COMPARISON of Silicon and Germanium

Solid state electronics arises from the unique properties of silicon and germanium, each of which has four  valence
electrons and which form crystal lattices in which substituted atoms (dopants) can dramatically change the electrical
properties.

Silicon
In solid state electronics, either pure silicon or germanium may be used as the intrinsic
semiconductorwhich forms the starting point for fabrication. Each has four valence electrons, but
germanium will at a given temperature have more free electrons and a higher conductivity. Silicon
is by far the more widely used semiconductor for electronics, partly because it can be used at much
higher temperatures than germanium.

Silicon (Latin: silicium) is the most common metalloid. It is a chemical element, which has the

symbol Si and atomic number 14. A tetravalent metalloid, silicon is less reactive than its chemical
analog carbon. It is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but silicon very
rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature. Silicon is more widely distributed in dusts,
planetoids and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. In Earth's crust, silicon
is the second most abundant element after oxygen, making up 25.7% of the crust by mass.[4]
Silicon has many industrial uses. It is the principal component of most semiconductor devices, most
importantly integrated circuits or microchips. Silicon is widely used in semiconductors because it
remains a semiconductor at higher temperatures than the semiconductorgermanium and because
its native oxide is easily grown in a furnace and forms a better semiconductor/dielectric interface
than any other material.
In the form of silica and silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, and ceramics. It is also a
constituent of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic plastic substances made of silicon,
oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, often confused with silicon itself.
Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces of it appear to be required by
animals.[5] It is much more important to the metabolism of plants, particularly many grasses,
and silicic acid (a type of silica) forms the basis of the striking array of protective shells of the
microscopic diatoms.

Silicon Crystal Structure

The above illustration shows the arrangement of the siliconatoms in a unit

cell, with the numbers indicating the height of the atom above the base of
the cube as a fraction of the cell dimension.
after Kittel

Silicon crystallizes in the same pattern as diamond, in a structure which Ashcroft and Mermin call "two interpenetrating
face-centered cubic" primitive lattices. The lines between silicon atoms in the lattice illustration indicate nearest-neighbor
bonds. The cube side for silicon is 0.543 nm. Germanium has the same diamond structure with a cell dimension of .566
nm.

Germanium
In solid state electronics, either pure silicon or germanium may be used as the intrinsic
semiconductor which forms the starting point for fabrication. Each has four valence
electrons, but germanium will at a given temperature have more free electrons and a higher
conductivity. Silicon is by far the more widely used semiconductor for electronics, partly
because it can be used at much higher temperatures than germanium.

Germanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and atomic number 32. It is a

lustrous, hard, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group, chemically similar to its group
neighbors tin and silicon. Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes ranging in
atomicmass number from 70 to 76. It forms a large number of organometallic compounds,
includingtetraethylgermane and isobutylgermane.
Germanium was discovered comparatively late because very few minerals contain it in high
concentration. Germanium ranks near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements in the
Earth's crust. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties
based on its position on his periodic table and called the element eka-silicon. Nearly two
decades later, in 1886, Clemens Winkler found it in the mineral argyrodite. Winkler found
that experimental observations agreed with Mendeleev's predictions and named the element
after his country, Germany.
Germanium is an important semiconductor material used in transistors and various other
electronic devices. Its major end uses are fiber-optic systems and infrared optics, but it is
also used for polymerization catalysts, and in electronics and solar cell applications. It is
finding a new use in nanowires.
Germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite, though it is also recovered from silver, lead,
andcopper ores. Some germanium compounds, such as germanium chloride and germane,
canirritate the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.

Silicon Lattice
Silicon atoms form covalent bonds and can crystallize into a regular lattice. The
illustration below is a simplified sketch; the actual crystal structure of silicon is a
diamond lattice. This crystal is called an intrinsic semiconductor and can conduct a
small amount of current.

The main point here is that a silicon atom has four electrons which it can share in
covalent bonds with its neighbors. These simplified diagrams do not do justice to
the nature of that sharing since any one silicon atom will be influenced by more
than four other silicon atoms, as may be appreciated by looking at the silicon unit
cell.

Advantages:

Why would you use silicon diodes instead of germanium diodes?

Though germanium diodes were the first ones fabricated, several factors make silicon the choice vs.
germanium diodes. Silicon diodes have a greater ease of processing, lower cost, greater power handling,
less leakage and more stable temperature characteristics than germanium diodes. Germanium diodes'
lower forward drop (.2V to .3V versus .7V to 1.0V) make them better at small signal detection and
rectification. 

Why silicon type of transistors are used instead of germanium for the most of the applications?
Mostly because of their cost but also because silicon transistor have faster switching properties and are far
more resistant to damage by heat. Silicon transistor also have a much wider operating band. 

What are the advantages of silicon over germanium?

Silicon diodes have a greater ease of processing, lower cost, greater power handling, less leakage and
more stable temperature characteris diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through
it in only one direction. Although a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a
diode does. A diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction. 
Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here. 
A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a
power supply device. 
Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies. 
Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current. 
This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. 

The meaning of the symbol is (Anode)(Cathode). 

Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side. 

