Exam 3 Notes

Exam 3
6/18/2012 2:17:00 PM
Module 17: Classical Conditioning

Learning- What do you think learning is? Associative Learning- Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Observational Learning Learning- a relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience History of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1943) -Connected to behaviorism -Early years, received MD when he was 33 years old, won Nobel Prize when dealing with digestive system of the dog (show dogs food, they will salivate) -Accidental Discovery -Experiment, attached an apparatus to a dogs mouth, paired food and tone to showing dog, automatically salivated, even if one DV was not there Components of Classical Conditioning: The Unconditioned Association Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)- Stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a natural response. Unconditioned Response (UCR)- Unlearned natural response to natural stimuli. (ex- hit hammer on knee- knee-jerk) The Conditioned Association Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- Formally the neutral stimulus since by itself does not evoke a response. After paired with the unconditional stimulus, triggers the conditional response. Conditioned Response (CR)- Learned response to previously neutral conditioned stimulus. Other Key Concepts Acquisition- The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship
Extinction- Diminished responding that occurs when the CS no longer signals an impending US Spontaneous Recovery- When an association is acquired or extinguished and some time has passed without the CS and then when the CS is presented, the CR reappears. Generalization- The tendency to respond to similar stimuli. Exabused woman, dogs Discrimination- The learned ability to discriminate between conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. Ex- traffic lights, cats
,6/18/2012 2:17:00 PM
Module 18: Operant Conditioning

Skinners Claim: Skinner argued that we are completely controlled by our environment and that all behavior is shaped by the consequences that our environment provides. According to Skinner, when we demand freedom, we really want freedom from aversive consequences and we do not have freedom to make choices. The only freedom we really have is to arrange our own consequences. Questions: Do you agree with Skinner that our beliefs in human freedom are illusions? Are we really free or are we controlled by the consequences in our environment? B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Law of Effect- Rewarded behavior is likely to recur and vise versa Experimentation of Pigeons/ Skinner Box Operant Conditioning- an organism associates its behavior with consequences 1. Organisms are more likely to repeat rewarded behavior Ex- Compliments for a new outfit, people laugh when jokes are told 2. Organisms are less likely to repeat behaviors that are punished Ex- getting put in time-out, dog getting scolded for barking Principles of Reinforcement Reinforce- Any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response o Positive Reinforcers (+)- Just means adding or taking something away to increase certain behavior (ex- play time/chores) o Negative Reinforcers (-) An aversive stimulus is taken away (ex- umbrella/ rain) *Note on positive and negative Types of Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer- An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies biological needs (ex- getting Gatorade, tooth pulled)
Conditioned (secondary) Reinforcer- A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (ex- money) Continuous Reinforcement- Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement- Reinforcing a response only some of the time (ex- slot machines) Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-Ratio Schedule- Reinforces a response after a set number of responses (ex- radio calls) Variable-Ratio Schedule- Reinforces a response after a varying number of responses (ex- slot machines) Fixed-Interval Schedule- Reinforces a response after a set time has elapsed (ex- your birthday) Variable-Interval Schedule- Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (ex- wall posts) Punishment An event that decreases the behavior it follows. Ex- Getting a bad grade for not studying; Getting spanked for disobeying parents Punishment is effective for decreases in behavior but there are drawbacks: o Suppressed, not forgotten o Increases aggressiveness o Fear o Learned helplessness *Punishment tells you what not to do and reinforcement tells you what to do
Shaping Reinforcers that guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations Successive Approximations- Reward responses that are ever closer to the final desired behaviors (ex- potty training)
6/18/2012 2:17:00 PM
*MODULE 19: Observational Learning*

-Mirror Neurons: Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing something. Observational Learning: Learning by observing others -Modeling: Observing and imitating a specific behavior *Bobo Doll Experiment: Put kid in a room filled with toys, including a large bobo doll. Experimenter is violent with the bobo doll then leaves the kid in the room --> Kid then is also violent with the bobo doll. Prosocial behavior--> Behavior that conforms with the rules and social decorum. Ex. Gandhi, MLK, Bono Antisocial behavior --> Behavior that goes against the rules and defies social decorum. Ex. Grand Theft Auto *Does viewing violence in the media contribute to aggressive behavior? -Homicide rate increased as a result of the development of TV -Elementary school kids became more likely to bully with the development of TV. *Two factor phenomenon: Imitation (parents, TV, etc..) and Desensitization (prolonged exposure to violence in any way).
6/18/2012 2:17:00 PM
MODULE 20: Information Processing

