpara13.6
:
{
74
Stabifity
14.1 fntroduction
The studyof aircraftstabilitycan
comprex,
so for the
purposeof thischapterthesubject be.extremery
witt..ue
greatrysimpiiT;;
stabilityis
first definedin senirarterms"'ro-ii'#'r
thenbe ,..n r,o, the aircraft
designer
incorpo"rates
stabilityinto an aircraft.
"/,4.2
Definitions
To quoteNewtons's
firstraw again,'abodywil tendto remain
in a state
of restor of uniformmotion;Jii
JiJturueoby externarforce,.where
sucha bodyis sodisturbed,
rr"uiiiti ir".on".rn.d with themotion
of the
bodvaftertheexternar
for;; h;;;;rr.19y"0. rr,i, moiron
may
best
be
considered
undertwoheadind,ri;il r;"b'ity and
dynamicstabilitv:
14.3 StaticStability
Staticstabilitvdescribes
the immediate
reactionof the bodyfoilowing
disturbance'
(bynamic.
rt"bilit ;;;t'.,
ttr.
reaction.)
The
response
is related,ill..::qry1,9e"1-1Om subsequent
state
by
use
of
the
terms
positive,
neutrarandnegative
itauifity.posrtrve
a return
towardsthepositionprior to distuib'ance, stabilityindicates
neutrar
,turJ'ityiG
taking
up
oI a newpositionof a constantrerationsli;
i; irrl""ri'eril, whereas
negativestab'itv indicatesu "o"ii"ro;ilil.rs";;;
iJ;l1i" originar
state.Theexampres.s{royn
rtrourorr.lp-i"o
makethiscrear.Notethatin
colloquial
usage
positiu.ry
riuur.'u'J,iigu,ru.rv
- ---o
,t"tr" "[ uruurry
smbre
and unstablerespectively.-
@
O
tntt^rstabirity
N"* position
Figure14-t StaticStabilityAnalogies
Inordertorelatetheresponseofabodytoitsinitialstateofequilibrium
'bowl and ball' in illusthe
it is usefulat this ,tug" ti * the analogyof
to a
initialposition
i."ir"" i."#ig i+-riiiitte Uattisdisplitedfromits
its
6"ff will describe staticstabilitv' If it
new posirion,the ..;;;;';iitt.

it is said to have positive
tendsto roll back ;;";;; "lgir.r position,
from its original position it has
stability;if it tendst; ;;ll f;rih., fouy
in iti newpositionit has
nesativestability,urrOif tn. ball tendsio remain
neitral stabilitY.
Neoative SloPe
Ne!ative Static StabilitY
Neutral Static StabilitY

Positive SloPe
Positive Static StabilitY
Disturbance
Removed
Figure14-2Craphof the Degreesof Stability
Theconceptofstability.degree,canbeexpressedmoreusefullyi
plotttd on t!: vertical axis'
graphicalform of e:ii ti-Z iisplacement'
volts'etc'No scaleis given
may referto anysyst;, egdistance'moments'
to hours, or
uury from microseconds
to the horizontal ".il;hl;--uy
*ii#ffi
the
to measure
in thisformmakesit possible
theresponse
twoparameters:
""tr;ie;;.. or ttluitityusingthefollowing
the responseis
(a) The sign of the slopeindicateswhether
favourible or unfavourable'
staticstability'
(b) The slopeof the curveis a measureof the
of theaircraftto disturbanceit is necesBeforeconsideringtheresponse
into componentsaboutthe three
saryto resolvett. ,n?i# of'ti'. uit"tuft
throughtheCG'
body u*.t Passing
AXIS
MOTION (ABOUT
THE AXIS)
STABILITY
Longitudinal(x)
Lateral (Y)
Normal (z)
Roll(P)
Pitch(q)
Yaw(r)
Lateral
Longitudinal
Directional
(Weathercock)
166
'i
t
STABILITY
It is important to realizethat the motion involvedis angularvelocity
and the disturbanceassumedis an angular displace-"rri. In the first
instanceit is helpful to considerthesecomponentsseparatelyalthough,
in other than straightand levelflight, the motion of t^heajrciaftis m6re
complex,egin a levelturn the aircraftis pitchingand yawing.
14.4 DirectionalStability
A simpleapproachboth to directionaland to longitudinalstabilityis to
considera simpledart. The flightsor vanesof a da--rt
ensurethat th-edart
is alignedwith the flight path. consider first the pair of vaneswhich
impart positivedirectionalstability;thesemay bi referredto as the
verticalstabilizers.Figurel4-3 showihow a displicementin yaw through
an angleB, resultingin sideslip,producesa restbring-o-.rrt and, thei6fore, positivedirectional(staticfstability.Two poin"tsare worth noting:
(a) The dart rotatesaboutits centreof gravity (CG).
(b) The momentumof the dart momentarilycarriesit along
the originalpath, ie the relativeairflow Ref,is equaland
oppositeto the velocltyof the dart.
(ptanView)
Figure14_3The positiveStabilityof a dart
_.An aerodynamicl!up" like a fuselagemay be unstable.Referenceto

Figl4-4 showsthat this occurswhenthecentieof pressure(cp) is in front
of the CG.
167
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Force
II
I
Flight Path
I
I
I
Unstable
Moment
(Plan View)
Figure14-4The NegativeStaticStabilityof a
BodyWhen CP is aheadof CC'
Streamline
fin to prodrtce
It is necessary,therefore,to add a vertical stabilizeror
the^CP
p*iti".
Or*ctional rt"Uifii' and this has the effect of moving
"U.t
keel surface
iliAitt. CC iFig i+ii. rit generalit may be said that the
while the keel
"iifr.-f"*f"ge aheld of itre Cb has an unsiableinfluence, the rudder
surfacebehind ttre CC trasa stableinfluence.(For simplicity,
to be'locked'.)
is considered
Restoring
Moment
(PlanView)
Stable
Influence
Unstable
lnfluence
( S i d eV i e w )
a fin
F i g u r e14-5PositiveStaticStabilitywith the additionof
.t6B
I
+
{
STABILITY
1
I
I
given displacement,
and thereforesideslipangle,the degreeof
Io.. u
positivestabilitywill dependuponthesizeof theresiorinlgmoment,which
is determinedmainly by:
(a) Designof the verticalstabilizer.
(b) The momentarm.
Designof the Fin and Rudder
The vertical stabilizeris a symmetricalaerofoil and it will producean
aerodynamicforceat positiveanglesof attack.In sideslip,thLrefore,the
total sideforceon the fin and rudderwill be proportionaiio the lift coefficient and the area.The lift coefficientwill uary, ason any aerofoil,with
aspectratio and sweepback.
At high anglesof sideslipit is possiblefor the
fin to stalland to avoidthis thedesigneicanincreasethe siallingangleby
increasingthe sweepback,decreasingthe aspectratio or uy ritting
multiple fins of low aspectratio.
MomentArm
The positionof the centreof gravity,and thereforethe distancebetween
the cG and thecentreof pressureof theverticalstabilizer,may be within
the control of the pilot. Forward movementof the cG will lengthenthe
momentarm therebyincreasingthe directionalstability:rearwardmovement will decrease
the directionalstability
LongitudinalStability
The analogy of the dart can be usedwith advantageto introduce the
conceptof staticlongitudinalstability.In this casethe dart is viewedfrom
the side and the horizontalstabilizersproducea pitching moment (M)
tendingto reducethe displacement
in pitch. on anaircraff, the tailplane
and elevatorsperform the functionsof a horizontal stabilizerand the
conclusionsreachedwill be equallyvalid. For simplicity,the explanation
is limited to stick-fixedstaticstability,ie elevatorjlocked.
Figure l4-6a showsa wing with the cp forward of the cG bv the
distancex. A nose-updisplacement
will increasethe aneleof atiack.
increasethe
(L)
by
the
amount
dr
and increaseth. i,ing pitching
-lift
momentby the amountdrx. The resultis to worsenthe nose-ufdisplacel
ment: an unstableeffect.In the figure at b, the cp is aft of the cG and
thewing momentresultingfrom a displacement
in pitchwill bestabilizing
in its effect.
The pitchingmomentis alsoaffectedby the movementof the cp with
angleof attackand it follows,therefore,that the relativepositionsof the
cP and cG determinewhetherthe wings have a stableor unstable
character.
169
OF FLICFlT
PRINCIPLES
a UnstableContribution
Figure14-6 Variationsin the Positionof CPand CG'
influTaking the worst case,therefore,the wing may h-avean unstable

this'
overcome
to
and the horizoniutrtuUitlr.r must be designed
ence
-'-ih;rilplified
diajia- i" eig 14-7illustrateJthegrowth of a systemof
in angleof
forces0". to OirpfuJ.-.ni in f,itctr, in this casean increase
(and all
wing
attack.The tail contributionmust overcomethe unstable
;lir;;j
--il; ";r;ibutions for positivestaticlongitudinalstability..
attack
0.g... of poritiu.'stability for a givenchangein angleof
tail
the
and
O.p.rO, ipon the differencebetweenihe wing moment
(Total
Lift,.il)y
ie
,n-J.."t, this differenceis calledthe restoringmoment,
- (Total Lift*i,r)x = net pitchingmoment'
The main faltors whiih affectlongitudinalstabilityare:
(a) Designof the tailPlane'
(b) Positionof the CG.
170
STABILITY
Tailplane
Wing
x =+_1<___---
y ________-->]
ldL t"ir
AircraftCG
Lrait
Figure
14-7Changes
in Forces
andMoments
dueto a Small
Nose-up
(da)
Displacement
Design of the Tailplane
The whole-tailplaneis an aerofoil and the lift force resulting from a change
in angle of attack will be proportional to the cr,u'and the lrea. The incriment in lift from the tail will depend upon the slope of its c. curve and
will also be affectedby the downwash angle behindlhe wing (if the downw-ashchangeswith angle of attack). The tail design features which may
affect the restoring moment are therefore:
(a) Distance from CP,.l to CG (moment arm).
(b) Tail Area. The total lift provided by the wing = Cr__i,eQS
and the total lift produced by the tail = Cr,.lqS.
For a given aerofoil of given planform, the cr- varies with angle of
attack at a constant q (EAS). Therefore in comparing tail momentJwith
wing moments, it is necessaryonly to compare the reipective area(s)and
moment arms (CG position).
(c) Tail Volume.The productof the tailplaneareax moment
arm is known as the tail volume. The ratio of the tail

1olum9to the wing volumeis the main parameterusedby
thedesignerin determiningthelongitudinalstabilityof the
aircraft.
(d) Planform.The slopeof the Cr curvefor a lifting surfaceis
affectedby aspectratio, taper and sweepback.

The planform of the tailplanethereforeaffectsthe changein Cr_
with changein angleof attack causedby a disturbance.
171
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
For example,the Cr incrementswill be lower on a sweptback tail than on one of rectangularplanform.
(e) Wing Downwash.Wherea disturbancein angleof attack
resultsin a changein the angle of downwashfrom the
wings, the effectiveangle of attack at the tail is also
changed.For example,if the aircraft is displacednose-up
and the downwashangleis increased,then the effective
angleof attack on the tailplaneis reduced.The total tail
lift will not be asgreatasit would otherwisehavebeenand
so the restoringmoment is reduced.This decreasein
stability is compensatedfor by moving the CG farther
forward,therebyincreasingthe momentarm.
Positionof the CG
The positionof the CG may be marginallyunder the control of the pilot
of thi aircraft. From Frg l4-7 it can be seenthat its positionaffectsthe
ratio of the tail momentto the wing momentand thereforethe degreeof
stability.In particular:
the positivestability.
a) Aft movementof the CG decreases
b) Forward movementof the CG increasesthe positive
stability.
Becausethe position of the cG affectsthe positive longitudinal
in pitch. The aerodystability,it alsoaffectsthe handlingcharacteristics
namic pitching moment producedby deflectingthe elevatorsmust
override the restoring moment arising from the aircraft's positive
stability,ie the stabilitythat opposesmanoeuvre.For a given elevator
in an aircraftwith a forward CG
deflectiontherewill be a smallresponse
in an aircraft with an aft CG (less
(stablecondition)and a largeresponse
stablecondition).
NeutralPoint
EveryaircraftFlightcrewManual givesthepermittedrangeof movement
of thL cG. The forward positionis determinedmainly by the degreeof
manoeuvrabilityrequiredin the particular aircraft type. of greater
importanceto thepilot is the aft limit for the cG. If the cG is movedaft,
ouisidethe permittedlimits, a positionwill eventuallybe reachedwhere
In
is equalto the tail moment(decreasing).
the wing moment(increasing)
is
therefore
the
aircraft
is
zero
and
moment
restoring
the
this situation
neutrallystable.This positionof the CG is known as the neutralpolnt.
The aft limit for the CG, as quoted in the flightcrew manual, is safely
172
STABILIry
forward of the neutral point. If the loading limits for the aircraft are
exceeded,.it
is possibleto havethe cG positi,onon, or aft of, the neutral
point. This unsafesituationis aggravatedwhen the controlsare allowed
to 'trail', ie stickfree.
CG Margin (Stick Fixed)
The larger the tail area,the larger the tail moment, and so the farther aft
is the cG position at which the aircraft becomesneutrally stable.The
distancethrough which the cG canbemovedaft from the quoteddatum,
to reachthe neutralpoint, is calledthe static(or cG) margin,and is an
indication of the degreeof longitudinal stability. The gr6aterthe cG
margin, the greaterthe stability, ega training or fighter aircraft, may have
a marginof a few inchesbut a largepassenger
aircraftmay havea margin
ofa few feet.
Figure
14-8t',.#X|]:ilenr Curves
and
14.5 Trim Point (Stick Fixed)

Figure l4-8 (the brokenline) showsa curveof aircraftpitchingmoment
coefficient.cv, aboutthe cG vs cr. Thezero-liftpitchingmorient, cro,
is negativefor most aerofoil sections.The negaiiveslo-peof the curve
denotesstability,ega pitch-up,increasingthe cr_,generaGs
a nose-down
restoringmomentabout the cG. The curvewill however,nevercrossthe
positivehorizontalaxis,whichmeansthat thereis no valueof cr at which
the aircraft will be in trim (wherec*= a).If cvo can be madepositive
by introducinga nose-uppitchingmoment,then the curveis raiied (the
solidline) and the aircraftcanbe broughtinto trim. This canbe achieved
by settingthe tailplaneat a lower angleof incidencethan the mainplane
to generatea down-load.
173
LongitudinalDihedral
Theiifferencebetweenthetwo settingsis known aslongitudinaldihedral,
but hasno effecton thebasicstabilityof theaircraft.Varyingthetailplane
incidenceonly shiftsthe trim point. As the Cl vs angleof attackcurvesof
the mainplaneand tailplanemay be regardedas straightlines(up to the
stall),the variation in lift per degreealpha change,doesnot dependon
the initial incidencesettingsnor on their difference.
ElevatorAngle to Trim
If the angleof attackis increasedfrom the trim point, the aircraft'slongitudinal stabilitywill producea stable,nose-downpitchingmoment.To
maintainthe new angleof attack,an equaland oppositemoment,noseup, will be requiredfrom the elevators.When this is achieved,by raising_
ie at the higher angleof
the elevators,a new trim point is established,
attackon themainplane,thetail hasbeenmadeto producea greaternoseup momentby alteiingtheeffectivecamberon thetail. Thereverseapplies
when the angleof attack on the mainplaneis reduced.This does not
usuallyaffectthe positivelongitudinalstability.
AerodynamicCentre
writes
In texi bookson stabilityit is usublto find that the aerodynamicist
'aerodynamiccentre'(AC) rather than of the centreof pressure.
of the
The AC is a point within the aerofoil,and usuallyaheadof the CP, about
of angleof attack;it is a convewhichthepitchingmomentis independent
nient andialculated datum for the mathematicaltreatmentof stability
and control.
Stick-FreeLongitudinalStabiltty
If the elevatoris allowedto trail freely,the changein tail forcedue to a
displacementwill dependon the position taken up by the floating
elevator.Usuallythe elevatorwill trail with the relativeairflow and this
will reducethetail moment.Under theseconditions,with thetail moment
reduced.the balancebetweenthe tail and wing momentsis changedand,
therefore,the positionfor the CG, about which the momentsare equal,
will be farthef forward, becausethe lesseffectivetail requiresa longer
momentarm.That is, theneutralpoint is fartherforward,soreducingthe
stick-freeCG margin.Sincethis margin is a measureof the longitudinal
stabilityit follows that when the elevatorsare allowedto float free the
longitudinalstabilityis reduced.
ManoeuvreStability (SteadyManoeuvresOnly)
In theprecedingpaiagraphsthelongitudinalstaticstabilitywasdiscussed
with respectto a-disturbancein incidencefrom the condition of trimmed
levelflight. A pilot must alsobe ableto hold an aircraft in a manoeuvre
174
STABILITY
and the designerhasto provideadequateelevatorcontrol appropriateto
the role of the aircraft.
Thefollowingparagraphsconsidertheeffectson an aircraftof a disturbancein angleof attack and normal acceleration.
It shouldbe carefully
notedthat the initial conditionis, as before,steadylevelflight.
The differencebetweenstatic and manoeuvrestability is that
manoeuvrestability dealswith a disturbancein angleof attack (u) and
load factor (n) occurringat constantspeed,whereasstaticstabilitydeals
with a disturbancein angleof attackat constantload factor (n = l).
If an aircraft is trimmedto fly straightand level(the initial condition,
Fig l4-9a),and is then climbed,dived and pulled out of the dive so that
at the bottom of the pull-out it is at its original trimmedvaluesof speed
and height(Fig 1a-9b),thentheaircraftcanbeconsideredashavingbeen
'disturbed'fromits
initial conditionin two wavs.both contributinsto the
overallmanoeuvrestability:
(a) It now has a greaterangleofattack to producethe extra
lift requiredto maintain a curved flight path (L = nW).
This is the sameas the static stabilitv contribution
discussed
earlier.
(b) It hasa nose-uprotation about its CG equalto the rate of
rotation about its centreof pull-out.
a L e v e lF l i g h t
Figure14-9 Forces
Actingon an Aircraftin
a SteadyManoeuvre.
b Pull-Oul
175
the aircraft is rotatingabout its own CG, the tailplanecan be
Because
consideredto be moving downwardsrelativeto the air or, alternatively,
the air can be consideredto be moving upwardsrelativeto the tailplane.
In eithercasetheeffectiveangleof attackof thetailplanewill beincreased
(seeFig la-10); thus the manoeuvrestability is greaterthan the static
stabilityin levelflight.
Vertical
Velocity
in TailplaneAngleof Attack
Figure14-10Increase
dueto itsVerticalVelocitY
If the aircraft's longitudinal stability is greater in manoeuvre, the

position of the CG which achievesneutral stability will be farther aft than
ior the straight and level case. This position of the CG is called the
manoeuvre pbint (corresponding to the neutral poir't) and the distance
betweenthe-CG and the manoeuvrepoint is called the manoeuvre margin.
It will be seenthat for a given position of the CG, the manoeuvre margin is
greaterthan the CG margin.
Effect of Altitude
ionsider an aircraft flying at two different heights at the sameIAS (ie the
same value of Cr) and apply the same load factor in each case' Since
the TAS is higher at altitude, the rate of pitch of the aircraft decreases
(Centripetal force = MV' = MdiV, where 0) = rate of rotation).
r
Figure 14-11shows the decreasein tailplane angle of attack-dueto the
higher TAS and lower rate of pitch. At the same IAS, the higher aircraft
has less manoeuvre stability because of the reduction in the tailplane
contribution.
176
STABILITY
C h a n g ei n
Angle of Attack
a t H i g hA l t i t u d e
C h a n g ei n
Angle of Attack
at Low Altitude
Low Altitude
H i g hA l t i t u d e
Figure
Effectof Altitude on the Tailplane

Contribution
Lateral Stability (Stick Fixed)

