Transmission Line (KABADI)

DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING
TRANSMISSION LINES LECTURES
BY M.D.KABADI (2007)
2
2.0 STUDY COMPONENTS
2.1 OBJECTIVES
General objectives:
The purpose of this course is to familiarize the students with the basics of transmission lines
principles. Other objectives are:
List the types of transmission lines
Calculate the impedance of transmission lines
Calculate velocity of propagation and delay factor
Analyze wave propagation and reflection for various line configuration
Describe how standing waves are produced
Use the Smith chart to find input impedance
Use the Smith chart to match loads to lines
Critical Sub enabling learning outcomes:
The following sub enabling outcomes are addressed in this module, i.e. at the conclusion of
this module the student will be able to:
Ability to choose group materials
Ability to assist in communications developments
Ability to determine load
Ability to identify technological aspects of products
Ability to analyse technological aspects of processes
Ability to advise on technological aspects of particular materials
Ability to advise on technological aspects of particular products
2.2 MODULE STRUCTURE
Study themes
1. Traditional Transmission lines
S/No Topic Lecture Time Hours Week #
Lecture
No.
2.1 Definition and types of Transmission
lines
6 1-3 1
2.2 Low-loss ,loading and reflection on
transmission line
3 4 2
2.2 Traveling and Standing wave concepts,
quarter and half wave section
1
5
2
2.3 Assignment 1 1 5
2.4 Graphical method( smith chart 4 6-8 3
2.5 Test 1 2 7
2.6 Impedance Matching 8 8-9 4
2. Modern transmission lines
2.1 Micro strip and strip lines 2 10 5
2.2 Modern microwave integrated circuits 2 10 5
Assignment 2 11
Test 2 12
3. Wave guides
2.1 Parameters of waveguides 2 13 6
2.2 Propagation Modes in rectangular Vs
Circular.
3 13 6
2.2 Practical waveguides and components 3 14 6
2.3 Application power and attenuation
measurements
1 15 6
2.4 Final; Examination 16-17 Final Exam
2.5 END OF SEMESTER - -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Transmission line Lectures. Prepared by M.D.Kabadi
4
PAGE
LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION LINES .................................................................. 5
Such transmission lines include ............................................................................................................. 6
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSMISSION LINES ................................................... 14
ATTENUATION PER UNIT LENGTH ............................................................................................. 14
VELOCITY FACTOR ........................................................................................................................ 15
ELECTRICAL LENGTH ................................................................................................................... 16
LECTURE 2. TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY ..................................................................................... 18
2.1 Lumped Element Circuit Model ......................................................................................................... 18
j Leq = j Z0 tan( l) ..................................................................................................................................... 40
1/(j Ceq) = j Z0 tan( l) ............................................................................................................................... 40
Time Domain approach ........................................................................................................................ 45
LECTURE 3. SMITH CHART OR GRAPHICAL METHOD .................................................................... 47
LECTURE 4: IMPEDANCE MATCHING ................................................................................................. 58
Impedance matching methods. ................................................................................................................. 58
LECTURE5: PRINTED CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINES .................................................................. 71
Microstripline ........................................................................................................................................ 72
Advantages and disadvantages of stripline ........................................................................................... 79
Stripline equations ................................................................................................................................ 80
LECTURE 6: WAVEGUIDES ..................................................................................................................... 81
Mode ..................................................................................................................................................... 89
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 95
LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION LINES
General Considerations
5
In its simplest form, a transmission line is a pair of conductors linking together two electrical
systems, components, or devices.
Otherwise stated, transmission line conducts electronic signals from a source component
(Sinusoidal signal, Digital pulse or any signal waveform) to a load component.
Such transmission lines include
parallel wires or two-wire line : This transmission line consists of a pair of parallel conducting wires
separated by a uniform distance. (telephone wires, power line )
coaxial transmission line : This consists of an inner conductor and a coaxial outer conductor sheath
(cover) separated by a dielectric medium. It carries audio and video information to TV sets, or digital
data to computer monitors
parallel plate line: It consists of two parallel plates separated by a dielectric slab of a uniform
thickness (Striplines,)
optical fiber ( carrying light waves)
waveguides (for microwave signals f> 1 GHz):it is usually metallic tubes with rectangular, circular,
In short, A transmission line is a two port network connecting a generator circuit at the sending end to a
load at the receiving end
TERMINOLOGY
6
All transmission lines have two ends (The end of a two-wire transmission line connected to a source is
ordinarily called the INPUT END or the GENERATOR END. Other names given to this end are
TRANSMITTER END, SENDING END, and SOURCE. The other end of the line is called the OUTPUT
END or RECEIVING END. Other names given to the output end are LOAD END and SINK.
Figure 1. - Basic transmission line.
You can describe a transmission line in terms of its impedance. The ratio of voltage to current (E
in
/I
in
) at
the input end is known as the INPUT IMPEDANCE (Z
in
). This is the impedance presented to the
transmitter by the transmission line and its load, the antenna. The ratio of voltage to current at the output
(E
out
/I
out
) end is known as the OUTPUT IMPEDANCE (Z
out
). This is the impedance presented to the load
by the transmission line and its source. If an infinitely long transmission line could be used, the ratio of
voltage to current at any point on that transmission line would be some particular value of impedance.
This impedance is known as the CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIUMS
Types of TRANSMISSION MEDIUMS in its electronic applications. Each medium (line or waveguide)
has a certain characteristic impedance value, current-carrying capacity, and physical shape and is designed
to meet a particular requirement.
The five types of transmission mediums that we will discuss in this chapter include PARALLEL-LINE,
TWISTED PAIR, SHIELDED PAIR, COAXIAL LINE, and WAVEGUIDES. The use of a particular line
depends, among other things, on the applied frequency, the power-handling capabilities, and the type of
installation.
Two-Wire Open Line
One type of parallel line is the TWO-WIRE OPEN LINE illustrated in figure 2. This line consists of two
wires that are generally spaced from 2 to 6 inches apart by insulating spacers. This type of line is most
often used for power lines, rural telephone lines, and telegraph lines. It is sometimes used as a
transmission line between a transmitter and an antenna or between an antenna and a receiver. An
advantage of this type of line is its simple construction. The principal disadvantages of this type of line are
the high radiation losses and electrical noise pickup because of the lack of shielding. Radiation losses are
produced by the changing fields created by the changing current in each conductor.
Figure 2. - Parallel two-wire line.
7
Another type of parallel line is the TWO-WIRE RIBBON (TWIN LEAD) illustrated in figure 3. This type
of transmission line is commonly used to connect a television receiving antenna to a home television set.
This line is essentially the same as the two-wire open line except that uniform spacing is assured by
embedding the two wires in a low-loss dielectric, usually polyethylene. Since the wires are embedded in
the thin ribbon of polyethylene, the dielectric space is partly air and partly polyethylene.
Figure 3. - Two-wire ribbon type line.
Twisted Pair
The TWISTED PAIR transmission line is illustrated in figure 4. As the name implies, the line consists of
two insulated wires twisted together to form a flexible line without the use of spacers. It is not used for
transmitting high frequency because of the high dielectric losses that occur in the rubber insulation. When
the line is wet, the losses increase greatly.
Figure 4. - Twisted pair.
8
Shielded Pair
The SHIELDED PAIR, shown in figure 5, consists of parallel conductors separated from each other and
surrounded by a solid dielectric. The conductors are contained within a braided copper tubing that acts as
an electrical shield. The assembly is covered with a rubber or flexible composition coating that protects
the line from moisture and mechanical damage. Outwardly, it looks much like the power cord of a
washing machine or refrigerator.
Figure 5. - Shielded pair.
The principal advantage of the shielded pair is that the conductors are balanced to ground; that is, the
capacitance between the wires is uniform throughout the length of the line. This balance is due to the
uniform spacing of the grounded shield that surrounds the wires along their entire length. The braided
copper shield isolates the conductors from stray magnetic fields.
Coaxial Lines
There are two types of COAXIAL LINES, RIGID (AIR) COAXIAL LINE and FLEXIBLE (SOLID)
COAXIAL LINE. The physical construction of both types is basically the same; that is, each contains two
concentric conductors.
The rigid coaxial line consists of a central, insulated wire (inner conductor) mounted inside a tubular outer
conductor. This line is shown in figure 6. In some applications, the inner conductor is also tubular. The
inner conductor is insulated from the outer conductor by insulating spacers or beads at regular intervals.
The spacers are made of pyrex, polystyrene, or some other material that has good insulating characteristics
and low dielectric losses at high frequencies.
Figure 6. - Air coaxial line.
9
The chief advantage of the rigid line is its ability to minimize radiation losses. The electric and magnetic
fields in a two-wire parallel line extend into space for relatively great distances and radiation losses occur.
However, in a coaxial line no electric or magnetic fields extend outside of the outer conductor. The fields
are confined to the space between the two conductors, resulting in a perfectly shielded coaxial line.
Another advantage is that interference from other lines is reduced.
The rigid line has the following disadvantages: (1) it is expensive to construct; (2) it must be kept dry to
prevent excessive leakage between the two conductors; and (3) although high-frequency losses are
somewhat less than in previously mentioned lines, they are still excessive enough to limit the practical
length of the line.
Leakage caused by the condensation of moisture is prevented in some rigid line applications by the use of
an inert gas, such as nitrogen, helium, or argon. It is pumped into the dielectric space of the line at a
pressure that can vary from 3 to 35 pounds per square inch. The inert gas is used to dry the line when it is
first installed and pressure is maintained to ensure that no moisture enters the line.
Flexible coaxial lines (figure 7) are made with an inner conductor that consists of flexible wire insulated
from the outer conductor by a solid, continuous insulating material. The outer conductor is made of metal
braid, which gives the line flexibility. Early attempts at gaining flexibility involved using rubber insulators
between the two conductors. However, the rubber insulators caused excessive losses at high frequencies.
Figure 7. - Flexible coaxial line.
Because of the high-frequency losses associated with rubber insulators, polyethylene plastic was
developed to replace rubber and eliminate these losses. Polyethylene plastic is a solid substance that
remains flexible over a wide range of temperatures. It is unaffected by seawater, gasoline, oil, and most
10
other liquids that may be found aboard ship. The use of polyethylene as an insulator results in greater
high-frequency losses than the use of air as an insulator. However, these losses are still lower than the
losses associated with most other solid dielectric materials.
WAVEGUIDES
The WAVEGUIDE is classified as a transmission line. However, the method by which it transmits
energy down its length differs from the conventional methods. Waveguides are cylindrical, elliptical, or
rectangular (cylindrical and rectangular shapes are shown in figure 8). The rectangular waveguide is used
more frequently than the cylindrical waveguide.
Figure 8. - Waveguides.
The term waveguide can be applied to all types of transmission lines in the sense that they are all used to
guide energy from one point to another. However, usage has generally limited the term to mean a hollow
metal tube or a dielectric transmission line. In this chapter, we use the term waveguide only to mean
"hollow metal tube." It is interesting to note that the transmission of electromagnetic energy along a
waveguide travels at a velocity somewhat slower than electromagnetic energy traveling through free
space.
A waveguide may be classified according to its cross section (rectangular, elliptical, or circular), or
according to the material used in its construction (metallic or dielectric). Dielectric waveguides are seldom
used because the dielectric losses for all known dielectric materials are too great to transfer the electric
and magnetic fields efficiently.
Waveguide Advantages
1. The large surface area of waveguides greatly reduces COPPER (I
2
R) LOSSES. Two-wire transmission
lines have large copper losses because they have a relatively small surface area. The surface area of the
outer conductor of a coaxial cable is large, but the surface area of the inner conductor is relatively small.
At microwave frequencies, the current-carrying area of the inner conductor is restricted to a very small
11
layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called SKIN EFFECT. Skin effect tends to increase the
effective resistance of the conductor.
2. DIELECTRIC LOSSES are also lower in waveguides than in two-wire and coaxial transmission lines.
Dielectric losses in two-wire and coaxial lines are caused by the heating of the insulation between the
conductors. The insulation behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor formed by the two wires of the
transmission line. A voltage potential across the two wires causes heating of the dielectric and results in a
power loss
3. The dielectric in waveguides is air, which has a much lower dielectric loss than conventional
insulating materials. However, waveguides are also subject to dielectric breakdown caused by standing
waves. Standing waves in waveguides cause arcing which decreases the efficiency of energy transfer and
can severely damage the waveguide. Also since the electromagnetic fields are completely contained
within the waveguide, radiation losses are kept very low.
4. Power-handling capability is another advantage of waveguides. Waveguides can handle more power
than coaxial lines of the same size because power-handling capability is directly related to the distance
between conductors. Figure 4 illustrates the greater distance between conductors in a waveguide.
Figure 4. - Comparison of spacing in coaxial cable and a circular waveguide.
In view of the advantages of waveguides, you would think that waveguides should be the only type of
transmission lines used. However, waveguides have certain disadvantages that make them practical for
use only at microwave frequencies
.
Waveguide Disadvantages
1. Physical size is the primary lower-frequency limitation of waveguides. The width of a waveguide must
be approximately a half wavelength at the frequency of the wave to be transported. For example, a
waveguide for use at 1 megahertz would be about 500 feet wide. This makes the use of waveguides at
frequencies below 1000 megahertz increasingly impractical. The lower frequency range of any system
using waveguides is limited by the physical dimensions of the waveguides.
12
2. Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape. Special couplings at the
joints are required to assure proper operation. Also, the inside surfaces of waveguides are often plated
with silver or gold to reduce skin effect losses. These requirements increase the costs and decrease the
practicality of waveguide systems at any other than microwave frequencies.
LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION LINES
The discussion of transmission lines so far has not directly addressed LINE LOSSES; actually some line
losses occur in all lines. Line losses may be any of three types - COPPER, DIELECTRIC, and
RADIATION or INDUCTION LOSSES.
NOTE: Transmission lines are sometimes referred to as rf lines. In this text the terms are used
interchangeably.
Copper Losses
One type of copper loss is I
2
R LOSS. In rf lines the resistance of the conductors is never equal to zero.
Whenever current flows through one of these conductors, some energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
This heat loss is a POWER LOSS. With copper braid, which has a resistance higher than solid tubing, this
power loss is higher.
Another type of copper loss is due to SKIN EFFECT. When dc flows through a conductor, the movement
of electrons through the conductor's cross section is uniform. The situation is somewhat different when ac
is applied. The expanding and collapsing fields about each electron encircle other electrons. This
phenomenon, called SELF INDUCTION, retards the movement of the encircled electrons. The flux
density at the center is so great that electron movement at this point is reduced. As frequency is increased,
the opposition to the flow of current in the center of the wire increases. Current in the center of the wire
becomes smaller and most of the electron flow is on the wire surface. When the frequency applied is 100
megahertz or higher, the electron movement in the center is so small that the center of the wire could be
removed without any noticeable effect on current. You should be able to see that the effective cross-
sectional area decreases as the frequency increases. Since resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area, the resistance will increase as the frequency is increased. Also, since power loss increases
as resistance increases, power losses increase with an increase in frequency because of skin effect.
Copper losses can be minimized and conductivity increased in an rf line by plating the line with silver.
Since silver is a better conductor than copper, most of the current will flow through the silver layer. The
tubing then serves primarily as a mechanical support.
Dielectric Losses
DIELECTRIC LOSSES result from the heating effect on the dielectric material between the conductors.
Power from the source is used in heating the dielectric. The heat produced is dissipated into the
surrounding medium. When there is no potential difference between two conductors, the atoms in the
dielectric material between them are normal and the orbits of the electrons are circular. When there is a
potential difference between two conductors, the orbits of the electrons change. The excessive negative
charge on one conductor repels electrons on the dielectric toward the positive conductor and thus distorts
13
the orbits of the electrons. A change in the path of electrons requires more energy, introducing a power
loss.
The atomic structure of rubber is more difficult to distort than the structure of some other dielectric
materials. The atoms of materials, such as polyethylene, distort easily. Therefore, polyethylene is often
used as a dielectric because less power is consumed when its electron orbits are distorted.
Radiation and Induction Losses
RADIATION and INDUCTION LOSSES are similar in that both are caused by the fields surrounding the
conductors. Induction losses occur when the electromagnetic field about a conductor cuts through any
nearby metallic object and a current is induced in that object. As a result, power is dissipated in the object
and is lost.
Radiation losses occur because some magnetic lines of force about a conductor do not return to the
conductor when the cycle alternates. These lines of force are projected into space as radiation and these
results in power losses. That is, power is supplied by the source, but is not available to the load.

