International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.internationaljournalssrg.org Page 1

Adaptive Active Constellation Extension
Algorithm for Peak-To-Average Ratio Reduction
in OFDM

E. KUMARA SWAMY, M.TECH (DECS)
Prof. K ASHOK BABU HOD of (ECE)
SRI INDU COLLEGE OF ENGG&TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to J NTU, Hyderabad) Ibrahimpatnam
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India -501510

ABSTRACT-For PAR reduction in OFDM systems, the clipping
based Active Constellation Extension (ACE) technique is simple
and attractive for practical implementation. However, we
observe it cannot achieve the minimum PAR when the target
clipping level is set below an initially unknown optimum value.
To overcome this low clipping ratio problem, we propose a novel
ACE algorithm with adaptive clipping control. Simulation results
demonstrate that our proposed algorithm can reach the
minimum PAR for severely low clipping ratios. I n addition, we
present the tradeoff between PAR and the loss in / over an
AWGN channel in terms of the clipping ratio.

I ndex TermsPeak-to-average ratio (PAR), Active
constellation extension (ACE), Adaptive, OFDM, BER, AWGN.
I. INTRODUCTI ON

The concept of OFDM is quite simple but the practicality of
implementing it has many complexities. So, it is a fully
software project. OFDM depends on Orthogonality principle.
Orthogonality means, it allows the sub carriers, which are
orthogonal to each other, meaning that cross talk between
co-channels is eliminated and inter-carrier guard bands are not
required. This greatly simplifies the design of both the
transmitter and receiver, unlike conventional FDM; a separate
filter for each sub channel is not required.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM) is a digital multi carrier modulation scheme, which
uses a large number of closely spaced orthogonal sub-carriers.
A single stream of data is split into parallel streams each of
which is coded and modulated on to a subcarrier, a term
commonly used in OFDM systems. Each sub-carrier is
modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (such as
quadrature amplitude modulation) at a low symbol rate,
maintaining data rates similar to conventional single carrier
modulation schemes in the same bandwidth. Thus the high bit
rates seen before on a single carrier is reduced to lower bit rates
on the subcarrier.

In practice, OFDM signals are generated and detected
using the Fast Fourier Transform algorithm. OFDM has
developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital
communication, wireless as well as copper wires. Actually
FDM systems have been common for many decades. However,
in FDM, the carriers are all independent of each other. There is
a guard period in between them and no overlap whatsoever.
This works well because in FDM system each carrier carries
data meant for a different user or application. FM radio is an
FDM system. FDM systems are not ideal for what we want for
wideband systems. Using FDM would waste too much
bandwidth. This is where OFDM makes sense. In OFDM,
subcarriers overlap. They are orthogonal because the peak of
one subcarrier occurs when other subcarriers are at zero. This is
achieved by realizing all the subcarriers together using Inverse
Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT). The demodulator at the
receiver parallel channels from an FFT block. Note that each
subcarrier can still be modulated independently.
II. EVALUATI ON OF WI RELESS NETWORKS

Most first generations systems were introduced in the mid
1980s, and can be Characterized by the use of analog
transmission techniques and the use of simple multiple access
techniques such as Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA). First generation telecommunications systems such as
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) only provided voice
communications. They also suffered from a low user capacity,
and security problems due to the simple radio interface used.
Second generation systems were introduced in the early 1990s,
and all use digital technology. This provided an increase in the
user capacity of around three times. This was achieved by
compressing the voice waveforms before transmission.

Third generation systems are an extension on the
complexity of second-generation systems and are expected to
be introduced after the year 2000. The system capacity is
expected to be increased to over ten times original first
generation systems. This is going to be achieved by using
complex multiple access techniques such as Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA), or an extension of TDMA, and by
improving flexibility of services available. The
telecommunications industry faces the problem of providing
telephone services to rural areas, where the customer base is
small, but the cost of installing a wired phone network is very
high. One method of reducing the high infrastructure cost of a
International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.internationaljournalssrg.org Page 2

wired system is to use a fixed wireless radio network. The
problem with this is that for rural and urban areas, large cell
sizes are required to get sufficient coverage.

M Mu ul lt ti ip pl le e A Ac cc ce es ss s T Te ec ch hn ni iq qu ue es s : :

Multiple access schemes are used to allow many simultaneous
users to use the same fixed bandwidth radio spectrum. In any
radio system, the bandwidth, which is allocated to it, is always
limited. For mobile phone systems the total bandwidth is
typically 50 MHz, which is split in half to provide the forward
and reverse links of the system.
Sharing of the spectrum is required in order increase
the user capacity of any wireless network. FDMA, TDMA and
CDMA are the three major methods of sharing the available
bandwidth to multiple users in wireless system. There are many
extensions, and hybrid techniques for these methods, such as
OFDM, and hybrid TDMA and FDMA systems. However, an
understanding of the three major methods is required for
understanding of any extensions to these methods.

