Chap 2
Chap 2
Chap 2
• Electronic materials fall into three categories:
– Insulators Resistivity (ρ) > 105 Ωcm
– Semiconductors 103 < ρ < 105 Ωcm
– Conductors ρ < 103 Ωcm
• Elemental semiconductors are formed from a single type
of atom.
• Compound semiconductors are formed from combinations
of column III and V elements or columns II and VI.
• Germanium was used in many early devices.
• Silicon quickly replaced germanium due to its higher
bandgap energy, lower cost, and easy oxidation to form
silicondioxide insulating layers.
Semiconductor Materials (cont.)
Bandgap
Semiconductor
Energy EG (eV)
Carbon (diamond) 5.47
Silicon 1.12
Germanium 0.66
Tin 0.082
Gallium arsenide 1.42
Gallium nitride 3.49
Indium phosphide 1.35
Boron nitride 7.50
Silicon carbide 3.26
Cadmium selenide 1.70
Silicon Covalent Bond Model
Near absolute zero, all bonds are complete. Increasing temperature adds energy to the
Each Si atom contributes one electron to system and breaks bonds in the lattice,
each of the four bond pairs. generating electronhole pairs.
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
• The density of carriers in a semiconductor as a function of temperature
and material properties is:
EG
n i2 =BT exp− cm6
3
kT
• EG = semiconductor bandgap energy in eV (electron volts)
• k = Boltzmann’s constant, 8.62 x 105 eV/K
• T = absolute temperature, K
• B = materialdependent parameter, 1.08 x 1031 K3 cm6 for Si
• Bandgap energy is the minimum energy needed to free an electron by
breaking a covalent bond in the semiconductor crystal.
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (cont.)
• Electron density is n
(electrons/cm3) and n = ni for
intrinsic material.
• Hole density is p (holes/cm3)
and p = ni for intrinsic
material.
• Intrinsic refers to properties
of pure materials (no
dopants).
• ni ≈ 1010 cm3 for Si at room
temperature (300 K).
Electronhole concentrations
• A vacancy is left when a covalent bond is broken.
• The vacancy is called a hole.
• A hole moves when the vacancy is filled by an electron from
a nearby bond (hole current).
• For intrinsic silicon, n = ni = p.
• The product of electron and hole concentrations is pn = ni2.
• The pn product above holds when a semiconductor is in
thermal equilibrium (with no external voltage applied) even
for nonintrinsic materials.
Drift Current
• Electrical resistivity ρ and its reciprocal, conductivity σ, characterize
current flow in a material when an electric field is applied.
• Charged particles move or drift under the influence of the applied
electric field E.
• The resulting current is called drift current.
• Drift current density is
j = Qv (C/cm3)(cm/s) = A/cm2
j = current density, (Coulomb charge moving through a unit area)
Q = charge density, (Charge in a unit volume)
v = velocity of charge in an electric field.
Note that “density” may mean area or volumetric density, depending on
the context.
Mobility
• At low fields, carrier drift velocity v (cm/s) is proportional
to electric field E (V/cm). The constant of proportionality
is the mobility, µ:
• vn = µnE and vp = µpE , where
• vn and vp = electron and hole velocity (cm/s),
∀ µn and µp = electron and hole mobility (cm2/V⋅s)
• Hole mobility is less than electron mobility since hole
current is the result of multiple covalent bond disruptions,
while electrons can move freely about the crystal.
Velocity Saturation
At high fields, carrier
velocity saturates and
places upper limits on
the speed of solidstate
devices.
Intrinsic Silicon Resistivity
• Given drift current and mobility, we can calculate
resistivity:
jndrift = Qnvn = ( qn)( µnE) = qn µnE A/cm2
jpdrift = Qpvp = (qp)(µpE) = qp µpE A/cm2
jTdrift = jndrift + jpdrift = q(n µn + p µp)E = σE
This defines electrical conductivity:
σ = q(n µn + p µp) (Ω⋅cm)1
Resistivity ρ is the reciprocal of conductivity:
ρ = 1/σ (Ω⋅cm)
Example: Calculate the resistivity of
intrinsic silicon at room temperature
σ = q(n µn + p µp) (Ω⋅cm)1
At room temperature n = p = ni = 1010/cm3 for silicon.
q = 1.60 x 1019 (always – this is a physical constant).
µn = 1350 cm2/V⋅s and µp = 500 cm2/V⋅s at room temp. for silicon.
σ = (1.60 x 1019)[(1010)(1350) + (1010)(500)] (C)(cm3)(cm2/V⋅s)
= 2.96 x 106 (Ω⋅cm)1 > ρ = 1/σ = 3.38 x 105 Ω⋅cm
Intrinsic silicon is near the low end of the insulator resistivity range
(ρ > 105) at room temperature.
Semiconductor Doping
• Doping is the process of adding very small well
controlled amounts of impurities into a
semiconductor.
• Doping enables the control of the resistivity and
other properties over a wide range of values.
• For silicon, impurities are from columns III and V
of the periodic table.
Donor Impurities in Silicon
• Phosphorous (or other column
V element) atom replaces a
silicon atom in the crystal
lattice.