Table: Some typical media loss values
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Transmission lines are generally characterized by the following properties:
Attenuation per unit length
Velocity factor
Electrical length
Characteristic impedance
ATTENUATION PER UNIT LENGTH
Attenuation per unit length measures how much of the RF signal is lost per unit length of transmission
line. Typically, the attenuation per unit length has units of dB/100ft. Losses in transmission lines arise
from 3 sources:
Radiation (leakage)
Dielectric losses
14
Skin effect losses

Radiation loss occurs in two-wire lines because the fields from one line do not completely cancel out
those from the other line. A small amount of RF is radiated, which is dependent on the separation of the
wires and the frequency of the RF. Radiation occurs in braided coaxial lines because the braid does not
provide 100% shielding. Special types of coax with multiple braids, or a solid outer conductor have no
measurable radiation losses.

The conductors of a transmission line are separated from one another by an insulating material known as a
dielectric. This dielectric could be air or a plastic or any insulating material. All dielectrics exhibit losses
that increase as the voltage on the conductors increases. Dielectric losses also increase with increasing
frequency.

Skin effect is a phenomenon that occurs in conductors carrying an AC current. As the frequency increases,
the current tends to be concentrated near the surface of the conductor. At RF, almost no current flows
down the center of wire. It is all on the surface. A copper rod and a copper tube of equal diameter will
have the same resistance above a few MHz, even though the DC resistance of the solid rod is much lower.
As frequency increases, the skin effect becomes more pronounced and the loss in conductors increases
dramatically.

The total losses in a transmission line are roughly proportional to the square root of the frequency. If the
attenuation per unit length is known for a particular frequency f1, the loss at any other frequency f2 can be
estimated from the following equation:

f2
= attenuation at frequency f2
f1
= attenuation at frequency f1
VELOCITY FACTOR

The radio frequency (RF) current flowing along a transmission line creates a radio wave that is guided by
the transmission line. This guided wave propagates along a transmission line with a velocity given by the
following equation:

Where:
v = the wave velocity
L
S
is the series inductance per unit length
C
P
is the parallel capacitance per unit length

The wave propagation velocity of the guided wave will always be less than the speed of light in a vacuum,
which is approximately 300,000,000 m/sec.
15

Because the wave velocity is a very large number, manufacturers of transmission lines generally specify
the velocity factor of a transmission line. The velocity factor is simply the wave velocity on the
transmission line divided by the speed of light in a vacuum:

Where:
vf = the velocity factor
L
S
is the series inductance per unit length
C
P
is the parallel capacitance per unit length
c is the speed of light in a vacuum (3.0 * 10
8
m/sec)
Velocity factors for commercially available transmission lines range from approximately 0.6 to 0.9,
depending on the construction of the line.
ELECTRICAL LENGTH
The electrical length of a cable is its length measured in wavelengths () and is related to the frequency of
the wave and the velocity with which it propagates along the transmission line. The electrical length of a
transmission line can be computed from the following formula:

l = length of the line in feet
f = frequency in MHz
V
F
= the velocity factor of the line

The velocity factor is the ratio of the wave velocity to the speed of light. Typical values range from 0.66 to
0.97.

Lets look at an example:

What is the electrical length of 117 feet of RG-8/U coaxial cable at 57 MHz? The velocity factor for this
cable is 0.66.

Solution:

Here is a second example:

A two-wire line has a velocity factor of 0.95 and a length of 3406 ft. What is its electrical length at 2.82
MHz?
16

Solution:

Notice that these two transmission lines of very different design and physical length have the same
electrical length.

The concept of electrical length is important because the properties of a resonant transmission line are
periodic with respect to electrical length

17
LECTURE 2. TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
2.1 Lumped Element Circuit Model
When we draw a schematic of an electronic circuit, we use symbols to represent resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes, etc. In each case the symbol represents the functionality of the device, rather than its
shape or other attributes. We shall do the same with regard to the transmission lines
A transmission line is represented by a parallel wire configuration, regardless of the specific shape of the
line under consideration.
Same approach will be applied to transmission line
1- Orient the line along the z-direction
2- Subdividing the line into differential sections each of length <z.
3- Represent each section by an equivalent circuit as illustrated in Figure.
18
This representation is called the lumped-element circuit model and it is applicable to all TEM
transmission lines. This model consists of four basic elements: two series elements, R and L, and two
shunt elements, G and C.
R: The combined resistance of both conductors per unit length, in /m,
L: The combined inductance of both conductors per unit length, in H/m,
G: The conductance of the insulation medium per unit length, in S/m,
C: The capacitance of both conductors per unit length, in F/m.
R, L, G, and C are called the transmission line parameters.
Expressions for the line parameters R, L, G, and C are given in Table 2-1 for the three types of TEM
transmission lines. They depend on the geometry and characteristics of the materials.
Parameter Coaxial Two wire Unit
19
R
)
b
1

a
1
(
2
R
s
+
a
R
s

/m
L
)
a
b
( ln
2
] 1 )
2
(
a 2
d
[ ln
2
+
a
d
H/m
G
ln(b/a)
2
] 1 ) 2 / ( ) 2 / ln[(
2
+ a d a d
S/m
C
ln(b/a)
2
] 1 ) 2 / ( ) 2 / ln[(
2
+ a d a d

F/m
For illustration purpose, lets consider a small section of a coaxial line. It consists of an inner conductor of
radius a separated from an outer conducting cylinder of radius b by a material with permittivity ,
permeability , and conductivity . The two metal conductors are made of a material with conductivity
c
and permeability
c
.
The expression for R will be derived later and it is given by
R=
)
b
1

a
1
(
2
R
s
+
(/m)
20
where R
s
represents the surface resistance of the conductor , it is called the intrinsic resistance, and is
given by
R
s
=
c
c
f

()
R
s
depends on the materials properties of the conductor (
c
and
c
) and the frequency f.
For a perfect conductor,
c
= 0 R
s
= 0 and R=0,
Application of Amperes law in Chapter 5 to the definition of inductance leads to the following expression
L =
)
a
b
( ln
2
(H/m)
The shunt conductance per unit length G accounts for the current flow between the outer and inner
conductors, made possible by the material conductivity of the insulator. It is given by
G=
ln(b/a)
2
(S/m)
If the material separating the inner and outer conductor is a perfect dielectric, = 0, then G=0.
The last line parameter on our list is the capacitance per unit length C, it is due to the presence of
opposite charges on two noncontacting conductors. It is given by
C=
ln(b/a)
2
(F/m)
All TEM transmission lines share the following useful relations:
And
21
L C =
G/C =/
2.2 Transmission-Line Equations
Equivalent circuit of a differential length z of two-conductor transmission line
Where:
R= series resistance per unit length( ) m / of the transmission line conductors.
L=series inductance per unit length( ) m H / of the transmission line conductors (internal
plus external inductance).
G=shut conductance per unit length( ) m S / of the media between the transmission line
conductors (insulator leakage current).
C= shunt capacitance per unit length( ) m F / of the transmission line conductors.
We may relate the values of voltage and current at z and + z z by writing KVL and KCL equations for
the equivalent circuit.
KVL
( ) ( )
( )
( ) t z z V
t
t z I
z L t z zI R t z V ,
,
, , +

KCL ( ) ( )
( )
( ) t z z I
t
t z z V
z C t z z zV G t z I ,
,
, , +
+
+
22
Grouping the voltage and current terms of terms and dividing by z gives
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z
t z V t z z V
t
t z I
L t z zI R

, , ,
,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z
t z I t z z I
t
t z z V
C t z z zV G
+
+
, , ,
,
Taking the limit as
, 0 z
the terms on the right hand side of the equations above become partial
derivatives with respect to z which gives
( )
( )
( )
t
t z I
L t z RI
z
t z V
,
,
,
( )
( )
( )
t
t z V
C t z GV
z
t z I
,
,
,
For harmonically varying voltage and current, we have

j
t

The derivatives of the voltage and current with respect to time, it gives
( )
[ ] ( ) ZI z I L j R
dz
z dV
+ and
( )
[ ] ( ) YV z V C j G
dz
z dI
+ .
These are called phasor equations.
Where Z=
L j R +
, the series impedance per unit length of line.
C j G Y +
, the shunt admittance per unit length of line
Even though these equations were derived without any consideration of the electromagnetic fields
associated with the transmission liner ember that circuit theory is based on Maxwells equations.
Just as we manipulated the two Maxwell curl equations to derive the wave equations describing E and H
associated with an unguided wave (plane wave), we can do the same for a guided(transmission line TEM)
wave.
Beginning with the Phasor transmission line equations, we take derivatives of both sides with respect to z.
23
Wave propagation on transmission line
Two phasor equations can be solved simultaneously to give wave equation for ( ) ( ) z andI z V . That is:
( )
[ ]
( )
dz
z dI
L j R
dz
z V d
s
+
2
2
and
( )
[ ]
( )
dz
z dV
C j G
dz
z I d
+
2
2
We then insert the first derivates of the voltage and current found in the original Phasor transmission line
equations.
( )
[ ][ ] ( ) ( ) z V ZY z V C j G L j R
dz
z V d
s
+ +
2
2
2