F Fr re eq qu ue en nc cy y D Di iv vi is si io on n M Mu ul lt ti ip pl le e A Ac cc ce es ss se es s ( (F FD DM MA A) ): :

In Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), the
available bandwidth is subdivided into a number of narrower
band channels. Each user is allocated a unique frequency band
in which to transmit and receive on. During a call, no other
user can use the same frequency band.

Each user is allocated a forward link channel (from
the base station to the mobile phone) and a reverse channel
(back to the base station), each being a single way link. The
transmitted signal on each of the channels is continuous
allowing analog transmissions. The bandwidths of FDMA
channels are generally low (30 kHz) as each channel only
supports one user. FDMA is used as the primary breakup of
large allocated frequency bands and is used as part of most
multi-channel systems.


Fig. 2.1 & Fig. 2.2 show the allocation of the
available bandwidth into several channels.

T Ti im me e D Di iv vi is si io on n M Mu ul lt ti ip pl le e A Ac cc ce es ss s : :

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) divides the
available spectrum into multiple time slots, by giving each user
a time slot in which they can transmit or receive. Fig. 2.3 shows
how the time slots are provided to users in a round robin
fashion, with each user being allotted one time slot per frame.
TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer and burst method,
thus the transmission of each channel is non-continuous.

Fig 2.3 TDMA scheme, where each user is allocated a small
time slot

The input data to be transmitted is buffered over the
previous frame and burst transmitted at a higher rate during the
time slot for the channel. TDMA can not send analog signals
directly due to the buffering required, thus are only used for
transmitting digital data. TDMA can suffer from multipath
effects, as the transmission rate is generally very high. This
leads the multipath signals causing inter-symbol interference.
TDMA is normally used in conjunction with FDMA to
subdivide the total available bandwidth into several channels.
This is done to reduce the number of users per channel allowing
a lower data rate to be used. This helps reduce the effect of
delay spread on the transmission. Fig. 2.4 shows the use of
TDMA with FDMA. Each channel based on FDMA, is further
subdivided using TDMA, so that several users can transmit of
the one channel. This type of transmission technique is used by
most digital second generation mobile phone systems. For
GSM, the total allocated bandwidth of 25MHz is divided into
125, 200 kHz channels using FDMA. These channels are then
subdivided further by using TDMA so that each 200 kHz
channel allows 8-16 users.


Fig. 2.4 TDMA/FDMA hybrid, showing that the bandwidth is
split into frequency channels and time slots.

C Co od de e D Di iv vi is si io on n M Mu ul lt ti ip pl le e A Ac cc ce es ss s : :

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a spread
spectrum technique that uses neither frequency channels nor
time slots. In CDMA, the narrow band message (typically
digitized voice data) is multiplied by a large bandwidth signal,
which is a pseudo random noise code (PN code). All users in a
CDMA system use the same frequency band and transmit
International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.internationaljournalssrg.org Page 3

simultaneously. The transmitted signal is recovered by
correlating the received signal with the PN code used by the
transmitter. Fig. 2.5 shows the general use of the spectrum
using CDMA.

Some of the properties that have made CDMA useful
are: Signal hiding and non-interference with existing systems,
Anti-jam and interference rejection, Information security,
Accurate Ranging, Multiple User Access, Multipath tolerance.


Fig. 2.5 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Fig.1.7 shows the process of a CDMA transmission.
The data to be transmitted (a) is spread before transmission by
modulating the data using a PN code. This broadens the
spectrum as shown in (b). In this example the process gain is
125 as the spread spectrum bandwidth is 125 times greater the
data bandwidth. Part (c) shows the received signal. This
consists of the required signal, plus background noise, and any
interference from other CDMA users or radio sources.

The received signal is recovered by multiplying the
signal by the original spreading code. This process causes the
wanted received signal to be dispread back to the original
transmitted data. However, all other signals, which are
uncorrelated to the PN spreading code used, become more
spread. The wanted signal in (d) is then filtered removing the
wide spread interference and noise signals.


