REPORT ON AUTOMATIC PHASE CHANGER

Submitted By:Himani Gupta(37) Vinod Kumar(62) Sanjeev Kumar(63) Mohit Kumar(64) Aakash Kr. Seth(65)
1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Words are only representations of our regards and gratitude that we have towards our actions and their inherent associations. As a matter of fact, without co-operation, no thought could be coined into real action. Consistent motivation and invaluable support throughout any project is an issue that cannot quantitatively measured. These acknowledgements are only a fraction of regards towards their gestures.

We would like to thank all the lab technicians for their assistance through out our project.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. S.R Gupta, Head of the Department, Electrical Engineering, Bhagwan Parshuram Institute Of Technology, who has been a source of inspiration throughout the course of this work with his inestimable advice and moral encouragement.

My special thanks to Mr. Peeyush Pant, who has given an immense support throughout the course of the project.

CONTENT
TOPIC Introduction Block Diagram Fuse Electrical Fuses compared with circuit breakers Tripping Circuit Description Description Of Power Supply Relay Driver & Phase Changer Section Op-Amp Output Parameters Resistors Resistor Marking Variable Resistor Capacitor Fixed Capacitor Transistors Relay Diode Zener Diode L.E.D Soldering Techniques PAGE NO. 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 26 27 28 30

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES: To Design a circuit of an electronic intelligent automatic phase changer. Develop new ideas to implement this circuit purposely. To study the circuitry and different types of components & 741 op-amp, relay, transformer in the circuit. In three-phase applications, if low voltage is available in any one or two phases, and you want your equipment to work on normal voltage, this circuit will solve your problem. However, a proper-rating fuse needs to be used in the input lines (R, Y and B) of each phase. The circuit provides correct voltage in the same power supply lines through relays from the other phase where correct voltage is available. Using it you can operate all your equipment even when correct voltage is available on a single phase in the building.

The circuit is built around a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay. Three identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases, are used. Let us now consider the working of the circuit connecting red cable (call it R phase).

The mains power supply phase R is stepped down by transformer X1 to deliver 12V, 300 mA, which is rectified by diode D1 and filtered by capacitor C1 to produce the operating voltage for the operational amplifier (IC1). The voltage at inverting pin 2 of operational amplifier IC1 is taken from the voltage divider circuit of resistor R1 and preset resistor VR1. VR1 is used to set the reference voltage according to the requirement. The reference voltage at non-inverting pin 3 is fixed to 5.1V through zener diode ZD1.

Till the supply voltage available in phase R is in the range of 200V-230V, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 remains high, i.e., more than reference voltage of 5.1V, and its output pin 6 also remains high. As a result, transistor T1 does not conduct, relay RL1 remains deenergized and phase R supplies power to load L1 via normally closed (N/C) contact of relay RL1.As soon as phase-R voltage goes below 200V, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 goes below reference voltage of 5.1V, and its output goes low. As a result, transistor T1 conducts

and relay RL1 energizes and load L1 is disconnected from phase R and connected to phase Y through relay RL2.Similarly, the auto phase-change of the remaining two phases, viz, phaseY and phase B, can be explained. Switch S1 is mains power on/off switch. Use relay contacts of proper rating and fuses should be able to take-on the load when transferred from other phases. While wiring, assembly and installation of the circuit, make sure that you: 1. Use good-quality, multi-strand insulated copper wire suitable for your current requirement. 2. Use good-quality relays with proper contact and current rating. 3. Mount the transformer(s) and relays on a suitable cabinet. Use a Tag Block (TB) for incoming/outgoing connections from mains. Use relay contacts of proper rating and fuses should be able to take-on the load when transferred from other phases. While wiring, assembly and installation of the circuit, make sure that you: 1. Use good-quality, multi-strand insulated copper wire suitable for your current requirement. 2. Use good-quality relays with proper contact and current rating. 3. Mount the transformer(s) and relays on a suitable cabinet. Use a Tag Block(TB) for incoming/out going connections from mains. Note: Please ensure the knowledge on loads on the line and make necessary adjustments. In this circuit we used a 12V, 200-ohm, single phase change over relay with 6A current rating. Similarly, ampere-rated fuses were used. Take extreme caution while handling the mains. You can always get right spares for your circuit but not for your life.