( )
[ ][ ] ( ) ( ) z YZI z I L j R C j G
dz
z I d
s
s
+ +
2
2
If
2
2
2

dz
d
The Phasor voltage and current wave equations may be written as
( ) 0 ) (
2
z V ZY
and
( ) 0 ) (
2
z I YZ
Voltage and current wave equations respectively
This differential equation can be written
.
( ) ( ) C j G L j R + + t
Where
is the complex propagation constant of the wave on the transmission line given by.
( ) ( ) C j G L j R j + + +
The real part of the propagation constant ( ) is the attenuation constant while the imaginary part ( ) is
the phase constant. The general equations for
and
in terms of the per-unit length transmission line

parameters
The general solutions to the voltage and current wave equations are
( )
z
o
z
o
e V e V z V

+
+ and
( )
z
o
z
o
e I e I z I

+
+
24
Where the
z
e

term represents wave propagation in +z-direction and
z
e
represents wave
propagation in -z-direction.
Similar from current equation
( ) ) (
z
o
z
o o
e V e V Y z I

+

The characteristic impedance of the line is defined as:
C j G
L j R
Y
Z
Y
Z
o
o
+
+

1
The transmission line characteristic impedance is, in general, complex and can be defined by
o o o
jX R Z +
o
R
Resistive component of
o
Z
0
X
Reactive component of
o
Z
The voltage and current wave equation can be written in terms of the voltage coefficients and the
characteristic impedance (rather than the voltage and current coefficients using the relationship
0
Z
V
I
o
o
+
+
,
o
o
o
Z
V
I

and
o
o
o
o
o
I
V
Z
I
V

+
+

( )
z
o
z
o
e V e V z V

+
+

( ) ) (
1
z
o
z
o
o
e V e V
Z
z I

+

Wavelength
2
and Phase velocity
f V
p

Where
= angular frequency and phase constant or wave number

25
Special Case # 1 Lossless Transmission Line
A lossless transmission line is defined by perfect conductors and a perfect insulator between the
conductors. Thus, the ideal transmission line conductors have zero resistance ( ) 0 , 0 , G R while
the ideal transmission line insulating medium has infinite resistance ( ). 0 , 0 G
The propagation constant on the lossless transmission line reduces to
( ) ( ) LC j C j G L j R j + + +
0 LC
Given the purely imaginary propagation constant, the transmission line equations for the lossless line are
( )
z j z j
e V e V z V

0 0
+
+

( ) [ ]
z j z j
e V e V
Z
z I

0 0
0
1
+

The characteristic impedance of the lossless transmission line is purely real and given by
C
L
C j G
L j R
Z
+
+
0
The velocity of propagation and wavelength on the lossless line are
LC
V
p
1

and
LC f LC
1 2 2

m rad /
(rad/m)
where and are , respectively, the magnetic permeability and electrical permittivity of the insulating
material separating the conductors.
The phase velocity for the lossless transmission line is independent of frequency. For such case, the
medium is called nondispersive.
26
V
p
=

1
=
r
c
(m/s)
Transmission lines are designed with conductors of high conductivity and insulators of low conductivity
in order to minimize losses. The lossless transmission line model is an accurate representation of an actual
transmission line under most conditions.
Also ,At extremely low frequency.
C G L R > > > > ,

G
R
C j G
L j R
Z
+
+
0
And, at extremely high frequency. C G L R > > > > ,
Then.
C
L
C j G
L j R
Z
+
+
0
Example
The parameters of a transmission line are:
pFpermeter andC nHpermeter L mSpermeter G er ohmspermet R 23 . 0 , 8 , 5 / 0 , 2
If the signal frequency is 1GHZ. Calculate its characteristic impedance Z and propagation constant
C j G
L j R
Z
o
+
+
= ohms
x x x j x
x x x j
12 9 3
9 9
10 23 . 0 10 2 10 5 . 0
10 8 10 2 2

+
+
=
ohm
x j x
j
3 3
10 4451 . 1 10 5 . 0
2655 . 50 2

+
+
=
rad x
rad
2377 . 1 10 29 . 15
531 . 1 31 . 50
4
=
0
4 . 8 39 . 181 ohm =
ohm j 51 . 26 44 . 179 +
And ZY = .) 2377 . 1 10 29 . 15 ( ) 531 . 1 31 . 50 (
4
rad X x rad
= j m j m + +
1 1 0
2726 . 0 0514 . 0 31 . 79 2774 . 0
Therefore,
, / 0514 . 0 m Np
and
m rad / 2726 . 0
Class Exercise
27
At a frequency of 100MHz, the following values are appropriate for a certain transmission line:
. / 8 , / 15 . 0 , / 80 , / 25 . 0 m S andg m R m pF C m H L
Calculate (a) the propagation constant,
, j +
(b) The signal wavelength,
(c) The phase velocity, and
(d) The characteristic impedance.
Special Case#2. For low loss line- Lossy Transmission Line
When the loss is small, some approximations can be made that simplify the expressions for the general
transmission line parameters of
, j +
and
0
z
. The general expression for propagation constants is
( ) ( )
( )( )

,
_
,
_
+
+ +
C j
G
L j
R
C j L j
C j G L j R

1 1

LC
RG
C
G
L
R
j LC j
2
1

,
_
+
For low loss:
, L R
and . C G Then LC RG
2

,
_
+
C
G
L
R
j LC j

1

, 1 1 x
C
G
L
R
j +
,
_
+

this term is expressed in Taylor series expansive as ...... 2 / 1 + + x
1
]
1
,
_
+
C
G
L
R
LC j

2
1
1
So that:-
28

+
+
,
_
,
_
+
C
L
C j G
L j R
Lc
Gz
z
R
C
L
G
L
c
R
Z

0
2
1
2
1
0
0
This is also the same for the high frequency.
Special Case#3 Distortion less Transmission Line
On a lossless transmission line, the propagation constant is purely imaginary and given by
LC j j
The phase velocity on the lossless line is
LC
v
1

Note that the phase velocity is a constant (independent of frequency) so that all frequencies propagate
along the lossless transmission line at the same velocity. Many applications involving transmission lines
require that a band of frequencies be transmitted (modulation, digital signals, etc) as opposed to a single
frequency. From Fourier theory, we know that any time-domain signal may be represented as a weighted
sum of sinusoids. A Single rectangular pulse contains energy over a band of frequencies. For the pulse to
be transmitted down the transmission line without distortion, all of the frequency components must
propagate at the same velocity. This is the case on a lossless transmission line since the velocity of
propagation is a constant. The velocity of propagation on the typical non-ideal transmission line is a
function of frequency so that signals are distorted as different components of the signal arrive at the load
at different times. This effect is called dispersion. Dispersion is also encountered when an unguided wave
29
propagates in a non-ideal medium. A plane wave pulse propagating in a dispersive medium will suffer
distortion. A dispersive medium is characterized by a phase velocity which is a function of frequency.
For a low-loss transmission line, on which the velocity of propagation is near constant, dispersion may or
may not be a problem, depending on the length of the line. The small variations in the velocity of
propagation on a low-loss line may produce significant distortion if the line is very long. There is a special
case of lossy line with the linear phase constant that produces a distortion less line.
A transmission line can be made distortion less (linear phase constant) by designing the line such that the
per unit-length parameters satisfy
C
G
L
R
(Distortion less line)
Inserting the per-unit length parameter relationship into the general equation for the propagation constant
on a lossy line gives.
( ) ( ) C j G L j R + +
,
_
+
,
_
+
G
C
j G
R
L
j R 1 1
2
1
,
_
+
R
L
j RG
j
R
L
j RG +
,
_
+ 1
RG LC L
L
C
L
R
G
R
L
RG
Although the shape of the signal is not distorted, the signal will suffer attention as the wave propagates
along the line since the distortion less line is a lossy transmission line.
30
Note that the attenuation constant for a distortion less transmission line is independent of frequency. If this
were not true, the signal would suffer distortion due to different frequencies being attenuated by different
amounts.
In the previous derivation, we have assumed that the per-unit-length parameters of the transmission line
are independent of frequency. This is also an approximation that depends on the spectral content of the
propagating signal. For very wideband signals, the attenuation and phase constants will, in general, both
be functions of frequency.
For most practical transmission lines, we find that RC . GL > In order to satisfy the distortion less line
requirement, series loading coils are typically placed periodically along the line to increase L
Example.
A signal propagating through a 50- distortion less transmission line attenuates at the rate of 0.01 dB per
meter. If this line has a capacitance of 100 pF per meter, find (a) R, (b) L, (c) G, and (d) V
p
Solution
Since the line is distortionless,
50
0

C
L
Z
And,
m Np x m Np m dB / 10 15 . 1 / 69 . 8 / 01 . 0 / 01 . 0
3

Hence
(a) R = m x x
C
L
/ 057 . 0 50 10 15 . 1
3

(b) L = m H M H X CZ / 25 . 0 / 50 10
2 10 2
0

(c) G =
m S M s
Z
R
L
RC
/ 8 . 22 /
50
0057 . 0
2 2
0

(d)
s m x
LC
v
P
/ 10 2
1
8

31
A dispersive transmission line is one on which the wave velocity is not constant as a function of the
frequency f.
Propagation Modes
Transmission line may be classified into two basic types:
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission lines
Higher-order transmission lines
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission lines: The electric field and the magnetic field are
perpendicular (transverse) to the direction of propagation. This is called a TEM mode. Example:
coaxial line, two-wire line, and parallel-plate line.
A good example is the coaxial line. The electric field lines are in the radial direction between the inner
and outer conductors. The magnetic field form circles around the inner conductor and it is
perpendicular to E. Both are perpendicular to the direction propagation.
32
Higher-order transmission lines: waves propagating along these lines have at least one significant field
component in the direction of propagation. Example: optical fibers, hollow conducting waveguides,
33
TERMINATED LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE
For fields having sinusoidal time dependence and steady-state conditions, a field analysis of a terminated
lossless transmission line results in the following relations:
Figure Diagram of lossless transmission line with load Zl
If an incident wave of the form , where is the phase constant or wave number , is incident
from the -z direction then the total voltage on the line can be written as a sum of incident and reflected
waves:
( ) [ ]
z j z j
e e V z V

+

+
0
The total current on the line is
( ) [ ]
z j z j
e e
Z
V
z I

+
0
0
Where is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line .The total voltage and current at the load
are related by the load impedance, at z=0.
0
0 0
0 0
0
0
XZ
V V
V V
I
V
Z
L
+
+
+

Solving for
0
V

gives:
( )
( )
+
+

0
0
0
0
0
0
XV
Z Z
Z Z
I
V
V
L
L
The amplitude of the reflected voltage wave normalized to the amplitude of the incident voltage wave is
known as the voltage reflection coefficient,
0
0
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
V
V
L
L
+
where is the load impedance.

34
The total voltage and current waves on the line can then be written in terms of the reflection coefficient as
( ) [ ]
z j z j
e e V z V

+

+
0
And ( ) [ ]
z j z j
e e
Z
V
z I

+
0
0
From the previous equations we see that the voltage and current on the line are a superposition of an
incident and reflected wave. If the system is static, i.e. if and are not changing in time, the
superposition of waves will also be static. This static superposition of waves on the line is called a
standing wave. Note. When 0 , no reflection ,For 0 , the load impedance
0
Z Z
L

of the
transmission line and the load is said to be matched to the line,
STANDING-WAVE RATIO
The measurement of standing waves on a transmission line yields information about equipment operating
conditions. Maximum power is absorbed by the load when Z
L
= Z
0
. If a line has no standing waves, the
termination for that line is correct and maximum power transfer takes place.

Because of the complicated shape of this standing wave, the voltage will vary with position along the line,
from some minimum value to some maximum value. The ratio of to is one way to quantify the
mismatch of the line. This mismatch is called the standing wave ratio (SWR) or voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR) and can be expressed as

+

1
1
min
max
V
V
SWR
35
The SWR is a real number such that 1<SWR <
and with a perfect match SWR = 1. By definition,

impedance, characteristic or otherwise, is the ratio of the voltage to the current a particular point on the
line. The standing waves cause the impedance to fluctuate as a function of distance from the load.
Example
A load impedance of 73-j42.5 ohm terminates a transmission line of characteristic impedance 50 + j0.01
ohm. Determine its reflection coefficient and the voltage standing wave ratio.
R =
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
L
L
) 001 . 0 50 ( 5 . 42 73
) 01 . 0 50 ( 5 . 42 73
j j
j j
+ +

=
49 . 42 123
51 . 42 23
j
j
rad
rad
3326 . 0 1322 . 130
0749 . 1 3332 . 48

and VSRW =

+
1
1
= 1817 . 2
3714 . 0 1
3714 . 0 1
+
RETURN LOSS
Return loss of a device is defined as the ratio of reflected power to incident power at the input. Since the
power is proportional to the square of voltage at that input. When the load is mismatched to the line and
thus there is a reflection of the incident wave at the load, the power delivered to the load is reduced. This
loss is called return loss (RL) and is equal (in dB) to
dB RL log 20
36
INSERTION LOSS
Insertion loss of a device is defined as a ratio of transmitted power ( power available at the output port) to
that of power incident at its input. Since transmitted power is equal to the difference of incident and
reflected powers for lossless device, the insertion loss can be expressed as follows.