Fig. 2.6
Basic CDMA Generation.
C CD DM MA A G Ge en ne er ra at ti io on n : :

CDMA is achieved by modulating the data signal by a
pseudo random noise sequence (PN code), which has a chip
rate higher then the bit rate of the data. The PN code sequence
is a sequence of ones and zeros (called chips), which alternate
in a random fashion. The data is modulated by modular-2
adding the data with the PN code sequence. This can also be
done by multiplying the signals, provided the data and PN code
is represented by 1 and -1 instead of 1 and 0. Fig. 2.7 shows a
basic CDMA transmitter.


Fig. 2.7 Simple direct sequence
modulator

The PN code used to spread the data can be of two
main types. A short PN code (Typically 10-128 chips in
length), can be used to modulate each data bit. The short PN
code is then repeated for every data bit allowing for quick and
simple synchronization of the receiver. Fig.2.8 shows the
generation of a CDMA signal using a 10-chip length short
code. Alternatively a long PN code can be used. Long codes are
generally thousands to millions of chips in length, thus are only
repeated infrequently. Because of this they are useful for added
security as they are more difficult to decode.


Fig.2.8
Direct sequence signals
III. THEORY AND RESEARCH

The OFDM technology was first conceived in the
1960s and 1970s during research into minimizing ISI, due to
multipath. The expression digital communications in its basic
form is the mapping of digital information into a waveform
called a carrier signal, which is a transmitted electromagnetic
pulse or wave at a steady base frequency of alternation on
which information can be imposed by increasing signal
strength, varying the base frequency, varying the wave phase,
or other means. In this instance, orthogonality is an implication
of a definite and fixed relationship between all carriers in the
collection. Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple
signals or streams of information on a carrier at the same time
in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the
separate signals at the receiving end.


International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

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O OF FD DM M P Pr ri in nc ci ip pl le es s : :

OFDM is a special form of Multi Carrier Modulation
(MCM) with densely spaced sub carriers with overlapping
spectra, thus allowing for multiple-access. MCM) is the
principle of transmitting data by dividing the stream into
several bit streams, each of which has a much lower bit rate,
and by using these sub-streams to modulate several carriers.
This technique is being investigated as the next generation
transmission scheme for mobile wireless communications
networks.

F Fo ou ur ri ie er r T Tr ra an ns sf fo or rm m : :

Back in the 1960s, the application of OFDM was not
very practical. This was because at that point, several banks of
oscillators were needed to generate the carrier frequencies
necessary for sub-channel transmission. Since this proved to be
difficult to accomplish during that time period, the scheme was
deemed as not feasible.

However, the advent of the Fourier Transform
eliminated the initial complexity of the OFDM scheme where
the harmonically related frequencies generated by Fourier and
Inverse Fourier transforms are used to implement OFDM
systems. The Fourier transform is used in linear systems
analysis, antenna studies, etc., The Fourier transform, in
essence, decomposes or separates a waveform or function into
sinusoids of different frequencies which sum to the original
waveform. It identifies or distinguishes the different frequency
sinusoids and their respective amplitudes.

The Fourier transform of f(x) is defined as:
dx e x f F
x j

}
= ) ( ) (
and its inverse is denoted by:
}

d e F x f
x j
) (
2
1
) (
However, the digital age forced a change upon the traditional
form of the Fourier transform to encompass the discrete values
that exist is all digital systems. The modified series was called
the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The DFT of a
discrete-time system, x(n) is defined as:

= X
1
0
2
) ( ) (
N
n
kn
N
j
e n x k

1 s k s N

and its associated inverse is denoted by:

=
X =
1
0
2
) (
1
) (
N
n
kn
N
j
e k
N
n x

1 s n s N
However, in OFDM, another form of the DFT is used, called
the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which is a DFT algorithm
developed in 1965. This new transform reduced the number
of computations from something on the order of
2
N to . log
2
2
N
N

O Or rt th ho og go on na al li it ty y : :

In geometry, orthogonal means, "involving right
angles" (from Greek ortho, meaning right, and gon meaning
angled). The term has been extended to general use, meaning
the characteristic of being independent (relative to something
else). It also can mean: non-redundant, non-overlapping, or
irrelevant. Orthogonality is defined for both real and complex
valued functions. The functions
m
(t) and
n
(t) are said to be
orthogonal with respect to each other over the interval a <t <b
if they satisfy the condition:

}
=
b
a
m m
dt t t , 0 ) ( ) (
*

Where n m
O OF FD DM M C Ca ar rr ri ie er rs s : :