When an aircraft is disturbedin roll about its longitudinal axis the angle
of attack of the down-going wing is increasedand that on the up-going
rving is decreased(seeFig 14-12).As long as the aircraft is not near the
stall the differencein incidenceproducesan increaseof lift on the downgoing wing and a decreaseon the up-going wing. The rolling moment
producedopposesthe initial disturbanceand resultsin a 'damping-inroll'
effect.Sincethe damping-inroll effectis proportional to the rate of roll of
the aircraft, it cannot bring the aircraft back to the wings-levelposition;
thus in the absenceof any other levellingforce, an aircraft disturbed in
roll would remain with the wings banked. Therefore, by virtue of the
damping-in roll effect, an aircraft possesses
neutral static stability with
respectto an angle of bank disturbance.However, when an aircraft is
disturbed laterally it experiencesnot only a rolling motion but also
a sideslippingmotion causedby the inclination of the lift vector (seeFig
t4-12).
The forcesarisingon the different parts of the aircraft as a resultof the
sideslipproducesa rolling moment tending to restore the aircraft to its
initial wings-levelposition. It is seenthereforethat the lateral static
stability of an aircraft reactsto the sideslipvelocity(v)or a displacement
rn yaw (seeFig l4-13b). This effect has iconsideiable influence on the
long-termresponse(lateraldynamic stability) of the aircraft.
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
Components
U p - G o i n gW i n g
Angle of Attack Reduced
Roll
Components
D o w n - G o i n gW i n g
Angle of Attack Increased
Figure
14-12Damping-in
RollEffect
Each different part of the aircraft will contribute towards the overall
value of the lateral static stability and these contributions will be of
different magnitude depending on the condition of flight anci the particular configuration of the aircraft. The more important of these
contributions are:
(a) Wing contribution due to:
(D Dihedral.
(ii) Sweepback.
(b) Wing/fuselageinterference.
(c) Fuselageand fin contribution.
(d) Undercarriage, flap and power effects.
178
STABILITY
Resultant
Force
Producing
Sideslip
\----\---\
sioeslip
velocity(v)
Figure14-.1
3 VectorActionof Forwardand SideslipVelocities
Dihedral Effect
Dihedral effect can be explained in a number of ways but the explanation
illustrated at Fig 14-14 has the advantage of relating dihedral effect to
sideslip angle. In Fig 14-14 it will be seen that due to the geometric
dihedral, a point nearer the wing tip (A or D) is higher than a point
inboard (B or C). A sideslip to starboard will therefore produce the
following effects:
(a) Starboard Wing. The relative airflow will crossthe wing
(from A to B) at an angleequalto the sideslipangle.Since

point A is higherthan point B this will producethe same
effectasraisingthe leadingedgeand loweringthe trailing
edge,ie increasingthe angleof attack. So long as the
aircraft is not flying near the stalling speedthe lift will
increase.
(b) Port Wing.By a similar argument,the angleof attack on
the port wing will reduceand its lift decrease.
A stablerolling momentis thus producedwheneversideslipis present
(ie following a disturbancein yaw). This contribution dependson the
dihedralangleand slopeof the lift curve.It will thereforealsodependon
aspectratio beingincreasedwith an increasein effectivechord length.It
is alsoaffectedby wing taper.This is one of the most important contributions to the overall stability and, for this reason,the lateral static
179
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
'dihedral effect' although there are a
stabilityis often referred to as the
number of other important contributions.
A HigherthanBIncreasedAngle
of Attack
Effect
14-14Dihedral
Figure
Sweepback
wing sweepback has the effect of producing an additional.stabilizing
'effective'
dihedral of the wing (10" of
contiibution thus increasing the
sweephas about the sameeffect as 1" of dihedral). Figure 14-15illustrates
the principal effects on wing geometry of sideslip.
(a) Angte of Sweep.The component of flow acceleratedby these"iion-ca-ber is proportional to the cosineof the angle of
sweep. The angle of sweep of the leading (low) wing is
decreasedand that of the trailing wing is increasedby the
sideslip angle. A stable rolling moment is therefore
induced bY the sidesliP.
(b) Aspect Ratio. On the leading (low) wing the span is
increased and the chord decreased,which is an effective
increase in aspect ratio. On the trailing (high) wing, the
span is decreasedand the chord is increasedresulting in a
riduction in aspect ratio. This again produces a stable
rolling momeni becausethe more efficient (low) wing
produces more lift.
180
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
'dihedraleffect'althoughthere are a
stabilityis often referredto as the
numberof other important contributions.
A HigherthanBIncreased
Angle
of Attack
Effect
14-14Dihedral
Figure
Sweepback
wing sweepback has the effect of producing an additional.stabilizing
'efiective'
dihedral of the wing (10" of
contiibution thus increasing the
sweephas about the sameeffect as 1' of dihedral). Figure l4-15 illustrates
the principal effects on wing geometry of sideslip.
(a) Angte of Sweep.The component of flow accelerated by theseciion-ca-ber is proportional to the cosineof the angle of
sweep. The angle of sweep of the leading (low) wing is
decreasedand that of the trailing wing is increasedby the
sideslip angle. A stable rolling moment is therefore
induced bY the sidesliP.
(b) Aspect Ratio. On the leading (low) wing the span is
increased and the chord decreased,which is an effective
increase in aspect ratio. On the trailing (high) wing, the
span is decreasedand the chord is increasedresulting in a
riduction in aspect ratio. This again produces a stable
rolling momeni becausethe more efficient (low) wing
produces more lift.
.rB0
STABILITY
(c) TaperRatio.Another, smallereffect,arisesfrom a tapered
w!ng. An increasein taper ratio, defined as tip chord,
affectsthe lift coefficientand also producesa small stable
rolling momentin sideslip.
Trailing
Effect of SweeDBack
Figure
14-15Effect
of Sideslip
on a
SweptPlanform
Variation with speed

The changesin the slope of the lift curve associatedwith changesin aspect
ratio and sweep result in variations in lift forces of the 'leading' and
'trailing'
wings. The contribution of sweepto the lateral (static) stlbility
.t81
I
II
It
thereforebecomesmore important at the higher valuesof Cr-,ie at the

lower forward speeds,becausethe Cr curvesare divergent.This is very
'dihedraleffect'variesconsiderably
important becauseit meansthat the
a lowerangleof attack
overthe speedrangeof the aircraft.At high speeds
is neededthan that for low speeds,thereforethe stabilityat high speeds
is much lessthan that at low speeds.To reducethe stability to a more
to
reasonablevalue at the higher anglesof attack, it may be necessary
incorporatesomenegativedihedral(ie anhedral)on a swept-wing
aircraft.
Handling Considerations
'dihedraleffect' of sweepbackin sideslip
It has beenshown that the
producesa strongrolling moment.This has beenreferredto somewhat
impreciselyasroll with yaw.Two applicationsof this effectat low speeds,
whereit is strongest,are worth considering:
(a)
Cross-Wind Landings. After an approach with the

aircraft heading into a cross-wind from the right, the pilot
must yaw the aircraft to port to align it with the runway
prior to touchdown. This action will induce a sideslip to
starboard and the pilot must anticipate the subsequent
roll to port in order to keep the wings level.
(b)
lil'ingDrop. The greatertendencyof a swept-wing aircraft

to drop a wing at a high angle cf attack (aggravatedby a
steep curved approach) may be further increased by a
large deflection of corrective aileron. In such casesthe
dihedral effect of sweepbackmay be utilized by applying
rudder to yaw the nose towards the high wing - sideslip
to the left, roll to the right. It must be said, however, that
modern design has reduced the tip-stalling tendency and
improved the effectivenessof ailerons at high incidence
and the problem is not as acute as it might have been in
the'transonic era'.
WinglFuselage Int erfer ence

(a)
Shielding Effect Most aircraft will be affected by the

shielding effect of the fuselage.In a sideslipthe section of
'shadow'
of the
the trailing wing near the root lies in the
fuselage.The dynamic pressureover this part of the wing
may be lessthan that over the rest of the wing and therefore produces lesslift. This effect will tend to increasethe
'dihedral effect' and on some aircraft may be quite
considerable.
182
a H i g hW i n g
"r"r$
q=
b Low Wing and High Fin
Drag I
\
_-=--=---h-
*_,6\
C Tee-Tail
Figure
14-16Wing/Fuselage
Configuration.
(b)
Vertical Location A stronger contribution towards

lateral stability arises from the vertical location of the
wings with respectto the fuselage.It is helpful to start by
consideringthe fuselageto be cylindrical in cross-section.
The sideslipvelocity will flow around the fuselage,being
deflectedupwards acrossthe top and downwards underneath. Superimposing a wing in this flow has the
following effect, illustrated in Fig 14-16:
183
(i)
High Wing.A high-mountedwing will lie ina region

of-upwash on the up-streamside of the fuselage
tending to increaseits overall angleof attack'
Converiely,on the down-streamsideof the fuselage
the wing ii influencedby the downwashtendingto
reduceIts angle of attack' The differencein lift
produced by each wing will cause a restoring
moment to increasewith sideslip'This effect has
to be equivalentto l'-3'of dihebeendemonstrated
dral.
(ii) Low lV'ing. The effect of locating the wing on the

bottom oi the fuselageis to bring it into a regionof
downwashon the up-streamsideand into upwash
of the fuselage'The angle
on the down-strearrrside
(low)
wing will be decreased
leading
the
of
of attack
andthatofthetrailingwingincreased.Thisgivesrise
to an unstablemoment e(uivalent to about 1"-3o
anhedral.
on lateral
From thesefacts it can be seenthat there is zero effect
effectis
The
fuselage.
,t"Uiriiv *rr"n the wing is mountedcentrallyon the.
junction'
i;;**d as separatiorio"".,.tat the wing/fuselage
FuselageIFin Contr ibutions
of drag
Si;; ihe aircraft is sideslipping,there will be a component
is abovethe
o"oori"n the sideslipvelocity.If lhe dragline of the aircraft
U'.u ..rtoring momenttendingto raisethe low wing'
C"ffi;Ji*ifi
is therefore'acontribution towards positivelateral
ihir";;;itdration
contri,t"-Urftty.C"nu"rr.ly, rJiag line belowthe CG will be an unstable
of the
the
by
is
determined
line
Egometry
f"tio". 1.n. position'ofthe?rag
are:
14-16,
Fig
in
illustrated
coitributions,
".rti." uir"tuit b.rt the major
(a) High wing.
(b) Low Wing and High fin and rudder'
(c) Tee-tailconfiguration.
as well as
The tee-tail configuration makes the fin more effective
contributingits own extradrag.
Slipstreamand Flap Contributions
effectswhichreducethedegreeof positivelateralstability
i;;;6;rtant
areillustratedin Fig 14-17:
184
STABILITY
a Destabilizing
Effectof Slipstream
Increasein Lift
due to DihedralEffect
Effectof Flaps
b Destabilizing
effectof Flapand
Figure14-17 Destabilizing
Slipstream.
(a)
Slipstream.
Due to sideslip the slipstream behind the
propeller or propellers is no longer symmetrical about

the longitudinal axis. The dynamic pressurein the slipstream is higher than the free stream and covers more of
the trailing wing in sideslip.The result is an unstable
moment tending to increase the displacement.This
unstable contribution is worse with flaps down.
185
(b)
Flaps. Partial-spanflapsalter the spanwisedistribution

of pressureacrossa wing. The local increasein lift coefficient near the root has the effect of moving the
'half-span'centreof pressuretowardsthe fuselage(in a
The momentarm of the wing lift is thus
spanwisesense).
given
changein Cr due to the dihedral
riduced and a
effectwill producea smallermoment.The overalllateral
stabilityis thereforereducedby loweringinboard flaps.
The designgeometryof the flap itself can be used to
controlthiscontribution.In particular,a swept-backflap
hinge-linewill decreasethe dihedral effect,whereasa
swept-forwardhingeJinewill increaseit.
DesignProblems
It is desirablethat an aircraftshouldhavepositivelateralstaticstability.
If, however,the stabilityis too large,it canleadto the dynamicproblems
later:
listedbelow,someof which arediscussed
(a) Lateraloscillatoryproblems,ip Dutch roll.
(b) Large aileron control deflectionsand forces under
asymmetricconditions.
(c) Large rolling responseto rudder deflectionrequiring
aileion movement to counteractthe possibility of
'autorotation'undercertainconditionsof flight.
14.6 DynamicStability
General
motionand
theresulting
fromequilibrium,
Whenanaircraftis disturbed
forcesandmomentsactingon
changesin theaerodynamic
corresponding
true for displacethe airiraft may be quite complicated.This is especially
ment in yaw *irich affectsthe aircraftboth in the yawingand the rolling
planes.
of the aircraft are
Someof the factorsaffectingthe long-termresponse
as follows:
(a) Linearvelocityand mass(momentum).
(b) Staticstabilitiesin roll, pitch and yaw.
(c) Angularvelocitiesaboutthe threeaxes.
I I Angular
.J I momentum
(d) Momentsofinertiaaboutthethreeaxes.
186
STABILITY
(e) Aerodynamicdamping momentsdue to roll, pitch and
yaw.
consider a body which has beendisturbedfrom equilibriumand the
sourceof the disturbancethen removed.If the subsequentsystemof
forcesandmomentstendsinitially to decrease
thedisplacement,
thenthat
body is saidto havepositivestaticstability.It may, however,overshoot
the equilibriumcondition and then oscillateabout it. The terms for
possibleformsofmotion whichdescribethedynamicstabilityof thebody
are listedbelow:
- negativestability.
a) Amplitude increased
b)
c)
d)
e)
Amplitudeconstant- neutralstability.
Amplitude'damped'- positivestability.
Motion heavilydamped;oscillationsceaseand themotion
becomes'dead-beat'
positivestability.
Motion diverges- negativedynamicstability.
Figure 14-18illustratesthesevarious forms of dynamicstability; in

eachcaseshown,the body haspositivestaticstability.
.NegativeDynamic Stability
Negative Dynamic Stability (Divergence)
F i g u r e1 4 - 1 8 F o r m so f
Motion
PositiveDynamic Stability (Damped Phugoid)
187
Dynamicstabilityis more readilyunderstoodby useof the analogyof

whenthe disturbance
earlier.For example,
the'bowl and ball'described
is removedthe ball returnsto the bottom of the bowl and is saidto have
staticstability. However,the ball will oscillateabout a neutral or equilibrium positionand this motion is equivalentto dynamicstabilityin an
aircraft.
If the oscillationsare constantin amplitudeand time then a graph of
the motion would be as shownin Fig 14-19.The amplitudeshowsthe
extent of the motion, and the periodic time is the time taken for one
completeoscillation.This type of motion is known as simpleharmonic
motion.
Periodic Time
The time takenfor onecompleteoscillationwill dependupon the degree
of static stability, ie the strongerthe static stability, the shorterthe
periodictime.
Harmonic
9 Simple
Figure-14-i
Motion.
Damping
In thi simple analogy given it is assumedthat there is no damping in the
system;the oscillations will continue indefinitely and at a constant amplitude. In practice, however, there will always be some damping if only
becausethe viscosity of the fluid (air) is a damping factor which is proportional to the speed of mass. Damping can be expressedas the time
required (or number of cycles)for the amplitude to decay to. one half of
its initiai value (see Fig l4-18 Damped Phugoid). An increase in
the damping of the system (eg from a more viscous fluid) will cause the
oscillations to die away more rapidly and, eventually, the damping will
be such that the oscillation ceases.In this case,after the disturbance has
been removed, the mass returns slowly towards equilibrium but does not
overshootit, ie the motion is'dead-beat'(Fig l4-18 - PositiveDynamic
Stability).
188
STABILITY
DynamicStability of Airuaft
Dynamicstabilitydependson the particulardesignof the aircraftand the
speedand height at which it is flying. It is usuallyassumedthat for
'conventional'aircraft
the couplingbetweenlongitudinal(pitching)and
lateral(includingdirectional)motionscanbe neglected.
This enablesthe
longitudinaland lateraldynamicstabilityto be consideredseparately.
DesignSpecification
Oscillatorymotions which have a long periodictime are not usually
important;evenif the motion is not naturallywell damped,the pilot can
control the aircraftfairly easily.To ensuresatisfactoryhandlingcharacteristics,however,it is essential
that all oscillatorymotionswith a periodic
time of the sameorder as the pilot's responsetime are heavilydamped.
This is because
the pilot may get out of phasewith the motion and pilotinducedoscillations(PIO)may develop.Theminimumdampingspecified
is that oscillationsmay decayto one half of their original amplitudein
one completecycleof the motion. Somemodern aircraft do not satisfy
this requirementand in many casesit hasbeennecessary
to incorporate
autostabilizationsystemssuch as pitch dampersor yaw dampersto
improvethe basicstabilityof the aircraft.
LongitudinaI DynamicStabili ty
Whenan aircraftis disturbedin pitch from trimmedlevelflight it usually
oscillatesabout the originalstatewith variationsin the valuesof speed,
height and indicatedload factor. If the aircraft has positivedynamic
stability,theseoscillationswill graduallydieawayand theaircraftreturns
to its initial trimmedflight condition.The oscillatorymotion in pitch can
be shownto consistof two separateoscillationsof widely differingcharacteristics;
the phugoidand the short-periodoscillation,Fig 14-20.
Displacement
Figure14-20BasicComponents
of Longitudinal
DynamicStability
189
Phugoid
thiJis usuallya long period,poorly dampedmotion involvinglargevariationsin the speedand heightof the aircraft but with negligiblechanges
in load factor(n).It canbe regardedasa constantenergymotion in which
potentialenergyand kinetic energyare continuouslyinterchanged.The
phugoid oscillationis usually damped, and the degreeof damping
of the aircraft.The moderndeveloph.pendson the drag characteristics
has
resultedin the phugoid oscillation
design
low-drag
towards
ment
problem.
a
more
of
becoming
Short-Period Oscillation
This oscillatorymotion is usually heavily dampedand involveslarge
changesof loadfactorwith only smallchangesin speedand height.It can
be regardedsimplyas a pitchingoscillationwith onedegreeof freedom.
As stited earliei the time takenfor onecompleteoscillationwill depend
upon thestaticstability,andin thiscaseit is theperiodictime of the shortperiodoscillation.
Stability Factors
The longitudinaldynamicstability of an aircraft,that is, the mannerrn
which it returnsto a conditionof equilibrium,will dependupon:
(a) Staticlongitudinalstability.
(b) Aerodynamicpitch damPing.
(c) Momentsof inertiain Pitch.
(d) Angle of pitch.
(e) Rate of pitch.
i
lI
ililt
ilttl
oscillation
Figure14-21 Short-period
190
STABILITY
Lateral DynamicStability
When an aircraft in trimmed level flight is disturbedlaterally, the
resultingmotion consistsof the following components:
(a) RollingMotion. Initially theroll will only changetheangle
of bank, and will be rapidly damped.
(b) SpiralMotion. A combinationof bank and yaw will result
in a gradually tighteningspiral motion if the aircraft is
unstablein thismode.The spiralmotion is not usuallyvery
importantbecause,
evenif it is divergent,the rateof divergenceis fairly slowand the pilot cancontrol the motion.
(c) DutchRol/. This is an oscillationinvolvingroll, yaw and
sideslip.The periodictime is usuallyfairly short and the
motion may be weakly damped or even undamped.
Becauseof thesecharacteristics
of the Dutch Roll oscillation, lateraldynamicstabilityhas alwaysbeenmore of a
problemthan longitudinaldynamicstability.
Spiral Stabilily
The lateralstabilityof an aircraftdependson theforcesthat tendto right
the aircraftwhena wing drops.At thesametimehowever,thekeelsurface
(includingthe fin) tendsto yaw the aircraft into the airflow, in the direction of the lowerwing. Oncethe yaw is started,the higherwing, beingon
the outsideof the turn and travellingslightly fasterthan the lower,
producesmore lift. A rolling moment is therebyset up which opposes,
and may be greaterthan,thecorrectingmomentof thedihedral,sincethe
roll due to yaw will tend to increasethe angleof bank.
If the total rolling momentis strongenoughto overcomethe restoring
forceproducedby the dihedraland dampingin yaw effects,the angleof
bank will increaseand the aircraft will enter a diving turn of steadily
increasingsteepness.
This is known asspiralinstability.A reductionin fin
area, reducingdirectional stability and the tendencyto yaw into the
sideslipresultsin a smallergainin lift from the raisedwing and therefore
in greaterspiralstability.
This form of instabilityis not very important.Many high performance
aircraft when yawed,either by prolongedapplicationof rudder or by
asymmetricpower,will developa rapid rolling motion in the directionof
the yaw and may quickly entera steepspiraldive;this is due to the interactionof the directionaland lateralstabilitv.
DutchRoll
Oscillatory instability is more seriousthan spiral instability and is
commonly found to a varying degreein combinationsof high wing
191
PRINCIPLES
OFFLIGHT
loading, sweepback(particularlyat low IAS) and high altitude.
Oscillatoryinstability is characterizedby the combinedrolling and
yawingmovementor'wallowing'motion. When an aircraft is disturbed
motion may be eitherof the two extremes.The
laterallythe subsequent
aerodynamiccausesof oscillatoryinstability are complicatedand a
simplifiedexplanationof oneform of Dutch Roll is as follows:
Consider a swept-wingaircraft seenin planform. If the aircraft is
yawed,say to starboard,the port wing generatesmore lift due to the
largerexpanseof wing presentedto the airflow and the aircraft accordingly rolls in the directionof yaw. However,in this casethe advancing
port wing also hasmore drag becauseof the larger areaexposedto the
airflow. The higher drag on the port wing causesa yaw to port which
resultsin the starboardwing obtaining more lift and reversingthe direction of the roll. The final resultis an undulatingmotion in the directional
and lateral planeswhich is known as Dutch Roll. Sincethe motion is
causedby an excessiverestoringforce, one method of temperingthe
effectsis to reducethe lateral stability by settingthe wings at a slight
anhedralangle.
The lateral dynamicstability of an aircraft is largelydecidedby the
relativeeffect of:
(a) Rolling momentdueto sideslip(dihedraleffect)
(b) Yawing momentdue to sideslip(weathercockstability).
Too much weathercockstabilitywill leadto spiralinstabilitywhereas
too much dihedraleffectwill leadto Dutch Roll instability.
14.7 SUMMARY
Static and Dynamic Stability of Aircraft
Stabilityis concernedwith the motion of a body after an externalforce
its immediatereactionwhile
hasbeenremoved.Staticstabilitydescribes
reaction.
the
subsequent
describes
dynamicstability
Stabilitymay be of the followingtypes:
(a) Positive- the body returnsto the position prior to the
disturbance.
(b) Neutral - the body takesup a new position of constant
relationshipto the original.
(c) Negative- thebodycontinuesto divergefrom the original
position.
192
I
l-
STABILITY
The factorsaffectingstaticdirectionalstabilityare:
(a) Designof the verticalstabilizer.
(b) The momentarm.
The factorsaffectingstaticlongitudinalstabilityare:
(a) Designof the tailplane.
(i)
Tail area.
(ii) Tail volume.