Insertion loss of a lossless device= ( )dB
2
10
1 log 10
TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS
It is sometimes useful to define a transmission coefficient may be defined as the ration of the voltage on
the load to the amplitude of the incident voltage. Since
z j
o v
z j
e V e V z V

+

0
) (
The voltage at the load is V(z=0), and it is given by
( ) ( )
v
V V + 1 0
0
Since the amplitude of the incident voltage is
0
V
we have
( )
o L
L
v
o
o
Z Z
Z
V
V
+
+
2
1
0
INPUT IMPEDANCE OF THE LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE.

The variation in impedance along the transmission line caused by the line/load mismatch can be written.
Where is the distance from the load.
If we substitute the expression for in terms of the impedances, the generalized input impedance of the
load plus transmission line simplifies to:
l jZ Z
l jZ Z
Z Z
L
L
in
tan
tan
0
0
0
+
+
With this equation the impedance anywhere along the line can be calculated if the load impedance and
characteristic impedance are known.
37
In the most basic sense, then, if the load impedance equals the line impedance, the reflection coefficient is
zero and the load is said to be matched to the line. All of the microwave impedance matching techniques
can be reduced to this simple idea: minimize the reflection of the incident wave to as nearly zero as
possible.
Example
A load impendence of
+ 100 50 j
terminates a loss less, quarter wavelength-long transmission line. If
characteristic impendence of the line is
, 50
the find the impedance at (a) its input end, (b) the load
reflection coefficient (c) the VSWR on this transmission line.
Solution
0
90
2
1
4
2

x
a)
o
Z Zin

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
90 tan 100 50 50
90 tan 50 100 50
50
tan
tan
0
0
j j
j j
jZ Z
jZ Z
L
L
+ +
+ +
+
+
( )
( )
20 10
100 50 100 50
2500 50
50 j
j j j
j
Zin
+ +

b)

90 2 100
90 100
100 100
100
50 100 50
50 100 50
0
0
+ +
+

xj
j
j
j
j
Z Z
Z Z
L
L

0
45 7071 . 0 <
c)
8283 . 5
2929 . 0
7071 . 1
7071 . 0 1
7071 . 0 1
1
1

+
VSWR
38
SPECIAL CASES OF LOSSLESS TERMINATED LINE
lossless line
We often encounter situation involving
lossless transmission lines with particular terminations
or lines whose length exhibits useful propertiesWe shall consider some of these special cases.
Short-Circuited Line
l jZ Z
sc
in
tan
0
In general, the input impedance Z

in
may consist of real part, R
in
, and an imaginary part X
in
:
39
Z
in
= R
in
+ jX
in
Since l jZ Z
sc
in
tan
0
, then
If tan(l)0, The line appears inductive, acting like an equivalent inductor L
eq
.
j L
eq
= j Z
0
tan(l)
L
eq
= Z
0
tan(l)/.
In other words, the minimum length l that would result in an input impedance equivalent of an
inductor of an inductance L
eq
is
(m) tan
1
0
1
,
_

Z
L
l
eq
If tan(l)[ 0, The line appears capacitive, acting like an equivalent capacitor C

eq
.
1/(j C
eq
) = j Z
0
tan(l)
C
eq
= -1/(Z
0
tan(l) ).
Another words, the minimum length l that would result in an input impedance equivalent of a capacitor of
a capacitance C
eq
is
(m)
1
tan
1
0
1
,
_
,
_

Z C
l
eq
These results mean that, through proper choice of a length of short-circuited line, we can make
substitutes for capacitors and inductors with any designed reactance.
Such practice is common in the design of microwave circuits and high-speed integrated circuits,
because making an actual capacitor or inductor is often more difficult than making a shorter
transmission line.
40
Open-Circuited Line
Z
L
= , so =1 and S=; l jZ Z
oc
in
cot
0

Application of Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Measurements
A network analyzer is a radio frequency (RF) instrument capable of measuring the impedance of any load
connected to its terminal. This instrument can be used to determine the characteristic impedance of the
line Z
0
and its phase velocity .
We measure the input impedance,
sc
in
Z of a lossless line terminated by a short circuit
We measure the input impedance,
oc
in
Z of a lossless line terminated by an open circuit
We use the following relationship
oc
in
sc
in
Z Z Z
0
,and
oc
in
sc
in
Z
Z
l

tan
41
Because of the phase ambiguity associated with the tangent function, the length l [ /2 to provide an
unambiguous result.
Lines of length l= n /2
If l = n /2, where n is an integer
Any multiple of a half-wavelength line does not modify the load impedance.
Thus, a generator connected to a load through a /2 lossless line would induce the same voltage across
the load and current through it as when the line is not there
Quarter-wave Transformer
Another case of interest is when the line is a quarter-wavelength (l = /4+ n /2, for n0)
2 4 for ,
2
0
/ n / l
Z
Z
Z
L
in
+
In a quarter-wave transformer, we want to match a load resistance
L
Z to the characteristic feedline
impedance through a short length of transmission line of unknown length and impedance. in
Z

The input impedance looking into the matching section of line is given by;
l jZ Z
l jZ Z
Z Z
L
L
in
tan
tan
0
0
0
+
+
If we choose the length of the line = then , divide through by and take the
limit as to achieve
L
in
Z
Z
Z
2
0

42
Z
in
= Z
L
, for l= n /2
For a perfect transition with no reflections at the interface between microstrip and load, G =0 so
and this gives us a characteristic impedance
0
Z
as
L in
Z Z Z
0
0

which is the geometric mean of the load and source impedances. With this geometry, there will be no
standing waves on the feedline although there will be standing waves on the matching section. Why
was the value of chosen? In fact, any odd multiple (2n + 1) of will also work.
The benefit of the quarter-wave transformer is explained by the coming example.
Example: A transmission line of length d and characteristic impedance Z
0
as an
impedance transformer to match a 150 load to a 300 line (see
illustration if the signal wavelength is 1 m, find (a) d, (b) Z
0
and (c) the
reflection coefficient the load
(a) d = . 25 . 0 4 / m d
(b) Z
0
= ohm x Z Z Z
l m
132 . 212 ) 300 150 (
2 / 1
0

(c)
1
1
+

L
L
L
Z
Z
=
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
L
L
1716 . 0
132 . 212 150
132 . 212 150
Matched Transmission Line: Z

L
=Z
0
The input impedance Z
in
= Z
0
for all locations z on the line
=0
All incident power is delivered to the load regardless of the line length l
43
Power Flow on a Lossless Transmission Line
Our discussion thus far has focused on the voltage and current aspects of wave propagation on a
transmission line. Now we shall examine the flow of power carried by the incident and reflected waves.
( ) [ ]
z j z j
e e V z V

+

+
0
( ) [ ]
z j z j
e e
Z
V
z I

+
0
0
The first terms represent the incident-wave voltage and current.
The second terms represent the reflected-wave voltage and current
At the load, z=0,
(z) V
~
i
= V
0
+
,
(z) I
~
i
=
0
0
Z
V
+
(z) V
~
r
= V
0
+
, (z) I
~
r
=
0
0
Z
V
+

Instantaneous Power
The instantaneous power carried by the incident wave at the load is
P
i
(t)=v
i
(t) i
i
(t)
Similarly for the instantaneous power reflected by the load
P
r
(t)=v
r
(t) i
r
(t)
Time-Averaged Power
From a practical standpoint, we usually are more interested in the time average power flow along the
transmission line, P
av
. To compute P
av
, we can use time domain approach or phasor domain approach.
44
Time Domain approach
The net average power delivered to the load is
( ) (W) 1
2
2
0
2
0

+
Z
V
P P P
r
av
i
av av
Phasor Domain Approach
45
(W)
2
0
2
0
Z
V
P
i
av
+
i
av
r
av
P
Z
V
P
2
0
2
0 2
2

+
SUMMARY.
1 Characteristic impedance of transmission line.
condition Characteristic Impedance.
Z0
General line.
C j G
L j R
Y
Z
Y
Z
o
o
+
+

1
Lossless
C
L
C j G
L j R
Z
+
+
0
2. Input impedance of terminated lines.
Load condition Lossless General case
Any value of Zl
o
Z Zin

tan
tan
0
0
L
L
jZ Z
jZ Z
+
+
o
Z Zin

tan
tan
0
0
L
L
jZ Z
jZ Z
+
+
Open Circuited line,Zl=
l jZ Zin cot
0
l Z Zin coth
0
Short circuited line Zl=0 l jZ Zin tan

0
l Z Zin tanh
0
3. Reflection and transmission coefficient.

Voltage Reflection Coefficient
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
L
L
+

Voltage transmission coefficient
0
2
Z Z
Z
L
L
+

Standing Wave Ratio

+

1
1
min
max
V
V
SWR
Magnitude of reflection coefficient.
[ [
1
1
+

SWR
SWR
46
LECTURE 3. SMITH CHART OR GRAPHICAL METHOD
Transmission line problem often involve manipulations with complex numbers, making the time
and efforts required for a solution several times greater than that needed for a similar sequence of
operations on real numbers, one means of reducing the labor without seriously affecting the
accuracy is by using transmission line chart, smith chart.
Smith chart shows curves of constant resistance, and constant reactance; these may be either an
input impedance or load impedance. An indication of location along the line is also provided;
usually in terms of the fraction of a wavelength from voltage maximum or minimum.
Standing wave ration and the magnitude and angle of the reflection are very quickly determined.
Since
1
the diagram is constructed within a circle a circle of unit radius, using polar
coordinators, with radius variable
and counter clockwise angle variable ,where

.
j
e
Figure 1, shows this circle.
Figure 1. The polar coordinates of the smith chart. Magnitude and phase angle of reflection coefficient
The basic relationship up on which the chart is constructed is
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
L
L
+

47
The impedance which is posted on the chart should be normalized with respect to the
characteristic impedance. Let us z to identity the normalized load impedance.
Zo
jX R
Zo
Z
jx r z
L L L
+
+
And thus
1
1
+

z
z
or

+
1
1
z
In polar form, it is used
and as magnitude and angle of

,
. Let now select
and
i
us the real and imaginary parts of

i
j +

Thus
i j
i j
jx r

+ +
+
1
1
The real and imaginary parts of this equation are:
( )
2 2
2 2
1
1
i
i
r
+

( )
2 2
1
2
i
i
x
+
These equations can be rearranged as

2
2
2
1
1
1

,
_
+
+
,
_

i
And
( )
2 2
2
1 1
1
,
_

,
_
+

X X
i
48
The equation describes a family of circles, where each circle is associated with a specific value of
resistance
r
. For example, if r =0, the radius of this zero resistance circle is seen to be unity, and it is
centered at
=0,
; 0 i
the origin. This check, for pure reactance termination leads to a reflection
coefficient of unity magnitude. However, if
, r
then
L
Z and we should have 1
The circle described by
2
2
2
1
1
1

,
_
+
+
,
_

i is centered at
, 1

, 0 i
And have zero radius. ( ) ,
1 1
1
2 2
2
,
_

,
_
+
x x
i
Also represents a fame of circles, but

each of these circles is defined by a particular value of x, rather than , if
x
then
L
Z and
must be
jo + 1
again. The circle described by ( )
2 2
2
1 1
1
,
_

,
_
+

x x
i is centered at
. 0 , 1 i
and has zero radius .