As fore mentioned, OFDM is a special form of MCM
and the OFDM time domain waveforms are chosen such that
mutual orthogonality is ensured even though sub-carrier
spectra may over-lap. With respect to OFDM, it can be stated
that orthogonality is an implication of a definite and fixed
relationship between all carriers in the collection. It means that
each carrier is positioned such that it occurs at the zero energy
frequency point of all other carriers. The sinc function,
illustrated in Fig. 3.1 exhibits this property and it is used as a
carrier in an OFDM system.


f
u
is the sub-carrier spacing
Fig .3.1. OFDM sub carriers in the
frequency domain

O Or rt th ho og go on na al l F Fr re eq qu ue en nc cy y D Di iv vi is si io on n M Mu ul lt ti ip pl le ex xi in ng g : :

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM) is a multicarrier transmission technique, which
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.internationaljournalssrg.org Page 5

divides the available spectrum into many carriers, each one
being modulated by a low rate data stream. OFDM is similar to
FDMA in that the multiple user access is achieved by
subdividing the available bandwidth into multiple channels
that are then allocated to users. However, OFDM uses the
spectrum much more efficiently by spacing the channels much
closer together. This is achieved by making all the carriers
orthogonal to one another, preventing interference between the
closely spaced carriers.

Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(COFDM) is the same as OFDM except that forward error
correction is applied to the signal before transmission. This is
to overcome errors in the transmission due to lost carriers from
frequency selective fading, channel noise and other
propagation effects. For this discussion the terms OFDM and
COFDM are used interchangeably, as the main focus of this
thesis is on OFDM, but it is assumed that any practical system
will use forward error correction, thus would be COFDM.

OFDM overcomes most of the problems with both
FDMA and TDMA. OFDM splits the available bandwidth into
many narrow band channels (typically 100-8000). The carriers
for each channel are made orthogonal to one another, allowing
them to be spaced very close together, with no overhead as in
the FDMA example. Because of this there is no great need for
users to be time multiplex as in TDMA, thus there is no
overhead associated with switching between users.

The orthogonality of the carriers means that each
carrier has an integer number of cycles over a symbol period.
Due to this, the spectrum of each carrier has a null at the center
frequency of each of the other carriers in the system. This
results in no interference between the carriers, allowing then to
be spaced as close as theoretically possible. This overcomes the
problem of overhead carrier spacing required in FDMA. Each
carrier in an OFDM signal has a very narrow bandwidth (i.e. 1
kHz), thus the resulting symbol rate is low. This results in the
signal having a high tolerance to multipath delay spread, as the
delay spread must be very long to cause significant ISI (e.g >
500usec).

M Mo od du ul la at ti io on n T Te ec ch hn ni iq qu ue es s: :
Q Qu ua ad dr ra at tu ur re e A Am mp pl li it tu ud de e M Mo od du ul la at ti io on n ( (Q QA AM M) ): :

This modulation scheme is also called quadrature
carrier multiplexing. Infact, this modulation scheme enables to
DSB-SC modulated signals to occupy the same transmission
BW at the receiver o/p. it is, therefore, known as a
bandwidth-conservation scheme. The QAM Tx consists of two
separate balanced modulators, which are supplied, with two
carrier waves of the same freq but differing in phase by 90.
The o/p of the two balanced modulators are added in the adder
and transmitted.

Fig. 3.2
QAM System

The transmitted signal is thus given by

S (t) =X1 (t) A cos (2HFc t) +X2 (t) A sin (2HFc t)

Hence, the multiplexed signal consists of the in-phase
component A X1 (t) and the quadrature phase component A
X2 (t).

B Ba al la an nc ce ed d M Mo od du ul la at to or r : :

A DSB-SC signal is basically the product of the
modulating or base band signal and the carrier signal.
Unfortunately, a single electronic device cannot generate a
DSB-SC signal. A circuit is needed to achieve the generation of
a DSB-SC signal is called product modulator i.e., Balanced
Modulator.

We know that a non-linear resistance or a non-linear
device may be used to produce AM i.e., one carrier and two
sidebands. However, a DSB-SC signal contains only 2
sidebands. Thus, if 2 non-linear devices such as diodes,
transistors etc., are connected in balanced mode so as to
suppress the carriers of each other, then only sidebands are left,
i.e., a DSB-SC signal is generated. Therefore, a balanced
modulator may be defined as a circuit in which two non-linear
devices are connected in a balanced mode to produce a DSB-SC
signal.