Note:
1. During testing in the lab, we used a 12V, 200-ohm, single-phase changeover relay with 6A current rating. Similarly, ampere-rated fuses were used. 2. If the input voltage is low in two phases, loads L1 and L2 may also be connected to the third phase. In that situation, a high-rating fuse will be required at the input of the third phase which is taking the total load.

BLOCK DAIGRAM

Fuse (electrical)
As stated in our section called 'wiring a plug', new appliances will often be fitted with a plug, which will have the correct fuse already inside. Do not be tempted to change it for a different size, even if it blows continuously. It is just trying to tell you something is wrong with it. Take it back to where you bought it and get it checked out. This basic guide will help you decide which fuse to fit to ensure the safe use of your household appliances.

Appliances up to 700 Watts = 3 Amp fuse Appliances between 700 and 1000 Watts = 5 Amp fuse Appliances over 1000 Watts = 13 Amp fuse

These figures are provided for guidance only. If you are still in any doubt about what fuse to put in a plug ask at your local electrical retailer, or get in touch with a qualified electrician. Alternatively, many electrical companies offer a service these days which will give your home a complete safety check up on all electrical wiring and appliances. There will be a charge for this service, but it may be well worth having for peace of mind. In electronics and electrical engineering a fuse (short for fusible link), is a type of over current protection device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which breaks the circuit in which it is connected, thus protecting the circuit's other components from damage due to excessive current. A practical fuse was one of the essential features of Thomas Edison's electrical power distribution system. An early fuse was said to have successfully protected an Edison installation from tampering by a rival gas-lighting concern. Fuses (and other over current devices) are an essential part of a power distribution system to prevent fire or damage. When too much current flows through a wire, it may overheat and be damaged, or even start a fire. Wiring regulations give the maximum rating of a fuse for protection of a particular circuit. Local authorities will incorporate national wiring regulations as part of law.

Fuses compared with circuit breakers

Uses have the advantages of often being less costly and simpler than a circuit breaker for similar ratings. The blown fuse must be replaced with a new device which is less convenient than simply resetting a breaker and therefore likely to discourage people from ignoring faults. On the other hand replacing a fuse without isolating the circuit first (most building wiring designs do not provide individual isolation switches for each fuse) can be dangerous in itself, particularly if the fault is a short circuit. High rupturing capacity fuses can be rated to safely interrupt up to 300,000 amperes at 600 V AC. Special current-limiting fuses are applied ahead of some molded-case breakers to protect the breakers in low-voltage power circuits with high short-circuit levels. "Current-limiting" fuses operate so quickly that they limit the total "let-through" energy that passes into the circuit, helping to protect downstream equipment from damage. These fuses clear the fault in less than one cycle of the AC power frequency. Circuit breakers cannot offer similar rapid protection. Circuit breakers which have interrupted a severe fault should be removed from service and inspected and replaced if damaged. Circuit Breakers must be maintained on a regular basis to ensure their mechanical operation during an interruption. This is not the case with fuses, in which no mechanical operation is required for the fuse to operate under fault conditions. In a multi-phase power circuit, if only one fuse opens, the remaining phases will have higher than normal currents, and unbalanced voltages, with possible damage to motors. Fuses only sense over current, or to a degree, over-temperature, and cannot usually be used independently with protective relaying to provide more advanced protective functions, for example, ground fault detection. Some manufacturers of medium-voltage distribution fuses combine the over current protection characteristics of the fusible element with the flexibility of relay protection by adding a pyrotechnic device to the fuse operated by external protection relays.

TRIPPING
To protect the circuit in case of a fault. They consist of current carrying contacts, one movable and other fixed when a fault occurs the contacts separate and an arc is struck between them. The arc chute extinguishes the arc. The miniature circuit breakers that are used employ three tripping mechanisms.:1. Manual trip:Manual trip implies that the MCB can be operated as an electrical switch. They can easily turn on and off the MCB as and when required. The modern MCBs come with an additional feature of mid-trip, which means that in case of fault the two extremes of on and off. Also those operates who do not know the MCB is turned on with its knob pointing upwards can also turn off the MCB by adjusting the knob to the immediate position in case of an emergency. 2. Thermal trip:Thermal or over current is a bimetallic tripper depending on the class of the MCB. When an excess current is drawn by the circuit the contact between the two metal breaks due to temperature rise and circuit breaks.