(iii) Planform.
(iv) Wing downwash.
(v) Distancefrom Cp,uirtoCG.
(b) Positionof CG.
(D
Aft movementof the CG decreases

the positive
stability.
(ii) Forwardmovementof the CG increases

the positive
stability.
Manoeuvrestabilityis greaterthan the staticstabilityin levelflight and
a greaterelevatordeflectionis necessary
to hold the iircraft in isteady
pull-out.
The factorsaffectingstaticlateralstabilityare:
(a) Wing contributionsdue to:
(D
Dihedral.
(iD Sweepback.
(b) Wing/fuselage
interference.
(c) Fuselageand fin contribution.
(d) Undercarriage,flapand powereffects.
Someof thefactorsaffectingthe long-termresponse
of theaircraftare:
(a) Linear velocityand mass.
(b) The staticstabilitiesin roll, pitch and yaw.
(c) Angular velocitiesabout the threeaxes
I f Angular
(d) Momentsof inertia about the threeaxes J I momentum
193
(e) Aerodynamicdampingmomentsdue to roll, pitch and
yaw.
The longitudinaldynamicstabilityof an aircraft dependsupon:
(a) Staticlongitudinalstability.
(b) Aerodynamicpitch damping.
(c) Momentsof inertiain pitch.
(d) Angle of pitch.
I) i I
jt
(e) Rateof pitch.
Angular
momentum
The lateral dynamicstability of an aircraft is largelydecidedby the

relativeeffectot
a)
Dihedraleffect.
b)
Weathercockstability.
I Stability about the normal or vertical axis is provided by:
a) the rudder.
b) the fin and keel surface.
c) the tailplane.
d) the wings and keel surface.
Refpara 14.4
2 Longitudinal stability is increasedif the:
a) CP moves forward of the CG.
b) CP acts through the samepoint as the CG.
c) CG is forward of the CP.
d) thrust acts on a line below total drag.
Refpara 14.4
3 Lateral stability may be increased:
a) with
b) with
c) with
d) with
trailing edge flaps lowered.

a high wing.
anhedral wings.
low set wings.
Refpara 14.4
194
STABILITY
4 Directionalstabilitymay be increased
with:
a) reducedstaticmargin.
b) pitch dampers.
c) horn balance.
d) yaw dampers.
Ref para 14.4
Lateralstabilitymay be increased
with:
a) increased
dihedral.
b) increased
anhedral.
c) loweredtrailing edgeflaps.
d) yaw dampers.
Ref para 14.4
195
15
Forcesin Flight
15.1 Introduction
The four forces acting in level flight are lift, weight, drag and thrust. The
lift acts through the centre of pressure,the weight through the centre of
gravity. The drag and thrust act along lines parallel to the longitudinal
axis and this is illustratedin Fie 15-1.
THRUST
WEIGHT
15-1
Figure
For straightand levelflight theseforcesmust be in equilibriumbut if

thepointsthroughwhichtheseforcesact arecoincidentthentheopposing
pairsmust be equal.
=
Weight
Lift
Thrust
Dras
15.2 PitchingMoments
I
I
II
I
I
The positionsof the CP and CG vary throughoutflight, and undermost

conditionsare not coincident,CP varyingwith angleof attack and CG
varying as fuel is used.The resultis that the opposingforces(Lift and
Weight)setup a couplecausingeithera nose-uppitch, or a nose-down
pitch, dependingon the relativepositionsof CP and CG. This is
illustratedin Fig l5-2 and 15-3.
196
il
J
II
I
It
NosEDowN
PTTCHTNG
MOMENT
/
I
DOWNLOAD
F i g u r e1 5 - 2
N O S EU P
P i T C H I N GM O M E N T
F i g u r e1 5 - 3
Ideally, the pitching momentsarising from the Thrust and Drag

couplesshouldneutralizeeachother in levelflight, but the idealis difhcult to attainand,asfar aspossible,theforcesarearrangedasin Fig l5-1.
With this arrangement,
theT/D couplecauses
a nose-upmoment,and the
L/IV couple a nose-downmoment, the lines of action of eachcouple,
beingsuchthat the strengthof eachcoupleis equal.If, now, the engineis
throttled back,the T/D coupleis weakened,and the L/TVcouplepitches
the nosedown.
The tailplaneand/or elevatorhas a stabilizingfunction in that it
suppliesthe forcenecessary
to counterany residualpitchingmoments.If
any nose-upor nose-downpitch occurs,the elevatordeflectioncan be
alteredto provide an up or down load to trim the aircraft.This is also
shownin Fig l5-2 and l5-3.
If the elevatorhasto producea down load balancingforce,this effectivelyincreases
theaircraftweight.So,to maintainlevelflight at the same
speed,the angleof attackmust be increasedto maintainlift. The increase
in dragis known as trim drag.
197
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
The RelationshipbetweenAngle of Attack,IAS and Altitude
assumingthat in levelflight lift equalsweightthen:
Lift=Weight=%pV2SCL
ie our normal theory of flight formula + angleof attack where:
P = density
V=TAS
S = wing area
C. = a constantcoefficientof lift
As for a givenweightlift will be constant,thenthe equationmust also
be constant.The only variablesin the equationare density,TAS and
angleof attack. It must be rememberedthat the expressiont/zpYzis
dynamicpressureor IAS. In view of this, for a fixed IAS and weightthe
angleof attackwill be constantfor any altitude.
Looking at it from a differentpoint of view,if IAS (%pY') is increased
then,to keeptheequationbalanced,theangleof attackmustbedecreased
and viceversa.To summarise:
(D
At constantweight and IAS, angleof attack

regardless
of altitude.
(ii)
If IAS is increased,angle of attack must be decreasedand

vice versa.
For optimum aerodynamic efficiency,the maximum amount of lift will

be produced for the least amount of drag. This, of course, means flying
at the maximum lift/drag ratio which has already been shown to occur at
a fixed angle of attack, usually around 4o. It was also shown that for a
given weight this will representa frxed indicated airspeed, regardlessof
height. If however, the weight decreasesdue to use of fuel, then it will be
necessaryto decreasethe indicated airspeed to maintain the same angle
of attack.
15.3 Effectsof Climbing,Glidingand Turning

(a) Climbing
During a climb, an aircraft gains potential energy by virtue of elevation,
achievedby one or a combination of two means, viz:
(a)
Use of propulsiveenergyabove that requiredfor level

flight.
(b)
Expenditureof the aircraft'skineticenergy.

198
t
t
I
I
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
In a climb, althoughthe weightcontinuesto act verticallydownwards

the lift doesnot. The lift is now at right anglesto the fliglit path of the
aircraft,and effectiveweightcan now be resolvedinto twb components,
one-supported
by the lift and the other actingin the oppositedirectionto
the flight path, in the samedirectionas drag. From this, two thingscan
be seen:f,rrstlythe lift is now lessthan that requiredin straightand level
flight, W 99r y, and secondly,the thrust hasto be equaland oppositeto
the suT of drag and weightcomponentsalongthe flight path T= D + W
Sin y. This is shownin Fig 15-4.It is still consideredsufficientlycorrect
to assumeL = D up to about 15"climb angle(Cos 15. = 0.9659,ie the
error is lessthan 2%).
Rate andAngle of Climb

Figures l5-4(a) and (b) show that rate of climb is determinedby the
amount of excesspower, and angle of climb by the amount of excess
thrust left after opposingdrag.
-/
:
-/1
l,.
t
\1rucos8
W Sin8 \,.
y A N G L EO F
"
CLIMB
F i g u r e1 5 - 4
W E I G H TC O M P O N E N T
P E R P E N D I C U L ATR
O
FLIGHTPATH.
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
Rate of Climb
Fig 15-4(a)
Fig 15-a@)
Therefore
Therefore
S i n y = Vc = Rate of Climb
V
Speedin Climb
S i n y= Thrust - Drag
Weight
V c = Thrust- Drag
V
Weight
V c = V (Thrust- Drag)
Weight
Power(Avaliable)- Power(Required)
Weight
= ExcessPower
Weight
Vt-Vd
whereVt = Thrust HorsePower
w
Vd = Drag Horsepower
Angleof Climb
From Fig l5-a(b) it can be seenthat for the maximum angle of climb,
where Sin y = Thrust - Drag, the aircraft should be flown at a
Weight
speedwhich givesthe maximum differencebetweenThrust and Drag.
Alternatively,if climb angle= 0, ie levelflight, then
Thrust-Drag -0
Weight
But if climb is vertical,ie 90o,then
Thrust=Drag+Weight
or
T h r u s t - D r a g -- 1
'
W.ightSo,it canbe deduced,the factorcontrollingthe angleof climb will be the
ofthrust overdrag.
excess
PowerAvailableand PowerRequired
Thethrustpowercurvefor a pistonenginediffersfrom that of ajet engine,
as shownin Fig 15-5.The main reasonfor this is that the thrust of a jet
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
remainsvirtuallyconstantat a givenaltitude,regardless
of speed,whereas
the piston engine,under the sameset of circumstances
and for a given
bhp, suffersa loss at both ends of its speedrangebecauseof reduced
propellerefficiency.
THP(avail)=@
5s0
The horsepowerrequiredto propel an aircraftis found by
Pwr(reqd)=W
Thecurvedepictedin Fig 15-5canbeassumed
to applyequallyto a piston
jet
propelled
or a
aircraft,ie the airframedrag is the sameregardless
of
power and speed.The increasein power requiredat the lowestspeedis
causedby rapidly risingeffectsof induceddrag.
POWERAVAILABLE
POWERAVAILABLE
PISTON
/L
THRUST
HORSE
POWER
M I N D R A GS P E E D
MIN POWER
SPEED
TAS. (K)
F i g u r e1 5 - 5
201
POWER
READ
(DRAGx TAS)
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I G H T
Climb Performance
The best climbing speed(highestrate of climb), is that at which the excess
power is maximum, so that after somepower is used in overcoming drag,
the maximum amount of power is available for climbing. The vertical
distance between power available and power required representsthe
power available for climbing at that speed.Note, in Fig l5-5, that this
speedfor the piston engineis approximately l75K (TAS), and for the jet
approximately 400K. ln the latter, there appears to be a fairly wide band
of speedswhich would still give the same excesspower; in practice the
higher speedis used in the interest of engine efficiency. At points X and
Y all available power is being used to overcome drag, therefore these
points are the V-in zfld V-u* for the particular power setting.
Effect of Altitude
The THP ofjet and piston enginesalike decreasewith altitude, due mainly
to decreasingair density, so that the power available curves of both types
are lowered. Figure 15-6 shows power available and required curves for
both enginetypes,at MSL and 40,000ft. In Fig l5-4, it is indicatedthat,
at altitude, the power required to fly at minimum drag speedis increased,
becausethough Vvo.ueremains the same at all heights, in EAS terms, the
speedused in calculation of THP is TAS, which increaseswith altitude
for a given EAS. Therefore the THP required to fly at any EAS increases
with altitude. Also, from Fig l5-4, speed for best rate of climb also
decreaseswith altitude. The altitude at which rate of climb becomes
zero is known as the absoluteceiling.Serviceceilingis the altitude at which
the rate of climb has dropped to 100 fpm.
Power
Reqd.
M.S.L.
,
i
Power Reqd
40,000 ft
Power Avail.
40,000 ft
100
200
300
400
2A0
100
Figure5-6
EAs 40-@0ft.
F O R C EISN F L I G H T
Power
A v a i l .M . S . L .
Power Avail.
40,00oft.
THRUST
HORSE
POWER
Power
Reqd.
M.S.L
Power
Reqd.
40,000fl
- - -
) t
100
2OO
300
100
400
zoo
500 EAS.40,000fl
300
Figure5-6 (cont'd)
(b) Forcesin a Glide

For a steadyglide,enginegiving no thrust, the Lift, Drag and Weight
forcesmust be in equilibrium(ignoringdeceleration
effects).Figure l5-7
showsWeightbalancedby the resultantof Lift and Drag. The lift vector,
actingperpendicular
to theflight (glide)path,is now tiltedforward,whilst
the drag vectorstill actsparallelto the glidepath. To maintainairspeed,
energymust be expendedto overcomethis drag, and the sourceof this
energyis the aircraft'spotentialenergy,ie Attitude.
When the aircraftis placedin a nosedown attitude,asin a descent,the
component of weight in the direction of the flight path augments
the thrust, the aircraft will accelerate,
lift and drag will change,so, in
order to achievea balancedcondition with a constantairspeed,thrust
must be reduced.From the foregoing,it may be seenthat the controlling
factor of the glideangleis the lift/drag ratio of the aircraft.An increase
in weightwill not affectglideangle,asall componentswill expandby the
sameproportion,but an increasein weightwill increasespeedalongflight
path.
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
L=Wcos E
D=WSin E
L
,.'l
TOTAL
REACTION
VSinU
F i g u r e1 5 - 7
Gliding (Descent)for Endurance

It canbe seenin Fig 15-7(a)that the minimum rateof descentis achieved
=
by makingV Siny as smallaspossible,but, D x V (ie power.required)
the
rate
givel
WV Sin fiignoring decelerationeffects),thus for a
aelght
of descentiJ least,at the speedwherethe powerrequired(DV) is least.
Gliding (Descent)for Range
If distinceis to be maximum,glideanglemustbe minimum,asevidentin
Fie 1s-7(b).
D=Max=WCosy
Therefore
T=Min=WSinY
W Cosy = Max
WSinY
but
WCosT = L
D
WSinY
The best angleof glide thereforedependson maintaining an angle of
attack which givesthe bestLift/Drag ratio, or for maximum endurance
the aircraftshouldbe flown for minimumdrag.
204
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
Effect of Wind
Gliding for minimum rate of descent,or for endurance,is unaffectedby
wind, becausethe positionat the end of glideis unimportant.But when
gliding for range,the target is the point of arrival, thus the aim is
maximumdistanceoverthe ground.
Gliding for rangeis achievedas explainedpreviously,ie by flying for
minimum drag. However,that appliesonly in still air conditions.The
grounddistanceby approximately
effectof a headwindwill beto decrease
the ratio "t
ffi.
An increaseof airspeedcould reducethetime the wind
effectwould act, and thus improve ground distance.Similarly,if there

werea tailwind,grounddistancewould beincreased,
a reductionof speed
would improve the distance,sincethe wind effect time would be
increased.
Effect of Weight
Variationin weightwill not affectglideangle,providedspeedis adjusted
to suit the all up weight.A simplemethod of estimatingspeedchanges,
to compensate
for weightchanges(up to about 20o), is to adjustspeed
(EAS) by half the percentage
changein AUW, eg a weightreductionof
l0% would necessitate
a decrease
in speedof 5o/o.
Althoughrangeis unaffectedby weight,glideendurancedecreases
with
weightincrease.
PenetrationSpeedis the optimum gliding speedfor any wind speed.
(c) Turning
During a turn weightstill actsverticallydownwardsbut a secondforce,
centrifugalforce,occursfrom the aircraft travellingalonga curvedpath.
This centrifugalforcehasto be opposedby a centripetalforcewhich can
only be obtainedas a resolvedpart of the lift force.Because
the lift also
hasto balancethe weightin addition to the centripetalforce,it is evident
that in turn thelift hasto be increasedto a greatervaluethanweight.This
is illustratedin Fig l5-8.
If the aircraftis banked,with the angleof attackconstant,the vertical
componentof lift will be too smallto balancetheweight,thusthe aircraft
will descend.
Therefore,as angleof bank increases,
angleof attackmust
be increased,the verticalcomponentis then sufficientto maintainlevel
flight, whilst the horizontal componentis sufficientto produce the
requiredcentripetalforce.
205
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
I
F i g u r e1 5 - 8
Effect of Weight
If the IAS in a turn is maintainedat a constantfigure the increasedlift
can only be obtainedby an increasein the angleof attack.The in0rease
in lift will, of course,producemore induceddrag whiuhwill requirean
increasein thrust. As the angleof attack has beenincreasedthe Vvingis
nearerto its stallingangle,thereforethe stallingspeedwill be increased.
The increasein the value of lift is, in fact, equivalentto increasingthe
aircraft'sweight. The amount by which this is apparentlyincreasedis
'n'. For instance,if the weight is apparently
calledthe load factor or
'n' becomestwo and this is called a 29 tttrn. The increasein
doubled
with the load factormay be calculatedfrom the
stallingspeedassociated
followingformula:
Stallingspeed= normal stallingspeedx V g load (n)
For examplean aircraft with a normal stallingspeedof 100$-S:arVine
by 100x V 2 = 140kt
out a 29 turn would haveits stallingspeedincreased
approximately.
In a steadylevelturn, thrustbeingignored,lift is providingboth a force
to balanceweight,and a centripetalforceto turn the aircraft.If the same
the turn radiusis basicallyindeTAS and angleof bank canbe sustained,
pendentof weightor aircraft type.
206
FORCES
IN FLICHT
Minimum RadiusTurn
To achievea minimum radiusturn, it can be shownthat:
(a) Wing loadingmust be aslow as possible.
(b) Air mustbe asdenseaspossible,
ie as at MSL.
(c) The maximumvalue of product of Cr and angleof bank
must be obtained.NOTE: nol maximum angleof bank,
sinceangleof bank is increasedto increasethe lift force
requiredfor thecentripetalforce.To do this, at thecritical
angleof attack,speedmust be increased,but an increase
in speedmay causea fall in maximumvalueof Cr.
The Maximum RateTurn
To achievea maximumrate turn, it can be shownthat:
(a) Wing loadingmust be aslow aspossible.
(b) Air mustbe asdenseaspossible,
asat MSL.
(c) The maximumvalueof theproductof angleof bank,speed
and Cr must be obtained.Note, as for the samereasons
givenin precedingparagraph.
Altitude
With increasein altitude, there is an increasein the minimum radius,
mainlydueto theEAS/TASrelationship.An additionalincrease
is caused
by thereductionin Cr-u*,because
MachNo is higherat altitudefor a given
TAS.
An increasein altitudewill causethe rate of turn to decrease.
Effect of Thrust
Evenin levelflight, it canbe seenthat someaircrafthavetheir thrust line
inclined to the horizontal,thus producinga componentof thrust
augmentinglift. In the minimum radiusturn, and maximum rate turns
discussed,
the aircraftis flown for Cr-u*,which is obtainedat the critical
angle,the thrust componentassistslift, so eitherlesslift is requiredfrom
the wing, or the turn can be improved.However,the reductionof thrust
with increasingaltitudewill causea reductionin turning performance,in
additionto that causedby theEAS/TASrelationshipandthegreaterCr-u"
reduction.
207
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
Effect of Flap
Lowering of flap produces more lift, also more drag at any given EAS. A
smaller radius of turn may thus be achievedwith flap, providing the flap
limiting speedis not a critical factor, and the available power is sufficient
to overcome the extra drag.
(d)
Turning and Manoeuvres:EssentialPoints to Note
Centripetal force:
Consider an object swinging around at the end of a piece of string the
object travels along a curved path produced by the pull ofthe string acting on the object. Since this radial force is directly towards the centre the
accelerationmust also be towards the centre. This centre-seekingforce is
called centripetalforce, and in accordancewith the third law of motion,
is opposedby an equal force called the centrifugal force. Centripetal force
in the casewe are consideringis also called Horizontal Component of Lift.
Although the object on the string is following a curved path of motion,
it is continually trying to obey the first law of motion, ie to continue
travelling in a straight line . . . true or false?True - should the string be
released, centripetal force is removed and the opposite reaction
(centrifugal force) disappearssimultaneously. In this instance,the object
at once obeys the first law of motion and flies off in a straight line at a
tangent to its previous circular path.
It is important to realisethat, without centripetalforce,no objectwhether
a car or aircraft can be made to turn, and the first law of motion applies.
Centripetal force during a given turn is directly proportional to the
mass of the body, the square of its speedand is inversely proportional to
the radius of the turn. It is calculated from the formula:
Centripetalforce = W V' ,,; ; (in lb)
Centripetalforce
Where:
W
Y2
r
o
m V2..-.
(ln Newtons)
r
the weight/orm is the mass
the squareof the TAS in feet/secor
m/sec
= the radiusin feetor metres
= the sravitationalforceof 32.2ftlsec/sec
208
FORCES
IN FLICHT
To calculatethe acceleration
towardsthecentre,the followingformuia
applies:
tt2
Acceleration
Where
a
the velocityin feet/secor metres/sec
r12
= the radiusin feet or metres
Turning
For an aircraftto turn, centripetalforceis required.This centripetalforce
is derivedby resolvingthe inclinedtotal lift forceinto two components,
namely:
(a) Verticallift component
(b) Horizontal lift component
Thus, it is the horizontallift componentthat providesthe centripetal
forcerequiredto pull theaircrafttowardsthecentreof theturn asit moves
alonga path of circularmotion.(Referto Fig 15-9).However,duringa
turn, lift hasa doublerole to play.Not only is it resolvedinto a horizontal
componentto providecentripetalforce,but alsohasto providea lifting
forcesuchthat the aircraft maintainsa constantheightduring the turn.
It will be seenfrom Fig l5-9 that any iriclinationof total lift from the
TOTAL
LIFT
CENTRIPETAL
FORCE
WEIGHT
209
F i g u r e1 5 - 9
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
verticalresultsin a smallervefiicalcomponentof lift, which would then
be too smallto balancethe weightof the aircraft.
the angleof attack
Therefore,to preventthe aircraftfrom descending,
greater
total lift. Oncethis
increasedto maintaina
mustbe progressively
the verticalcomponentof lift is largeenoughto
hasbeenaccomplished,
maintain level flight, while the horizontal componentis large enough
to generatethe requiredcentripetalforce.However,an increasein angle
of attack resultsin an increasein drag, which must be balancedby an
increasein powerif the speedis to remainconstant.
SteepTurns
A steepturn is classifiedasa turn havingan angleof bank in excessof 45
degrees.Larger bank anglesrequirea largerangleofattack to produce
the requiredtotal lift increment.However,the penaltyof largeanglesof
attackis drag.Eventually,the aircraftwill reacha speedso low, that any
further increasein angleof attack will result in a stall. At this instant,
angleof attack and induceddrag are so high that full power is usually
to keepthe speedconstant.
necessary
REOUIRED
L I F TI N C R E A S E
.l
Figure5-10
210
IN FLICHT
FORCES
Wing Loading
Wing loadingis the weightof the aircraft dividedby the wing area.
SinceL = W and L = Ct'/zpY2S,thenW = CrVrpY'S
Thus wing loading(ie the weightcarriedby a wing of givenarea)affects
both the maximumand minimum stallingspeeds.
However,modern tendencyis to increasethe wing loading by
decreasingthe wing area and increasingthe speed,and to use flap to
reducelandingspeeds.
Load Factor
The load factorof a givenaircraftin a givenconditionof flight is defined
as the lift dividedby the weight.It is denotedby n.
In straightand levelflight, L = W; thereforen = l. In any manoeuvre
wherelift is greateror smallerthan weight,L = nW.
In any manoeuvre,the stallingspeedis proportionalto the squareroot
of the load factor. (Vn) Limit load factor.
Calculationof centripetalforce and loadingduringa turn:
Consideran aircraftweighingI 1,500lb, flying at 200knots (338'sec)in
a turn havinga radiusof 2000feet.
Centripetalforce= y y'
g r
- 1 1 5 0 0x 3 3 8 ' =
32.2 x 2000
Centripetalforce = 20,400Ib
Refer to Figure l5-l I for the wing loading calculation.The wing loading which is equal to lift may be calculated by Pythagoras' Theorem,
where:
TL2=F2+L2
TL={pzayz
TL = rvD0400t;I5mz
TL = 23418lb
or g stallsin a turn:
Accelerated
any increasein bank angle(tighteningof the turn)
As alreadydiscussed,
adverselyaffectsthestallingspeed.Eventually,theangleof attackreaches
the criticalangle,resultingin the buffet.
211
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLICHT
l.C.L,
WI
F i g u r e1 5 - 11
However,should one wing stall beforethe other, the aircraft would

tendto roll in or out of the turn, due to unequallift distribution.This roll
'flicking movement'.
may in some.casesresultin a
Recoveryis initiated by moving the control column forward and, in
the angleof attack, therebyunstallingthe aircraft.
doing so, decreasing
'high speed'or'accelerated'stall.
This occurrenceis known as a
Minimum RadiusandMaximum Rate of Turns
thehorizontalcomponent(iecentripetal
As theangleof bankis increased,
force, the
The greaterthis centre-seeking
increases.
force)consequently
(ie
lessthe radiusbecomes minimum radius).
that:
Figurel5-12demonstrates
=
=
J
hn|
HCL
w = v
wv'lgr gr
212
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
Figure
15-12
A verticalbankedturn is impossiblebecause
evenif Total Lift becomes
infinity no verticalcomponentcan be obtained.However,evenwith a
(apartfrom
verticalbank thereis a limit to the radiusof the turn because
sideslipping),the wingsmust provide all the horizontal force (ie Ct Yz
by the formula:
V2S),represented
(D
Centripetalforce = W V'lg r
(ii)
but - Centripetalforce = Cr %pV2S(verticalbank)
Therefore: WV2/gr =
=
r
or
Cr %pY2S
ZWI(CIpSS)
Straightand levelstallingspeedis givenby the equation:
W = L = CL-u,/rpY'S
213
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLIGHT
Therefore, by substituting this value of W into the equation (iv), we get:
= (2 Cr-.*) ,Lpyrs
g
Cr-pS
= fILt\ x Cs(-.J
\g /
cr
(vi)
Equation(vi) showsthat whenC.-u* is equalto the Cr, the radiusof the
turn will be minimum. (Obviously,when Cr is at a maximumvalue,
the angle of attack is the stalling angle and the radius of turn = V2S
gt
Load factor: Total weight = 23418 = 2.0