Q Qu ua ad dr ra at tu ur re e P Ph ha as se e S Sh hi if ft t K Ke ey yi in ng g ( (Q QP PS SK K) ) : :

In communication systems, we have two main resources. These
are:
1. Transmission Power
2. Channel bandwidth
If two or more bits are combined in some symbols,
then the signaling rate will be reduced. Thus, the frequency of
the carrier needed is also reduced. This reduces the
transmission channel B.W. Hence, because of grouping of bits
in symbols; the transmission channel B.W can be reduced. In
QPSK two successive bits in the data sequence are grouped
together. This reduces the bits rate or signaling rate and thus
reduces the B.W of the channel. In case of BPSK, we know that
when sym. Changes the level, the phase of the carrier is
changed by 180. Because, there were only two syms in BPSK,
International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

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the phase shift occurs in 2 levels only. However, in QPSK, 2
successive bits are combined. Infact, this combination of two
bits forms 4 distinct syms. When the sym is changed to next
sym, then the phase of the carrier is changed by 45 degrees.

G Ge en ne er ra at ti io on n o of f Q QP PS SK K: :

Here the i/p binary seq. is first converted into a bipolar
NRZ type of signal. This signal is denoted by b (t). It represents
binary 1 by +1V and binary 0 by -1V. The demultiplexer
divides b (t) into 2 separate bit streams of the odd numbered
and even numbered bits. Here Be (t) represents even numbered
sequence and Bo (t) represents odd numbered sequence. The
symbol duration of both of these odd numbered sequences is
2Tb. Hence, each symbol consists of 2 bits.



Fig.3.3 Generation of QPSK

It may be observed that the first even bit occurs after
the first odd bit. Hence, even numbered bit sequence Be (t)
starts with the delay of one bit period due to first odd bit. Thus,
first symbol of Be (t) is delayed by one bit period due to first odd
bit. Thus, first symbol of Be (t) is delayed by on bit period Tb
with respect to first symbol of Bo (t). This delay of Tb is known
as offset. This shows that the change in the levels of Be (t) and
Bo (t) cant occur at the same time due to offset or staggering.
The bit stream Be (t) modulates carrier cosine carrier and B0(t)
modulates sinusoidal carrier. These modulators are the
balanced modulators. The 2 carriers are \Ps.cos (2HFc.t) and
\Ps.sin (2HFc.t) have been shown in fig. Their carriers are
known as quadrature carriers. Due to the offset, the phase
shift in QPSK signal is H/2.

A Ad dd di in ng g a a G Gu ua ar rd d P Pe er ri io od d t to o O OF FD DM M: :

One of the most important properties of OFDM transmissions
is the robustness against multipath delay spread. This is
achieved by having a long symbol period, which minimizes the
ISI. The level of robustness, can infact is increased even more
by the addition of a guard period b/w transmitted syms. The
guard period allows time for multipath sigs from the pervious
symbol to die away before the information from the current
symbol is gathered.

The most effective guard period to use is a cyclic
extension of the symbol. If a mirror in time, of the end of the
symbol waveform is put at the start of the symbol as the guard
period, this effectively extends the length of the symbol, while
maintaining the orthogonally of the waveform. Using this
cyclic extended symbol the samples required for performing the
FFT (to decode the sym), can be taken anywhere over the length
of the sym. This provides multipath immunity as well as sym
time synchronization tolerance.

As long as the multipath delay echos stay within the
guard period duration, there is strictly no limitation regarding
the signal level of the echos: they may even exceed the signal
level of the shorter path! The signal energy from all paths just
adds at the input to the receiver, and since the FFT is energy
conservative, the whole available power feeds the decoder.

If the delay spread is longer then the guard interval
then they begins to cause ISI. However, provided the echos are
sufficiently small they do not cause significant problems. This
is true most of the time as multipath echos delayed longer than
the guard period will have been reflected of very distant objects.
Other variations of guard periods are possible. One possible
variation is to have half the guard period a cyclic extension of
the symbol, as above, and the other half a zero amplitude
signal. This will result in a signal as shown in Fig.3.4.


Fig. 3.4 Section of an OFDM signal showing 5
symbols, using a guard period which is half a cyclic
extension of the symbol, and half a zero amplitude
signal.

IV. PROPAGATI ON OF CHANNEL CHARACTERI STI CS

P Pr ro op pa ag ga at ti io on n C Ch ha ar ra ac ct te er ri is st ti ic cs s o of f m mo ob bi il le e r ra ad di io o c ch ha an nn ne el ls s : :

In an ideal radio channel, the received signal would
consist of only a single directpath signal, which would be a
perfect reconstruction of the transmitted signal. However in a
real channel, the signal is modified during transmission in the
channel.

