Chapter 2 ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION The purpose of managerial economics is to provide a systematic framework for problem analysis and solution.

The pluses and minuses of various decision alternatives must be carefully measured and weighed. Costs and benefits must be reliably measured; time differences must be accurately reflected. The collection and characterization of relevant information is the most important step of this process. After all relevant information has been gathered, managers must accurately state the goal or goals that they seek to achieve. Without a clear understanding of managerial objectives, effective decision making is impossible. Once all relevant information has been gathered, and managerial objectives have been clearly stated, the managerial decision making process can proceed to the consideration of decision alternatives. Effective managerial decision making is the process of efficiently arriving at the best possible solution to a given problem. If only one solution is possible, then no decision problem exists. When alternative courses of action are available, the decision that produces a result most consistent with managerial objectives is the optimal decision. The process of arriving at the best managerial decision, or best problem resolution, is the focus of managerial economics. This chapter introduces fundamental principles of economic analysis, which are essential to all aspects of managerial economics and form the basis for describing demand, cost, and profit relations. Once basic economic relations are understood, the tools and techniques of optimization can be applied to find the best course of action. CHAPTER OUTLINE . ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION PROCESS A. Optimal Decisions: The best decision produces the result most consistent with managerial objectives. 1. B. Economic concepts and methodology are used to select the optimal course of action in light of available options and objectives.

Maximizing the Value of the Firm: In managerial economics, the primary objective of management is maximization of the value of the firm. Influences that must be considered include: . . . prices and the quantity sold. cost relations. the appropriate discount rate.

REVENUE RELATIONS

Price and Total Revenue: Total revenue is the amount sold in dollars. 1. 2. Like all financial data, revenue figures are often studied using computer spreadsheets that show functional relations using formulas and equations. If price is constant regardless of the quantity sold, the relation between quantity sold and total revenue is simply TR = P Q. a. b. Generally speaking, TR = f (Q). Total revenue (TR), the variable to the left of the equal sign, is called the dependent variable. Its value depends on the size of the variable variables to the right of the equal sign. Variables on the right-hand side of the equal sign are called independent variables. Their values are determined independently of the functional relation expressed by the equation.

c.

Marginal Revenue: Marginal revenue is the change in total revenue caused by a one-unit change in the number of units sold (Q). In calculus terminology, MR = TR/Q. . . . Generally speaking, a marginal relation is the change in the dependent variable caused by a one-unit change in an independent variable. When marginal revenue is positive, total revenue is increasing. If marginal revenue is negative, total revenue is decreasing. When a linear relation exists between price and the number of units sold, both price and marginal revenue relations begin at the same point on the Y-axis, but marginal revenue falls twice as fast as price with respect to output.

Revenue Maximization Example: Revenue maximization occurs at the point of greatest total revenues. . . . Revenue maximization involves consideration of revenue relations only. Cost relations are not considered. To find the revenue-maximizing output level, set MR = 0, and solve for Q. To be consistent with long-run profit maximization, the advantages of short-run revenue maximization must be at least sufficient to compensate for the corresponding loss in short-run profitability.

COST RELATIONS

A.

Total Cost: Total costs are comprised of fixed costs and variable expenses that fluctuate with output. 1. Because all costs are variable in the long run, long-run fixed costs always equal zero. In the long run, the firm has complete flexibility with respect to input use. The short run is the operating period during which the availability of at least one input is fixed.

2. B.

Marginal and Average Cost: Marginal cost is the basis for short-run operating decisions; average cost is the basis for long-run planning decisions. 1. Marginal cost is the change in cost associated with a 1-unit change in output. In calculus terminology, MC = TC/Q. Marginal costs must be covered by added revenues to justify production in the short run. Average cost is total cost divided by output, or AC = TC/Q. In the long run, average costs must be covered by revenues or the company will go out of business. When marginal cost is greater (less) than average cost, average cost is increasing (decreasing).

2.