Memory: The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. *Information processing model: Encoding (Input Info. =Keyboard)>Storage (Retaining Information over time=Hard drive)-->Retrieval (Getting info. back out= Opening file) Atkinson/Shiffrin Model of Encoding: *Three different types of memory: 1. Sensory Memory: The immediate recording of sensory information in the memory system. Two main types: i. Iconic Memory: A copy of visual stimulus available for a few tenths of a second. ii. Echoic Memory: Fleeting memory of auditory sensory information (Lasts for 3-4 seconds). 2. Short term memory: Memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten. Can hold about 7 items (+/- 2), about four chunks of information or what you can say within 2 seconds. 3. Long term memory: The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. *Working Memory: The memory you are currently working with (Your RAM). Encoding! -Automatic Processing: Occurs with little or no effort. Types include: space, time, frequency and well-learned materials. -Effortful Processing: Requires attention and conscious effort, can be automatic with practice. Ex. First attempt to read, math, chemistry, etc... Three ways to encode: 1. Iconic Encoding: Representation of exact images. (Shallow encoding) 2. Echoic Encoding: Encoding of a sound. (Intermediate encoding) 3. Semantic Encoding: Encoding of meaning. (Deep encoding)
Rehearsal: The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. *Sleep actually helps to encode information studies; however, when something is presented directly before sleep (Like less than 5 min before), its is rarely remembered. -Can't learn during sleep because were not rehearsing it! -Ebbinghaus discovered that the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning it. -Self-reference Effect: Relevant information to you is likely to be remembered very well. (Beauty of paraphrasing) -Imagery: Mental pictures, a powerful aid for processing information, especially when combined with semantic encoding. Ex. Nouns (apple, cigarette) Mnemonics: Memory Aids 1. Method of Loci: Mentally locating topics in areas of a familiar place 2. Making up vivid and ridiculous stories from non related nouns 3. Peg Words: Matching words with another word then envisioning them together Organizing Information -Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units. Ex. HOMES (The Great Lakes) -Hierarchies: When a few broad concepts are divided into narrower concepts and facts. Ex. Lecture Structure and Outlines Effortful Processing Effect -Next-In-Line-Effect: Poorest memory before your turn to speak -Spacing Effect: Distributed practice is superior to massed practice for long lasting recall (A.K.A. Take Breaks!) -Serial Position Effect: Information presented at beginning and end of list are recalled better than in the middle. Memory and the Brain *Memory isn't localized in one specific area of the brain, but instead is spread out throughout the brain, one of which is the hippocampus.
-Long Term Potentiation (LTP): When the sending neurons need less prompting to release neurotransmitters and the receiving neurons' receptor sites increase. -Hippocampus: Involved in our ability to learn and remember info. (Loading dock for information) -Infantile Amnesia: We can't remember explicit memories before 3 years thats explicit facts because hippocampus isn't fully developed yet; however, we retain implicit memories that we have learned. Memory and Stress -Arousal sears events into our brain. Ex. Something scary -Blocking arousal= difficult to encode information and possibly PTSD?! -Damage can be caused by extreme arousal and stress Flashbulb Memory *Do you remember where you were during the 9/11 attacks? :p -Memory sparked by intense and/or emotional event Implicit/Explicit Memories -Amnesia: Loss of Memory 1. Implicit Memory (Procedural Memory): Unconscious learning. Ex. Bikeriding 2. Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Memory that allows us to declare that we know something. Ex. classroom material, what you did yesterday Retrieval: Getting Information out! -Memory is any evidence that learning has occurred -Recall: Remembering without cues -Recognition: The ability to tell the familiar from the unfamiliar -Relearning: Time to relearn something decreases; we remember something more than we realized. -Critical Point: We remember more than we can recall Retrieval Cues Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of a particular association in memory which allows for recall.
Moods and Memory -State-Dependent Memory: What's learned in an emotional state is best remembered when in that emotional state. -Mood Congruent Memory: Being in a certain mood biases the recall of information
6/18/2012 2:17:00 PM
MODULE 21: Forgetting, Memory Construction and Improving Memory*

-Encoding Failure: Attention is limited and without attention, memories don't form. -Storage Decay: Gradual fading of memory trace via disruption or interference. -Retrieval Failure: Memories may be available but inaccessible. *Interference: When information is blocking the availability of other information. 1. Proactive Interference: The disruptive effect of old learning in the recall of new information 2. Retroactive Interference: The disruptive of new learning on the recall of old information. -Motivated Forgetting: Revising memory for personal benefit or comfort. -Repression: Freud's notion that we protect ourselves from painful memories by shoving them into our unconscious. Memory Construction -Misinformation Effects: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. (Language can have an influence) -Imagination Effects: On recall, gaps in memory are filled in with plausible guesses and assumptions. Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution): Attributing facts learned from one source to another. Improving Memory -Study repeatedly -Make material more meaningful -Activate retrieval cues -Use mnemonic devices
-Minimize interference -Sleep more

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Exam 3

Module 17: Classical Conditioning

Module 18: Operant Conditioning

MODULE 19: Observational Learning

MODULE 20: Information Processing

MODULE 21: Forgetting, Memory Construction and Improving Memory*

-Minimize interference -Sleep more

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