It is known that the performance of any wireless
systems performance is affected by the medium of
propagation, namely the characteristics of the channel. In
telecommunications in general, a channel is a separate path
International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

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through which signals can flow. In the ideal situation, a direct
line of sight between the transmitter and receiver is desired.
But alas, it is not a perfect world; hence it is imperative to
understand what goes on in the channel so that the original
signal can be reconstructed with the least number of errors.
The received signal consists of a combination of
attenuated, reflected, refracted, and diffracted replicas of the
transmitted signal. On top of all this, the channel adds noise to
the signal and can cause a shift in the carrier frequency if the
transmitter or receiver is moving (Doppler effect).
Understanding of these effects on the signal is important
because the performance of a radio system is dependent on the
radio channel characteristics.

A At tt te en nu ua at ti io on n : :

Attenuation is the drop in the signal power when
transmitting from one point to another. It can be caused by the
transmission path length, obstructions in the signal path, and
multipath effects. Fig. 4.1 shows some of the radio
propagation effects that cause attenuation. Any objects, which
obstruct the line of sight signal from the transmitter to the
receiver, can cause attenuation.


Fig. 4.1. Some
channel characteristics

Shadowing of the signal can occur whenever there is
an obstruction between the transmitter and receiver. It is
generally caused by buildings and hills, and is the most
important environmental attenuation factor. Shadowing is
most severe in heavily built up areas, due to the shadowing
from buildings. However, hills can cause a large problem due to
the large shadow they produce.

Radio signals diffract off the boundaries of
obstructions, thus preventing total shadowing of the signals
behind hills and buildings. However, the amount of diffraction
is dependent on the radio frequency used, with low frequencies
diffracting more then high frequency signals. Thus high
frequency signals, especially, Ultra High Frequencies (UHF),
and microwave signals require line of sight for adequate signal
strength. To over come the problem of shadowing, transmitters
are usually elevated as high as possible to minimize the number
of obstructions. Typical amounts of variation in attenuation due
to shadowing are shown in Table 4.1.


Table.4.1 Typical
attenuation in a radio channel.

Shadowed areas tend to be large, resulting in the rate
of change of the signal power being slow. For this reason, it is
termed slow-fading, or lognormal shadowing.

M Mu ul lt ti ip pa at th h E Ef ff fe ec ct ts s : :

R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h f fa ad di in ng g : :

In a radio link, the RF signal from the transmitter may
be reflected from objects such as hills, buildings, or vehicles.
This gives rise to multiple transmission paths at the receiver.
Fig. 4.2 show some of the possible ways in which multipath
signals can occur.


Fig.4.2
Multipath Signals

F Fr re eq qu ue en nc cy y S Se el le ec ct ti iv ve e F Fa ad di in ng g : :

In any radio transmission, the channel spectral
response is not flat. It has dips or fades in the response due to
reflections causing cancellation of certain frequencies at the
receiver. Reflections off near-by objects (e.g. ground,
buildings, trees, etc) can lead to multipath signals of similar
signal power as the direct signal. This can result in deep nulls
in the received signal power due to destructive interference. For
narrow bandwidth transmissions if the null in the frequency
response occurs at the transmission frequency then the entire
signal can be lost. This can be partly overcome in two ways.

By transmitting a wide bandwidth signal or spread
spectrum as CDMA, any dips in the spectrum only result in a
small loss of signal power, rather than a complete loss. Another
method is to split the transmission up into many small
bandwidth carriers, as is done in a COFDM/OFDM
transmission. The original signal is spread over a wide
bandwidth thus; any nulls in the spectrum are unlikely to occur
at all of the carrier frequencies. This will result in only some of
the carriers being lost, rather then the entire signal. The
information in the lost carriers can be recovered provided
enough forward error corrections are sent.
International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

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D De el la ay y S Sp pr re ea ad d : :

The received radio signal from a transmitter consists
of typically a direct signal, plus reflections of object such as
buildings, mountings, and other structures. The reflected
signals arrive at a later time than the direct signal because of
the extra path length, giving rise to a slightly different arrival
time of the transmitted pulse, thus spreading the received
energy. Delay spread is the time spread between the arrival of
the first and last multipath signal seen by the receiver.



Fig.4.4 Multi delay spread

shows the typical delay spread that can occur in various
environments. The maximum delay spread in an outdoor
environment is approximately 20usec, thus significant
intersymbol interference can occur at bit rates as low as 25kbps.


Table.
4.2 Typical Delay Spread

Inter-symbol interference can be minimized in several
ways. One method is to reduce the symbol rate by reducing the
data rate for each channel (i.e. split the bandwidth into more
channels using frequency division multiplexing). Another is to
use a coding scheme which is tolerant to inter-symbol
interference such as CDMA.