3. C.

Average Cost Minimization Example: The average-cost minimizing activity level is the optimal production level for a target level of output. 1. 2. Average cost is minimized when MC = AC. Average cost maximization involves consideration of cost relations only. Revenue relations are not considered.

PROFIT RELATIONS A. Total and Marginal Profit: Total profit is maximized when the optimal level of output is produced efficiently. 1. Total profit equals total revenue minus total cost. Graphically, it is equivalent to the vertical distance between the total revenue and total cost curves at any output level. Marginal profit is the change in total profit associated with a 1-unit change in output. In calculus terminology, M = /Q. (Economists use the Roman letter P for price and the Greek letter pi for profit.).

2.

B.

Profit Maximization Example: The profit-maximizing activity level is the optimal production level for an optimal level of output.

. .

Total profit is maximized when M = MR MC = 0. Equivalently, profits are maximized when MR = MC. The slopes of the total revenue and total cost curves measure marginal revenues (MR) and marginal costs (MC). Where these slopes are equal, MR = MC and profit is maximized. Whereas revenue maximization involves consideration of revenue relations only and average cost maximization involves consideration of cost relations only, profit maximization involves consideration of both revenue and cost relations.

. .

THE INCREMENTAL CONCEPT IN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Marginal Versus Incremental Concept: Incremental analysis involves examining the impact of alternative managerial decisions on revenues, costs, and profits. It focuses on changes or differences between available alternatives. . . . The incremental change is the difference resulting from a given decision. Marginal relations measure only the effect associated with unitary changes in output.

Incremental Profits: Incremental profit is the profit gain or loss associated with a given managerial decision. 1. 2. When incremental profit is negative, total profit declines. Incremental profit is positive (and total profit increases) if the incremental revenue associated with a decision exceeds incremental cost.

Incremental Concept Example: The incremental concept is important for managerial decision making because it focuses attention on the differences among available alternatives. 1. Revenues and costs that are unaffected by a decision are irrelevant and should be excluded from analysis.

SUMMARY

PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS P2.1 Marginal Analysis. Characterize each of the following statements as true or false, and explain your answer. A. B. C. If marginal revenue is greater than average revenue, the demand curve is downward sloping. Profit is minimized when total revenue equals total cost. Given a downward-sloping demand curve and positive marginal costs, profitmaximizing firms always sell more output at lower prices than revenuemaximizing firms. Marginal cost must be less than average cost for average cost to decline as output expands. Marginal profit is the difference between marginal revenue and marginal cost, and always exceeds zero at the profit-maximizing activity level.

D. E. P2.1

SOLUTION A. False. Because average revenue is falling along a downward sloping demand curve, marginal revenue must be less than average revenue for the demand curve to slope downward. False. Profits are maximized when marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Profits equal zero at the breakeven point where total revenue equals total cost. Profits are minimized when the difference between total revenue and total cost is at a maximum. False. Profit maximization involves setting marginal revenue equal to marginal cost. Revenue maximization involves setting marginal revenue equal to zero. Given a downward sloping demand curve and positive marginal costs, revenue maximizing firms charge lower prices and offer greater quantities of output than firms that maximize profits. True. Average cost falls as output expands so long as marginal cost is less than average cost. If this condition is met, average costs decline whether marginal costs are falling, rising or constant. False. Marginal profit equals marginal revenue minus marginal cost, and equals zero at the profit maximizing activity level.

B.

C.

D.

E. P2.2

Revenue Maximization: Tables. Marketing director Peter Petrelli has derived the following price/demand information from a market experiment for a new closetspace organizer product called Max Headroom:

Price $500 475 450 425 400 375 350 325 300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125 A. B. P2.2

Product Demand 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Use a spreadsheet to calculate total and marginal revenue at each level of product demand. At what price level is total revenue maximized? Why?

SOLUTION A. Total and marginal revenue at each level of product demand are as follows: Product Demand Q 0 1 2 3 4 Total Revenue TR=PQ --$475 900 1,275 1,600 Marginal Revenue MR= TR/ Q --$475 425 375 325

Price P $500 475 450 425 400

Price P 375 350 325 300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125 B.