If
, 1 + x
then the circle is centered at
i

and has unit radius.
Figure 2 and 3, shows the circle representing constant resistance r and constant reactance x respectively.
Figure2 constant resistance r circles
49
Figure3 constant reactance x circles
Figure4. Smith chart contains the constant r and constant reactance x circles
50
Figure 5. A photographic reduction of version of a useful smith chart.
51
Example 1.
If , 50 25 + j Z
L
on a 50 line, normalized
1 5 . 0 j z +
and point A on figure 6 shows the
intersection of the 5 . 0 and 1 x circles. The reflection coefficient is approximately 0.62 at an angle
of 83
0
Figure 6. Solution for example 1
Input impedance calculation.
Let as consider again
+ 50 25 j ZL
terminating a 50 line.
Thus
1 5 . 0 j z +
marked at A on figure6 above
45 . 1
62 . 0
j
e
0
83 62 . 0 . By drawing a straight line from the origin through A to Circumference we
note a reading of 0.135 on the scale. If the line is 60cm long and the operating frequency is such that the
wavelength on the line is 2m, then, 3 . 0
200
60

,
And therefore 0.3 from the load to the input. We therefore find zin on the
=0.62 circle opposite a wtg

reading of . 435 . 0 300 . 0 135 . 0 + This is shown in figure 6, and point locating the input impedance is
marked B. The normalized input impedance is read as
40 . 0 28 . 0 j
and this
( ) ( ) 40 . 0 28 . 0 50 j jx z Zo Zin +
20 14 j Zin
52
Location of the voltage maximum and minimum
We already know that a maximum or maximum must occur at the load when
L
Z is pure resistance, if
,
o L
Z R >
there is a maximum at the load, and if Zo R
L
< there is a minimum. The location of voltage
maxima and minima must be at those points when Zin is a pure resistance. Purely resistive input
impedance must occur 0 x (the
axis) of the smith chart voltage maximum or current minimum occur

when 1 > r or at wtg 25 . 0 and voltage minima or current maxima occur when 1 < r or at wtg . 0 or The
maximum at wtg=0.25 must occur,
i.e. 0.25-0.135=0.115. Wavelength towards the generator from the load.
Standing Wave Ratio.
SWR is produced by a resistive load
L
R is either
o L
R R /
or
L o
R R /
, which ever is greater than unity, the
value of SWR may be read directly as the value of
r
at the intersection of the
circle and the

r
axis ,
1 > r ,In the example the intersection is marked point C, and 2 . 4 thus . 2 . 4 SWR
Normalized admittance
The smith chart may also be used for normalized admittance, this is
o o
jB G
Z
y +
0
0
1
and jB G
z
y +
1
Then the normalized admittance is
jb g
z z
Z
y
y
y
o
o
+
1
Use the r circles as g circles and x circles as b circles. The two differences then are that
, 1 > g 0 b
corresponds to a voltage minimum and 180
0
must be added to the angle of as read from the perimeter of
the chart.
Figure 5 shows a smith chart which superimpose constant resistance, and constant reactance circles
The characteristics of the smith chart are summarized as follows.
1. The constant r and x loci from two families orthogonal.
2. The constant r and x circles all pass through the point 0 i
3. The upper half of the diagram represents
jx +
4. The lower half of the diagram represents
jx
53
5. For admittance the constant r circles becomes constant g circles, and constant x circles
becomes constant suspectance circles.
6. The distance around the smith chart once is one-half wavelength (
7. At a point of Z min =
SWR
1
,there is a Vmin out line
8. At a point of Zmix =
, SWR
there is a Vmax on the line.
9. The horizontal radius to the right of the chart corresponds to Zmax and SWR.
10. The horizontal radius to the left of the chart centre corresponds to Zmix and
SWR
1
11. Since the normalized admittance y is a reciprocal of the normalized impendence, Z, the
corresponding quantities in the admittance chart are 180 out phase with the in the impedance.
12. The normalized impedance or admittance is repeated for every half wavelength of distance.
13. The distance is given in wavelengths toward the generator and away toward the load.
Example 2
A load impendence of
+ 100 50 j
terminates a loss less, quarter wavelength-long transmission line. If
characteristic impendence of the line is
, 50
the find the impedance at (a) its input end, (b) the load
reflection coefficient (c) the VSWR on this transmission line.
Solution
0
90
2
1
4
2

x
a)
o
Z Zin

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
90 tan 100 50 50
90 tan 50 100 50
50
tan
tan
0
j j
j j
jZ Z
jZ Z
L
o L
+ +
+ +
+
+
( )
( )
20 10
100 50
50
50 j
j j
j
Zin
+

b)

90 2 100
90 100
100 100
100
50 100 50
50 100 50
0
0
+ +
+

xj
j
j
j
j
Z Z
Z Z
L
L

0
45 7071 . 0
54
c)
8283 . 5
2929 . 0
7071 . 1
7071 . 0 1
7071 . 0 1
1
1

+
VSWR
8283 . 5 VSWR
Solving the problem using the smith chart (graphical method)
1. Find the normalized impedance i.e
50
100 50
0
j
Z
Z
z
L
+

2 1 j z +
2. Locate this point on the smith chart as shown in figure 7.
3. Draw a circle that passes through
2 1 j +
with point
jo + 1
as its centre.
4. The radius of this circle is equal to the magnitude of the reflection coefficient
5. The input port of the line that is a quarter wavelengths away from the load i.e / d is
located clockwise movement on this circle to move away from the lead. This point on circle is
located after moving by
to a point at 438 . 0 on wavelength toward generator scale.

4 . 0 2 . 0 j Zin
( ) 4 . 0 2 . 0 50 j Zin
20 10 j
6. Thus from the smith chart
45 71 . 0 , 8 . 5
L
and VSWR
55
Figure 7. Solution for example 2
Example 3.
Given the normalized load impendence
1 1 j z +
and operating wavelength . 5cm .Determine the first
max, V
first Vmin, from the load.
Solution:
56
1. Enter
1 1 j Z +
on the chart as shown in figure 8.
Figure 8. solution for example 3.
2. Read 662 . 0 on the distance scale by drawing a dashed straight line from the centre of the chart
through the load point and intersection the distance scale.
3. More a distance from the point at 162 . 0 towards the generator and first the voltage maximum on
the right hand real axis at . 25 . 0
( ) ( ) 088 . 0 165 . 0 25 . 0 max
1
x V d
But
, 5cm
i.e ( ) 40 . 0 5 088 . 0 max
1
x V d
4. Similarly, more a distance from the point of 0.162 toward the generator first stops at the voltage
minimum on the left-hand real axis at 0.5
;
Then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 690 . 1 5 338 . 0 162 . 0 5 . 0 min
2
V d cm
57
LECTURE 4: IMPEDANCE MATCHING
Impedance matching is the practice of attempting to make the output impedance of a source equal to the
input impedance of the load to which it is ultimately connected, usually in order to maximise the power
transfer and minimise reflections from the load. This only applies when both are linear devices.
Sometimes, in electric circuits, it is not the power transfer that is to be maximised, but the voltage transfer.
In this case the term used is impedance bridging where the load impedance is much larger than the source
impedance.
The concept of impedance matching was originally developed for electrical power, but has since been
generalised to other fields of engineering where any form of energy (not just electrical) is transferred
between a source and a load.
WHY IMPEDANCE MATCHNING?
Reflections lead to variations in the input impedance of the line. The input impedance changes
with length and frequency.
Power is wasted. An impedance match provides maximum power taransfer to the load.
VSWR >1 means there will be voltage maxima on the line. These can lead to voltage breakdown at
high power levels.
ADVANTAGES OF MATCHING.
Maximum power is delivered when the load is matched to the line (
The Input Impedance remains constant at the value Zo. Therefore, the input impedance is
independent of length, and frequency( Over the bandwidth of the matching network)
VSWR =1. Therefore there is no voltage peaks on the line.
Impedance matching methods.
Most commonly, matching is performed in one or more of the following techniques:
Matching with lumped elements
58
Matching with tuning stub with short sections of line.
Matching with lumped elements
Matching with lumped elements is done with one or more reactive L-section( a series and shunt
reactance) A lumped element means inductor or capacitors, as opposed to a section of line.At
microwave frequencies, it is not easy to realize a pure inductive or capacitance, because what is an
inducatance at lower frequencies will have a significant capacitive part at higher frequencies, and vice
versa. Hower, at lower frequencies, such as those used for cellurar radio, lumped element matching is
common and ineexpensive.
Examples of matching with lumped elements arrangements.
The T network provides a larger transformation than an L network.
59
A Pi network provides independent variation of phase shift and transformation ratio through the circuit.
Matching with tuning stub.
In this technique, the following methods are used:
Single stub matching.
Double stub matching.
Quarter-wave section matchnig.
We will look at examples of single stub and quarter wave section matching.
As long as the load impedance, Zl, has some nonzero real part, a matching network can always be
found. Many choices are available, however, and we will discuss the design and performance of several
types of practical matching networks. Factors that may be important in the selection of a particular
matching network include the following:
Complexity-As with most engineering solutions, the simplest design that satisfies the required
specifications is generally the most preferable. A simpler matching network is usually cheaper,
more reliable, and lossy than a more complex design.
60
Bandwidth-Any type of matching network can ideally give a perfect match (zero reflection) at
single frequencies. There are several ways of doing this with ,of course, a corresponding increase
in complexity
Implementation depend on the type of transmission line or waveguide being used, one type of
matching network may be preferable compared to another for example, tuning tubs are much
easier to implement in waveguide than are multi- section quarter-wave transformer
Adjustability in some application the matching network may require adjustment to match variable
load impedance. Some types of matching networks are more amenable than others in this regard.
Why stubs? Stubs are shorted or open circuit lengths of transmission line which produce a pure reactance
at the attachment point. Any value of reactance can be made, as the stub length is varied from zero to half
a wavelength.
SINGLE STUB MATCHING
A matching technique that uses a single open circuited or short circuited length of transmission line (a
stub), connected either in parallel or in series with the transmission line (a stub), connected either in
parallel or in series with the transmission feed line at a certain distance from a microwave fabrication
aspect, since lumped elements are not required. The shunt tuning stub is especially easy to fabricate in
micro strip-line or stripline form.
In single stub tuning, the two adjustable parameters are the distance, d, from the load to the stub
position, and the value of susceptance or reactance provided by the shunt or series stub. For the shunt-stub
case, the basic idea is to select d so that the admittance, y, seen looking into the line at distance d from the
load is of the form Yo+jB.Then
.the stub susceptance is chosen as-jb, resulting in a matched condition. For the series stub case, the
distance d is of the form zo+jx. Then the stub reactance is chosen as-jx, resulting in a matched condition.
61
The proper length of open or shorted transmission line can provide any desired value of reactance or
susceptance. For a given susceptance or reactance, the difference in lengths of an open or short circuited
stub is /4. For transmission line media such as micro strip or strip line, open circuited stubs are easier to
fabricate since a via hole through the substrate to ground plane is not needed. For lines like coax or
waveguide, however, short-circuited stubs are usually preferred, because the cross-sectional area of such
open-circuited line may be large enough (electrically) to radiate, in which case the stub is no longer purely
reactive
FIGURE1. Single- stub tuning circuits. (a) Shunt stub (b). Series stub
Graphical method (Smith chart method)
These networks can also be graphically designed using a smith chart. The procedure is similar
for both series as well as shunt-connected element; except that the former is based on the
normalized impedance while the letter works with normalized admittance. It can be
summarized in the following steps.
62
1. Determined the normalized impedance of the load and locate that point on the smith chart
2. Draw the constant VSWR circle. If the stub needs to be connected in parallel, move quarter-
wavelength away from the load impedance point. This point is located at the other end of the
diameter that connects the load point with the center of the circle. For a series-stub, at the
normalized impedance point
From the point found in step 2, move toward the generator (clockwise) on the VSWR circle until it
intersects the unity resistance (or conductance) circle. Distance traveled to at this intersection point from
the load is equal to d
s.
There will be at least two such point within one-half wavelength from the load. A
matching element can be placed at either one of these points.
4. If the admittance in the previous step is 1+jb, then a susceptance of jb in shunt is needed for
matching. This can be a discrete reactive element (inductor or capacitor, depending upon a
negative or positive susceptance value) or a transmission line stub.
5. In the case of a stub, the required length is determined as follows. Since its other end will have an
open or a short, VSWR on it will be infinite. It is represented by the outermost circle of the smith
chart. Locate the desired susceptance point (i.e,0-jb)on this circle and then move toward load
(counterclockwise)until an open circuit (i.e. ,a zero susceptance)or a short circuit (an infinite
susceptance)is found .This distance is equal to the stub length ls.
For a series reactive element or stub, steps 4 and 5 will be same except that the normalized reactance
replaces the normalized susceptance.
Single Shunt Stub Tuner Design Procedure
1. Locate normalized load impedance and draw VSWR circle (normalized load admittance point is
0
180
from the normalized impedance point).
2. From the normalized load admittance point, rotate CW (toward generator) on the VSWR circle until
it intersects the 1 r circle. This rotation distance is the length d of the terminated section of t-tline. The
normalized admittance at this point is
. 1 jb +
3. Beginning at the stub end (rightmost smith chart point is the admittance of a short-circuit, leftmost
smith chart point is the admittance of a short-circuit, leftmost smith chart point is the admittance of an
63
open-circuit),rotate CW(toward generator) until the point at
jb 0
is reached. This rotation distance is the
stub length . l
Single Series Stub Tuner Design Procedure
1. Locate normalized load impedance and draw VSWR circle.
2. From the normalized load impedance point, rotate CW (toward generator) on the VSWR circle until it
intersects the 1 r circle. This rotation distance is the length d of the terminated section of t-tline . The
normalized impedance at this point is
. 1 jx +
3. Beginning at the stub end (leftmost Smith chart point is the impedance of a short-
circuit, rightmost smith chart point is the impedance of an open circuit), rotate CW (toward generator)
until the point at
jx 0
is reached. This rotation distance is the stub length . l
Example 1. . Single-stub shunt Tuning
A uniform lossless 100 ohm line is connected to a load of 50 j75 ohm, as illustrated in figure below.
A single stub of 100-ohm characteristic impedance is connected in parallel at distance ds from the
load. Find the shortest values of ds and stub length ls for a match.