D Do op pp pl le er r S Sh hi if ft t : :

When a wave source and a receiver are moving
relative to one another the frequency of the received signal will
not be the same as the source. When they are moving toward
each other the frequency of the received signal is higher then
the source, and when they are approaching each other the
frequency decreases. This is called the

Doppler Effect. An example of this is the change of pitch in a
cars horn as it approaches then passes by. This effect becomes
important when developing mobile radio systems. The amount
the frequency changes due to the Doppler effect depends on the
relative motion between the source and receiver and on the
speed of propagation of the wave. The Doppler shift in
frequency can be written:


Where Af is the change in frequency of the source seen at the
receiver, fo is the frequency of the source, v is the speed
difference between the source and transmitter, and c is the
speed of light.

For example: Let fo =1GHz, and v =60km/hr (16.7m/s) then
the Doppler shift will
be:


This shift of 55Hz in the carrier will generally not effect
the transmission. However,
Doppler shift can cause significant problems if the
transmission technique is sensitive to carrier frequency offsets
(for example COFDM) or the relative speed is higher (for
example in low earth orbiting satellites).

I I n nt te er r S Sy ym mb bo ol l I I n nt te er rf fe er re en nc ce e : :

As communication systems evolve, the need for high
symbol rates becomes more apparent. However, current
multiple access with high symbol rates encounter several multi
path problems, which leads to ISI. An echo is a copy of the
original signal delayed in time. ISI takes place when echoes on
different-length propagation paths result in overlapping
received symbols. Problems can occur when one OFDM symbol
overlaps with the next one. There is no correlation between two
consecutive OFDM symbols and therefore interference from
one symbol with the other will result in a disturbed signal

In addition, the symbol rate of communications systems is
practically limited by the channels bandwidth. For the higher
symbol rates, the effects of ISI must be dealt with seriously.
Several channel equalization techniques can be used to
suppress the ISIs caused by the channel. However, to do this,
the CIR channel impulse response, must be estimated.

Recently, OFDM has been used to transmit data over a
multi-path channel. Instead of trying to cancel the effects of the
channels ISIs, a set of sub-carriers can be used to transmit
information symbols in parallel sub-channels over the channel,
where the systems output will be the sum of all the parallel
channels throughputs.

International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

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This is the basis of how OFDM works. By
transmitting in parallel over a set of sub-carriers, the data rate
per sub-channel is only a fraction of the data rate of a
conventional single carrier system having the same output.
Hence, a system can be designed to support high data rates
while deferring the need for channel equalizations.

In addition, once the incoming signal is split into the
respective transmission sub-carriers, a guard interval is added
between each symbol. Each symbol consists of useful symbol
duration, T
s
and a guard interval, t, in which, part of the time,
a signal of T
s
is cyclically repeated. This is shown in Fig.4.5.


Fig. 4.5 Combating ISI using a guard interval

As long as the multi path propagation delays do not
exceed the duration of the interval, no inter-symbol
interference occurs and no channel equalization is required.

CHANNELS We Used:

The transmission signal models of the
electromagnetic wave which travels form transmitter to
receiver. Along the way the wave encounters a wide range of
different environments. Channel models represent the attempt
to model these different environments. Their aim is to
introduce well defined disturbances to the transmission signal.
In this lecture we discuss channel models which are typical for
DAB transmission. We consider the effects of noise,
movement, and signal reflection. The general strategy is to
have a pictorial representation of the channel environment
before we introduce the mathematical model.

Overview Diagram :

The following figure shows again the block diagram
of communication system. Such a system consists of Sender,
Channel and Receiver. In this lecture we focus on the
channel aspect of the communication system. In the block
diagram, s(t) is the transmission signal and s(t) is the received
transmission signal.



Frequency offset channel :

The frequency offset channel introduces a static
frequency offset. One possible cause for such a frequency offset
is a slow drifting time base, normally a crystal oscillator, in
either transmitter or receiver. The frequency offset channel
tests the frequency correction circuit in the receiver. The
following figure shows the block diagram of the Frequency
shift channel.


The mathematical model follows as:
.

AWGN channel :

For the Additional White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
channel the received signal is equal to the transmitted signal
with some portion of white Gaussian white noise added. This
channel is particularly important for discrete models operating
on a restricted number space, because this allows one to
optimise the circuits in terms of their noise performance. The
block diagram of the AWGN channel is given in the next
figure.

s(t) =s(t) +n(t)
where n(t) is a sample function of a Gaussian random process.
This represents white Gaussian noise.