Although all diodes operate with the same general principle, there are different types suited to different
applications. For example, the following devices are best used for the applications noted. 

Voltage regulation diode(Zener Diode) 

The circuit symbol is . 
It is used to regulate voltage, by taking advantage of the fact that Zener diodes tend to stabilize at a
certain voltage when that voltage is applied in the opposite direction. Light emitting diode 
The circuit symbol is . 
This type of diode emits light when current flows through it in the forward direction. (Forward biased.)
Variable capacitance diode 
The circuit symbol is . 
The current does not flow when applying the voltage of the opposite direction to the diode. In this
condition, the diode has a capacitance like the capacitor. It is a very small capacitance. The capacitance of
the diode changes when changing voltage. With the change of this capacitance, the frequency of the
oscillator can be changed. 

The graph on the right shows the electrical characteristics of a typical diode. 

When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward direction, current flows easily. 
Because the diode has a certain amount of resistance, the voltage will drop slightly as current flows
through the diode. A typical diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (VF) (In the case of silicon
diode, almost 0.6V) 
This voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit which uses many diodes in series. Also,
the amount of current passing through the diodes must be considered. 

When voltage is applied in the reverse direction through a diode, the diode will have a great resistance to
current flow. 
Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A given diode should be selected
depending on how it will be used in the circuit. 
The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse direction will vary from several mA to just
µA, which is very small. 

The limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on a case by case basis. For example,
when using diodes for rectification, part of the time they will be required to withstand a reverse voltage. If
the diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down. 

tics than germanium diodes 

Germanium
Germanium is very important as a semiconductor. Transistors and integrated circuits provide the greatest use of the
element; they are often made from germanium to which small amounts of arsenic, gallium, or other metals have been
added. Numerous alloys containing germanium have been prepared. Germanium forms many compounds. Germanium
oxide is added to glass to increase the index of refraction; such glass is used in wide-angle lenses. Since the oxide is
transparent to infrared radiation, it has found use in optical instruments. Germanium tetrachloride is a liquid that boils at
84°C; it is an intermediate in the production of pure germanium. Other halides are known. Germane (germanium
tetrahydride) is a gas that decomposes at about 300°C to hydrogen and germanium; it is sometimes used in the
production of semiconductor devices. A sulfide and numerous organo-germanium compounds are known. Germanium
occurs in a few minerals, e.g., argyrodite (with silver and sulfur), zinc blende (with zinc and sulfur), and tantalite (with iron,
manganese, and columbium). The chief ore of germanium is germanite, which contains copper, sulfur, about 7%
germanium, and 20 other elements. Germanium is produced as a byproduct of the refining of other metals; there is
considerable recovery from flue dusts and from ashes of certain coals with high germanium content. The element was
called ekasilicon by D. I. Mendeleev , who predicted its properties with striking accuracy from its position in his periodic
table. It was first isolated from argyrodite in 1886 by Clemens Winkler, a German chemist, who gave it the
name germanium.

Uses of germanium diode?

Germanium Diodes have a lower forward drop voltage (of 0.3V) compared to more common Silicon Diodes (forward
voltage of 0.7V). 
Germanium diodes are not very common these days and are hard to find but are still used in hobby AM radio receivers as
detectors and also in battery circuits connected to Solar panels. 

Very common in guitar pedals.

Comparison of Advantages

Most diodes are made of silicon because of its ease of processing and stability, however they have one disadvantage:
a silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of around 0.7 volts. This means that if you had a 7.0 Volt rated solar panel
charging a battery via a silicon diode, only 7 - 0.7 = 6.3 Volts would be seen by the battery - the remainder is lost as
heat in the diode.

A Germanium Diode (such as the 1N34 pictured above) will typically have a forward voltage drop of just 0.3
volts which means they are much more efficient. Older germanium diodes had a larger leakage of current at a reverse
voltage, but now American Microsemiconductor and others supply a range of improved low current leakage germanium
diodes. Diodes such as the most common 1N34A can cost as little as 5 pence each.

It is not always easy to find germanium diodes as they are not a very popular item.

While silicon diodes are resistant to the heat from soldering, germanium diodes can very easilty be damaged.
Therefore a crocodile clip or other suitable heat sink should be clipped onto the lead between the diode body and the
joint to be soldered.

TYPES OF CURRENT FLOWS

There are two types of electric current: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). The
electrons in direct current flow in one direction. The current produced by a battery is direct current. The
electrons in alternating current flow in one direction, then in the opposite direction—over and over again.
In the United States, the current flow alternates 120 times per second. (In Europe it alternates 100 times
per second.) The current supplied to your home by the local utility is alternating current.

AC Sources:

 Power Plant (Mains Supply)

 Generators (e.g. Backup and Emergency Generators at Commercial Buildings)

DC Sources:

 Dry Cells
 Secondary Cells (e.g. Car Battery)
 Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells)
 DC Generators
 AC to DC adapters

Direct Current
Direct Current is unidirectional. The magnitude may vary but the direction is always fixed.
Alternating Current (sinusoidal waveform.)
Alternating Current is current in which the direction changes with time.