64
The following steps are needed for solving this example graphically with the smith chart.
1. Determine the normalized load admittance. Zl=50-j75/100=
0.5-j0.75.
2. Locate the normalized load impedance point on the smith chart. Draw the VSWR circle as shown
in figure below.
3. From the load impedance point, move to the diametrically opposite point and locate the
corresponding normalized load admittance. It is point 0.62+j0.91 on the chart.
4. Locate the point on the VSWR circle where the real part of the admittance is unity. There are two
such points with normalized admittance values 1+j1.3(say, point A)and 1-j1.3(say, point
B)respectively.
5. Distance ds of 1+j1.3 (point A) from the load admittance can be determined as 0.036 (i.e.,0.17
-0.134 )and for point B (1-j1.3)as 0.195 (i.e.,0.329-0.134 ).
6. If a susceptance of j1.3 is added at point A or j1.3 at point B the load will be matched.
7. Locate the point j1.3 along the lower circumference of the chart and from there move toward the
load (counterclockwise) until the short circuit the short circuit (infinity on the chart) is reached.
Separation between these two points is as 0.25 -0.146 =0.104 . Hence a 0.104- long
transmission line with a short circuit at its real end will have the desired susceptance for point A.
8. For a matching stub at point B, locate the point j1.3 on the upper circumference of the chart and
then move toward the load up to the short circuit (i.e., the right hand end of the chart ).hence the
stub length ls for this case is determined as 0.025+0.146 =0.396 .
Therefore, a 0,104 -long stub at 0.036 from the load (point A) or a 0.396 long stub at 0.195
(point B) from the load will match the load. Point A is preferred over point B in matching network
design because it is closer to the load and also the stub length in this case is shorter.
65
Figure 2. Graphical design of matching circuit for example 1.
66
Example 2. Single-stub series tuning
For a load impedance ZL=100+j80 , design two single-stub series tuning networks to match this
load to a 50 line.
Solution
1. Determine the normalized load admittance. Zl=100+j80/50=
2+j1.6.
2. Plot the normalized load impedance ZL=2+j1.6, Construct the appropriate SWR circle.
For series- stub design, the chart is impedance chart.
3. SWR circle intersection the 1+ jx circle at two points, denoted as z1 and z2 as shown
in figure 4
4. Thus the shortest distance d1, from the load to the stub is from the WTG scale
d1=0.328-0.208 =0.120 while d2= (0.5-0.208) +0.172=0.463 .
1. As in the shunt stub case, additional rotations around the SWR circle lead to additional
solutions, but these are usually not of practical interest. The normalized impedance s at the
two intersection points are z1=1-j1.33, z2 = 1 +j1.33
2. The first solution requires a stub with a reactance of j1.33. The length of an open circuited
stub that gives this reactance can be found on the smith chart starting at z = (open circuit),
and moving toward the generator to the j1.33 point. This gives a stub length of l1=0.397.
3. Similarly, the required open-circuited stub length for the second solution is l2= 0.103
This completes the tuner designs.
67
FIGURE 3 Solution to Example 2 (a) smith chart for the series- stub tuners.
68
Example 3. Single-stub shunt Tuning
For a load impedance ZL=15+j10 , design two single-stub shunt tuning networks to match this
load to a 50 line.
Solution
1. Determine the normalized load admittance. Zl=15+j10/50=
0.3+j0.2.
3. plot the normalized load impedance ZL=0.3+j0.2, Construct the appropriate SWR circle
4. Convert load impedance to the load admittance, yl, as shown on the smith chart Figure 4. At the
two intersection points, the normalized admittances are y1=1-j1.33 and y2=1+j1.33
5. Thus the distance d, from the load to the stub (y1) and y2 is given by either of these two
intersections. Reading the WTG scale, we obtain d1=0.328-0.284 =0.044 and d2= (0.5-0.284)
+0.171=0.387 .
6. If a susceptance of j1.3 is added at point y1 or j1.3 at point y2 the load will be matched Thus, the
first tuning solution requires a stub with a susceptance of j1.33, The length of an open-circuited
stub that gives this susceptance can be found on the smith chart by starting at y = 0 (the open
circuit) and moving along the outer edge of the chart (g = 0) toward the generator to the j1.33
point. The length is then l1= 0.147.
7. similarly, the required open-circuit stub length for the second solution is l2=0.353.
This completes the tuner designs.
69
FIGURE 4 Solution to Example 3 (a) smith chart for the shunt- stub tuners
70
LECTURE5: PRINTED CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINES
At high frequencies (e.g. microwave) the physical dimensions of printed circuit board (PCB) traces
become significant relative to the wavelength of the signal. At these frequencies, controlled impedance
transmission lines are used to move signals around a printed circuit board. By controlling the impedance
and electrical length we can easily predict its behavior in a circuit .The most commonly used transmission
lines (strip line and microstrip line
ADVANTAGES OF PRINTED TRANSMISSION LINE.
PRINTED transmission lines are widely used, and for good reason.
They are broadband in frequency. They provide circuits that are compact and light in weight.
(small, easy and fast to make, and cheap).
They are generally economical to produce since they are readily adaptable to hybrid and
monolithic integrated circuit (IC) fabrication technologies at RF and microwave frequencies.
DISADVANTAGE
They cannot handle very high power levels and
They are lossier than coax or waveguide. At higher frequencies (above 20 GHz), the dielectric losses
limit the performance
Uses of microstrip
Microstrip finds wide use in microwave circuits.
It used as the "interconnect" between components that have to be mounted in a system that is
matched from one stage to the other. Not only do the components have to be of known input and
output impedance the interconnecting transmission lines need to be matched to the system
impedance, in order to get maximum power transfer between stages.
microstrip is in the design of impedance matching transformers. These are sections of microstrip
line used as series and shunt stubs to effect.
These are important in the design of microwave amplifiers
71
Microstrip has the very signicant advantage that it is a planar structure and can be
used as a "circuit board" for microwave circuits.
It is readily mass-produced making low cost microwave circuits feasable. The satellite TV
down-converter is a good example of this, as are the new generation of digital cellular phones
Microstripline
A microstrip is a thin, flat electrical conductor separated from a ground plane by a layer of insulation or
an air gap. Microstrips are used in printed circuit designs where high frequency signals need to be routed
from one part of the assembly to another with high efficiency and minimal signal loss due to radiation.
They are of a class of electrical conductors called transmission lines, having specific electrical properties
that are determined by conductor width and resistivity, spacing from the ground plane, and dielectric
properties of the insulating layer. A microstrip transmission line is similar to a stripline, except that the
stripline is sandwiched between two ground planes and respective insulating layers.
Therefore, A microstrip circuit uses a flat rod of metal which is parallel to a ground plane, such a circuit
can be made by having a strip of copper on one side of a printed circuit board while the other side is a
plain ground plane. The insulating material of the PCB forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the
thickness of the PCB and the relative permittivity of the PCB board determine the characteristic
impedance.
Microstrips can also be designed to launch electromagnetic waves into space, in which case they are
called microstrip antennas.
72
Figure. Microstrip transmission line printed on a grounded dielectric substrate
.
The equations below provide reasonable approximations for (effective dielectric constant) and Z
0
.
What do you want for free? Note that there are separate solutions for cases where W/H is greater than or
equal to 1, and W/H is less than 1.
The effective dielectric constant is calculated by:
The line impedance is a function of the ratio of the height to the width of the transmission line, as shown
in the following equation.
73
For a give characteristic impedance
0
Z
and permittivity
r
, the
h
w
ratio can be found as
Where,
Figure. The cross section of a microstrip line and the characteristic impedance Z0
as a function of the ratio of strip width to substrate height w/h for different
substrate materials.
Microstrip parameters
Aside from the difficulty of calculating the value of
eff
, there is another important effect. It is clear that
eff
will depend on both W and h. Hence, the phase velocity along the microstrip will depend on these
parameters. Assuming the relative permeability of all materials in the line design is well approximated by
r
= 1,
74
Phase Velocity will be given by:
eff
p
C
V
Where,
C is the speed of light,
eff
= effective relative dielectric constant of substrate. ( Not equal to

r
).
Wavelength =
eff
p
f
C
f
V
Where
f
= operating frequency.
Propagation constant
=
eff

0 0
Figure for design purpose.
Advantages and disadvantages of Microstrip line compared to striplines
Advantages
The major advantage of microstrip over stripline is that all active components can be mounted on
top of the board. Therefore, the microstrip structure is the "open" line which makes it very easy to
connect components.
75
Another advantage is that microstrips can be packed together with fairly high density (multiple
channels) with only minimal "crosstalk" interference, and therefore lends itself well to RF and
microwave IC design
Disadvantages
The disadvantages are that when high isolation is required such as in a filter or switch, some external
shielding may have to be considered. Given the chance, microstrip circuits can radiate, causing unintended
circuit response.
A minor issue with microstrip is that it is dispersive, meaning that signals of different frequencies travel
at slightly different speeds (usually not a big deal, but this property is what causes the asymmetric
frequency of bandpass filters, for example).
Here are some rules of thumb to remember:
The higher the dielectric constant, the thinner the line, keeping the thickness of the dielectric and
the impedance of the line constant.
The thinner the dielectric, the thinner the line is, keeping the dielectric constant and impedance of
the line constant.
The higher the dielectric constant, the smaller the circuit is (why?).
The wider the line, the lower the impedance.
SOURCE OF LOSSES IN MICROSTRIP LINE.
Conductor loss in the strip and ground plane
Dielectric and conduction losses in the substrate.
Radiation loss.
Surface wave loss.
Some Considerations in the Choice of Microstrip Substrate Materials
Important qualities of the dielectric substrate for microstrip design include:
1. The microwave dielectric c
2. onstant
76
3. The frequency dependence of this dielectric constant which gives rise to "material dispersion" in
which the wave velocity is frequency-dependent
4. The surface finish and flatness
5. The dielectric loss tangent, or imaginary part of the dielectric constant, which sets the dielectric loss
6. The cost
7. The thermal expansion and conductivity
8. The dimensional stability with time
9. The surface adhesion properties for the conductor coatings
10. The manufacturability (ease of cutting, shaping, and drilling)
11. The porosity (for high vacuum applications we don't want a substrate which continually "outgasses"
when pumped)
Common substrate materials
Duroid, quartz, alumina and silicon
Microstrip design
It is necessary to connect two microwave ICs using a microstrip transmission line. The line needs to be 10
cm long; to be constructed using copper microstrip and backplane conductors with a thickness (t = 0.15
mm) separated by an epoxy fiberglass (
r
= 4.9) circuit board with a thickness (h = 0.8 mm). Impedance
matching requires the line to have a characteristic impedance (Z
o
= 50 Ohms). Determine the following:
1. The actual width (W) of the microstrip
2. The effective dielectric constant (
eff
) for the microstrip design.

Stripline
A stripline circuit uses a flat strip of metal which is sandwiched between two parallel ground planes, The
insulating material of the substrate forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the thickness of the substrate
and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the strip which is a
transmission line
77
Stripline is a conductor sandwiched by dielectric between a pair of groundplanes, much like a coax cable
would look after you ran it over with your small-manhood indicating SUV (let's not go there...) In
practice, stripline is usually made by etching circuitry on a substrate that has a groundplane on the
opposite face, then adding a second substrate (which is metalized on only one surface) on top to achieve
the second groundplane. Stripline is most often a "soft-board" technology, but using low-temperature co-
fired ceramics (LTCC), ceramic stripline circuits are also possible.
Geometry of stripline
All kinds of interesting circuits can be fabricated if a third layer of dielectric is added along with a second
interior metal layer, for example, a stack-up of 31 mil Duroid, then 5 mil Duroid, then 31 mil Duroid
(Duroid is a trademark of the Rogers Corporation). Transmission lines on either of the interior metal
layers behave very nearly like "classic" stripline, the slight asymmetry is not a problem. Excellent
"broadside" couplers can be made by running transmission lines parallel to each other on the two surfaces.
We'll add more about this later!
Aside from the difficulty of calculating the value of
eff
, there is another important effect. It is clear that
eff
will depend on both W and h. Hence, the phase velocity along the microstrip will depend on these
parameters. Assuming the relative permeability of all materials in the line design is well approximated by
r
= 1,
Phase Velocity will be given by:
eff
p
C
V
Where,
78
C is the speed of light,
eff
= effective relative dielectric constant of substrate. ( Not equal to

r
).
Wavelength =
eff
p
f
C
f
V
Where
f
= operating frequency.
Propagation constant
=
eff