Aircraft weight 11500
The loadingon the aircraftis thus 2.0.
Furthermore,it is true to saythat the load factor variesasthe secant
(
I
) of the bank angle.
(Cosine)
Consideran aircraftin a 60 degreebank turn.
Cosine60 degrees= 0.5
Secant60 deerees= 2.0
Thus,the aircraft hasa load factor of 2.0during a 60 degreebank turn.
Determinationof the stallingspeedduring a turn:
the
increases
Any manoeuvrewhich requiresadditionallift consequently
load factor and thusraisesthe stallingspeed.This is true of any turn and
the stallingspeedmay be calculatedfrom the formula:
New stallingspeed= Old stallingspeedx Vlotdltctor
From theforegoingexample,let us assumetheaircrafthad a basicstalling
speedof 85 knots at grossweight.The newstallingspeedduring the turn
is therefore:
NewV = oldV, x Vn
= 85
X \/T
= 120knots.
214
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
Answer the following questions

I
During a turn havinga bank angleof 45 degrees,

the stallingspeed
is 100knots.Calculatethe basicstallingspeed.
Answer: 84 knots
Assumean aircraftweighingI I,500poundspulling out of a dive.If

a forceof 4 gwasregistered,
what wasthe centripetalforceand the
new stallingspeedif the basicstallingspeedwas78 knots?
pounds; 156knots.
Answer:46,000
Thus, the minimum radiusof turn is settledby the stallingspeedof that

aircraft.However,enginepoweris the final decidingfactor in settlingthe
minimum radius.
To summarize:
I)
Fly at any speedprovid'edenginepowercan maintainit.
2)
Fly at the maximumpermissibleload factor (Cr-.,).
3)
Air must be as denseas possible(densityis a factor in the lift

formula).
Maximum RateTurns
In this turn, the angularvelocityof the aircraft during a turn must be as
high aspossible:
ie Velocity (ftlsec)
radius (f0
Time
Thus minimum time will resultif the radiusis kept at a minimum value
and the aircraft is flown at a minimum speed(ie whereCr_is maximum).
To summarize:
l)
Fly at the stallingspeed.
2)
Fly at maximumload factor.
3)
Air must be asdenseas possible.
2' t5
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
ClimbingandDescendingTurns
During I climbingturn, the outerwing travelsa greaterdistancethan the
inner wing. This resultsin the outer wing having a larger angleof attack
which leadsto an overbanksituation.
Bank must thereforebe held off during climbing turns. The opposite
turns,wherebank must be held on.
appliesfor descending
J0
u
z
z
T
I
(9
F
f
o
I
-
.-
92?
iE
I
Horizontaldistancetravelled. INNERWING
....*
Horizontaldistancetravelled OUTERWING
o
z
A of A Outer wing
;
E
U
F
l
ol
I
.---"""t
A of A Inner wing {greatest}
Chapter15 TestYourself.
I With increasingaltitude the power required from a piston engine:
a) reducesand power available increases.
b) increasesand power available increases.
c) increasesand power available reduces.
d) increasesand power available remains constant.
Ref para 15.3
2 The height at which the rate of climb drops to 100 fpm:

a) is termed the absolute ceiling.
b) is known as the rated ceiling.
c) is the serviceceiling.
d) is the critical height.
Ref para 15.3

216
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
If the weight of an aircraft is increased,its glide rangewill:
a) be the same.
b) be increased.
c) be reduced.
Ref para 15.3
4 With an increasein aircraft weight:
a) glide endurancewill remain the same.

b) glide endurancewill increase.
c) glide endurancewill reduce.
Ref para 15.3
5 In a turn the centrifugaleffectis opposedby:
a) centripetalforce
b) thrust only.
c) a componentof weight.
d) a componentof thrust and weight.
Refpara15.3
16
High SpeedFlight
16.1 lntroduction
Low speed aerodynamics is based on the assumption that air is incompressible;the attendant errors are negligible since at low speedsthe
amount of compression is negligible. At speedsapproaching that of
sound, however, compressionand expansionin the vicinity of the aircraft
are sufficiently marked to affect the streamline pattern about the
aircraft. At low subsonic speedsa flow pattern is establishedabout
the aircraft, but at high subsonic and supersonicspeedsthe flow around
a given wing can be controlled, and its behaviour predicted. In the transonic range where a mixture of subsonic and supersonic flow exists,
marked problems of control and stability arise, necessitatingspecial
designfeatures to minimise the effects of compressibility.
15.2 Definitions
(a)
Speed of Sound The speed at which a very small pressure

disturbance is propagated in a fluid under certain conditions.
Speedof sound is proportional to the absolute temperature(K)
and can be calculated from the formula:
Local speedofsound (LSS) = 39 x @
Therefore, the higher the temperature, the higher the LSS' In
fact, at MSL at ISA LSS = 661 kt, and at 30,000ft LSS = 589
kt.
Derivation of the formula for ISA conditions is as follows:
LSS=C x
\f28-86K=661 =CruD88-'f
Therefore
C-
661 = 38.95'
\r&rK
For practicalpurposes,the figureof 39 may be used.
(b)
Mach Number(M) The ratio of True Airspeed(TAS) to the

local speedof soundapplicableto air temperature.Thus
218
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
MachNo (M) =
TAS = 529kt.
ffi
therefore
at sealeveltemperature
l5oC
LSS = 661kt. M
_ 5 2 9 _ 0.80
661
(c)
Free Stream Mach No ( Mrs) The Mach number of the flow

at a point unaffected by the presenceofthe aircraft.
(d)
Local Mach Number (M)

When an aerofoil is placed in a
subsonic airflow, the flow is acceleratedin some places, and
slowed down in others. The local Mach number is the speedat
some specified region of flow, and may be greater than, the
sameas, or lower than Mrs.
(e)
Critical Mach Number ( M",i,) This is the lowest Mes which for
a given aerofoil and angle of attack, gives rise to a Mr of 1.0
on the aerofoil. As will be seen, M".i, for a wing varies with
angleof attack.
(0
Compressibility Mach Number The Mach number at which,

because of compressibility effects, control of an aircraft
becomes difficult, and beyond which loss of control is
probable.
(e)
Critical Drag Rise Mach Number relates the Mach number to

an appreciableincreaseof drag associatedwith compressibility
effects,usually 10-15%higher than M",i,.
16.3 Airflow
(a)
Subsonicflow when freestreamMach numbersare suchthat

local Mach numbersare lessthan M 1.0at all points.
(b)
Transonicflow, the Mes is high enoughto produceM1, sorns

of which are greaterthan M 1.0.
(c)
Supersonicflow, Mrs is such that at all points Mr are greater

thanM 1.0.
(d)
Hypersonicflow, Mnsis greaterthan M 5.0.
16.4 Speedof Sound

Anything which movesthroughthe air createspressurewavesand,what
may not be generallyrealised,thesewavesnot onlv travel out in all
219
directionsfrom the objectbut they radiateat the speedofsound. Ifthe
objectis moving at a speedlessthan the speedof soundthesepressure
waveswill be ableto move awayfrom the object.When consideringan
aircraft moving at very high speedit is possiblethat the sound waves
cannotget awayfrom it, becausethe aircraft'sspeedis closeto the radiation spiedof thewaves.It is this whichgivesriseto theproblemsof high
flight.
speed
Figure 16-1(a)illustratesthe situationof an aircraftflying at lessthan
the speedof sound.If its startingpoint is A, thenthe pressurewavessent
out in all directionsfrom the aircraftaremovingsteadilyawayand by the
time point B is reachedthey will be well clearof the aircraft.This should
be contrastedwith the situationillustratedin Fig 16-l(b) wherethe
aircraft is travellingjust at the speedof sound.The pressurewavesare
alsotravellingat the speedof soundwith theresultthat theypile up ahead
of the aircraft and form into a pressurewave,alsocalleda shockwave'
M =0.5
o
z
{a) PressureWaves Formed by Object Moving FoNard
at LessThan Localspeed of Sound
(a)
(c) PressureWaves forming Mach Cone with Obiect

Moving Foruard at a Speed Greaterthan lhe Local
Speedof Sound
Figure
{b) PressureWaves Formed by Object Moving FoMard

at Local Spesd of Sound
H I C HS P E EFDL I G H T
shownin Fig l6-l(c). An aircraft travellingsubstantiallyfasterthan the
speedof soundwill leaveits own pressurewavesbehindand form a cone
of pressure
wavesasillustratedin Fig l6-l(d).
16.5 ShockWaves
When a shockwaveis formedthe pressuredistributionover the wingsis
materiallyaltered,causingconsiderablealterationsin the valuesof lift
and dragand alsoaffectingcontrol operation.It couldbearguedthat few
civil passenger
transport aircraft are capableof reachingthe speedof
sound,however,the air overthe uppersurfaceof the wing is deliberately
accelerated
in orderto producelift and eventhoughtheaircraftitselfmay
be flying belowthe speedof sound,someof theair flowingoverthewings
may beaccelerated
to Mach 1.0.Whentheairflow overtheuppersurfaces
of the wing reachesMach 1.0,the actualspeedof the aircraftis calledthe
critical Mach Number or M".i,.When this point is reacheda shockwave
forms overtheuppersurfaceof thewing because
thepressurewavesfrom
the rear of the wing that aretrying to moveforward aremeetingair travellingat exactlythesamespeedflowingbackward.This is similarto trying
to movealonga movingwalkwayin thewrongdirectionat the samespeed
as the walkwayis travelling.The point at which this shockwaveusually
forms is just aft of the point of maximumcamberof the wing wherethe
acceleration
of the air is greatest.In front of the shockwavethe flow is at
or higherthan Mach I whilst behindthe flow it is still subsonic.
At theshockwave,the normallawsof physicsseemto breakdown and
as the air passesthrough the shockwavethe pressureincreases
and the
temperatureincreases.
If the speedof the aircraftis increasedstill further
the regionof supersonicflow on top of the wing also increasesand the
shock wave will start to move back towardsthe trailing edge.On
the undersurfacethe curvatureof the wing is usuallylessthan on the
uppersurfaceand the shockwavewill form later.However,oncehaving
formed,if the actualspeedof the aircraftis further increased,this shock
wavewill alsomove rearwardand when the actualspeedof the aircraft
reachesMach I both shockwaveswill havemigratedto the trailing edge
of the wing. At the sametime anothershockwavewill form closeto the
leadingedgeof the wing, this is calledthe bow wave.If speedis further
increasedthis bow wavewill actuallytouch the leadingedgeof the wing
and is thentermedan'attachedbow wave'.This is illustratedin Fig l6-2
and further speedincreases
will not changethe relativepositionsof these
two shockwaves,but will just bendthem backwards.The next diagram,
Fig l6-3, illustratesthe behaviourof the shockwavesfrom a speedbelow
Mach I to onewell in excessof the speedof sound.
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
F i g u r e1 6 - 2
Flow
Subsonic
SubsonicFlow
------------>
(a)M = 0.6
Flow
Subsonic
ShockWave
InciDient
Suddenincreaseof Pressureand Density
in
Velocity
Fall
Supersonic
P
Flow
Subsonic
Supersonic
Flow
Subsonic
>;===
(b)M = 0.8
SubsonicFlow
-----------tr-
FullvdevelopedShockWave
lncreaseof Pressureand DensitY
Fallin Velocity
Flow
Supersonic
Flow
Subsonic
(c) lV= 1.0

Flow
Supersonic
Bowwave
approaching
\
fromfront
( d )r v= 1 . 1
Flow
Subsonic
=
E
Supersonic
Supersonic
@
=
:
SonicFlow
------>
SupersonicFlow
_------->
Subsonic
Supersonic
Supersonic
FullyDeveloped
bowwave
Flow
Supersonic
--------------t
(e)[/ = 2.0
F i g u r e1 6 - 3
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
16.6 Wave Drag

For aircraftnot designedfor transonicand supersonicflight, the formation of theseshockwaveswill havea markedeffecton lift, drag and also
on the generalstabilityof the aircraft and its control.The basiccauseof
the problemsis the separationof the airflow behindthe shockwavedue
to the rise in pressure.This causesthe boundary layer to separate,
reducingtheamountof lift producedby the wing and an increasein drag.
This increasein drag is very marked3t M".itand produces'wavedrag'as previouslymentionedin the chapteron total drag. If speedcan be
increasedfurther againstthis drag force the shockwaveswiil move
towardsthe trailing edge,thus reducingthe amountof separatedair and,
in fact,thelift will startto increaseagainand thedragdecrease.
However,
this will only occur in aircraft which are designedfor transonicflight
is lessthan at subsonicspeeds
but the total developedlift at higherspeeds
for the sameangleof attack.This is because
Cr is lessfor any givenwing
The changein both lift
sectionand angleof attack at supersonicspeeds.
and drag areillustratedin the followinggraphs,Fig l6-4 and Fig l6-5. It
shouldbe notedthat this lossof lift which occursasa resultof the shock
waveis not dissimilarin effectto that producedby a low speedstall. For
this reasonit is sometimescalleda'high speedstall' and givesriseto the
first of thecontroldifficultiesencountered
in flying an aircraftat or above
Mcrit.
UD
McRtr 1.0
Figure 16-4 Variation of Co with Mach No at
Constant Angle of Attack
Wave drag arisesfrom two sources,viz: energydrag and boundary

layerseparation.
Energy drag stemsfrom the nature of changesoccurring as a flow
a shockwave.Energylost dueto temperatureriseacrossthe shock
crosses
223
wavebecomesdrag on the aerofoil.The more obliquethe shockwaves,
the lessenergythey absorb,but sincethey becomemore extensivelaterally and affectmore air, energydrag risesas Mnsincreases.
iloundary layer separation;at certainstagesof shockwavemovement
thereis considerableflow separation(Fig l6-3). The turbulencerepresentslost energyand contributesto the drag. As Mns increasesthrough
the transonicrangethe shockwavesmoveto the trailing edgeand sepathus drag decreases.
ration decreases,
Thetotal effecton dragis shownin Fig l6-4 (CDbrokenline),thehump
with the trailing edgeshocks
in thecurvebeingcausedby drag associated
arisingfrom energyloss,separationof the boundarylayerand the formation of the bow shockwaveaboveM 1.0.
16.7 Reduction of Wave Drag
To reducethe effectof wave drag, shock wavesmust be as weak as
possible,therefore,wingsmusthavea sharpleadingedgeaswell asa thin
iection to keepthe deflectionangleto a minimum so producinga weak
bow shockwave.The thin wing will have a reducedcamber,thus the
gradientacrossthewing shockwaveswill besmaller,and
adversepressure
may be treated
shockwaveswill be reduced.Fuselages
of
the
the strength
an increasein
section,
given
cross
minimum
for
a
manner,
in a simiiar
wave
drag.
will
reduce
(within
reason)
length
on Lift
16.8 Effectsof Compressibility
To consider this aspectit is necessaryto start at a speedwhere compressibility effects become significant and seehow they vary with increasing
Mach No.
(a)
Subsonic Risein Ct An increasein velocity is always accompanied by a decreasein pressure, and since the velocity
increase in a compressible flow is greater than that in an
incompressible flow for the same wing, the pressure will be
lower,lhus lift is greater for a wing in a compressibleflow' At
low speed,where air can be consideredincompressible,lift is
proportional to V2, ie Cr can be assumedconstant for the same
ingie of attack. At moderately high speedsdensity changes
becomesignificant, lift increasesat a rate higher than indicated
by V', ie Cr increasesfor the same angle of attack'
Another factor affecting Cr is the amount of warning the air
getsof the wing's approach. As speedincreasescompressibility
iffects increaseand the reducedupstream warning causesflow
displacement to start closer to the wing. This effectively
224
H I G HS P E EFDL I C H T
increases
theangleof attack,soincreasingCr. Thereis a slight
lossof lift due to movementof the stagnationpoint forward,
but overallthereis an increasein Cr.
(b)
TransonicVariationsin Cr In consideringthis aspect,five

significantspeeds
are selected,
A, B,C, D and E in Fig 16-5,
and areusedin Fie 16-6.
.l
Figure 6-5
At A l.l4rs= 0.75, the flow acceleratesrapidly from the stagnation point along both upper and lower surfaces,giving a
sharp drop in pressure,and the wing is above M".i,. Over the
top surface of the wing, as yet there is no shock wave, and Cr
has risen by 60% of its low speedvalue for the same angle of
attack. Over the bottom surfaceflow is still subsonic.
At B Mes= 0.81.With the accelerationto this speed,the shock
wave has formed and is strengthened,and will be approximately 60% chord (Fig 16-3); there is no shock wave on the
undersurface. Behind the shock wave on the rear part of
the wing there is no real change in pressure differential
betweenupper and lower surfaces;ahead of it and behind the
40% (approximately) chord, pressure differential has
increasedconsiderably due to supersonic acceleration up to
the shock wave. This effectively increasesthe C1 to roughly
double its incompressiblevalue. It also causesthe CP to move
rearward to approximately 30% chord. Flow under the
bottom surfacebecomessonic.
= 0.89.A shockwavehasformed on the undersurface
At C }i{.{.es
225
and moved to the trailing edge,while the upper shockwave
hasremainedvirtually stationary.The reasonfor the differing
behaviouris the effecteachshockwavehason the boundary
layer.Suchan arrangementof shockwavesleadsto a pressure
distributionsuchthat the wing behindthe upper shockwave
is producingnegativelift, which hasto be subtractedfrom the
positivelift producingarea. Lift coefficienthas droppedto
valueand centre
belowits incompressible
approximately30o/o
chord.The
olpressuremovesforward to approximately300/o
movement
relative
is
the
reasonfor the slopebetweenB and C
betweenupperand lower shockwaves.
At D Mrs= 0.98.The top surfaceshockwaveis forcedto the
trailing edge,the area of negativelift is replacedUVt-!"
orthodbx pressuredifferential.The Cr is approximatelyl}oh
abovebasicvalue,andthe CP hasmovedrearwardto approxiby
mately45ohchord;this movementof the CP is experienced
range.
all aircraftgoingthrough the transonic
At EMrs= 1.4.AboveM l'0 thebow shockwaveforms,and
at M 1.4is almostattachedto the leadingedge.The wholeof
thewing is producinglift, and the CP is at approximatelymidchord positlon.The Cr-is reducedto a valueof 30ohlessthan
valuedueto thestagnationpoint movingtoits incompressible
the mostlorward point on the leadingedge,and to the lossof
pressureenergythrough the bow shockwave.
The shockwavepositionsfor eachstationconsideredabove
areshownin Fig 16-6.
Mrs=075
M r s= 0 . 8 1
Mrs=098
F i g u r e1 6 - 6
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
15.9 Supersonic
Fallin CL
tl
t
The full explanationof this aspectis beyondthe scopeof thesenotes,but

sufficeit hereto point out that in practice,any decrease
in lift betweenthe
upperlimit of the transonicrangeand Mo, 1.4would be maskedby trim
changesresultingfrom passingthroughthetransonicrange.Thepractical
resultis that the lift curveslopebecomesprogressively
more gentlewith
an increasein Mrs in the supersonic
range.The variationsin Cr at supersonicspeedsdependmainly on attendantcompressibilityproblemswith
increaseof speed,and adversepressuregradient increaseswith speed
increase.
16.10 Effectsof lncreasingMach No on Stability