3. Short circuit trip:Short circuit trip or electromagnetic trip works in the case of short circuit. As the short circuit current is many times the rated current, it is allowed to flow through the coil with a movable aluminum core attached to the tripping spring which on being energized with sufficiently large current faults the core releasing the spring. Protection of interlocking system:- For H.T systems, the control systems are excited from separate D.C. supply. For starting circuit the conditions should be in series from energizing the starting coil of the equipment because if even a single condition is not true, the system should not stop. The examblr takes a minimum of three conditions, viz. lubricating oil pressure, winding temperature and the breaking temperature. The tripper is a coil that de-energizes the close/start coil so that the equipment stops. Tripper deceives signal from the tripping coil of the H.T tripping system. It should be noted that for tripping all the conditions should be in parallel because if even a single condition goes true the circuit should be tripped.

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
POWER SUPPLY NEED OF POWER SUPPLY:Perhaps all of you are aware that a power supply is a primary requirement for the test bench of a home experimenters mini lab. A battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the batteries of solid-state electronic equipment and 220V A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells thus can operate the equipment. Nowadays, the sued of commercial battery eliminator or power supply unit have become increasingly popular as power source for household appliances like transceiver, record player, clock etc.

Summary of power supply circuit features: Brief description of operation: gives out well regulated +8V output, output
current capability of 500mA.

Circuit protection: Built in overheating protection shuts down output when

regulator IC gets too hot.

Circuit complexity: simple and easy to build. Circuit performance: Stable +8V output voltage, reliable Operation. Availability of components:
Easy to get, uses only common basic components.

Design testing: Based on datasheet example circuit, I have used this circuit
successfully as part of other electronics projects.

Applications: part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply. Power supply voltage: unregulated 8-18V-power supply. Power supply current: needed output current 500 mA. Components cost: Few rupees for the electronic components plus the cost of input
transformer.

10

Pin Diagram of 7808 Regulator IC

Pin 1: Unregulated voltage input Pin 2: Ground Pin3: Regulated voltage output

Component list

1. 7808 regulator IC 2. 9V DC Battery. 3. 1000uf., 10uf. Capacitor, at least 25V voltage rating.

DESCRITION OF POWER SUPPLY

This circuit is a small + 8 volts power supply. Which is useful when experimenting with digital electronics. Small inexpensive battery with variable output voltage are available, but usually their voltage regulation is very poor, which makes them not very usable for digital circuit experimenter unless a better regulation can be achieved in some way. The following circuit is the answer to the problem. This circuit can give +8V output at about 500mA current. The circuit has overload and terminal protection.

11

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

The above circuit utilizes the voltage regulator IC 7808 for the constant power supply. The capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle the input voltage feed to circuit. The circuit is very easy to build for example into a piece of Zero board.

RELAY DRIVER & PHASE CHANGER SECTION

The circuit is built around a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay. Three identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases, are used. Let us now consider the working of the circuit connecting red cable (call it R phase). The mains power supply phase R is stepped down by transformer X1 to deliver 12V, 300 mA, which is rectified by diode D1 and filtered by capacitor C1 to produce the operating voltage for the operational amplifier (IC1). The voltage at inverting pin 2 of operational amplifier IC1 is taken from the voltage divider circuit of resistor R1 and preset resistor VR1. VR1 is used to set the reference voltage according to the requirement. The reference voltage at noninverting pin 3 is fixed to 5.1V through zener diode ZD1. Till the supply voltage available in phase R is in the range of 200V-230V, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 remains high, i.e., more than reference voltage of 5.1V, and its output pin 6 also remains high. As a result, transistor T1 does not conduct, relay RL1 remains deenergized and phase R supplies power to load L1 via normally closed (N/C) contact of relay RL1.As soon as phase-R voltage goes below 200V, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 goes below reference voltage of 5.1V, and its output goes low. As a result, transistor T1 conducts and relay RL1 energizes and load L1 is disconnected from phase R and connected to phase

12

Y through relay RL2.Similarly, the auto phase-change of the remaining two phases, viz, phaseY and phase B, can be explained. Switch S1 is mains power on/off switch.

Op-Amp.

Definition of 741-pin functions: (Refer to the internal 741 schematic of Fig. 3) Pin 1 (Offset Null): Offset nulling, see Fig. 11. Since the op-amp is the differential type,
input offset voltage must be controlled so as to minimize offset. Offset voltage is nulled by application of a voltage of opposite polarity to the ofset. An offset null-adjustment potentiometer may be used to compensate for offset voltage. The null-offset potentiometer also compensates for irregularities in the operational amplifier manufacturing process which may cause an offset. Consequently, the null potentiometer is recommended for critical applications. See Offset Null Adjustment for method.