Product Demand Q 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Total Revenue TR=PQ 1,875 2,100 2,275 2,400 2,475 2,500 2,475 2,400 2,275 2,100 1,875

Marginal Revenue MR= TR/ Q 275 225 175 125 75 25 (25) (75) (125) (175) (225)

At a price level of $250 and product demand of 10 units, total revenue is maximized at a level of $2,500. Prior to that point, the added sales from a decrease in price more than compensate for the loss in revenue from charging current customers a lower price. At prices lower than $250, the loss in revenue from charging current customers a lesser price is greater than the gain in revenues from new customers, and total revenue declines. As seen in the marginal revenue column, total revenue increases so long as marginal revenue is positive, but declines when marginal revenue is negative.

P2.3

Average Cost Minimization: Tables. Mendez Machine Tools, Ltd., has been asked to submit a bid on the projected cost of sophisticated production machinery. To help in the bid development process, Isaac Mendez, head of product quality control, has prepared the following schedule of projected volume and production costs:

Output 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 A. B. P2.3

Total Cost $50,000 51,750 54,000 56,750 60,000 63,750 68,000 73,250 79,500 86,250 93,500 102,250 111,500 122,250 134,500 150,000

Use a spreadsheet to calculate the marginal and average cost at each level of production. At what level of production is average cost minimized? Why?

SOLUTION A. Marginal and average cost at each level of production appears as follows:

Output 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 B.

Total Cost $50,000 51,750 54,000 56,750 60,000 63,750 68,000 73,250 79,500 86,250 93,500 102,250 111,500 122,250 134,500 150,000

Marginal Cost --$1,750 2,250 2,750 3,250 3,750 4,250 5,250 6,250 6,750 7,250 8,750 9,250 10,750 12,250 15,500

Average Cost --$51,750.00 27,000.00 18,916.67 15,000.00 12,750.00 11,333.33 10,464.29 9,937.50 9,583.33 9,350.00 9,295.45 9,291.67 9,403.85 9,607.14 10,000.00

Minimum average costs of $9,291.67 are realized at an activity level of 12 units of output. Notice from the marginal cost column that average cost falls so long as marginal cost is less than average cost. Average cost rises so long as marginal cost is greater than average cost. Average cost reaches a minimum when marginal cost switches from being lower than average cost to being greater than average cost.

P2.4

Profit Maximization: Spreadsheet Analysis. Lincoln Burrows, a writing instrument design specialist at Fox River State Pen, Inc., has been asked to project the profitmaximizing activity level for a given design during the coming period. Relevant demand and cost information are as follows:

Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 A.

P $1,00 0 960 920 880 840 800 760 720 680 640 600 560 520 480 440 400

TC $500 740 980 1,220 1,460 1,700 1,940 2,180 2,420 2,660 2,900 3,140 3,380 3,620 3,860 4,100

Construct a table (or spreadsheet) showing total revenue, marginal revenue, marginal cost, average cost, total profit, marginal profit, and average profit for this product at the various activity levels indicated previously. Identify the profit-maximizing activity level. Is the profit-maximizing activity level the same activity level as that at which minimum average costs are experienced? Why? or Why not?

B. C. P2.4

SOLUTION
A. A table (or spreadsheet) showing total revenue, marginal revenue, marginal cost, average cost, total profit, marginal profit, and average profit for this product at the various activity levels is as follows:

Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

P $1,000 960 920 880 840 800 760 720 680 640 600 560 520 480 440 400

TR = PQ $0 960 1,840 2,640 3,360 4,000 4,560 5,040 5,440 5,760 6,000 6,160 6,240 6,240 6,160 6,000

MR = TR/ Q --$960 880 800 720 640 560 480 400 320 240 160 80 0 (80) (160)

TC $500 740 980 1,220 1,460 1,700 1,940 2,180 2,420 2,660 2,900 3,140 3,380 3,620 3,860 4,100

MC = TC/ Q --$240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240

AC = TC/Q --$740.00 490.00 406.67 365.00 340.00 323.33 311.43 302.50 295.56 290.00 285.45 281.67 278.46 275.71 273.33

= TR-TC ($500) 220 860 1,420 1,900 2,300 2,620 2,860 3,020 3,100 3,100 3,020 2,860 2,620 2,300 1,900

M = Q / --$720 640 560 480 400 320 240 160 80 0 (80) (160) (240) (320) (400)

A = /Q --$220.00 430.00 473.33 475.00 460.00 436.67 408.57 377.50 344.44 310.00 274.55 238.33 201.54 164.29 126.67

B.