TransonicLongitudinalStability
Most aircraft operatingin the transonicrangeexperiencea nosedown
pitch with speedincrease,
mainly due to two causes:
(a) Rearwardmovementof CP which increases
longitudinal
stability.
(b) Modification of airflow over the tailplane.The effectof
mainplaneshock wavesis to modify the flow over the
tailplanewhich will tend to pitch the aircraft nosedown.
The effectson an aircraft'shandlingcharacteristics
of nosedown pitch
are two-fold.
(i)
At someMach No an aircraftwill becomeunstablewith

respectto speed,necessitating
a rearwardmovementof
the control column.This particularproblemis dealtwith
more fully in Mach Trim.
(iD The requirement for a large up deflection of

reducestheamountof availablecontrol
elevator/tailplane
for
deflection manoeuvres.
Super sonic LongitudinalStabilit y
The rearwardmovementof the CP in the transonicrangecontinuesasthe
into full supersonicflight. Thus all aircraft experience
aircraft accelerates
a markedincreasein longitudinalstability.
TransonicLateral Stability
Disturbances
in therollingplaneareoftenexperienced
in transonicflight,
227
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
on Someaircraft one wing starts to drop when M",i, is exceeded,due
mainly to the differenceinlift on th'etwo winggbecauseshockwavesdo
not form at identicalMach numbersand positionson eachwing.
SupersonicLateral StabilitY
Li.i"i ri"Uitity depends,aftersideslip,on the lowerwing developingliftflight thecorrectingforceisthusreduced
in supersonic
SinceCr-decreases
are
and dihedral and sweepback consequentlylesseffective.Another
dueto surfacefriction drag,
adverseeffectis the lift/dragratio decreasing
differencesbetween
pressure
to
due
in lift/drag raiio being
the decrease
at thewing tips and
pressures
the
combinedwith
upperandlowersurfaces
Mach cones'
their associated
DirectionalStability
an aft CG, has
andconsequently
ihe trendtowardsiear mountedengines,
the
supersonic
Also,
act'
arm aboutwhich the fin can
meanta decreased
means.a
sideslip
by
decreasein Ct for a given angleof attack caused
force in
side
fuselage
the
Subsonically,
ieduction in fin effectiveness.
ableto
are
surfaces
fin
a sideslipactsin front of the CG and the vertical
fuselage
the
flight
ou.r"o*. the destabilisingcondition. In supersonic
sideforcemovesforward.As long as the aircraft is in balancedflight no
piour.- arises,but if the relativeairflow is off the longitudinalaxis a
forceat the noseresults.This is causedby asymmetryin the
hestabilising
strengthof t-hetwo shockwavesproducinga pressuregradientacrossthe
nose.
Figure16-7
228
H I C HS P E EFDL I G H T
The noseforce illustratedin Fig 16-7is tendingto preventthe nose
beingturned into the relativeairflow and is thereforedestabilising.
The
forceincreases
with speedand hasa longerarm than the fin and rudder.
The point of applicationof the forceis difficult to define,but is located
at that part of the fuselagewherethe cross-sectional
areais increasing.
One answerto this problemis to fit longerfins and increasetheir
numbers,but thereis a limit if only for wavedragconsiderations.
A better
methodis the fitting of yaw dampers,whichhavealreadybeendealtwith.
Mach Trim
The devicewhich correctsor compensates
for longitudinalinstabilityat
high Mach numbersis the Mach Trimmer.As statedpreviously,at some
Mach numberan aircraftwill becomeunstablewith respectto speed;this
is potentiallydangeroussinceany inattentionon the part of the pilot in
allowing a small increasein Mach No will producea nosedown pitch,
which will give further increasein Mach No, in turn leadingto even
greaternosedown pitch.However,the Mach Trimmerwill in fact correct
or compensate
for the initial increasein speed.
The Mach Trimmer is sensitiveto Mach numberand is programmed
to feedinto the elevator/stabiliser
a signalwhichis proportionalto Mach
number so that stability remainspositive.The signalfed into the
elevator/stabiliser
simplycausestheir deflectionin a directionto compensatefor the trim change.
Mach trim operationin normalconditionswill not be shownup by the
behaviourof theaircraft,but will usuallybeindicatedby activationof the
trim wheeland/orilluminationof a monitor lisht.
Mach trim operationshouldbecheckedagainstMach numberfor any
significantchangein flight condition.
SomeKev PointsSo Far
Fixed Trim tabs are usedto correctpermanentout-of-trim faults
and can only be adjustedon the ground.
2
J
Fixed Trim tabsshouldonly be adjustedby an engineer.

A Balancetab is fitted to assistthe pilot in moving the controlsin
flight.
A Servotab is activatedby movementof the control columnwhich
directly movesthe tab which then aerodynamicallymovesthe
control surface.
On somesupersonic
aircraftlongitudinaltrim is achievedby moving
fuelfrom onefuel tank to another.The tanksarepositionedfore and
229
aft underthe floor and by pumpingfuel from oneto the other the C of G
is moved.
6
A high aspectratio wing givesimprovedlift and reduceddrag.
Employmentof sweptwings,or wingswith sweptleadingedges,will

delayM"6,.
For a givenwing areaat a givenangleof attack a sweptwing will

producelesslift.
A sweptwing is moreproneto tip stall.
10 Spanwisemovementof airflow over a sweptwing may be reduced

by:
Wing Fences.
LeadingedgeNotches.
Savr,or DogtoothLeadingedges.
Vortex Generators.
Wing Blowing.
Chapter 16: Test Yourself.

I Most aircraft operating in the transonic speed range experience:
a) no pitch change.
b) a nose up pitch change.
c) a nose down pitch change.
d) none of the above.
Refpara16.l0
2 During the transonic speedrange the:
a) C of P moves forward.
b) C ofP doesnot move.
c) C of G moves aft.
d) C of P moves aft.
Refpara16.10
Auto Mach Trim will primarily function:

a) at all speeds.
b) only at high subsonicspeeds.
speeds.
c) only at supersonic
d) within the transonicspeedrange.
230
Ref para
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
4 As an aircraftaccelerates
throughtransonicto supersonicflight:
a) longitudinalstabilityincreases.
b) longitudinaland lateralstabilityincreases.
c) longitudinalstabilityreduces.
d) longitudinalandlateralstabilityreduces.
Ref para 16.10
Wave drag arisesfrom two sources:
a) interferencedrag and boundary layer separation.
b) energy drag and boundary layer separation.
c) energy and induced drag.
d) boundary layer separation only.
Refpara16.6
231
17
Manoeuvres
andTheir
Fundamental
Affects,Trimand EngineFailure
17.1 Introduction
of theprinciples
Thischapteris intendedto bringtogetherthoseaspects
of anaircraft.
of flightthatareinvolvedin someof thebasicmanoeuvres
17.2 Li ft
Example: Increasedweight whilst maintaining level flight
An increaseof weight will require an increaseof lift to maintain level flight, which will normally be initiated by aft
movement of the control column to produce an up deflection
of the elevators.
The movement of the elevatorsUP will produce a down load
on the tailplape, resulting in the longitudinal axis rotating
about the lateral axis to increasethe angle of attack.
The increasein angle of attack will result in the following:
(a)
Centre of Pressure
Will move forward.
(b)
Transition Point
Will move forward.
(c)
Boundary Layer
Will become thicker.
(d)
Separation Point
Will move forward
(e)
Stagnation Point
Will move down and aft towards the underside of the
wing.
(0
Induced Drag
Will increaseas the angle of attack and the resultant lift
increases.
232
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
AND THEIREFFECTS
(e)
Upwash and Downwash

Will increaseas the angle of attack is increased.
(h)
Power
In order to maintain level flight with increasedangle of
attack and maintaining constant airspeed, then power
must be increasedto balance the increasein dras.
(i)
Power Required
It may also be said Power Available reducesand Power
Required increases.
(f)
Stalling
Whilst the stalling angle will remain the same,due to the
weight increasethe stalling speedincreases.
17.3 LaftRelatedto Camber

Whilst different cambers are used for wing sectionsto satisfy individual
type requirements,a number of basic principles must be appreciated.
Example: High Camber wing at zero angle of attack:
(a)
Will produce some lift and some drag
(b)
High Camber wing sections will produce some lift and

some drag even when at small negativeanglesof attack.
Example: Symmetrical wing sections:

(a)
Will produce no lift and some drag at zero angle of

attack.
(b)
Must have a positive angle of attack to produce lift.
17.4 Yaw to Port (ConventionalFin and KeelSurface)

The following principles are applied to an aircraft when it is yawed to
port.
(a)
Left rudder pedal pushedforward causingrudder trailing

edge to move to port.
(b)
Some part of the leading edge of the rudder will move to

starboard.
(c)
This action will cause the aircraft to yaw about the

normal or vertical axis to port.
233
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
(d)
The airflow over the starboard wing is now at a greater

velocity than that over the port wing and so more lift is
being generated by the starboard wing than the port
wing, the result being a roll to port.
(e)
So a yaw to port will also result in a roll to port.
17.5 Yaw to Port (LargeFin and KeelSurface).

(a)
Left rudder pedal pushedforward causingrudder trailing

edge to move to port and rudder leading edge to
starboard.
(b)
Aircraft yaws to port about the normal or vertical axis.
(c)
Action of rudder on a large fin causinga lift force of high

magnitude to cause the fin to move about the longitudinal axis towards the right in a clockwise rotational
movement when viewed from the rear, hence a roll to
starboard,
(d)
So it can be said on an aircraft with a large fin and keel

surface when the aircraft is yawed to port it will tend to
roll to starboard.
Note:
It can therefore be said that an aircraft with a normal or

conventional sizedfin and keel surfaceis spirally stable in that
when yawed to port it will readily roll to port and allow a spiral
to be executedin a stable manner.
If, however, the aircraft has a large fin and keel surface,when
yawed to port it will tend to roll to starboard and will resist a
ipiral to port by rolling out of it and so can be said to be spirally
unstable.
Whilst MaintainingLevelFlightat a
17.6 Increaseof Spe.ed
constantaltitude
An increaseof speedfor a given angle of attack will result in an increase
of lift and so in order to maintain a constant altitude:
(a)
The angle of attack must be reduced by pushing the

control column forward.
(b)
The reduction in angle of attack will result in the Centre

of Pressuremoving aft.
234
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
ANDTHEIR
EFFECTS
(c)
The induceddrag reducing.
(d)
The TransitionPoint and SeparationPoint movingaft.
(e)
The StagnationPoint moving forward and up towards

the leadingedge.
(0
The BoundaryLayerbecomingthinner.
Note:
Induceddrag will reduceas the squareof the speed.

Profiledragwill increaseas the squareof the speed.
17.7 StallingAngle
It must be notedthat for a givenwing shapethe stallinganglewill remain
the sameregardless
of speed,weight,altitudeor any otherfactor and can
generallybe regardedas beingin the order of l4o to l5o.
17.8 StallingSpeed
Unlike the stallinganglethe stallingspeedis a variablequantity.
(a)
The stallingspeedwill beincreased

if theC of P is forward
of the neutralpoint.
(b)
The stallingspeedwill be reducedif the C of P is aft of

the neutralpoint.
(c)
The stallingspeedwill bereducedif a power-onapproach

is made with a propeller-drivenaircraft due to an
increasedthrust componentfrom the propellerand the
airflow tendingto re-energise
the wing boundarylayer.
17.9 Multi-Engined
Aircraft
Before describingthe various proceduresinvolved in multi-engined
aircraft we are going to look at the aerodynamicsof enginefailure and
asymmetricflight.
Under normal conditionsof flight, thrust is providedin equalproportions to provide Total thrust which is opposedto Total drag, the two
forcesactingthrough the aircraftcentreline.(Fig l7-l)
Considerthat the right-handenginefails. Immediately,Total thrust
movesfrom the aircraft centrelineto the thrust line of the left engine.
Furthermore,the right hand propellernot only ceases
to producethrust
but generates
a considerableamountof drag until the propelleris feathered!With Total thrust moving to the left and Total drag moving to the
235
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLICHT
rorAl rHRUsr
I
andTotalDragin
17-1TotalThrust
Figure
NormalFlight
right, the opposing forces causea yaw towards the failed engine. (Fig
t7-2)
The eventsthat follow if no correctiveaction is taken are as follows:
the yaw producesa roll in the samedirection (like further effectsof
rudder),and the aircraft nosewill follow the down-goingright wing tip
into a spiraldive.It hasa similareffectto putting a bootful of right rudder
in andthen leavingthe aircraft to sort itself out without any help from
othercontrols.
F A I L E DE N G I N E
Figure17-2TotalThrustand Drag,RightEngineFailed
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
AND THEIREFFECTS
17.1OMinimumControlSpeed
In a multi-engined aircraft the aerodynamic consequencesof engine
failure are dealt with by applying rudder to oppose yaw to prevent the
yaw/roll/spiral dive sequence.
The rudder, however, like any other flying control, is only as effective
as the airflow over it and herein lies a problem. If you let the speeddrop
too low the rudder will lose its effectivenessand will be incapable of
combatting the yawing force of the live engine,aided and abetted by drag
from the failed engine.
The minimum speedat which it is possibleto maintain direction on one
engine (known as minimum control speed),cannot be quoted as a single
figure for any particular aircraft as it varies according to circumstances.
The following are the primary factors that affect it:
I
Altitude:
Since more power means more asymmetric thrust (and therefore
yawing action) it follows that minimum control speedwill be at its
highest at full throttle altitude where maximum power can be
developed.
Load:
A fully loaded aircraft must, speedfor speed,fly at a higher angle of
attack than when nearly empty. A higher angle of attack means
more drag and that in turn demandsmore power. So, back to square
one; more power, more yaw, more yaw and, in consequence,a higher
minimum control speed.
Drag:
This takes us back to Point 2. More drag means more power means
more yaw, etc. Drag is rnentionedhere as a separateitem to draw
attention to the fact that flying with cooling flaps open and the
landing gear extendedwill demand more power from the live engine
- and will therefore mean an increasein minimum control speed.
Flaps:
Use of flap spoils the lift/drag ratio eventhough someflaps give very
little drag increaseuntil after the first l0 to l5 degreesof depression.
As a guideline it is probably best to regard the flaps as coming under
'drag'
the heading of
and leave them up, unlessthe aircraft manual
specifically advisesotherwise.
Windmilling:
While some of the early light twins had fixed-pitch propellers, these
days constant speed/featheringtypes are universal.
The drag from a windmilling propeller is very considerable
237
'anti-thrust' (ie
however,and sinceit will provide a greatdeal of
drag),minimumcontrol speedwill be appreciablyhigherthan-usual
untii the propelleris feathered.Rememberthat windmillingdrag is
asymmetricdrag- and that is Poison.
Pilot limitations:
Modern aircraft are equippedwith adequatetrim, so the pilot
shouldnot be hamperedby the physicallimitation of beingunable
to apply sufficieni rudder. Adequate experienceand training in
asymmetricprocedureswill ensurethe ability to operateat low
minimumcontrol speeds.
Critical Engine:
When both-propellersrotate in the samedirection,slipstreamand
torqueeffecfshavea natural tendencyto createyaw. In the caseof
aircraft,wherethe propellersturn clockwise
-ode.n piston-engine
whenseenfrom the rear,the yaw tendencyis to the left.
Failureof an enginemeanslossof powerandthat,in turn, induces
a drop in speed.To maintain height the angleof aTack must be
increasedso that the aircraftis flying alongin a tail-down/nose-up
attitude.
In the tail-downattitudethe propshaftsareinclinedupwardsand
the topsof the propellerdiscsarethereforetilted backwards.If you
think ibout it, that meansthedown-goingpropellerblade(ietheone
on theright of thediscwhenseenfrom asternduringclockwiserotation) will havea biggeranglethan the up-goingbl?-dgon the other
side. It is a cursewlll known to pilots taking off in a tailwheel
aircraft.where,until thetail is raised,thepropellershaftis effectively
tilted.
As illustratedin Fig 17-3,andkeepingin mind that we aremaintaining height on reducedpower in a tail-down flight attitude:
becausethJdown-goingbladehas an increasedangle,more thrust
6y th-eright half of the propellerdiscthan by the
is beinggenerated
left. 1i Jffect, the ientre of thrust for the port engineis moved
towardsthe aircraft centrelinewhilst that for the starboardengine
is movedaway.
The amountof yawingforce that can be generatedby an engine
dependson the amouniof thrust and the moment arm, through
whi"h it acts.Sincemomentarm B is longerthan momentarm A,
the starboardenginewill clearly exert more yawing force during
engine-outflight than could the port engine.
bonr.qu..rily, thegreateryaw (andthereforethehigherminimum
control speed)would in this instanceresultfrom thelossof the port
engine.In other words, when the propellersrotate clockwise,the
criticalengineis on the left.
238
AND THEIREFFECTS
MANOEUVRES
FUNDAMENTAL
up
Lowspeed/nose
F i g u r e1 7 - 3
Figure17-4An exaggerated
comparison
of forceswhich
theportengineisthe
showsthatfroma controlstandpoint
lvorseoneto lose
It is not always easy to demonstrate a meaningful difference in
minimum control speed between the port and starboard engines, but
much ado has been made of the subject. In any case,some popular light
twins now have handed propellers,the left one turning clockwise and the
right one anticlockwise, thus the minimum control speedis tlre same for
'V'
codes relating to multi-engine
both engines.The following is a list of
aircraft handling:
239
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
Vr
Decision speedduring tdke-off,

Up to that speedthere should be enough runway for the aircraft to
stop if, for any reason,you should decide to abandon the take-off.
Beyond Vr you are committed to presson and take offon one engine.
V.
Rotate speed:
At this stagethe nose should be lifted to attain the take-off attitude.
V2
Take-off safety speed;

This is, in fact, minimum control speedwith an added safety margin
to cater for the following factors which could apply if an enginefails
during or immediately after take-off:
(a) Element of surprise
(b) Failure of the critical engine (ie the port)
(c) Landing gear down, flaps in take-off position, propeller
windmilling
(d) Pilot of averagestrength and ability
Provided the aircraft has attained Vz, it should be possible to maintain direction and height while things are being sorted out.
Y^", Minimum Control Speed- Ground:

Should an engine fail during the take-off run, this is the minimum
speedat which direction can be maintained.
Some aircraft with good nosewheelsteeringcan handle the situation at any speed provided the nosewheelis in contact with the
ground.
Y^"^ Minimum Control Speed- Air:
This is the minimum speedat which it is possibleto maintain direction after failure of the critical engine.No safety allowance is made
for any of the items in Vz so it is of little practical value other than
for demonstration purposeswhile training multi-engine pilots.
Y^", Minimum Control Speed- Landing:
This is the lowest speedat which it is possibleto maintain direction
when full power is applied following failure of the critical engine
while in the landing configuration. This speedis important since it
relatesto the asymmetric overshoot.
Vn" Never exceedspeed:
The ASI should be marked with a red radial line at this speed.
Vno Normal Operating Speed:
'maximum structural cruising speed', this is the top of
Also called
the green arc marked on the ASL Beyond this speed we enter the
yellow or cautionary area which must be avoided while flying in
turbulence.
240
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
AND THEIREFFECTS
Yr"" Speedfor best engine-out rate of climb:
This should be marked on the ASI as a blue radial line and is often
'blue
referred to as the
line' speed.
V3
The all enginesscreenspeed:

The speed at which the aeroplane is assumedto pass through the
screenheight with all enginesoperating on take-off.
V4
The all enginessteady initial climb speed:

The speedassumedfor the first segmentnoise abatement take-off
procedure.
Yo, The target threshold speed:

The scheduled speed at the threshold for landing in relatively
favourable conditions.
Yrû,The maximum threshold speed:
The speedabove which there is an unacceptablerisk of overrunning;
normally assumedto be Vo' + 15 knots.
Y*u The minimum demonstratedlift-off speed:
The minimum speedat which it is possible to leave the ground (all
engines)and climb out without undue hazard.
Additional'V'
codesrelating to general aircraft handling:
Vs
Stall speed:
The speedat which the aircraft exhibits those qualities acceptedas
defining the stall.
Y.,
The minimum speedin the stall:

The minimum speedachievedin the stall manoeuvre.
Y"o Stall speedin landing configuration:

Y.o Maximum operating speed:
The maximum permitted speedfor all operations.
Mro - maximum Mach operating speedfor all operations.
Y.,, Maximum demonstratedflight diving speed:
The highest speeddemonstrated during certification.
Moo - highest Mach speeddemonstrated during certification.
Y*o The rough-air speed:
The recommendedspeedfor flight in turbulence.
M*o - recommendedMach Number for flight in turbulence.
VB Design speedfor maximum gust intensity:
One of the parametersused in establishingVoo
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLIGHT
Design Cruising speed:
One of the speedsused in establishingthe strength of the aircraft.
Vc
VD Design Diving speed:

Another of the speedsused in establishing the strength of the
aircraft.
VF
Flap Limiting speed:

The maximum speedfor flight with the flaps extended.
Y r*, Speedfor minimum drag:

Yr*, Speedfor minimum power'.
Vr" Maximum speedforflight wilhflaps extended:
Vro Maximum speedfor operatingflaps:
V,"
Maximum speedfor flight with gear extended:
V,o Maximum speedfor operating gear:

VA
Design Manoeuvring speed:
VA
Maximum speedfor full deflection of controls:
V*
Best angle of climb speed:
V,
Best rate of climb speed:

Screenspeed(and screenheight):
The speedassumedat 35 feet above the runway after take-off and at
30 feet above the runway on approaching to land, which is used in
establishingthe field performance of the aeroplane.
Zero rate of climb speed:
The speedat which, for a given thrust from the operating engines,
the drag of the aircraft reducesthe climb gradient to zero.
On a twin-engined aircraft, with clockwise rotating propellers (Right
Handed), with reduced power and a tail down attitude the critical engine will
be:
a) either port or starboard.
b) the port engine.
c) the starboard engine'
Ref para 17.9
1 4 1
AND THEIREFFECTS
MANOEUVRES
FUNDAMENTAL
Vuo
a) is the maximumoperatingspeed.
b) is the flap limiting speed.
c) is the minimumpowerspeed.
d) is the designmanoeuvringspeed.
Ref para17.10
V* is the:
a) zero rate of climb speed.
b) best rate of climb speed.
c) best angle of climb.
d) maximum speedfor full deflection of controls.
Refpara17.10
At a constant height an increaseof aircraft weight requires:

a) an increaseof power.
b) an increaseof power available.
c) a reduction in angle of attack.
d) an increasedstalling angle.
Ref para 17.2
With an increasein angle of attack of an aerofoil:

a) the C of P moves aft.
b) the C of G moves aft.
c) the separation point moves aft.
d) the stagnation point moves aft.
Ref para 17.2
243
1B
of Controls
DuplicateInspections
18.1 PilotResponsibility
A pilot is authorisedto carry out the secondpart of a duplicateinspection of an aircraft'scontrol systemsif:
(a) he is licensedon that type of aircraft.
(b) the control systemhasonly had a minor adiustmentmade
to it.
(c) thereis no licensedengineeravailable.
This is intendedto coverminor adjustmentsto control systemsmade
on light aircraftawayfrom base.
ChapterA5 - 3 refersto this
BritishCivil AirworthinessRequirements
authorisation.
The following paragraphsare basedon BCAR Chapter,A'5- 3 and
Civil Aircraft InspectionProcedures.
18.2 Control SystemDefinition
A control systemis definedasa systemby which the flight attitudeor the
propulsiveforceof an aircraftis changed.A duplicateinspectionis therefore requiredfor the following:
(a) Flying control systemswhich include primary flying
controls(elevator,rudderandailerons),togetherwith tabs,
flaps, airbrakesand the mechanismsusedby the pilot to
operatethem.
(b) Propulsivesystemcontrols,which includeprimary engine
(egthrottle controls,fuelcock
conlrolsand relatedsystems
usedby
controls,oil coolercontrols)and the mechanisms
the crew to operatethem.
244
INSPECTION
OF CONTROLS
DUPLICATE
of ControlSystems
18.3 DuplicateInspection
A duplicateinspectionof a control systemis definedas an inspection which is hrst madeand certifiedby one qualifiedpersonand
subsequentlymade and certified by a secondqualified person.
Componentsor systemssubjectto duplicateinspectionmustnot be
disturbedor readjustedbetweenthe first and secondparts of the
inspection,and the secondpart of the inspectionmust, as near as
possible,follow immediatelyafter the first part.
due to peculiaritiesof assemblyor accessiIn somecircumstances,
for both partsof theinspectionto bemade
bility, it may benecessary
simultaneously.
A duplicateinspectionof the control systemin the aircraft shallbe
made:
(a) beforethe first flight of all aircraft after initial assembly.
(b) before the first flight after the overhaul,replacement,repair,
adjustmentor modificationof the system.
The two parts of the duplicateinspectionshall be the final operations,and asthepurposeof theinspectionis to establishtheintegrity
of the system,all work should have beencompleted.If, after the
duplicateinspectionhas been completed,the control systemis
disturbedin any way beforethe first flight, that part of the system
which hasbeendisturbedshallbe inspectedin duplicatebeforethe
aircraft flies.
The correct functioningof control systemsis at all times of vital
and it is essentialthat suitablelicensed
importanceto airworthiness,
aircraft engineersand membersof approvedinspectionorganisations responsiblefor the inspectionor duplicateinspectionshould
be thoroughlyconversantwith the systemsconcerned.The inspecto ensurethat eachandevery
tion mustbecarriedout systematically
assembled,
and is ableto operatefreely
part of the systemis correctly
without
risk of fouling.Also
over the specifiedrangeof movement
that it is correctlyand adequatelylocked,cleanand correctlylubricated,and is working in the correct sensein relation to the
movementof the control bv the crew.
18.4 PersonsAuthorisedto Certify DuplicateInspections

Personnelauthorisedto makethe first and secondparts of the duplicate
245
inspectionof control systemsin accordancewith Chapter,A.5- 3 of
BCAR are asfollows:
(a)
Aircraft engineersappropriatelylicensedin Categories

A, B, C andD.
(b)
Membersof an appropriatelyapprovedInspection
Organisationwho areconsideredby the ChiefInspector
competentto makesuchinspections.
(c)
For minor adjustmentsto control systemswhen the

aircraftis awayfrom base,the secondpart of the duplicate inspectionmay be performedby a pilot or flight
engineerlicensedfor the type of aircraftconcerned.
Tension Rod
S h e a rP i n
InspectionHole
Cable End Fitting
Control Cable
Figure1B-2(a)
Not more than 3 threads showing
Figure1B-2(b)
i
L
INSPECTION
DUPLICATE
OF CONTROLS
Thread
must
showabove
thenut
Fr---r-l
t
t
l
l
SPRING
WASHER
LOCKING
PLATE
(b)
S P L I TP I N N I N G
'l
Figure 8-3
247
Fibreor
Nyloninsert
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SFLICHT
18.5 FlyingControlSystems
General Points
Movement of the pilot's flying controls can be transmitted to the aircraft
control surfacesby a systemof flexible steelcables.Although one of the
oldest methods of control, it is still used extensivelytoday. An alternative
type of control systemis formed from light alloy tubes. Thesetubes form
a iigio link systemthat also gives positive control under all flight conditions. Both methods will be considered in some detail in this chapter.
Where it is necessaryto changethe direction of a control run, whilst maintaining a strong, flexible and positive connection, a sprocket and chain
system may be fitted at appropriate points in the control run. Since all
flying control systemsstart in the cockpit, we shall begin this discussion
by looking at controls which the pilot operatesin order to fly the aircraft.
Control Column
The control column is the most important singlecontrol that the pilot has
to operate.Its movement controls both the ailerons and the elevators.The
dual controls illustrated in Fig 18-4 are interconnectedso that movement
of one has exactly the same effect as movement of the other. We shall,
therefore, consider the movement of only one of them. As illustrated in
Fig l8-4, the control column is pivoted at a mid-position to allow sideways movement about that point. The bottom of the unit is attached to
the aileron control system so that sidewaysmovement of the control
column will move the ailerons. The control column is pivoted on the
angled crank of a torque tube which also carries a lever arm to which the
elevator control systemis attached. Moving the control column fore and
aft rotates the torQue tube, thus moving the elevators.
Rudder Bar and Pedals
The rudder is controlled from the cockpit by moving the rudder pedals.
These pedals may be separateunits or are attached to a rudder bar.
Moving the rudder pedals operates a mechanical system to which the
rudder is attached.Putting the left foot forward swingsthe rudder to port;
conversely,putting the right foot forward swingsthe rudder to starboard.
The rudder bar (or individual rudder pedals) can be adjusted to suit the
leg reachof the pilot.
Trimming Tab Controls
We have seen that the primary control surfaces(ailerons, elevators,
rudders) are moved by operating the pilot's controls. This may be as a
direct result of physical effort on the part of the pilot, or it may be as
a result of a signalfed from the pilot's controls to a powered flying control
248
INSPECTION
DUPLICATE
OF CONTROLS
c o n t r o lc o l u m n
(port)
a i l e r o nc o n t r o l
a d i u s t a b l es t o p
'elevatorcontrol tube
r i g g i n gp o i n t s
t o r q u et u b e
assembly
a i l e r o nc o n t r o lc a b l e
F i g u r e1 B - 4D u a lC o n t r oC
l olumns
FFLIGHT
P R I N C I P LO
ES
brake toe oedal
s P r i n gl o a d e d
Plunger
BarandPedals
1B-5Rudder
Figure
unit. In the first instance - ie with no power assistance the control
surfacesnormally have small trimming tabs fitted to them, as described
in previous chapters. These trimming tabs are controlled from the
cockpit, as illustratedin Figure l8-6.
An aircraft is said to be irimmed when there is no load on the control
column or rudder bar/pedals, and the aircraft is flying steadily without
any changein direction or altitude. The controllable trimming tabs ensure
thit, for iny unwanted variation from the trimmed condition, the appropriaie contiol surface(s)may be re-trimmed to remove the loading on the
pilot'r control. Trimming 1abs, where fitted, are adjusted frequently
during each flight.
Methods of Operating Control Systems
job it
Ba"n co"t".ol iystem"in an aircraft is constructed for the particular
has to do. Consequently,there are considerabledifferencesin the design
of control systems- not only between those in different aircraft, but
between different systemsin the same aircraft. We cannot deal with all
the variations in a book of this type. We can however, deal with the
common areasin control sYstems.
250
DUPLICATE
INSPECTION
OF CONTROLS
.l
Figure 8-6 TrimmingTabControls
As alreadystated,flying controlsare normally operatedby cablesor

by control tubes,and eachmethodwill now be considered.
18.6 Control Cables
Generalpoints
Cablesprovidea strong,light andflexiblemethodof control and areused
in aircraftcontrol systems.
Cablesoperatein tensionand can,
extensively
therefore,only be usedto pull the control. However,two cablescan be
arrangedin theform of a continuousloop to providea pull in both directions(Fig l8-7).
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
q=
fai rleads
control lever
controi cables
control
columns
turnbuckles
Figure
18-7CableSystem
Construction of Cables
Flying control cablesare normally preformed; that is, the strands in the
cable are formed into the shape they will assumein the complete cable.
The cables,which are made of galvanigedor corrosion-resistantsteel,are
impregnated with an anti-friction lubricant during manufacture.
core or king wire
INSPECTION
DUPLICATE
OFCONTROLS
A cableis madeup of steelwireswhich,in turn, areformedinto strands,
as illustratedin the two examplesof Fig l8-8. Each strand consistsof
severalwires(7 or 19)which are wound helicallyin one or more layers,
the centrewire beingknown as the corewire or king wire. Eachcableis
madeup of severalstrands(usually7), wound helicallyaroundthecentre
or corestrand.The cableis describedby the numberof strandsit contains
and by the numberof individualwiresin eachstrand.Figure l8-8ashows
that a 7x7 cableconsistsof 7 strands,eachhaving7 wires;Figure l8-8b
showsa7xl9 cable- 7 strands,eachhavingl9 wires.Thenumberof wires
in eachstrand,the number of strands,and the overall diameterof the
cabledeterminethebreakingload of thecable.For example,a7x l9 cable
of 6.4mm(%in) overalldiameterhasa minimumbreakingloadof 70001bf.
Cablesareclassifiedeitherby theminimum breakingload, whichmay be
quotedin cwtf, lbf or kN, or by the nominal diameterin inches.
It is often necessary
to coil a cablewhenhandlingit for assemblyinto
an aircraft.The coil shouldbe of largediameter;neverlessthan 50 diametersof the cableinvolvedandwith a minimumdiameterof 150mm.To
avoid kinking the cable, and thus making it unserviceable,uncoiling
should be done by rotating the coil so that the cable is paid out in a
straightline.
Pulleys
Pulleysare usedto changethe direction of operationof flying control
cables,and to give support on long straightruns. A cableguide (or
retainer)is fitted to the pulley to ensurethat the cableremainson the
pulley.A typicalpulley,with its retainer,is illustratedin Fig l8-9. When
adjustinga control,it is importantto ensurethat the cableendfittingsdo
not foul the pulley,otherwisethe cablemovementwill be restricted.Also
look for possiblemisalignmentbetweenthe cableand pulley:this must
not exceed2'(Fig l8-9b).
F i g u r e1 8 - 9P u l l e y
P R I N C I P LO
ES
FFLICHT
Screwiack
A cable-operatedtrimming tab control systemusually operates a Screwjack at the output end of the system.The screwjack(Fig 18-10)is attached
by means of an adjustable rod to the trimming tab. The cable movement
rotutes the sprocket of the screwjackto reposition the trimming tab. This
unit acts as i lock, retaining the trimming tab in the desiredposition until
the cockpit control is next moved.
trimming tab
0 Screwjack
Figure1B-.1
18.7 CableTensioning
Needfor tension.For a wire cablecontrol systemto operateeffectively,
the cabletensionmust be correct.It shouldbejust sufficientto operate
tensionimposesan
the control - neithertciotaut nor too slack;excessive
cable resultsin
slack
whilst
a
load on the control system,
unnecessary
are
We shallseelaterthat cablesystems tensionedto
ineffectiveresponse.
with the servicinginstructionsfor
value,in accordance
a pre-determined
the particularsystem.The valuechosenis suchthat sufficienttensionis
The rangeof tempermaintainedovera rangeof operatingtemperatures.
upon whether
depends
atureoverwhich the tensionremainssatisfactory
(see
later).
or not a cabletensionregulatoris fitted in the system
Temperaturechange,cable stretch,and generalwear of supporting
parts aifect the tensionwhich must, therefore,be checkedand adjusted
havecompensating
at specifiedintervals.Somecablesystems
is necessary
devicesfitted which ensureeffectiveoperation over a much wider range
than would otherwisebe possible.
of temperatures
Turnbuckles
It is normal to useturnbucklesto adjustthe tensionof cablesin flying
Thereare two typesof turnbucklesin commonuse(Fig
control systems.
l8-11) and the typefitted will matchthe end fittings on the cables.
254
DUPLICATE
INSPECTION
OF CONTROLS
undercut identifies LH thread
F i g u r e1 8 - 11
Whenconnectingcablestogetherusinga turnbucklethe threadsmust be

evenly engagedat each end. It is important to ensurethat sufficient
threadsare engaged,otherwisethe load on the cablecould strip the
threads.
With theAmericantypeof turnbuckle(Fig 18-I I a) not morethan three
threadsshouldbe visible.
Cable end frttingsthat engagewith the British tensiontype of turnbuckle(Fig l8-l 1b)havesmall'witness'holesdrilledin theirshanks.The
turnbucklethreadmust at leastreachtheseholesfor the connectionsto
be 'in safety'.
All turnbucklesarelockedin the approvedmannerusinglockingwires
or clips,as shownin Fig 18-l and 2.The Britishtypeis alsolockedwith
lockingnuts.
Adjusting the tensionin a cublesystem
There are many different types of metal in an aircraft, eachof which
expandsat a differentratewith increasingtemperature.The effectof this
in a cablesystemis that the tensiontendsto decrease
with an increasein
altitude.Thus,to retainsufficienttensionat altitude,the pre-determined
load must be high. This requiresa strong structure,with a resulting
increasein weight.Furthermore,comparedwith a tensionregulated
system(seelater),stressand staticfriction are alsohigher.
While tensioningis being carried out to the correctvalue of predeterminedloadby evenlyadjustingall the turnbucklesin the system,the
correctrelativepositionsof the pilot'scontrol and the relevantcontrol
255
surfacemustbemaintained.The cabletensionis checkedfrequentlyusing
a tensiometerasthe adjustmentsare made.
CableTensionRegulator
A cabletensionregulatoris a mechanicaldevicewhich,whenfitted in a
cable system,allows the cablesunder all conditionsof temperature
changeand structuraldeflectionsto take up and let out equallyon each
sideof the circuit, thus maintaininguniform tension.The compensating
unit of a tensionregulatormay be manufacturedwith eitherone or two
springs;a doublespringunit is describedbelowand illustratedin Fig 1812.
This type of regulatorconsistsof a pair of springJoadedquadrants,
with a pointerand scalefor recordingthe changein lengthof the cables.
end of the grooved
The cablesare insertedthrough slotsin the recessed
quadrantsand the cableendsare securedat the anchoragepoints.The
basicpurposeof the regulatoris to keepthe effectivelengthof the cable
constantevenwhen the actual length has beenincreasedor decreased
eitherby changeof temperatureor structuralflexing.The graphis used,
the cable
in conjunctionwith the regulatorscalereading,whenassessing
tension(seelater).Let us seehow the regulatorfunctions.
.l
Figure 8-12 CableTensionRegulator
256
INSPECTION
OFCONTROLS
DUPLICATE
Figure l8-l3a showsthat any extensionof the cablesattachedto the

quadranttendsto give equal slackeningof the cables.The regulator
to thecablequadrants,andthis
springsthenimpart a rotarydisplacement
causingit to
link
arms
to the crosshead,
movementis transmittedby the
by the
is
controlled
This
movement
move freelyalongthe lockingshaft.
correct
govern
their
at
the cables
pressureof compressionspringsto
pre-settension.
Figure 18-13bshowsthat any shorteningof the cableswill have the
reverseeffect,tendingto giveequaltensioningof the cables.This givesa
of the quadrantsand movesthe crossheadinwards
rotary displacement
along the lockingshaftby the actionof the link arms.
a 'regulated'control,
Figurel8-13cshowsthat whenthepilot operates
the crossheadtilts on its lockingshaft,causingit to lock on to the shaft.
Both quadrantsarenow lockedtogetherand operateasa leverto givethe
pilot positivecontrol of the system.
l o c k i n gs h a f t
Figure18-13CableTensionRegulator
257
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
A tensiometeris not usedto checkthe tensionin a regulatedsystem.

Thecabletensionis adjustedon both sidesof thecircuit (usuallyby means
of turnbuckles)until thecorrectreadingis obtainedon theregulatorscale.
The readingobtaineddependsupon the prevailingtemperature,and the
correct readingfor that temperatureis obtainedfrom a specialgraph
printedin the relevantmanual(Fig l8-12).
After thecableshavebeensetto thecorrecttension,regulatorcompensationmay be checkedby graspingboth cablesneartheir point of entry
to the regulator and forcing both cablesin towards each other. The
resultingmovementof the quadrantsshouldbe smoothand even.If the
regulatorfails to move,or the movementis jumpy, it may indicatethat
thecableshavebeenwronglyriggedsothat the tensionis uneven,causing
to tilt and'lock'the system.
thecrosshead
Comparedwith a cable system,a regulatedcable control system
of this, the levelof tension
ensuresa relativelyconstanttension.Because
provides:
this
in
turn
reduced;
canbe
*Lower staticfriction *Lessstructuralweight *Improvedresponse
18.8 MechanicalStops
The nextcheckis to ensurethat the control surfacemovesto its designed
maximumtravelposition,in both directions,whenmovedby the cockpit
control.
The maximum travel of a primary control surfaceis limited in each
directionby mechanical(limit) stops.Thesestops(Fig l8-14)arefitted to
limit the control surfacemovementin either direction and thus avoid
travel.In a manualsystem,the stopsareusually
damagedue to excessive
and a secondpair ofstops,known asthe
surface,
control
locatednearthe
stops,
are fitted to limit the pilot's control
secondary
overridestopsor
fail.
Secondarystopsare adjustedto a
main
stop
the
movementshould
conditions.In powered
normal
operating
under
clearance
specified
c o n t r o lc o l u m n
striker plates
AILERON
STOPS
adjustablestops
F i g u r e1 B - 1 4M e c h a n i c aSl t o p s
DUPLICATE
INSPECTION
OFCONTROLS
control systems,themechanicalstopsarelocatedon the input sideof the
poweredflying control unit (PFCU); usuallythey arelocatednext to the
pilot's control in the cockpit,thuslimiting the control systemmovement
from that position.During the riggingprocedure,the main mechanical
(primary)stopsmay needto be re-setto ensurethat the control surface
reaches,
but doesnot exceed,its maximumtravelposition.
I An American type turnbuckleis in safetywhen:
a) it is wire locked.
b) not more than threethreadsare showing.
c) the inspectionholesareobscured.
d) the lock nuts are tight.
Ref para 18.7
2 Primarycontrol stopsarelocated:
a) at the control surface.
b) at the control column.
c) at any convenientpositionin the control run.
d) at the mixer unit.
Ref para 18.8
Automatic cabletensionis provided by:
a) turnbuckles.
b) control stops.
c) tensionregulators.
d) pulleys.
Ref para 18.7
4 Ifa control systemcabletensionis too high:
a) control surfacerangeof movementwill be reduced.
b) controlswill be easierto move.
wearwill take placeon cablesand pulleys.
c) excessive
d) flutter is more likely to occur.
Refpara18.7
5 Whena pilot carriesout a duplicateinspection:
a) he or shemust signthe first signatureblock.
b) he or shemust be an ATPL holder.
c) he or shemust alsobe a type ratedengineer.
d) no otherengineermust be available.
Ref para 18.4
19
AircraftConstruction
19.1 AirframeStructuralDesign
This chapter is intended to be a brief introduction to the study of
uirf.u-.t f.om the designer'spoint of view, including some of the general
problems confronting him.
19.2 Definitions
To avoid misconceptionsof the engineeringterms used in this chapter a
list of definitions is given below:
The force exerted between two contacting bodies or
S/ress:
parts of a body. It is measuredasthe load per unit area'
Strain:
Elastic
Limit
The deformation causedby stress.It is recorded as the

change of size over the original size'
of a material' the
When stressexceedsthe elastic limit
'set', and on releaseof
pefinanent
a
up
takes
material
the load it will not return completely to its original
shape.
The ratio of stressover strain'

Srffiess
or Rigidity:
That point beyond which, if stress is increased, the
Ultimate
material will fail'
Strength:
19.3 Designinga new Aircraft