Pin 2 (Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be inverted at output pin 6. Pins 2
and 3 are very important (obviously) to get the correct input signals or the op amp can not do its work.

Pin 3 (Non-Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be processed normally without
invertion. The rest is the same as pin 2.

Pin 4 (-V): The V- pin (also referred to as Vss) is the negative supply voltage terminal.
Supply-voltage operating range for the 741 is -4.5 volts (minimum) to -18 volts (max), and it is specified for operation between -5 and -15 Vdc. The device will operate essentially the same

13

over this range of voltages without change in timing period. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt. (Note: Do not confuse the -V with ground).

Pin 5 (Offset Null): See pin 1, and Fig. 11. Pin 6 (Output): Output signals polarity will be the oposite of the inputs when this signal is
applied to the op-amps inverting input. For example, a sine-wave at the inverting input will output a square-wave in the case of an inverting comparator circuit.

Pin 7 (posV): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of
the 741 Op-Amp IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 741 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +18 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 and +15 Vdc. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period. Actually, the most significant operational difference is the output drive capability, which increases for both current and voltage range as the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt.

Pin 8 (N/C): The N/C stands for Not Connected. There is no other explanation. There is
nothing connected to this pin, it is just there to make it a standard 8-pin package.

Output Parameters:
1. Output Resistance (Zoi)
The resistance seen looking into the op-amps output.

2. Output Short-Circuit Current (Iosc)

This is the maximum output current that the op-amp can deliver to a load.

3. Output Voltage Swing (Vo max)

Depending on what the load resistance is, this is the maximum peak output voltage that the op-amp can supply without saturation or clipping.

Dynamic Parameters:
1. Open-Loop Voltage Gain (Aol)
The output to input voltage ratio of the op-amp without external feedback.

2. Large-Signal Voltage Gain

This is the ratio of the maximum voltage swing to the charge in the input voltage required to drive the ouput from zero to a specified voltage (e.g. 10 volts).

3. Slew Rate (SR)

14

The time rate of change of the ouput voltage with the op-amp circuit having a voltage gain of unity (1.0).

Other Parameters:
1. Supply Current
This is the current that the op-amp will draw from the power supply.

2. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

A measure of the ability of the op-amp to reject signals that are simultaneously present at both inputs. It is the ratio of the common-mode input voltage to the generated output voltage, usually expressed in decibels (dB).

15

RESISTORS
The jobs done by resistors include directing and controlling current, making changing current produce changing voltage (as in a voltage amplifier) and obtaining variable voltages from fixed ones (as in a potential divider). There are two main types of resistor-those with fixed values and those that are variable.

When choosing a resistor there are three factors which have to be considered, apart from the stated value.

1. THE TOLERANCE. Exact values cannot be guaranteed by mass-production methods but this is not a great disadvantage because in most electronic circuits the values of resistors are not critical. The tolerance tells us the minimum and maximum values a resistor might have, e.g. one with a stated (called nominal) value of 100 and a tolerance of +10% could have any value between 90 and 110 2. THE POWER RATING. If the rate which a resistor changes electrical energy into heat exceeds its power rating, it will overheat and be damaged or destroyed. For most electronic circuit 0.25 Watt or 0.5 Watt power ratings are adequate. The greater the physical size of a resistor the greater is its rating. 3. THE STABILITY. This is the ability of a component to keep the same value as it ages despite changes of temperature and other physical conditions. In some circuits this is an important factor.

16

RESISTOR MARKINGS
The value and tolerance of a fixed resistor is marked on it using codes. The resistor has four colored bands painted on it towards one end. The first three from the end give the value and the fourth the tolerance. Sometimes it is not clear which is the first band but deciding where to start should not be difficult if you remember that the fourth band (which is not always present) will be either gold or silver, these being colours not used for the first band. The first band gives the first number, the second band gives the second number and the third band tells how many naught (0) come after the first two numbers.