Production and sale of 10 units at a price of $600 (or 9 units and a price of $640) is the profit-maximizing activity level. Profits are maximized at a level of $3,100. Prior to this point, the marginal revenue associated with additional sales exceeds their associated marginal cost, marginal profit is positive, and total profit rises with an expansion in output. Subsequent to this point, the marginal revenue associated with additional sales is less than their associated marginal cost, marginal profit is negative, and total profit falls with an expansion in output. No, the profit-maximizing activity level is not the same activity level as that at which minimum average costs are experienced. In this problem, marginal costs are a constant $240 per unit. With fixed costs of $500, average costs continue to fall as output expands; they approach $240 as a lower limit. Although average costs continue to diminish as output expands, ever lower prices must be offered to generate these added sales. Total profits fall as output expands beyond 10 units because marginal revenues are less than marginal costs beyond that point. It is important to recognize that profit maximization requires a comparison of marginal revenues and marginal costs; average cost minimization involves a comparison of marginal cost and average cost relations only (revenue effects are not considered).

C.

P2.5

Marginal Analysis: Tables. Michael Scofield, a student at Minnesota State University, is preparing for final exams and has decided to devote five hours to the study of managerial economics and finance. Scofields goal is to maximize the average grade earned in the two courses, and must decide how much time to spend

on each exam. Scofield realizes that maximizing the average grade in the two courses is equivalent to maximizing the sum of the grades. According to Scofield's best estimates, the grades achieved will vary according to the schedule shown below. Managerial Economics Hours of Study 0 1 2 3 4 5 A. Grade 25 45 65 75 83 90 Finance Hours of Study 0 1 2 3 4 5

Grade 50 62 72 81 88 93

Describe the manner in which Scofield could make use of the marginal concept in managerial economics to assist in determining the optimal allocation of five hours between the two courses. How much time should Scofield spend studying each subject? In addition to managerial economics and finance, Scofield is also taking a marketing course. Scofield estimates that each hour spent studying marketing will result in an eight point increase on the marketing examination score. Scofield has tentatively decided to spend three hours preparing for the marketing exam. Is Scofield's attempt to maximize the average grade in all three courses with three hours devoted to marketing and five hours devoted to managerial economics and finance (allocated as in part B) an optimal decision? Why? or Why not?

B. C.

P2.5

SOLUTION A. An optimal allocation of study time is one that will permit Scofield to maximize the average grade earned in the managerial economics and finance courses. This maximization will occur when Scofield allocates each hour of study time to that course where the marginal grade value of study time is greatest. To determine how much time Scofield should spend studying each subject a table illustrating the marginal grade value of each hour of study time must be constructed. This table reads as follows:

B.

Managerial Economics Hours of Study 0 1 2 3 4 5 Grade 25 45 65 75 83 90 Marginal Grade Value -20 20 10 8 7 Hours of Study 0 1 2 3 4 5

Finance Grade 50 62 72 81 88 93 Marginal Grade Value -12 10 9 7 5

With only five hours to study, Scofield should spend three hours on managerial economics and two hours on finance. C. No, Scofield's decision to spend three hours studying for the marketing exam is incorrect if the objective is to maximize the average grade received in managerial economics, finance and marketing. Only two hours should be allocated to studying marketing because an additional hour spent on finance would increase the total grade achieved by nine points; one point more than the eight point gain associated with the third hour spent preparing for the marketing exam, and will lead to a maximum average grade.