The Specification
of a
Theinitialstepin theproductionof a newaircraftis thepreparation
termsof speed,
thir will statetherequiredperforman-ce.in
splcifrcatio.t.
in whichthe
general
conditions
The
etc.
payload
ring., ceilingand
of runway
type
as
such
stated,
also
are
uiiriuii is re{uiredio'operate
260
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
surface,temperatureconditionsand altitude.The strengthand lengthof
availablerunwaysmust also be taken into accountso that new aircraft
may useexistingrunways,and in mostcasesmay operateworldwide.The
and will stipulatea
specificationwill alsogivethe strengthrequirements
factor of safetyto allow for unforseencontingencies
or for accidentally
exceedingbasicdesignlimitations.If the strengthrequirementsare too
severe,the aircraftwill be penalizedby excessive
structuralweight;if not
severeenough,there is a risk of failure of structural components.In
choosingthesestrengthconditions,the aim must be to ensurethat the
aircraftwill be ableto carry out all the normal manoeuvresappropriate
to its role. It is desirableto makethe airframeas strongas possible,but
the extrastructuralweightneededto ensureadequatestrengthfor certain
manoeuvresmust not be out of proportion to the advantagegained.
Manoeuvresfor which the aircraft is not stressedare called prohibited manoeuvres.
19.4 The Design
When the specificationhas beenproduced,the designteam will decide
what they considerto be the bestform and sizeof aircraft to meet the
At this stageit mustbe emphasized
requirements.
that any aircraftdesign
is inevitablya compromisebetweenthe conflictingdemandsof payload
requirements,performance,economy,reliability, cost, easeof maintenanceandsoon.Thedesigner's
own preference
will influencetheultimate
layout of the airframe;this explainswhy there are so many different
shapesand layoutsfor aircraft,althougheachis more or lesscorrectfor
its task.The requirementsfor speedand rangeare usuallyso dominant
that only an aerodynamically
cleanmonoplanedesigncan be used,and
designeffort is concentratedon achievingthe minimum drag by careful
positioningof wings,fuselage,tail unit, and engines,and by the cleanest
possiblestowageof radar aerials,etc. Still further reductionsin drag
by usinga
arepossibleby eliminatingthe tail unit, and eventhe fuselage,
flying wing design;but the problemsof longitudinalcontrol and stability
are then difficult to solvesatisfactorily.In everyheavy or high speed
design,much caremust be taken to providecontrolswhich requirethe
leastpracticableforceto operatethemandwhichareeffectivethroughout
the speedrange.
The next stagein the developmentof a new aircraft is usuallywindtunneltesting.Work startsin the wind-tunnelon modelsof the selected
designto checkthe exactoutlineof the aircraft,thelift and drag,to work
out maximum air loads that will be exertedon all surfacesunder all
possibleflight conditions,togetherwith the performance,stability and
control of the airuaft, so that errors can be detectedat an early stage
and the designmodifiedasnecessary.
261
During the wind-tunnelteststagea full-sizewoodenmock-upis often

madeso that positionsmay be found for modelsof all the equipmentto
be carriedin it. The mock-up is also usefulto checkthe field of view,
to ensuresufficientspaceand headroomfor flightcrewand passengers,
and to checkthe positionof controlsin relationto the instrumentpanel,
etc.In general,themock-upworksasa rough3-D checkon all thedimensionsmadeby the designstaff and draughtsmen.
A detaileddesignof the airframestructureis thenbegun.Probablythe
most important part is the calculationof the strengthof the aircraft.
The airframe has to be sufficientlystrong to withstand aerodynamic,
landingand handlingloads.The aerodynamicloadsarecalculatedfrom
for the accelerationand speedsin the specificawind-tunnelexperiments
tion and multiplied by the factor of safety. Loads imposed by
manhandlingon the ground,especiallyon light aircraft,are often many
timesgreaterthan the aerodynamicloadsand must be allowedfor if the
'No step'signs.
aircraftis not to be coveredwith 'Do not pushhere'and
Other featuresthe detaileddesignmust includeare:
(a) A smoothskin of the requiredaerodynamicform.
(b) Sufficientstiffnessto retdin its correctshapeunder aerodynamic
loads.
(c) Mounting pointsfor the engines.
(d) Protectionfor flightcrewand radio gear,often in a pressurized
compartment;heatingand/or refrigerationfor crew, passengers
and equipment.
(e) Suitablebreakdownpoints,to enablethe aircraftto be dismantled
for transport,or repairby replacementof components.
(l) The minimumnumberof points requiringservicingand examination, and easyaccessto them.
The overall designmust lend itself to easyand cheapproduction
methodsand repairs.With aircraftspeedsconstantlyrising,necessitating
a complexstructureto providethe strength,this requirementis becoming
more difficult to meet.
When the generalarrangementof the aircraft is settled,the structural
designmay proceed.In this the designerhascompletefreedomof choice,
but he is usuallyinfluencedby pastpracticeand experience.
One of the main problemsthat a designerhas to overcomeis that of
weight.An increaseof lo/oin the weight of the structurecan
excessive
mean as much as 5ohto l0o/oincreasein the grossweight of the aircraft.
more
lift creatOs
Briefly,thisis dueto the'snowball'effectwhereincreased
largerengines,and thereforemore fuel for the same
drag, necessitating
262
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
performance. Conversely, a saving of loh in the weight of the structure
can result in 5o/otol0% reduction in total weight of the completed aircraft.
As the various components are manufactured some are set aside for
fatigue testing. This, for example, can involve placing whole wing structures in deviceswhich can vibrate and flex the wing at various frequencies,
thereby simulating in a relatively short time many thousands of flying
hours. These tests are usually continued until a unit fails, in which event
the unit can either be modified or strengthenedand the safelife tirne of
the wing can be calculated.
The fuselagesof most pressurizedcivil transport are often subjectedto
'tank
a
test'. The fuselageis completely immersedin a large tank of water,
and the pressure inside it is raised until the differential between the
inside and outside of the cabin is similar to that during flight at cruising
altitudes. The pressurecan then be raised and lowered, simulating climbs
and descents.This is normally continued until fatigue failure occurs,
which may indicate that strengthening is required or it can serve to give
an indication of the safe life of the fuselase.
19.5 StructuralRigidity
In the early days ofaircraft designan aircraft was consideredto be acceptable if it was made strong enough to withstand the direct air loads acting
upon it. As aircraft speedsincreasedit was found that vibration could
occur in the wing and tail units and it often appearedto be associatedwith
the control surfaces. In some instances the vibration was sufficiently
severeto causecomplete disintegration of the airframe.
After several years of research an explanation was evolved for a
phenomenon now known as flutter. Design features to overcome flutter
are nowadays incorporated as a matter of course in aircraft design. The
following paragraphs present a simple non-mathematical explanation of
a very complex subject.
Vibration may occur in three ways and can be caused by the wing
bending or flexing, by wing twisting, or by control surfacemovement. The
vibration due to wing flexing and twisting can be controlled by structural
rigidity, whilst control surface movement is governed by the elasticity in
the control cablesor rods. Figure l9-1 illustrates the way in which a wing
may twist in torsion: The torsional axis can be taken as the line about
which the wing will twist if a force is applied to the wing, other than on
the line of the axis itself.
A wing will not twist if a force is applied to the torsional axis. The wing
may, however, bend or flex under this force, as illustrated in Fig l9-2.It
can be seen that the torsional axis is an important feature of the wing
structure and can be taken as the point or line about which the wing will
either twist in torsion, or bend in flexure.
263
PRINCIPLES
OF FLlCHT
.
I
Figure19-1Wing Twistor Torsion
The third form of vibration is causedby the control surfaceitself

in
vibratingin the airstreambecauseof incorrectbalancingor slackness
the control runs. The first two forms of vibration are, in themselves,
harmlessand can quickly be dampedout by the rigidity of the airframe.
However, when brought about by an externalforce, for examplethe
airstream,furtherreactionswill occurwhichmay eventuallyleadto structural failure.
,/,'4
\
atr'
Figure19-2 Wing Bendingor Flexure
19.6 Flutter
causeof structuralfailure.It is a violentvibrationof
Flutteris a possible
264
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
theaerofoilsurfacescausedby interactionof their massand aerodynamic
loads.Threeforms of flutter affectthe wins:
(a) Torsionalflexuralflutter.
(b) Torsionalaileronflutter.
(c) Flexuralaileronflutter.
TorsionalFlexural Flutter
This occursasa resultof thewingflexingand twistingundertheinfluence
of aerodynamicloads.The sequence
of eventsis as follows:
(a) The wing is takento bein stablehorizontalflight with the
torsionalaxisaheadof the CG of the wing. The lift (L) is
balancedby thereaction(R) causedby the bendingof the
wing due to the aircraftweight.
(b) A disturbancecausesthe incidenceof the wing to be
momentarilyincreased,
resultingin an increasein lift; L is
now greaterthan R and the wing flexesupwards.Because
of inertia, the CG will lag behindthe torsionalaxis and
therebyfurther increasethe angle of incidence,and so
increaselift evenmore.
(c) Stiffnessof the wing bringsthe torsionalaxisto rest,but
inertia causesthe CG to travel farther, decreasingthe
angle of incidence.L is then lessthan R, and the wing
startsto descend.
(d) Stiffnessof the wing bringsthe torsionalaxisto rest,but
inertiacausestheCG to travelfarther,increasingthe incidence.L is again greaterthan R and the flutter cycle
beginsagain.
Torsional flexural flutter can be preventedin the design,either by
ensuringthat the wing is sufficientlystiff so that the critical flutter speed
is far in excess
maximumspeed,or by ensuringthat the
of the permissible
CG of the wing is on, or aheadof, the torsionalaxis.
TorsionalA ileronFlutter
This is causedby thewingtwistingunderloadsimposedon it by themovementof theaileron.Figurel9-3 showsthe sequence
for a half cycle,which
is describedas follows:
(a) The aileronis displacedslightlydownwards,exertingan
increasedliftins forceon the aileronhinse.
(b) The wing twistsaboutthe torsionalaxis- thetrailingedge
rising,takingthe aileronup with it. The CG of the aileron
is behind the hinge line; its inertia tendsto make it lag
behind, increasingaileron lift, anr,lso increasingthe
twistingmoment.
(c) The torsional reactionof the wing has arrestedthe
twisting motion but the air loads on the aileron, the
stretchof its control circuit, and its upward momentum,
causeit to overshootthe neutralposition,placinga down
load on the trailing edgeof the wing.
(d) The energystoredin the twistedwing, togetherwith the
aerodynamicload of the aileron,causethe wing to twist
in the oppositedirection.The cycle is then repeated.
Torsionalaileronflutter can be preventedeitherby massbalancingthe aileronsso that their CG is on, or slightly
aheadof, the hinge line, or by making the controls
irreversible.Both methodsare employedin modern
aircraft;thosewith fully poweredcontrolsand no manual
all otheraircraft
reversiondo not requiremass-balancing;
havetheir control surfacesmass-balanced.
Torsional ot
ElasticAxis
Figure19-3 Torsional
AileronFlutter
266
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
Flexural Aileron Flutter
Flexuralaileronflutter is generallysimilarto torsionalaileronflutter,but
is causedby the movementof the aileronlaggingbehindthe riseand fall
of the outer portion of the wing asit flexes,thereforetendingto increase
the oscillation.This type of flutter is preventedby mass-balancing
the aileron.Thepositioningof themass-balance
weightis important- the
nearerthe wing tip the smallerthe weight required.On many aircraft
the weightis distributedalongthe wholelengthof the aileronin the form
of a leadingedgespar,therebyincreasingthe stiffnessof the aileronand
preventinga concentratedweightstartingtorsionalvibrationsin the
aileronitself.
So far only wing flutter hasbeendiscussed,
but a few momentsconsiderationwill showthat mass-balancing
must alsobe appliedto elevators
and ruddersto preventtheir inertia and the springinessof the fuselage
startingsimilar troubles.Mass-balancing
is extremelycritical; henceto
avoid upsettingit, the painting of aircraft markingsetc is no longer
allowedon any control surface.The dangerof all forms of flutter is that
the extentofeach successive
vibrationis greaterthan its predecessor,
so
that in a secondor two the structuremay be bent beyondits elasticlimit
fail.
and consequently
Centre of
Pressureof Wing
Figure
AileronReversal
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
To raiseonewing,the aileronattachedto that wing is lowered(Fig 19tlie lift of the aileron(Az),exertingan upwardforceon
4). This increases
wing has insufficient stiffnessit will twist about its
If
the
hinge.
the
the trailing edge,relativeto the leadingedge,
raising
axis,
torsionil
the
of the wing. This in turn decreases
incidence
the
reducing
thereby
lifting
the
exceed
may
particularly
cases
bad
(L:),
in
and
wing
lift of ihe
lessthan 1' + Ar).As a resultthe
effectof the aileron(ie L, + A: becomes
to
that intended.This is known as
effect
wing goesdown the opposite
aileronreversal.
Divergence
cases,lack of torsionalrigidity in the wing causesdivergence'
in ext"reme
If the incidenceof a wing is momentarilyincreased,the lift of the wing
will alsoincrease,and the centreof pressurewill move forward' Should
the torsionalaxis of the wing be behindthe centreof pressure,both the
increaseof lift and its forward movementmagnify the couplewhich is
twisting the wing in the direction of increasedincidence.Conversely,
shouldthe initiil disturbancedecreasethe angle of incidence,the
lift and the aft movementof the centreof pressurebehindthe
decreased
torsionalaxistend further to reducethe incidence.
In both casesthis twistingactionis opposedby the torsionalreaction
with the squareof the speed,
of the wing; but sincethe lift forceincreases
thereis a ciitical speed(knownasthe divergentspeed),beyondwhich the
aerodynamiccouplewill build up more rapidly with changeof incidence
than the torsionalreactionof tlie wing, and consequentlythe wing will
continueto twist until it breaksoff. This is avoidedin eitherof two ways:
by making the wing sufficientlystiff in torsion (but not necessarilyin
flLxure)so-thatthe divergentspeedis well beyondthe maximumpermissiblespeedfor the aircrait;or by designingthe wing so-thatits torsional
cannot
axisis in front of the aerodynamicaxis,in which casedivergence
occurat any speed.
19.7 TheStructure
The basicforcesactingon an aircraftin flight, ie lift, weight,thrust,drag,
are all primary criteiia in the designof the aircraft's structure.The
thenormal
designeihasto-.ntu.. that thestrengthof theairframeexceeds
margin.
safety
operatingloadsimposedon it, by the ryqr1ir9d
-uii*uand
envelope,
flight
Theseforcei will vary considerablythroughoutthe
move(g),
turbulence,
airspeed_,
aredependenton suchthingsasloading
ment of control surfaces,changesin configuration(loweringof landing
gear,
etc)and landing.
"
On oldertypesof aircraft, abiplaneconfigurationwasalmoststandard
and the useoi externalwiresand bracingstrutsenabledwing structures
268
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
to be made which were extremely rigid compared with the weight and
strength of the component parts. The wings and fuselageswere built up
from a light framework of wooden ribs, spars and formers covered with
a skin of fabric tightened by doping. The wires and struts bracing the
mainplanes formed what was, in effect, a large lattice girder; wires were
also used to brace the tailplane and fin.
As the top speedof aircraft increased,so the shape and layout of the
aircraft, and the materials used in its construction changed. The monoplane layout became universal, bringing with it the more sophisticated
problems of designing a thin unbraced wing that was strong enough to
resistthe tension, compressiveand twisting loads imposed upon it. Metal
was used for formers, ribs and as an outer skin in place of the plywood
and fabric of the earlier aircraft. The conflicting requirements of light
weight and strength usually resulted in a compromise, and aluminium
alloys are usedextensivelyin medium speed,subsonicaircraft. For supersonic aircraft, the kinetic heating effect of prolonged supersonic flight
could cause the conventional light alloys to lose some of their strength
and specially formulated light alloys have to be used; other materials,
such as stainlesssteel,which is heavier,stronger and more expensive,have
to be used in the construction.of aircraft designedfor continuous supersonic flight at the higher Mach numbers. Some examples of airframe
construction are shown in Fig l9-5 a, b, c and d.
Figure19-5aStressed
Skinor Monocoque
Construction
Stressedskin is a type of constructionin which the skin of the aircraft

proportion of the load on the aircraft.
takesa considerable
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
|
Longeron
Bracino
Struts'
Cross
BracingWi166
Figure19-5b WarrenCirder
Used extensivelyon older light aircraft designsin which the skeleton

frametakesmost of the load and the skin very little.
.19-5c
Wing
Cantilever
Figure
Figure19-5d BracedWing
270
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
19.8 Wing Construction

Spars
In order to resistthe bendingforcesimposedon it, an idealsparis given
a certaindepth.An exampleof this is an ordinary ruler, which will flex
easilywhen loadedon the upper or lower flat surfaces,but is very stiff
whena loadis appliedto theedge.Unfortunately,themodernwing is thin
precludingthe useof a deepspar.Two, three,or more
in cross-section,
sparsare usedin the wing to givethe necessary
strength.A sparusually
consistsof solidboomsat the top and bottom, connectedby a thin plate
web. Normally theseare manufacturedas separateitems and riveted
together,but somesparsaremadein one piecefrom monoblocforgings,
machinedto perfectshape.Figure 19-6illustratesthree typical spar
sections.
Stressed-skin
Although somelight aircraft still have parts of the airframecoveredin
fabric, most aircraft today are metal clad. In subsonicaircraft,the wing
skeletonof sparsand ribsis coveredwith a light alloy skin.This is riveted
to the frameworkand is designedto stiffenthe wing by taking someof
the loads.This type of constluctionif known as 'stressedskin' and
producesa relativelystrongwing without too largea weightpenalty.The
wing canwithstandtwistingor torsionloads,and is usuallystrengthened
by the additionof span-wise
stringersto withstandthe bendingor flexure
loadings.
a.
b
Simple plate web and extruded booms.

'Fail-safe'
spar in which no crack can propagate.
S p a r m a c h i n e df r o m s i n g l ef o r g i n g .
Figure19-6 Typicalsparsections
271
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SFLICHT
wingconstruction
19-7Stressed-skin
Figure
Machined Skin
The faster an aircraft flies, the greater the rigidity required of the structure. To achievethis the stressed-skinof the slower aircraft is replacedby
a machined skin manufactured from a solid billet of metal. The metal is
milled away by high precision machines so that in its final form the
contour of ttrb wing-is very accurately reproduced, together with
the necessarystrengthening buttressesand ribs. Altogether up to 90oh
of the originil metal will becut away, leaving a structure that is not only
extremelystrong and preciselyshaped,but also light in weight. The panels
so produced are joined together to form a rigid, strong wing.
Figure|9-8 Machinedskinwing construction
Torsion-Boxes
In this form of constructionthe skinsof the upperand lower surfacesof
the wingjoin the front and rear sparsrigidly togetherto form a box. To
thefron-tiparis attachedtheleadingedgeand to the rear sparthe trailing
edge,ailer'onand flaps.To increasethe load-carryingcapacityof the skin
the spars,ifis commonto corrugateit and then coverthe corrubet'ween
gationswith ihin sheet.This form of constructionis much usedand a
iariation of it, which has a number of spars,one behind the other,
forminga seriesof boxes,appearsparticularlysuitedto aircraftwith low
aspectratios.
272
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
Figure
19-9Torsion
BoxConstruction
D-Spar Construction
The front spar, which takes most of the bending load, is placed as near as
possible to the point of maximum thickness of the wing, and the skin of
the leading edge is rigidly attached to it to form a D-shaped tube, which
takes nearly all the torsional stressesof the wing.
Figure19-10D-SparConstruction
ControlSurfoce
For speedsup to 300-350kt fabric-coveredaileronsbuilt up on a spar
Higherspeeds
demanda rigidity that can
andribsareusuallysatisfactory.
coveringbuilt up in much the same
only be obtainedby a stressed-skin
way asa D-sparwing.Additional stiffnesscanbe obtainedby employing
longitudinalfluting of the skin (ie spacedcorrugations);in this design
most of the ribs can be eliminated.
Braced Wings
This designfeatureis usedalmostexclusivelyin smallhigh wing aircraft.
The bracingstruts,running from the fuselageto a point about half-way
alongthewing, relievethe sparsof muchof their verticalload and anchor
them in tension.The designercan thereforesaveweightin the wing, but
becauseof the additional drag, this form of constructionis limited to
aircraftwith a low top speed.
273
FuselageConstruction
presenta basicallysimplerstructureproblem than do wings.
Fuselages
A fuselageis usuallybuilt up from a skeletonof framesor transverse
'stringers',the whole
membersjoined by longitudinalgirdermembersor
skin.The shapeof the cross-section
frameworkbeingcoveredby stressed
of the fuselagewill vary with the job that the aircraft has to perform.
this hasbeen
Pressurized
transportaircraft havecircularcross-sections;
found to be the most suitableshapeto resistthe differentialpressures.
this beingan easy
Light aircraftoftenhavea rectangularsectionfuselage;
and strongshapeto construct.
B
Figure19-11 Typicalpressure
cabindoors
Pressurization
and freight
The ideal shapefor a pressurevesselis a sphere;passengers
pressurized
the
aircraft
transport
are best carried in a box shape.In
pressure
possible
much
and
the
as
designercombinesthesetwo shapesas
ends.
cabin is usuallyin the form of a circular tube with hemispherical
to
from
light
alloys
and
the
stresses
is
easy
construct
This structure
are not difficult to calculate.The problemsof
inducedby pressurization
providingopeningsfor doors,windows,etcaremoredifficult.Wherecutouts are made in the stress-carryingskin, additional strengtheningis
neededaround the edgesto provide a stresspath around the aperture;
strongrims alonearenot sufficient,theloadsmustbegraduallyabsorbed
by ihe surroundingstructureto preventany suddenstressconcentration
that could leadto fatigue.The ideal shapefor any openingin a pressure
cylindershouldbe an ellipsewhich is of course,why many aircraft have
their windowsthis shape.Elliptical door shapesare not so practicable
from a loadingaspectand the more commonshapeis a rectangulardoor
with roundedcorners.(Fig 19-11).
274
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
SealingProblems
Ideally, a pressurizedcabin shquldbe airtight; in practice,leaksare kept
to a minimum. Sealingmust be effectiveunder all conditions,including
the structural flexing that occursduring flight, and the expansionand
contraction causedby temperaturevariation. For doors, the sealing
medium normally usedis an inflatabletube, fitted betweenthe door edge
and the aircraft structureand inflated to form an airtight seal(Fig 19-12).
Control rodsor cablespassingout of thecabinmust be adequatelysealed
againstleakage,whilst allowing movementand self alignmentwith a
minimumof friction.The sealshownin Fig l9-13is a typicalexamplethat
relieson greasein conjunctionwith packing rings to provide an airtight
seal.
Aircraft
skin
Tube bulges and

bends against
bead when inflated
I UDE
clamping
strip
Care should be taken that
Sealing
bead
Rubber
tube
Door
(a) Tube Deflated
{b} Tube Inflated
Figure19-12 Methodof SealingDoor
SupersonicAir craft Structures