0 0
Advantages and disadvantages of stripline
Stripline is a TEM (transverse electromagnetic) transmission line media, like coax. This means that it is
non-dispersive, and has no cutoff frequency. Whatever circuits you can make on microstrip (which is
quasi-TEM), you can do better using stripline, unless you run into fabrication or size constraints. Stripline
filters and couplers always offer better bandwidth than their counterparts in microstrip.
Another advantage of stripline is that fantastic isolation between adjacent traces can be achieved (as
opposed to microstrip). Stripline can be used to route RF signals across each other, especially when offset
stripline is used.
Disadvantages of stripline are two: first, it is much harder (and more expensive) to fabricate than
microstrip. Lumped-element and active components either have to be buried between the groundplanes
(generally a tricky proposition), or transitions to microstrip must be employed as needed to get the
components onto the top of the board.
The second disadvantage of stripline is that because of the second groundplane, the strip widths are much
narrower for a given impedance (such as 50 ohms) than for microstrip. A common reaction to problems
with microstrip circuits is to attempt to convert them to stripline. Chances are you'll end up with a board
thickness that is four times that of your microstrip board to get equivalent transmission line loss.
79
Stripline equations
A simplified equation for line impedance of stripline is given as:
CLASS EXERCISE
Design a strip line transmission line for a 100 characteristic impendence. The ground plane separation is
0.316cm, and the dielectric constant of the filling material is 2.20.What is the guide wavelength on
this transmission line if the frequency is 4.0 GHz?
Design a micro strip transmission line for a 100 characteristic impendence. The substrate thickness is
with cm, 158 . 0
. 20 . 2 er what is the guide wavelength on this transmission line if the frequency is
? 0 . 4 GHz
80
LECTURE 6: WAVEGUIDES
Introduction
Electromagnetic energy can be transferred from one place to the other through waveguides.
In TEM (Transverse Electric and Magnetic) mode of guided wave propagation, the electric and
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and both fields are transverse to the direction of the
propagation, and this means that there will be no field component in the propagation direction.
In addition to this mode of propagation, there are two general modes of propagation in waveguides,
namely, transverse magnetic (TM) waves which has a longitudinal electric-field component (or
electric field in the propagation direction), and transverse electric (TE) waves which has a
longitudinal magnetic-field component (or magnetic field in the propagation direction).
Waveguides operating in TE and TM modes are acting like high-pass filters, where the operating
frequencies have to be higher than a cutoff frequency (varies and depends on the dimension of waveguide
and the mode of propagation) so that energy can be transferred through the waveguides
A waveguide is a mean to transmit high-frequency EM signal. Waveguides are better than T-lines at
higher frequencies (3-300GHz). Transmission lines become inefficiency due to skin effect and dielectric
losses. Another difference is that T-line supports TEM waves, support frequency from dc to any frequency
(with high loss at high frequency). Waveguide has cut-off frequency.
Waveguides advantages, disadvantages and applications
o Have applications ranging from 3 GHz to 300 GHz
o Currently in many applications microstrip lines and strip lines have taken over because of
advancement in integrated circuit technology
o Waveguides are still used for high power, low loss and precision applications
o A rectangular waveguide cannot support TEM waves since there is no center conductor to satisfy
Laplaces equation for potential
o
Rectangular Waveguides
A rectangular waveguide supports TM and TE modes but not TEM waves because we cannot define a
unique voltage since there is only one conductor in a rectangular waveguide. The shape of a rectangular
81
waveguide is as shown below. A material with permittivity e and permeability m fills the inside of the
conductor.
A rectangular waveguide cannot propagate below some certain frequency. This frequency is called the
cut-off frequency. We first assume that the waveguide is filled with lossless materials (e.g. air) shown
below.
Figure. Rectangular waveguide
For any structure, given a single frequency , the EM wave are described by the phasor form of wave
equations.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+
+
k
z y x H k z y x H
z y x E k z y x E
0 , , , ,
0 , , , ,
2 2
2 2

(1)
For each E-field and H-field, we have three components, so we have to solve each of the above equation
three times. This is enormous tasks. We need to figure out a way to simplify a bit.
First, if EM wave propagate along +z direction, it is fair to assume that all field components follow:
z
it i
z
it i
e y x H z y x H
e y x E z y x E
) , ( ) , , (
) , ( ) , , (
(2)
Similar to T-line we refer as propagation constants, which is to be determined.
Second, use Maxwells equation in charge free, and current free environments.
E j H
H j E

(3)
If we write them into component forms, we have 6 equations.
82
z
x
y
y
z x
x
y
z
z
x
y
y
z x
x
y
z
E j
y
H
x
H
E j
x
H
z
H
E j
z
H
y
H
H j
y
E
x
E
H j
x
E
z
E
H j
z
E
y
E

(4)
We can then utilize these 6 equations to use only H
z
and E
z
to express other components.
Similar manipulation can also apply for other transverse terms yielding:
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
k h
y
H
h x
E
h
j
H
x
H
h y
E
h
j
H
x
H
h
j
y
E
h
E
y
H
h
j
x
E
h
E
z z
y
z z
x
z z
y
z z
x

(5)
In general, we can classify EM waves from the above expression:
1. TEM waves, where E
z
=H
z
=0
2. Transverse electric (TE) modes, where E
z
=0, H
z
0
3. Transverse magnetic (TM) modes, where H
z
=0, E
z
0
4. HE modes, where H
z
0, E
z
0
83
TE AND TM MODES IN RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
TE MODES
Consider the waveguide shown in the above figure. The guide is filled with a material with permittivity
and permeability .
For TE waves, 0
z
E and
) 6 ( , 0 ) , (
2
2
2
2
2
,
_
y x h k
y x
z c
where
z j
z z
e y x h y x H

) , ( ) , ( and .
2 2 2
c
k k
Applying the method of separation of variables, the solution of (6) can be written as
) 7 ( ) sin cos )( sin cos ( ) , ( y k D y k C x k B x k A y x h
y y x x z
+ +
where
.
2 2 2
y x c
k k k +
Boundary conditions
) 8 ( , , 0 , 0 ) , ( a b y at y x e
x

) 8 ( . , 0 , 0 ) , ( b a x at y x e
y

Since,
,
2 2
x
H
k
j
E and
y
H
k
j
E
z
c
y
z
c
x

) 9 ( ), cos sin )( sin cos (
2
a y k D y k C x k B x k A k
k
j
e
y y x x y
c
x
+ +

) 9 ( ), sin cos )( cos sin (
2
b y k D y k C x k B x k A k
k
j
e
y y x x x
c
y
+ +

Applying the boundary conditions, and n for
b
n
k D
y
, 2 , 1 , 0 , 0

, 2 , 1 , 0 , 0 m for
a
m
k B
x

84
) 10 ( cos cos ) , , (
z j
mn z
e
b
y n
a
x m
A z y x H

The transverse field components are then

) 11 ( cos cos ) , , (
z j
mn z
e
b
y n
a
x m
A z y x H

) 12 ( , cos sin ) , , (
2
a e
b
y n
a
x m
A
a k
m j
z y x E
z j
mn
c
y

) 12 ( , cos sin ) , , (
2
a e
b
y n
a
x m
A
a k
m j
z y x H
z j
mn
c
x

) 12 ( , sin cos ) , , (
2
a e
b
y n
a
x m
A
b k
n j
z y x H
z j
mn
c
y

The phase constant

) 13 ( ,
2 2
2 2 2
,
_
,
_

b
n
a
m
k k k
c

For real
,

2 2
,
_
,
_
b
n
a
m
k k
c

,
Thus the cutoff frequency for any propagating mode is given by
) 14 ( .
2
1
2
2 2
,
_
,
_

b
n
a
m k
f
c
cmn

Note that k where k is the wave number,
is the angular frequency in radian/s,
is the
permeability of the medium, and
is the permittivity of the medium.

The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency is called the dominant mode; since b a for our waveguide
the dominant mode is TE
10
with cutoff frequency
) 15 (
2
1
10
a
f
c

Rewriting
85
) 13 ( ,
2 2
2 2 2
,
_
,
_

b
n
a
m
k k k
c

For
c
k k or
c
f f , the phase constant
is real thus there are one or more propagating modes

Knowing that
=2/k =C/f , wavelength in unbounded dielectric medium
c
= C/f
c
is called cutoff wavelength, and
/ 1 C
is the velocity of light in the medium light in the medium, we can write

2 2 2
1 1 1
c g

+
For
c
k k or
c
f f , the phase constant
is imaginary the field components decay exponentially from

where they are excited. These modes are called evanescent modes.
In a waveguide if more than one mode is propagating the waveguide is said to be overmoded.
The wave impedance is given by
,
k
H
E
H
E
Z
x
y
y
x
TE

or
) 16 ( ,
) / ( 1
2
f f
Z
c
TE

The wave impedance is real for propagating modes while it is imaginary for evanescent modes.
The guide wavelength inside the waveguide is defined as the distance between two equal phase planes
along the waveguide, and is given by

k
g
2 2
or
) 17 ( ,
) / ( 1
2
2

>

f f
c
g
Thus the guide wavelength is longer than the free-space wavelength. Similarly, the phase velocity of the
wave inside the guide is larger than the phase velocity of the wave in free-space,

1

k
v
p

or
) 18 ( ,
) / ( 1
2
C C
f f
C
v
g
c
p
>
and the group velocity is C C

f
f
C
d d
v
g
c
g
<
,
_

2
1
/
1
and
2
C v v
p g

Example:
86
Consider a waveguide with dimensions of broader wall, a=0.05 m and shorter wall, b=0.01 m.
Considering TE10 mode propagation,
Calculate:
1. the cutoff frequency,
10 c
f
2. the guide wavelength,
g
and
3. the free-space wavelength, .
The waveguide is designed to operate at 3.5 GHz. Calculate also
4 the phase velocity inside the guide.
1.
GHz Hz e
e
a
f
c
3 9 3
05 . 0 2
8 3
2
1
10

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 ) 2 ( ) 2 (
c c c c
f f f f k k
1 2 9 2 9 12 7
7744 . 37 ) 10 3 ( ) 10 5 . 3 ( 10 85 . 8 10 4 2

m
1 12 7 9
3372 . 73 10 85 . 8 10 4 10 5 . 3 2 2

m f k
2.
m
g
166 . 0
7744 . 37
2 2

3. m
k
0857 . 0
3372 . 73
2 2

The free-space wavelength can also be found as

0857 . 0
10 5 . 3
10 3
9
8
m
4. Phase velocity inside the guide, s m v
p
/ 10 8217 . 5
7744 . 37
10 5 . 3 2
8
9

TE
10
mode
87
Field equations for a rectangular waveguide
) 19 ( cos
10
a e
a
x
A H
z j
z

) 19 ( , sin
10
b e
a
x
A
a j
E
z j
y

) 19 ( , sin ) , , (
10
c e
a
x
A
a j
z y x H
z j
x

) 19 ( 0 d E H E
z y x

) 20 (
a
k
c

and ) 21 (
2
2
,
_

a
k

TM Modes
z j
mn z
e
b
y n
a
x m
B z y x E

sin sin ) , , (
z j
mn
c
x
e
b
y n
a
x m
B
a k
m j
z y x E

sin cos ) , , (
2
, cos sin ) , , (
2
z j
mn
c
y
e
b
y n
a
x m
B
b k
n j
z y x E

, cos sin ) , , (
2
z j
mn
c
x
e
b
y n
a
x m
B
b k
n j
z y x H

, sin cos ) , , (
2
z j
mn
c
y
e
b
y n
a
x m
B
a k
n j
z y x H

) 13 ( ,
2 2
2 2 2
,
_
,
_

b
n
a
m
k k k
c


88
Note that for either 0 m or 0 n the field components are zero. Thus there are no TM
0n
or TM
m0
modes.
The lowest order TM mode is TM
11
and its cutoff frequency is given by
) 22 ( .
2
1
2
2 2
11

,
_
,
_

b a
k
f
c
c

Table shows the relationship for TEM,TE, and TM waves
Mode
Wave Impedance
g
V
p
V
g
TEM

C C
TM
) ( 1
2
,
_
f
f
c
2
) / ( 1 f f
c
C
g
C
g
TE
2
) / ( 1 f f
c
2
) / ( 1 f f
c
C
g
C
g
The power flow in the waveguide is given by

) 23 ( ). Re(
4
Re
2
1
2
2
10
3
0 0
*
10

b A a
dx dy z H E P
a
x
b
y

The losses in a waveguide can be due to dielectric and conductor. The dielectric loss can be calculated
from
) 24 (. . /
2
tan
2
m Np
k
d

The power lost due to finite conductivity of the waveguide walls per unit length is given by
) 25 (
2
2
dl J
R
P
C
s
s
l

where
s
R is the surface resistance and C indicates a contour integral.
The surface current on the left wall ( 0 x ) is
89
) 26 ( ,
10 0 0
a e A y H z x H n J
z j
x z x s

The surface current on the bottom wall (
0 y
) is
) 26 ( cos sin
) (
10 10
0 0 0
b e
a
x
A x e
a
x
A
a j
z
H z H x y H n J
z j z j
y z y x y s

+
+

Substituting (26) into (25) gives
[ ]
) 27 ( .
2 2
2
3 2
2
10
0
2 2
2
0
,
_
+ +
+ +

a a
b A R
dx J J R dy J R P
s
a
x
sz sx s
b
y
sy s l
The attenuation constant is given by
) 28 ( . / ) 2 (
2
2 3 2
3
10
m Np k a b
k b a
R
P
P
s l
c
+