• Since phosphorous has five
outer shell electrons, there is
now an ‘extra’ electron in the
structure.
• Material is still charge neutral,
but very little energy is required
to free the electron for
conduction since it is not
participating in a bond.
Acceptor Impurities in Silicon
• Boron (column III
element) has been added
to silicon.
• There is now an
incomplete bond pair,
creating a vacancy for an
electron.
• Little energy is required to
move a nearby electron
into the vacancy.
• As the ‘hole’ propagates,
charge is moved across
the silicon.
Acceptor Impurities in Silicon (cont.)
Hole propagating through silicon
Doped Silicon Carrier Concentrations
• If n > p, the material is ntype.
If p > n, the material is ptype.
• The carrier with the larger concentration is the
majority carrier, the smaller is the minority
carrier.
• ND = donor impurity concentration (atoms/cm3) NA
= acceptor impurity concentration (atoms/cm3)
• Charge neutrality requires q(ND + p NA n) = 0
• It can also be shown that pn = ni2, even for doped
semiconductors in thermal equilibrium.
ntype Material
• Substituting p = ni2/n into q(ND + p NA n) = 0
yields n2 (ND NA)n ni2 = 0.
• Solving for n
(N D −N A ) ± (N D −N A ) 2 +4n i2 n i2
n= and p =
2 n
• For (ND NA) >> 2ni, n ≈ (ND NA) .
ptype Material
• Similar to the approach used with ntype material
we find the following equations:
(N A −N D ) ± (N A −N D ) 2 +4n i2 n i2
p= and n =
2 p
• For (NA ND) >> 2ni, p ≈ (NA ND) .
Practical Doping Levels
• Majority carrier concentrations are established at
manufacturing time and are independent of
temperature (over practical temp. ranges).
• However, minority carrier concentrations are
proportional to ni2, a highly temperature dependent
term.
• For practical doping levels, n ≈ (ND NA) for n
type and p ≈ (NA ND) for ptype material.
• Typical doping ranges are 1014/cm3 to 1021/cm3.
Mobility in
Doped Semiconductors
Diffusion Current
• In practical semiconductors, it is quite useful to create
carrier concentration gradients by varying the dopant
concentration and/or the dopant type across a region of
semiconductor.
• This gives rise to a diffusion current resulting from the
natural tendency of carriers to move from high
concentration regions to low concentration regions.
• Diffusion current is analogous to a gas moving across a
room to evenly distribute itself across the volume.
Diffusion Current (cont.)
• Carriers move toward regions
of lower concentration, so
diffusion current densities are ∂n ∂n
jndiff = (−q ) Dn − = −qDn
proportional to the negative of ∂x ∂x
the carrier gradient.
∂p ∂p
j diff
p = (+ q ) D p − = −qD p A/cm2
∂x ∂x
∂n ∂n
j diff
n = (− q ) Dn − = + qDn A/cm2
∂x ∂x
Diffusion Current (cont.)
• Dp and Dn are the hole and electron diffusivities
with units cm2/s. Diffusivity and mobility are
related by Einstein’s relationship:
Dn kT D p
= = = VT = Thermal voltage
µn q µp
• The thermal voltage, VT = kT/q, is approximately
25 mV at room temperature. We will encounter
VT throughout this book.
Total Current in a Semiconductor
• Total current is the sum of drift and diffusion current:
T ∂n
j n = qµn nE +qDn
∂x
∂p
j Tp = qµp pE −qD p
∂x
Rewriting using Einstein’s relationship (Dn = μnVT):
T 1 ∂n
j n = qµn nE +VT
n ∂x
1 ∂p
j Tp = qµp pE +VT
p ∂x
Semiconductor Energy Band Model
Semiconductor with donor or ntype Semiconductor with acceptor or p
dopants. The donor atoms have type dopants. The donor atoms have
electrons with energy ED. Since ED is unfilled covalent bonds with energy
close to EC, (about 0.045 eV for state EA. Since EA is close to EV,
phosphorous), it is easy for electrons (about 0.044 eV for boron), it is easy
in an ntype material to move up into for electrons in the valence band to
the conduction band. move up into the acceptor sites and
complete covalent bond pairs.
Energy Band Model for
Compensated Semiconductor
The combination of the
covalent bond model and
the energy band models
A compensated semiconductor has are complementary and
both ntype and ptype dopants. If ND
help us visualize the hole
> NA, there are more ND donor levels.
The donor electrons fill the acceptor
and electron conduction
sites. The remaining NDNA electrons processes.
are available for promotion to the
conduction band.
Integrated Circuit Fabrication Overview
Top view of an integrated pn diode.
Integrated Circuit Fabrication (cont.)
(a) First mask exposure, (b) postexposure and development of photoresist, (c)
after SiO2 etch, and (d) after implantion/diffusion of acceptor dopant.
Integrated Circuit Fabrication (cont.)
(e) Exposure of contact opening mask, (f) after resist development and etching of contact
openings, (g) exposure of metal mask, and (h) After etching of aluminum and resist removal.