VALUE CODE
NUMBER 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 COLOUR Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

17

TOLERANCE CODE

PERCENTAGE

COLOUR

+-5% +-10% +-20%

Gold Silver no colour in 4th band

VARIABLE RESISTORS
Description. Variable resistors used as volume and other controls in radio and TV set
are usually called pots (short for potential divider- see below). They consist of an incomplete circular track of either a fixed carbon resistor for high values and low power (up to 2W) or of a fixed wire-wound resistor for high powers. Connections to each end of the track are bought out to two terminal tags. A wiper makes contact with the track and is connected to a third terminal tag, between the other two. Rotation of the spindle moves the wiper over the track and changes the resistance between the center tag and the ones. Slide type variable resistors have a straight track. In a linear track equal changes of resistance occur when the spindle is rotated through equal angles. In a log track, the change of resistance at one end of the track is less than at the other for equal angular rotations.

18

Maximum values range from a few ohms to several mega ohms, common values are 10k Ohm, 50k Ohm., 100k Ohm., 500k ohm. and 1M Ohm. Some circuits use small preset types, the symbol and form of which are shown in figs. These are adjusted with a screwdriver when necessary and have tracks of carbon or ceramic (ceramic and metal oxide).

CAPACITOR
A capacitor stores electric charge. It does not allow direct current to flow through it and it behaves as if alternating current does flow through. In its simplest form it consists of two parallel metal plates separated by an insulator called the dielectric. The symbols for fixed and variable capacitors are given in fig. Polarized types must be connected so that conventional current enters their positive terminal. Non-polarized types can be connected either way round. The capacitance (C) of a capacitor measures its ability to store charge and is stated in farads (F). The farad is sub-divided into smaller, more convenient units. 1 microfarad (1uf) = 1 millionth of a farad = 10-6 f 1 nanofarad (1 nf) = 1 thousand- millionth of a farad = 10-9 f 1 Pico farad ( 1pf ) = 1 million-millionth of a farad = 10-12 f In practice, capacitances range from 1 pf to about 150 000 uf: they depend on the area A of the plates (large A gives large C), the separation d of the plates (small d gives large C) and the material of the dielectric (e.g. certain plastics give large C).

19

When selecting a particular job, the factors to be considered are the value (again this is not critical in many electronic circuits), the tolerance and the stability. There are two additional factors.

(i)

The working voltage. It is the largest voltage (d.c.or peak a.c.), which can

be applied across the capacitor and is often marked on it, e.g. 30V wkg. It is exceeded, the dielectric breaks down and permanent damage may result.

(ii)

The leakage current. No dielectric is a perfect insulator but the loss of

charge through it as leakage current should be small.

FIXED CAPACITORS
Fixed capacitors can be classified according to the dielectric used; their properties depend on this. The types described below in (i), (ii) and (iii) are non-polarized; those in (iv) are polarized. 1. Polyester. Two strips of polyester film (the plastic dielectric) are wound between two strips of aluminum foil (the plates). Two connections, one to each strip of foil, form the capacitor leads. In the metallized version, films of metal are deposited on the plastic and act as the plates. Their good all-round properties and small size make them suitable for many applications in electronics. Values range from 0.01uf to 10mfd. or so and are usually marked (in pf) using the resistor colour code. Polycarbonate capacitors are similar to the polyester type; they have smaller leakage currents and better stability but cost more. 2. Mica. Mica is naturally occurring mineral, which splits into very thin sheets of uniform thickness. Plates are formed by depositing a silver film on the mica or by using interleaving sheets of aluminum foil. Their tolerance is low ( +1% ), stability and working voltage is high, leakage current low but they are used in radio frequency tuned circuits where low loss is important and are pictured in figs. Polystyrene capacitors have similar though not quite so good properties as mica types but are cheaper. 3. Ceramic. There are several types depending on the ceramic used. One type has similar properties to mica and is used in radio frequency circuits. In another type, high capacitance values are obtained with small size, but stability and tolerance are poor;

20

they are useful where exact values are not too important. They may be disc, rod- or plate-shaped. A disc-shaped capacitor is shown in fig. Values range form 10pf to 1uf. 4. Electrolytic: In the aluminum type the dielectric is an extremely thin layer of aluminum oxide, which is formed electrolytically. Their advantages are high values (up to 150 000uF) in a small volume and cheapness. Their disadvantages are wide tolerance (-20 to +100% of the value printed on them), high leakage current and poor stability but they are used where these factors do not matter and high values are required, e.g. in power supplies. Electrolytic are polarized. Usually their positive terminal is marked with a + or by a groove; often the aluminum can is the negative terminal. The d.c. Leakage current maintains the oxide layer; otherwise reversed polarity (or disuse) will cause the layer to deteriorate. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors can be used instead of aluminum in low voltage circuits where values do not exceed about 100 uf. They have lower leakage currents.