Example 1
: Consider a length of air-filled copper X-band waveguide, with dimensions a=2.286 cm, b=1.016 cm.
Find:
1. The cutoff frequencies of the first four propagating modes.
1. What is the attenuation in dB of a 1 m length of this guide operating at 10 GHz?
Solution
The cutoff frequencies are given by
) 23 ( .
2
2 2
11

,
_
,
_
b
n
a
m c
f
c

Mode m n
cmn
f (GHz)
TE 1 0 6.562
TE 2 0 13.123
TE 0 1 14.764
TE, TM 1 1 16.156
TE, TM 1 2 30.248
TE, TM 2 1 19.753
90
The TE10, TE20, TE01, and TE11 modes are the first four modes to propagate. Since the operating
frequency is 10 GHz,
1 12 7 9
44 . 209 10 85 . 8 10 4 10 10 2 2

m f k
1
2 2 2
2
05 . 158
2

,
_
,
_
,
_
m
a c
f
a
k

026 . 0
2

s
R
0125 . 0 ) 2 (
2 3 2
3
+ k a b
k b a
R
s
c

NP/m
11 . 0 log 20 ) (
10

c
e dB
c

dB/m
Example2.
A rectangular wave guide measures , 6 . 0 , 5 . 1 cm b cm a Filled with dielectric, . 25 . 2
r

internally. The frequency of the propagating signal is
f GHz 10 .
Find the following field parameters for a
10
TE
mode,
a) the cut off frequency
b) the guide wavelength,
c) the group Velocity.
d) phase velocity and
e) characteristic wave impedance
Solution.
Phase velocity in unbounded medium is
s m X
e C
u
r
/ 10 2
25 . 2
8 3
8

Wavelength in unbounded medium

m
e
e
f
u
02 . 0
10 10
8 2

a) Cutoff frequency, ( )
( ) ( )
Hz
C
a C f
c
10
10
10 67 . 0
015 . 0 2
25 . 2 /
2 /
b)Guide wavelength,
( )
m
f f
mn
c
g
0268 . 0
745 . 0
02 . 0
/ 1
2


91
c) Phase velocity,
s m C V
p
/ 10 68 . 2 745 . 0 / 10 2 745 . 0 /
8 8

d) Group velocity,
( )( ) s m C V
g
/ 10 49 . 1 745 . 0 10 2 745 . 0
8 8

e)Wave impedance,
( )
( )
( ) ( )
4 . 337
5 . 1 745 . 0
377
745 . 0
25 . 2 /
/ 1
2
110

o
mn c
TE
f f
Z

ohms
Example 3
a) Find the frequency range for TE10 mode operation for the rectangular air filled waveguide
2.85x1.262 cm.
b) If the waveguide is excited by a 15 GHz source how many possible modes will propagate? If
excited by 5 GHz, what are the possible modes?
c) If the waveguide is filled with a dielectric of relative permittivity er, what will be frequency band
of its operation?
d) Will the band width for the dominant mode change and how much?
The cutoff frequency is given by

2
) ( ) (
2 2
b
n
a
m
f
c
+
.
For the TE10, m=1, n=0,
. 3 . 5
10 85 . 2 2
10 3
2
2
8
GHz
a
f
o o
c


. 89 . 11
10 262 . 1 2
10 3
2
1
2
8
GHz
b
f
c

. 6 . 10
2
2
GHz
a
f
c

. 13
2
)
1
( )
1
( 10 3
2
) ( ) (
2 2 8 2 2
GHz
b a b a
f
c

+

The TE10 band width will be between 5.3GHz and 10.6 GHz. If the source has a frequency of 5 GHz,
there will be no propagation. For 15 GHz different modes can propagate.
See above. Insertion of dielectric will bring down cutoff frequency, as well as band width, by square
root (er).
92
Important Remarks
Waveguide are often designed so as to support the lowest-order mode and to exclude the higher-order
modes.
Illustration of the mode cutoff frequencies for an X-band waveguide (8.20-12.40 GHz), WR90 (a= 0.9
in., b= 0.4 in.).
A waveguide can be designed to support only TE
10
mode by selecting the guide dimensions such that
the operating frequency f is f
c,10
< f < f
c
where f
c
is the next higher mode.
Once the guide dimensions have been selected such that it is possible to propagate this mode, one must
determine an efficient way of exciting this mode.
93
CLASS ASSIGNMENT.
1. Find the value of critical and guide-wave lengths in an air filled rectangular wave-guide, with
internal dimensions 7.62x2.54 cm
2
, for the normal TM
10
mode at a frequency of 3000 MHz.
2. Calculate the cutoff wavelengths, the guide wavelength the group and phase velocities and the
characteristic wave impedance for (a) the TE
1
mode and (b) the TM
1,1
mode.
3. What is the lowest frequency that will readily propagate through a tunnel with a rectangular
cross section of dimension 10m by5m?
4. Consider a length of air-filled copper X-band waveguide, with dimensions a=2.29cm,
b=1.02cm. Find the cut-off frequencies of the first five propagating modes.
5. A rectangular waveguide with dimensions and is operating below
.
a) How many TE and TM modes can the waveguide support if the guide is filled with a medium
characterized by ?
b) Calculate the cutoff frequency of each of these modes.
c) Calculate the phase constant, phase velocity and wave impedance for the and
modes at the operating frequency of .
94
REFERENCES
1. D.K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, Addison Wesley)
2. Demarest K. R., Engineering Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall)
3. G.K Mithal (1996) Network Analysis Khana Publishers, Delhi, India.
4. G.Kennedy (1992) Electronic Communication Systems, Mc Graw Hill 2
nd
Editon.
5. Krauss, Electromagnetics, 4
th
Ed., McGraw Hill
6. David K. Cheng, Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics, Addison Wesley Publishing Co.,
1993..
7. W. H. Hayt and J. A. Buck, Engineering Electromagnetics, sixth Ed. McGraw Hill, 2001.
8. Ramo, Whinnery & Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, 2nd Edition,
Wiley, 1994.
9. David M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering 2
nd
edition
95
Appendix
USE OF SMITH CHARTS.
HINT.
How to find :
1) Find Normalized load Impedance, z
L
= Z
L
/ Zo = r
L
+ j x
L
2) Find intercept of semicircles for r
L
and x
L
and PLOT z
L

3) Draw line from center of smith chart to (or through) z
L
4) Read angle of from outside of Smith chart
5) Measure | | with a protractor and compare to line on bottom of smith chart
labeled Ref. Coeff. E or I
Standing Wave Ratio:
To read SWR from the Smith Chart:
1) PLOT z
L

2) Draw a circle through it.
3) Read SWR from real axis to right (SWR 1)
How to find Zin :
1) Normalize z
L
= Z
L
/ Zo
2) Plot z
L
. This also gives you
L
.
3) Rotate distance l (given in wavelengths) TOWARDS the generator.
4) Read z
in
and
l
5) Zin = z
in
* Zo
Voltage Minima and Maxima:
To read Voltage maxima off Smith Chart:
1) PLOT z
L
First Voltage maximum occurs on right side of real axis. First Voltage minimum occurs on
left side of real axis.
SMITH CHARTS
Smith Chart Circles:
A Smith chart is a graphical representation of the complex reflection coefficient,
96
Smith Chart for Reflection Coefficient and Load Impedance:
Reflection Coefficient and Load (Z
L
) are directly related:
= (Z
L
/ Zo - 1) / (Z
L
/Zo+ 1) = (z
L
- 1) / (z
L
+ 1)
OR
Z
L
/ Zo = z
L
= (1 + ) / (1 - ) This is NORMALIZED load impedance
z
L
= r
L
+ j x
L

The real and imaginary parts of z
L
are functions of , and these functions can be plotted on
the same chart. Remember || 1.
97
Example: Given Z
L
, find using Smith Chart
See transparencies (Copies to be made available in copy room)
How to find :
1) Find Normalized load Impedance, z
L
= Z
L
/ Zo = r
L
+ j x
L
6) Find intercept of semicircles for r
L
and x
L
and PLOT z
L

7) Draw line from center of smith chart to (or through) z
L
8) Read angle of from outside of Smith chart
98
9) Measure | | with a protractor and compare to line on bottom of smith chart
labeled Ref. Coeff. E or I
Zo = 100 ohms
Z
L
= open circuit
1) z
L
= = + j 0
2) PLOT (far right)
3) Draw Line through z
L
. Read 0
4) Measure using a protractor (or this one is obviously =1) | | = 1
=1 0 (which is what we expect for an open circuit)
Z
L
= short circuit
1) z
L
= 0 = 0+ j 0
2) PLOT (far left)
L
. Read 180
=1 180 = -1 (which is what we expect for an short circuit)
Z
L
= 100 + j 0 ohms
1) z
L
= Z
L
/ Zo = 1 + j 0
2) PLOT (center of smith chart)
L
. Not so easy ?
=0 ? (which is what we expect for a matched load)
Z
L
= 100 + j 100 ohms
1) z
L
= Z
L
/ Zo = 1 + j 1
2) PLOT (top right quadrant)
L
. about 63
4) Measure using a protractor | | = 0.45
=0.45 63
= (z
L
- 1) / (z
L
+ 1) = (0+j1) / (2+j1) =190 / 2.236 26.56 = 0.45 63.43
99
How do you find load impedance if given ?
1) Plot
2) Read z
L =
z
L
+j

z
L
3) Unnormalize: Z
L
= z
L
* Zo
Admittance vs. Impedance:
Admittance y
L
= 1 / z
L
= (z
L
- 1) / (z
L
+ 1) = (1/y
L
- 1) / (1/y
L
+ 1) = - (y
L
- 1) / (y
L
+ 1) = 180 out of phase
Steps to find from y
L
:
1) Find normalized y
L
= Zo / Z
L
= g
L
+jb
L
2) Plot it (Using same curves g=r and b=x)
3) Transform it through the origin Rotate 180 degrees = draw a line of equal length
through the origin. Now you have found z
L
4) Read as before
EXAMPLE (See transparencies)
Input Impedance:
Z
in
= Zo [1 + e
j2l
] / [1 - e
j2l
]
z
in
= Z
in
/ Zo = [1 + e
-j2l
] / [1 - e
-j2l
]
Define reflection coefficient at the input (NOT g ) as the reflection coefficient looking into
the load frm the input location.
l
=
L
-2l
This represents moving 2l radians towards the generator.
You can convert this distance to degrees, and read it off the outer circles on the Smith Chart
(notice DIRECTION to the generator is marked)
OR 2l = 2(2 / ) l = 4 (l / ) This has been normalized for you on the outside circle
around the Smith Chart. Observe that if l=, this represents 2 complete rotations around the
Smith Chart. L = /2 represents one complete rotation.
Does this make sense? For a Transmission line of length L = /2, traveling from generator to
the load and back would represent a phase shift of 360 degrees one complete rotation.
Then z
in
= [1 +
l
] / [1 -
l
]
How to find Zin :
100
6) Normalize z
L
= Z
L
/ Zo
7) Plot z
L
. This also gives you
L
.
8) Rotate distance l (given in wavelengths) TOWARDS the generator.
9) Read z
in
and
l
10) Zin = z
in
* Zo
EXAMPLE (see transparencies)
Standing Wave Ratio:
To read SWR from the Smith Chart:
4) PLOT z
L

5) Draw a circle through it.
6) Read SWR from real axis to right (SWR 1)
EXAMPLE (See transparencies)
Voltage Minima and Maxima:
To read Voltage maxima off Smith Chart:
2) PLOT z
L
3) First Voltage maximum occurs on right side of real axis. First Voltage minimum occurs on
left side of real axis.
101

Transmission Line (KABADI)

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DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

in terms of the per-unit length transmission line

= angular frequency and phase constant or wave number

where is the load impedance.

and with a perfect match SWR = 1. By definition,

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF THE LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE.

In general, the input impedance Z

If tan(l)[ 0, The line appears capacitive, acting like an equivalent capacitor C

Transmission line Lectures. Prepared by M.D.Kabadi

Matched Transmission Line: Z

Short circuited line Zl=0 l jZ Zin tan

3. Reflection and transmission coefficient.

and counter clockwise angle variable ,where

and as magnitude and angle of

us the real and imaginary parts of

These equations can be rearranged as

Also represents a fame of circles, but

and has zero radius .

=0.62 circle opposite a wtg

axis) of the smith chart voltage maximum or current minimum occur

circle and the

to a point at 438 . 0 on wavelength toward generator scale.

= effective relative dielectric constant of substrate. ( Not equal to

) for the microstrip design.

= effective relative dielectric constant of substrate. ( Not equal to

The transverse field components are then

The phase constant

is the angular frequency in radian/s,

is the permittivity of the medium.

is real thus there are one or more propagating modes

is imaginary the field components decay exponentially from

and the group velocity is C C

The free-space wavelength can also be found as

Transmission line Lectures. Prepared by M.D.Kabadi

The power flow in the waveguide is given by

Wavelength in unbounded medium

Transmission line Lectures. Prepared by M.D.Kabadi

For the TE01, m=0, n=1,

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