Multi path channel :

The multipath channel is the last of the static
channels. It reflects the fact that electromagnetic waves can
travel over various paths from the transmission antenna to the
receiver antenna. The receiver antenna sums up all the
different signals. Therefore, the mathematical model of the
multipath environment creates the received transmission
signal by summing up scaled and delayed versions of the
original transmission signal. This superposition of signals
causes ISI.
The following figure shows a multipath environment.



International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

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The block diagram, shown in the next figure, details a DSP
model for the multipath environment.


The mathematical model follows as:

Fading channels :

Fading channels represent a mathematical model for
wireless data exchange in a physical environment which
changes over time. These changes arise for two reasons:
1. The environment is changing even though the
transmitter and receiver are fixed; examples are
changes in the ionosphere, movement of foliage and
movement of reflectors and scatterers.
2. Transmitter and receiver are mobile even though the
environment might be static.

3. The next figure shows a multipath fading environment.
The fading is modeled by the fact that the
environment is changing.


The block diagram, shown in the next figure, details a DSP
model for the multipath environment

Mathematically the DSP model can be formulated as follows:



DSP model and mathematical description are close
to the underlying physical phenomena. This makes them
unsuitable for practical channel models. To establish practical
channel models we employ statistical methods to abstract and
generalize the fading channel models. In the following two
subsections we discuss Rayleigh and Rician fading channels.
Both represent statistical channel modes, the difference
between them is that the Rayleigh model does not assume a
direct or prominent path and the Ricien model assumes a direct
path. The last channel model extends the ideas of Rayleigh and
Rician fading channels with mobility aspects. The resulting
mobile fading channels model the degrading effects in the
frequency domain of wireless multipath channels.

Rayleigh fading :

Rayleigh fading is caused by multipath reception. The
mobile antenna receives a large number, say N, reflected and
scattered waves. Because of wave cancellation effects, the
instantaneous received power seen by a moving antenna
becomes a random variable, dependent on the location of the
antenna.
To simplify the derivation of the fading models
an un-modulated carrier of the form s(t) =Acos(2pifct) as
transmission signal is used. Based on the block diagram the
complex envelope of the received signal is:


where ai (t) is the gain factor and Ti (t) is the delay for a specific
path i at a specific time t.

where rRa (t) is a sample function of a Rayleigh distributed
random process:

and the is uniformly distributed in the interval [0,
2pi).
The general form of this channel model is:

again, and are amplitude and phase from a
particular measurement of a rayleigh distributed random
process. This channel is called rayleigh fading channel.



V. EXPERI MENTAL RESULTS

International J ournal of Engineering Trends and Technology- Volume2Issue3- 2011

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Fig 5.1. A novel method to reduce the peak-to-average ratio
reduction in OFDM system

Fig 5.2. Adaptive clipping method to reduce the
peak-to-average ratio reduction in OFDM system

Fig 5.3. An extension clipping algorithm to reduce
peak-to-average ratio reduction in OFDM

VI. CONCLUSION

In this paper, we have proposed a new CB-ACE algorithm for
PAR reduction using adaptive clipping control. We observed
that the PAR reduction capacity of the existing CBACE is
dependent on the initial target clipping ratio. The lower the
initial target clipping ratio is from the optimal clipping value,
the smaller the PAR reduction gain. However, our proposed
algorithm provided the minimum PAR even when the initial
target clipping ratio was set below the unknown optimum
clipping point. We presented curves exhibiting the tradeoff
between PAR and the loss in / over an AWGN channel
for the different constellation sizes as a function of a target
clipping ratio.

REFERENCES

[1] B. S. Korngold and D. L. J ones, PAR reduction in OFDM via active
constellation extension, IEEE Trans. Broadcast., vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 258 268,
Sep. 2003.

[2] L. Wang and C. Tellambura, An adaptive-scaling algorithmfor OFDM PAR
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[3] E. Van der Ouderaa, J . Schoukens, and J . Renneboog, Peak factor
minimization using a time-frequency domain swapping algorithm, IEEE Trans.
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[4] C. Tellambura, Computation of the continuous-time PAR of an OFDM signal
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[5] Y. Kou, W.-S. Lu, and A. Antoniou, New peak-to-average powerratio
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[6] M. Friese, On the degradation of OFDM-signals due to peak-clipping in
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[7] J . Tellado, Multicarrier Modulation with Low PAR: Applications to DSL and
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