TRANSISTORS
Transistors are the most important devices in electronics today. Not only are they made as discrete (separate) components but also integrated circuits (IC) may contain several thousands on a tiny slice of silicon. They are three-terminal devices, used as amplifiers and as switches. Non-amplifying components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes are said to be passive; transistors are active components. The two basic types of transistor are:

21

a) The bipolar or junction transistor (usually called the transistor); its operation depends on the flow of both majority and minority carriers; b) The unipolar or field effect transistor (called the FET) in which the current is due to majority carriers only (either electrons or holes).

JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 1. CONSTRUCTION: The bipolar or junction transistor consists of two p-n junctions in
the same crystal. A very thin slice of lightly doped p-or n-type semiconductor (the base B) is sand witched between two thicker, heavily doped materials of the opposite type (the collector C and emitter E). The two possible arrangements are shown diagrammatically in fig with their symbols. The arrow gives the direction in which conventional (positive) current flows; in the n-p-n type it points from B to E and in the p-n-p type it points from E to B.

As with diodes, silicon transistors are in general preferred to germanium ones because they withstand with higher temperatures ( up to about 175 0C compared with 75 0C) and higher voltages, have lower leakage currents and are better suited to high frequency circuits. Silicon n-p-n types, are more easily mass-produced than p-n-p type, the opposite is true of germanium. A simplified section of an n-p-n silicon transistor made by the planar process in which the transistor is in effect created on one face (plane) of a piece of semi conducting material; fig. Shows a transistor complete with case (called the encapsulation) and three wire leads.

22

2. ACTION. An n-p-n silicon transistor is represented and is connected in a common emitter circuit; the emitter is joined (via batteries B1 and B2) to both the base and the collector. For transistor action to occur the base emitter junction must be forward biased, i.e. positive terminal of B1 to p- type base, and the collector base junction reverse biased, i.e. positive terminal of B2 to n- type collector. When the base emitter bias is about +0.6 V, electrons (the majority carriers in the heavily doped n type emitter) cross the junction (as they would in any junction diode) into the base. Their loss is made good by electrons entering the emitter from the external circuit to form the emitter current. At the same time holes from the base to the emitter, since the p- type base is lightly doped, this is small compared with the electron flow in the opposite direction, i.e. electrons are the majority carriers in an n-pn transistor. In the base, only a small proportion (about 1%) of the electrons from the emitter combine with the holes in the base because the base is very thin (less than millionth of a meter) and is lightly doped. Most of the electrons are swept through the base, because they are attracted by the positive voltage on the collector, and the cross base collector junction to become the collector current in the circuit. The small amount of electron hole recombination, which occurs in the base, gives it a momentary negative charge, which is immediately compensated by battery B1 supplying it with (positive) holes. The flow of holes to the base from the external circuit creates a small base current. This keeps the base emitter junction forward biased and so maintains the larger collector current.

23

Transistor action is turning on (and controlling) of a large current through the high resistance (reverse biased) collector base junction by a small current through the low resistance (forward biased) base emitter junction. The term transistor refers to this effect and comes from the two words transfer resistor. Physically the collector is larger than the emitter and if one is used in place of the other the action is inefficient. The behavior of a p-n-p transistor is similar to that of the n-p-n type but it is holes that are the majority carriers, which flow from the emitter to the collector and electrons, are injected into the base to compensate for recombination. To obtain correct biasing the polarities of both batteries must be reversed.

RELAY
Relay is a common, application of application of electromagnetism. It uses an electromagnet made from an iron rod wound with hundreds of fine copper wire. When electricity is applied to the wire, the rod become magnetic. A movable contact arm above the rod is then pulled toward; a small spring pulls the contract arm away from the rod until it closes, a second switch contact. By means of relay, a current circuit can be broken or closed in one circuit as a result of a current in another circuit. Relays can have several poles and contacts. The types of contacts could be normally open and normally closed. One closure of the relay can turn on the same normally open contacts; can turn off the other normally closed contacts.