To achievestrongerairframesthe machinedskin type of construction
originallydevisedfor wingscanalsobe appliedto mostpartsof the fuselage. However, for aircraft designedfor prolonged flight at high
of the
speeds
evenstrongermaterialshaveto beused.Because
supersonic
parts
can
be
Mach
Number,
of
the
skin
kinetic heatingeffectat high
lose
alloys
raisedto over 120"CatM2.0. At this temperaturealuminium
40%of their strength.Therefore,in order to retain acceptablestrength
steelhoneycombsandandrigidity,largepanelsaremadefrom a stainless
wich,(Fig 19-14).This consistsof a core,built from thin stripsof stainless
steelin the form of a honeycomb,and brazedtogether.The finishedcore
is then machinedto the shapeof the requiredpaneland placedbetween
steel.It is thenheated
innerandouterskins,alsoof stainless
ready-shaped
joints
havebeenbrazedtogether.This
until all the
in an inert atmosphere
resultsin an extremelyrigid andrelativelylight structurewhichwill retain
of around260"C.
its strengthat temperatures
275
P R I N C I P LO
EF
SF L I C H T
Nipple
Control
Cable
Felt
Glands
R u b b e rS e a l i n gG a s k e t
{-'Cabin'
+,Atmosphere,
--...+
Figure19-13 Methodof sealingcontrolcable
Layer of Bonding or brazing material making perfectseal
Figure19-14 Sectionof stainless

steelhoneycomb
sandwichpanel
Complete
airframes can be built up from honeycomb
sandwich
panelling,pre-shapedas describedin the previousparagraph,with

steelboundarymembers,transverse
extrudedstainless
strutsand attachment points incorporated.Areas subjectedto large stresseshave the
and the skin thickened.Figure 19-15illusdensityof the coreincreased,
tratesihe sectionof the wing of an aircraft designedfor continuousflilht
276
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
at speedsof aroundMach 3. The leadingand trailing edgeshavea solid
honeycombcoreand the skin is of a honeycombsandwichsupportedby
weldedstainlesssteelspars.At this point mention must be madeof the
'safelife' and 'fail-safe'.A structuredesignedfor a
structuralconceptof
given safelife is one in which actual testing of similar structureshas
enabledthe designerto calculatethe minimum flying hoursbeforewhich
'safelife' for that
structural failure will occur. This figure is then the
particularstructure.A'fail-safe' structureis onein which,by duplicating
primary structures,an alternativepath is availablefor a load.Therefore,
if one memberfails, the remainingstructurecan carry the load for a
limited time. In somecasesthis will involvean extra weightpenalty,but
often the standbypart can justify its existenceby performingsome
task.An exampleof this is thewindowof a pressurecabin,which
separate
consistsof two layersof glasswith a sandwichof dry air between.
Normally, the pressuredifferentialis supportedby the inner layer,but
shouldthis fail thenthe outer lavercan be madeto take the load.
A S o l i d h o n e y c o m bl e a d i n ga n d t r a i l i n g e d g e s
B Honeycomb sheeting
C Stainlesssteel welded soars
D M a c h i n e de x t r u d e ds h a r p t r a i l i n ge d g e
.l
Figure 9-15 Wing sectiondesignedfor Mach 3
Airframe Limitations
Except during landing, or manoeuvring on the ground, all loads on an
aircraft structure are imposed aerodynamically in two ways, either as the
result of a manoeuvre or becauseof atmospheric disturbance, (eg gusts).
Limitations, such as indicated speeds,Mach number, accelerations,
weights and CG positions, are imposed for reasons of safety. These
usually depend on factors not related to the skill of the pilot. All airframe
limitations are quoted in the Flightcrew Manual for the type, and must
not be exceededintentionallv.
277
Limitations take into considerationthe aircraft'srole, structure,and
controllability,and areimposedonly whenthey are essential.Disregard
of limitationsleadsto damageand weakensthe aircraft structureso that
flight.
it may fail immediatelyor on a subsequent
IAS Limitations
The airloadsacting on the airframe dependprincipally upon dynamic
pressure(the %pYzeffect)and vary roughly as the squareof the IAS.
whichis 35 lb per square
Figurel7-16 showshow the dynamicpressure,
to no lessthan 875lb per squarefciot at 500
foot at 100knots, increases
knots. Thereforeat a certainspeedthe total load on someparts of the
airframe,usually the wings or tail structure,increasesup to the safety
limit. The strengthof the tail structureis oftenthe limiting factorbecause
a considerable
down load, producedby the elevatorsor tailplane,is
to producethe
requiredto keepthe wingsat the angleof attacknecessary
g.
largeamountof lift whenmanoeuvringat high
o
J
o
f
.E
G
Knots IAS
Figure19-l 6 Effectof IASon the dynamicpressure

experiencedby an aircraft
A further considerationis that at high IAS the loads on the airframe

may be greatenoughto causeaeroelasticdistortionwhich could so alter
of the aircraft as to make its behaviour
the stability characteristics
unpredictable.
278
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
The maximum permissible IAS given as the service limitation in the
Flightcrew Manual is slightly lower than the designmaximum IAS, which
is the highest figure for which the aircraft is stressed.The difference
between the two gives the pilot a small safety margin. If the design
maximum IAS were permitted, even the slightest inadvertant exceeding
of it would almost certainly causedarnageto the aircraft.
Mach Number Limitations
A Mach number limitation is usually imposed when violent compressibility buffetting may lead to structural failure, or when loss of control
due to compressibility effects may cause the aircraft to exceed the
structural limitation before control can be regained.Alternatively it may
be necessaryto impose a Mach number limitation in the early stagesof
an aircraft's servicelife becausetrials have not been completed to allow
clearanceto a higher Mach number. When a Mach number limitation is
imposed it may be quoted as a definite figure, such as 0.88M, or as a
specificcondition of flight, eg when a nose-up trim change occurs.
On some aircraft Mach number limitations are imposed at low
altitudes, becauseeven temporary or partial loss of control at the high
accompanying IAS could quickly result in a dangerous situation; the
larger aerodynamic and g loads set up by violent behaviour, added to
the already large loads imposed by the high IAS, might well be more
than the airframe could absorb.
Flight in Turbulence
Turbulent air imposes g loads on the airframe, the effect of which is
proportional to the IAS. If turbulent air is encountered when flying at
high IAS, the air speed should be reduced to that recommended in the
Flightcrew Manual for safeflight in theseconditions. Speedshigher than
the recommendedfigure may result in damage to the airframe, whereas
lower speedsmay lead to difficulty in control.
Prohibited Manoeuvres
The flying controls enable the pilot to manoeuvre the aircraft into any
attitude. Some of theseattitudes may lead to dangerously high loadings
and air speedswhich the aircraft has not been designedto withstand. To
protect the pilot and the aircraft certain manoeuvresare prohibited.
Undercarciageand Flap Limiting Speeds
The speedlimitations for the raising and lowering of the flaps and undercarriage arise either from the limited strength of the components to
withstand the air loads, or from the power of the operating mechanism.
The limiting speedstill applies with the servicein the extended position
unlessthe Flightcrew Manual statesa higher speed.Further, should the
279
or flaps be loweredat higherspeedsthe trim and stability
undercarriage
of the aircraftmay be markedlyaffectedand the airframeoverstressed.
Unlessthe FlightcrewManual for the type statesthat the flaps are
theyshouldnot be usedunderconditions
designedto assistmanoeuvres,
of loadingappreciablygreaterthan thoseof steadylevelflight. It should
be notedthat thefiguresquotedarelimitationsand arenot recommended
as the bestspeedsat which to performtheseoperations.
WeightLimitations
Weight limitationsare imposedon all aircraft, the determiningfactors
particularlyfor the landingcase,
beingthe strengthof the undercarriage,
and the loadsthat can be absorbedby the wingswhen manoeuvringat
the maximum permissibleg. On twin and multi-enginedaircraft the
performanceon asymmetricpower is sometimescritical, and exceeding
the weightlimitationsmay resultin a seriousdrop in performance.
FlightcrewManuals often give more than one weight limitation, for
example:
a) Maximum weight for take-off and gentlemanoeuvres
only, and a lower limitb) Maximum weight for all other permittedforms of flying,
and a still lower limitc) Maximum weightfor landing.
This meansthat at the highestweight the aircraft must be handled
gently, moderateturns should be made and only small amounts of g
imposed.Also the IAS and Mach numbershouldbe kept well within the
limitationsuntil the weight falls to the limit at which all forms of flying
are permitted.The limits imposedfor landingshouldbe exceededonly
when an emergencylanding must be made and excessload cannot be
jettisoned.In thiscaseeverycaremustbetakento avoidlargeshockloads
and the aircraftlandedas gentlyaspossible.
CG Limitations
Flying limitationsincludethe most forward and most rearwardpermissible positionsof the CG. The aircraft should be flown at standard
loadingsat which the CG is within safelimits. Allowanceshouldalways
of CG
be madefor any shift of the CG as fuel is used.Non-observance
limits can leadto instability at all speedsand to uncontrollablenoseor
at low speeds,the latter becauseofthe elevatorsreaching
tail-heaviness
the limit of their movement.
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
I In an aircraftstructureSTRAIN is:
a) measuredasthe load per unit area.
b) the changeofsize overthe originalsize.
c) the originalsizeoverthe changeofsize.
d) measuredasthe total forceactingon a givenstructuralsection.
Ref para 19.2
2 Rigidity is the:
a) changeof sizeoverthe originalsize.
b) ratio of strainoverstress.
c) ratio of stressoverstrain.
of loadper unit area.
d; measure
Ref para 19.2
3 A monocoquestructureis alsoknown as:
a) rigid construction.
b) stressed
skin.
c) warrengirder.
d) quasiconstruction
R ef para r9.7
4 Warren girder constructionemploysthe principle of:
a) the aircraftskin takingmost of the load.
b) the aircraftskin taking minimal load.
c) all metalconstruction.
d) all wood construction.
Ref para 19.7
5 Torsionalaileronflutter may be causedby:
a) wing flexure.
b) massbalanceforward of the aileronhingeline.
c) control surfaceC of G on the hingeline.
d) fitting of hydraulic servosto the aileron control system.
Ref para 19.6
281
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
SomeMore Key Points
I
In levelflight Lift, Weigtit,Thrust and Drag aresaidto act through

the centreof gravity.
Induceddragis proportionalto lift.
Induceddrag is greatestat the wing tip.
Induceddrag is inverselyproportionalto speed.
Profiledragis proportionalto speed.
The stallingangleis the angleabovewhich a wing will stall.
At zeroangleof attack a camberedwing will producesomelift and

somedrag.
At zero angleof attack a symmetricalwing will produceNO LIFT

but somedrag.
Induceddrag reduceswith increasedaspectratio.
l0
A high aspectratio wing hasa long spanand a shortchord.
II
An increaseof aspectratio resultsin a reductionin stallingangle.
12 With increasingaltitudethe stallingangleof wing remainsthesame.

l3
With increasingspeedthe stallingangleremainsthe same.
14 With increasedaircraft weightthe stallingspeedincreases.

15 With the aircraft CG on its forward limit the stalling speedis
increased.
16 3" to 4" angleof attack is known asthe optimum angleof attack.
17 From zerodegrees
angleof attackup to theoptimumangleof attack
the Lift/Drag ratio increases.
l8
Above the optimum angleof attackthe LiftlDrag ratio reduces.
19 The optimumangleof attackis the bestangleof attackin thecruise.

20
Aileron flutter is primarily causedby wing flexure.
2l
Aileron flutter is most likely to occuron a flexiblewing with rigid

aileronsat high speed.
22
Aileron flutter may be reducedwith massbalanceof the control

surfaces.
23 The objectiveof massbalanceis to bring the control surfaceCG to

the surfacehinseline.
282
i
I
l-*
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
24
Massbalancingis achievedby fitting weightsto the control surface

which act forward of the hingeline.
25 When the angleof attack is increasedin flight the C of P will reach

its farthestforward point just belowthe stallingangle.
26
In flight an increasein angleof attack will resultin the transition

point movingforward.
27 As the angleof attack is increased

in flight the BoundaryLayer will
thicken.
28 In level flight the stagnationpoint is that position where air is
brought to restjust in front.of the aerofoilleadingedge.
29 The stagnationpoint is staticpressureplus dynamicpressure.
30
In flight, with an increasein angleof attack,thestagnationpoint will

movedown and aft.
3l
When trailing edgeflaps are loweredin flight the wing centre of

pressuremovesaft.
32 Whentrailingedgeflapsareloweredin flight thewing stallingangle

is reduced.
33
Slatsare normallyfitted in front of the aileronsat the wing leading

edgeto increasethe stallingangle.
34 Sweptwingsare employedto delayM"",.

35 For a givenwing areaand angleof attacka sweptwing will produce
lesslift than a straightwing.
36 A sweptwing tendsto increaselateralstability.
37 A sweptwing is more prone to tip stall.
38
Spanwisemovementof airflow over a sweptwing may be reduced

by Wing Fences,Leading EdgeNotches,Extendedor Saw Tooth
LeadingEdges,or Vortex Generators.
39 The purposeof a vortex generatoris to re-energise

the boundary
layer.
40
Vortex generatorsare normally fitted on the upper wing surface

towardsthe leadingedgein front of the control surfaces.Some
aircraft may havethem acrossthe completespan.
4l
Balancetabs are fitted to control surfacesto assistthe pilot in

moving the controlsby reducingcontrol columnloads.
42
A Springtab is fitted to reducecontrol columnloadsat high speed.

283
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
43
An AmericanTypeTurnbuckleis in safetywhennot morethanthree

threadsareshowing.
44
An AmericanType Turnbuckleis lockedby wire locking.
45
As an aircraftaccelerates
throughthetransonicspeedrangethewing
C of P will moveaft producinga nosedown pitchingmoment.
46
The nosedown pitchingmomentgeneratedasan aircraftaccelerates

throughthe transonicspeedrangeis adjustedor trimmedout by the
Auto-Mach Trim System.
47
Washoutof a wins is the reductionin ansleof incidencefrom root

to tip.
48
Induceddrag equalsprofile drag at V-o.
49
An increaseof aircraftweightwill haveno affecton gliderangebut

will reduceglideendurance.
50 Generallya V or ButterflyTail, will aid spin recovery.

FINAL TEST.
I The angleof attackof an aerofoilis the anglebetween:
a) chord and the longitudinalaxis.
b) wing and the lateralaxis.
c) wing leadingedgeand trailing edge.
d) chord and the relativeairflow.
2 Directionalcontrol of an aircraft is achievedby useof the:
a) rudder.
b) elevators.
c) fin.
d) ailerons.
3 The wing spanis the distancefrom:
a) leadingedgeto trailing edge.
b) wing tip to wing tip.
c) wing tip to fuselagecentreline.
d) wing tip to wing tip minusthe width of the fuselage.
CONSTRUCTION
AIRCRAFT
4 The threeaxesofan aircraft are saidto act through the:
a) centreofpressure.
b) wing leadingedgecentresection.
c) centreof gravity.
d) transitionpoint.
5 The chord line is a:
a) line tangentialto the wing surfaceat the leadingedge.
b) line equidistantfrom upperand lower surfaces.
c) line equidistantbetweenleadingand trailingedges,from root to tip.
d) straightline from leadingedgeto trailing edge.
6 Yawing is a rotation about the:
a) longitudinalaxis.
b) lateralaxis.
c) transitionpoint.
d) normal axis.
7 A high aspectratio wing hasa:
a) long spanand long chord.
b) long chord and short span.
c) long spanand short chord.
d) short spanand high chord.
8 Rolling is a rotation of the aircraftabout the:
a) longitudinaland normal axis.
b) lateraland normal axis.
c; longitudinalaxis.
d) lateralaxis.
9 Lateralcontrol is achievedwith the useof:
a) rudder.
b) tailplane.
c) elevators.
d) ailerons.
285
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
1 0Pitchingis the movementof the aircraft about:

a) the normal axis.
b) the lateralaxis.
c) the longitudinalaxis.
d) all threeprimary axes.
l 1 Adverseyaw when rolling about the longitudinalaxis may be
preventedby useof:
a) a smallerfin.
b) equaldeflectionlateralcontrol surfaces.
c) differentialailerons.
d) increaseddihedral.
12 ln a FriseAileron control system:
a) the up-goingaileronmovesthrough a greateranglethan the down
goingaileron.
b) the down-goingaileronleadingedgeprotrudesinto the airflow.
c) the up-goingaileronproducesincreaseddrag.
d) the down-goingaileronallowsair to spill from belowthe wing to
the upper surfaceof the aileron.
l3 When an aircraftfitted with spoilersis rolled to port the:
a) port spoileris deflectedup.
b) stbd spoileris deflecteddown.
c) port spoileris deflectedup and the stbd down.
d) port upperspoilerup and port lower spoilerdown.
14 The primary control stops:
a) will be engagedat the control column when the surfaceis fully
deflected.
b) when engagedwill leavea small clearanceat the control column
secondarystops.
c) when engagedwill leavea small clearanceat the control surface
secondarystops.
d) are duplicated,one at the control column the other at the control
surface.
286
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
l5 An American type control Turnbuckle is in safety:
'
a) when at least three threads are showing.

b) when the inspection hole is covered by thread.
c) when the inspection hole is clear.
d) wtren not more than three threads are showing.
l6 A stiff nut is in safetywhen:
a) it cannot be tightened with the fingers.
b) the thread of the bolt is level with the face of the nut.
c) the threaded portion of the bolt is above the level of the nut.
d) the threaded portion of the nut is above the level of the end of the
bolt.
,
,
.
,
,
'
'
I
17 Inset hingesprovide:
a) mass balance to assistcontrol movement.
b) aerodynamic balance to prevent flutter.
c) aerodynamic balance to prevent control snatch.
) aerodynamic balance to assistin control movement.
l8 The lowering of leading edge flaps will causethe C of P to:
&) move aft.
b) move aft and towards the wing root.
c) move forward.
d) remain in the sameposition.
19 A servo tab is normally employed on:
''
:
j
I
i
I
|
t
I
tr
I
I
a) transonicaircraft.
bi largesubsonicaircraft.
q) light aircraftonly.
d) control surfacessubjectedto occasionalheavyloads.
20 To limit the rangeof movementof control surfacesin flight:
a) cablesare tensionedto a set value.
Ul primary and secondaryinternal control stops are provided.
c) primary and secondaryexternal control stops are provided'
d) control tension regulators are provided.
J
I
!
T
287
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
2l For an aircraft without cabletensionregulatorsfitted in the flying
an increase
in'temperature
will causecabletensionto:
controlsystems,
a) decrease.
b) increaseonly at high altitude.
c) increaseonly at low altitude.
d) increase.
22 Anti-balanceTabs:
a) movein the samedirectionas the control surface.
b) movein the oppositedirectionto the control surface.
c) havea fixedvalueanddo not movein relationto thecontrol surface.
d) are directlyconnectedto the control column.
23 The purposeof a springtab is to:
a) providefeelfeedbackin a control system.
b) providea reductionin thepilot'seffort to movethecontrolsagainst
high air loads.
c) providea constantstaticfriction for the controls.
d) providea constantloadresistance
to surfacedeflectionat all speeds.
24 As a trailing edgeplain flap is loweredto the max lift positionthe C
of P will:
a) moveforward.
b) moveforward and towardsthe wing root.
c) moveaft and towardsthe wing tip.
d) moveaft and towardsthe wing root.
25 A Fowler Flap will increase:
a) wing area.
b) wing areaand camber.
c) wing areaand aspectratio.
d) wing areaand finenessratio.
Final TestAnswers
6.d
l.d
l.c
2.a
3.b
8.c
9.d
4.c
l0.b
5.d
ll.c
l2.c
l3.a
l4.b
l5.d
288
l6.c
l7.d
l8.c
l9.b
20.b
2l.d
22.a
23.b
24.d
25.b

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Contents

Chapter I Properties of the Atmosphere

Chapter 7 Total Drag

Detail Calculationsand Factors Affecrins

Chapter 10 Wing Planforms

Chapter13 High Lift Devices

Chapter18 DuplicateInspectionof Controls

Chapterl9 Aircraft Construction

SomeMore Key Points

Oxygen is essentialfor the sustenanceof life and the combustion of

1.3 Regionsof the Atmosphere

TheStratosphereextendsfrom the tropopauseto approximately50

The Mesosphereextendsfrom 50 km to 80 km. The temperature

Thereis, therefore,a reversalof temperatures

Cr_= coefficient of lift

(c) Variation of Pressurein the Atmosphere

At about 22,000ft, the densityis half the sealevelvalue'

1.9 The InternationalStandardAtmosphere

IndicatedAirspeed(IAS) The dynamicpressureof air againsta

RectifiedAirspeed(RAS) The indicatedairspeed,correctedfor

True Airspeed('tAS) The equivalentairspeedcorrectedfor

If the speedof the moving air is comparativelyslow,say 100kt, the

Figure 2-3 Mass Flow

This can often be seenwhen

'Lift' is a result of:

a) an increaseofpressure under the wing.

Ref para 2.4

3.3 Thickness/ChordRatio (,,Fineness

3.5 Angle of lncidence

3.8 Wing Area

3.9 MeanChord (Geometric)

3.16 Axesand FlightControls(PrimaryControls)

3.17 AlternativeFormsof Control

Ref para 3.4

Laminar Flow Section

Figure4-2 showssomeimportantfeaturesof the transitionfrom laminar

Figure4-2 The BoundaryLayer

(b) Form or PressureDrag

Figure4-5 A Conventional FinenessRatio

In Fig 4-3,clearly,not all the air is beingbroughtto restby the plate,

of thewing up to aboutpoint E. Thereafter

and the smallamount of negativepressuretowardsthe trailing edgehas

ated.The coefficientof lift is in fact a derivativeof the wing shapeand its

(e) Movement of the Centre of Pressure

(f) SpanwiseDistributionof Pressure

Ref para 5.2(a)

Ref para 5.2(c)

Ref para 5.2 (c)

Figure6-.1 Tip Vortices

6.5 Summaryof ffects

Induced drag increaseswith an increasein weight.

Severaldeductionscan be made from this summary.It becomes

It was shownin the previousChapterthat the effectof an increasetn

The Centre of Pressureto move forward.

The Transition Point to move forward.

The Separation Point to move forward.

The Centre of Pressurewill reach its farthest forward point at just

8.2 The DeterminingFactor

8.3 The Cause