24

A relay is a switch worked by an electromagnet. It is useful if we want a small current in one circuit to control another circuit containing a device such as a lamp or electric motor which requires a large current, or if we wish several different switch contacts to be operated simultaneously. The structure of relay and its symbol are shown in figure. When the controlling current flows through the coil, the soft iron core is magnetized and attracts the L-shaped soft iron armature. This rocks on its pivot and opens, closes or changes over, the electrical contacts in the circuit being controlled.

25

DIODE
The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of P- and N type semi conducting material, with contacts provided to connect the P-and N-type layers to an external circuit, this is a junction Diode. If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material (cathode) and the negative terminal to the N-type material (Anode), a large current will flow. This is called forward current or forward biased. If the connection is reversed, a very little current will flow. This is because under this condition, the p-type material will accept the electrons from the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type material will give up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the state of electrical equilibrium since the N-type material has no more electrons. Thus there will be a small current to flow and the diode is called Reverse biased. Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction while blocking it in the other direction. Power diodes are used in concerting AC into DC. In this, current will flow freely during the first half cycle (forward biased) and practically not at all during the other half cycle (reverse biased). This makes the diode an effective rectifier, which converts ac into pulsating dc. Signal diodes are used in radio circuits fro detection, Zener diodes are used in the circuit to control the voltage. A diode allows current to flow easily in one direction but not in the other, i.e. its resistance is low in the conducting or forward direction but very high in the opposing or reverse direction. Most semiconductor diodes are made from silicon or germanium. A diode has two leads, the anode and the cathode: its symbol is given in fig (a). The cathode is often marked by a band at one end fig.(b); it is the lead by which conventional current leaves the diode when forward biased as the arrow on the symbol shown. In some cases the arrow is marked on the diode fig.(c) or the shape is different (d), (e)

26

There are several kinds of diode, each with features that suit it for a particular job. Three of the main types are: (a) (b) (c) The junction diode, The point-contact diode and The zener diode

Two identification codes are used for diodes. In the American system the code always starts with 1N and is followed by a serial number, e.g. IN 4001. in the continental system the first letter gives the semiconductor material (A=germanium, B= silicon) and the second letter gives the use. (A=signal diode, Y=rectifier diode, Z=Zener diode.). for example, AA119 is a germanium signal diode,. To complicate the situation some manufacturers have their own codes.

ZENER DIODE
Zener diodes are very important because they are the key to voltage regulation. The chapter also includes opt electronic diodes, Scotty diodes, aviators, and other diodes. A Zener diode is specially designed junction diode, which can operate continuously without being damaged in the region of reverse breakdown voltage. One of the most important applications of zener diode is the design of constant voltage power supply. The zener diode is joined in reverse bias to D.C. through a resistance of suitable value. Small signal and rectifier diodes are never intentionally operated in the breakdown region because this may damage them. A zener diode is different; it is a silicon diode that the manufacturer has optimized for operation in the breakdown region, zener diodes work best in the breakdown region. Sometimes called a breakdown diode, the zener diode is the backbone of voltage regulators, circuits that hold the load voltage almost constant despite large changes in line voltage and load resistance. Figure shows the schematic symbol of a zener diode; another figure is an alternate

27

symbol. In the either symbol, the lines resemble a z, which stands for zener. By varying the doping level of silicon diodes, a manufacturer can produce zener diodes with breakdown voltage from about 2 to 200V. These diodes can operate in any of three regions: forward, leakage, or breakdown. Figure shows the V-I graph of a zener diode. In the forward region, it starts conduction around 0.7V, just like a ordinary silicon diode, In the leakage region (between zero and breakdown), it has only a small leakage or reverse current. In a zener diode, the breakdown has a very sharp knee, followed by an almost vertical Vz over most of breakdown region. Data sheets usually specify the value of Vz at a particular test current IzT.

L.E.D. (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

Light emitting diode (LED) is basically a P-N junction semiconductor diode particularly designed to emit visible light. There are infrared emitting LEDs which emit invisible light. The LEDs are now available in many colour red, green and yellow,. A normal LED at 2.4V and consumes ma of current. The LEDs are made in the form of flat tiny P-N junction enclosed in a semi-spherical dome made up of clear coloured epoxy resin. The dome of a LED acts as a lens and diffuser of light. The diameter of the base is less than a quarter of an inch. The actual diameter varies somewhat with different makes. The common circuit symbols for the LED are shown in fig. 1. It is similar to the conventional rectifier diode symbol with two arrows pointing out. There are two leads- one for anode and the other for cathode. LEDs often have leads of dissimilar length and the shorter one is the cathode. This is not strictly adhered to by all manufacturers. Sometimes the cathode side has a flat base. If there is doubt, the polarity of the diode should be identified. A simple bench method is to use the ohmmeter incorporating 3-volt cells for ohmmeter function. When connected with the ohmmeter: one way there will be no deflection and when connected the other way round there will be a large deflection of a pointer. When this occurs the anode lead is connected to the negative of test lead and cathode to the positive test lead of the ohmmeter.

28

1. Action. An LED consists of a junction diode made from the semi conducting compound gallium arsenate phosphate. It emits light when forward biased, the colour depending on the composition and impurity content of the compound. At present red, yellow and green LEDs are available. When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, electrons move across the junction from the n-type side to the p-type side where they recombine with holes near the junction. The same occurs with holes going across the junction from the p-type side. Every recombination results in the release of a certain amount of energy, causing, in most semiconductors, a temperature rise. In gallium arsenate phosphate some of the energy is emitted as light, which gets out of the LED because the junction is formed very close to the surface of the material. An LED does not light when reverse biased and if the bias is 5 V or more it may be damaged.

2. External resistor. Unless an LED is of the constant-current type (incorporating an integrated circuit regulator for use on a 2 to 18 V d.c. or a. c. supply), it must have an external resistor R connected in series to limit the forward current, which typically, may be 10 mA (0.01 A). Taking the voltage drop (Vf) across a conducting LED to be about 1.7 V, R can be calculated approximately from: (supply voltage 1.7) V R = 0.01A

For example, on a 5 V supply, R = 3.3/0.01 = 330 Ohm.

29

3. Decimal display. Many electronic calculators, clocks, cash registers and measuring instruments have seven-segment red or green LED displays as numerical indicators (Fig.). Each segment is an LED and depending on which segments are energized, the display lights up the numbers 0 to 9 as in Fig.. Such displays are usually designed to work on a 5 V supply. Each segment needs a separate currentlimiting resistor and all the cathodes (or anodes) are joined together to form a common connection. The advantages of LEDs are small size, reliability, longer life, small current requirement and high operating speed.

SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
Bad solder joints are often the cause of annoying intermittent faults. They can often be

hard to find an cause circuit failure at the most inappropriate time. Its much better to learn to make a good solder joints from day one. Preparing the soldering iron: Wipe the tip clean on the wetted sponge provided. Bring the resin cored solder to the iron and tin the tip of the iron. Wipe the excess solder of the tip using the wet sponge. Repeat until the tip is properly tinned.

30

SOLDERING COMPONENTS INTO THE PCB

Bend the component leads at right angles with both bends at the same distance apart as the PCB pad holes. Ensure that both component leads and the copper PCB pads are clean and free of oxidization. Insert component leads into holes and bend leads at about 30 degrees from vertical. Using small angle cutters, cut the leads at about 0.1 - 0.2 of an inch (about 2 - 4 mm) above copper pad. Bring tinned soldering iron tip into contact with both the component lead and the PCB pad. This ensures that both surfaces undergo the same temperature rise. Bring resin cored solder in contact with the lead and the copper pad. Feed just enough solder to flow freely over the pad and the lead without a blobbing effect. The final solder joint should be shiny and concave indicating good wetting of both the copper pad and the component lead. If a crack appears at the solder to metal interface then the potential for forming a dry joint exists. If an unsatisfactory joint is formed, suck all the solder off the joint using a solder sucker or solder wick (braid) and start again.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Mount the components at the apron places before soldering. Follow the circuit description and components details, leads identification etc. Do not start soldering before making it confirm that all the components are mounted at the right place. 2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit. 3. Do not sit under the fan while soldering. 4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you want it. 5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may damage the components or board. 6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a dry or a cold joint. 7. Do not put the kit under or over voltage source. Be sire about the voltage either is d.c. or a.c. while operating the gadget.

31

8. Do spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may short circuit with the other components. To prevent this use sleeves at the component leads or use sleeved wire for connections. 9. Do not use old dark colour solder. It may give dry joint. Be sure that all the joints are clean and well shiny. 10. Do make loose wire connections specially with cell holder, speaker, probes etc. Put knots while connections to the circuit board, otherwise it may get loose.

REFERENCES
1) Dr. S.R Gupta 2) http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/lab/freecircuitslist.asp?id=399&title=Auto
matic%20Phase%20Changer 3) www.google.com

32