P2.6

Marginal Analysis: Tables. Monica Geller is a regional media consultant for Friendly Images, Inc., a New York- based media consultant. Geller has gathered the following data on weekly advertising media expenditures and gross sales for a major client, Greenwich Village=s Central Perk Coffeehouse.

Gross Sales Following Promotion in the Following Media: Advertising Expenditure $0 100 200 300 400 500 A. Newspaper $10,000 12,000 13,800 15,400 16,600 17,200 Radio $10,000 14,000 17,600 20,200 22,000 22,400 Television $10,000 13,000 15,600 18,000 18,600 18,800

Construct a table (or spreadsheet) showing marginal sales following promotion in each media. (Assume here and throughout the problem that there are no synergistic effects across different media.) If the Central Perk Coffeehouse has an advertising budget of $500 per week, how should it be spent? Why? Calculate the profit maximizing advertising budget and media allocation assuming the Central Perk Coffeehouse enjoys an average profit contribution before media expenditures of 6% on store- wide sales. How much are maximum weekly profits (before taxes)?

B. C.

P2.6

SOLUTION A. A table showing marginal sales generated by promotion in each media appears as follows:

Marginal Sales Following Promotion in the Following Media: Advertising Expenditure $0 100 200 300 400 500 B. Newspaper --$2,000 1,800 1,600 1,200 600 Radio --$4,000 3,600 2,600 1,800 400 Television --$3,000 2,600 2,400 600 200

Using the data in part A, and given a $500 advertising budget, gross sales and profit contribution are maximized by allocating $300 to radio and $200 to television advertising. Irrespective of whether the Central Perk Coffeehouse seeks to maximize revenues or profit, this expenditure allocation is optimal. Given an average profit contribution before media expenditures of 6% on store-wide sales, an additional dollar of advertising will be profitable so long as it returns more than $16.67 in additional revenues. That is, the profit contribution on additional revenues of $16.67 is just sufficient to cover media costs of $1 (= $16.67 0.06). The profit maximizing advertising budget is $900 per week allocated as: $200 on newspaper, $400 on radio, and $300 on television. Maximum weekly profits are: Base sales + Newspaper sales + Radio sales + Television sales Gross margin Gross profit - Media costs Net profit (before tax) $10,000 3,800 12,000 8,000 $33,800 0.06 2,028 900 $ 1,128

C.

P2.7

Marginal Analysis: Equations. American Idol Products, Inc., has developed a new pocket-sized wireless communications device. This product's reliability level, measured by its failure rate, is a function of the amount of on-site preventive maintenance and warranty work: Failure Rate = 0.1 - 0.01t + 0.001t2, Marginal Failure Rate = t = - 0.01 + 0.002t, F/ where t represents the amount of time devoted to on-site preventive maintenance and warranty work: A. B. Set the marginal failure rate equal to zero to determine the failure rateminimizing level of on-site preventive maintenance and warranty work. What is the optimal failure rate?

P2.7

SOLUTION A. Set MF = 0 to find the failure rate-minimizing level of on-site preventive maintenance and warranty work: MF = -0.01 + 0.002t 0 0.002t t = -0.01 + 0.002t = 0.01 = 5 hours

For this to be a failure-rate minimizing, rather than maximizing, level of on-site preventive maintenance and warranty work, the failure rate must be increasing beyond this point. This is indeed the case, as can be illustrated with a simple numerical example (see part B). B. At t = 5, note that: F = 0.1 - 0.01t + 0.001t2 = 0.1 - 0.01(5) + 0.001(52) = 0.075 (or 7.5%) To confirm that this is failure-rate minimizing level of t, notice that F is increasing for t > 5, e.g., F = 0.076 or 7.6% when t = 6. P2.8 Profit Maximization: Equations. Gregory Houses, Inc. operates with the following revenue and cost functions:

TR = $100Q - $0.5Q2 MR = TR/ = $100 - $1Q Q TC = $1,500 - $10Q + $0.5Q2 MC = TC/ = - $10 + $1Q Q

(Total Revenue) (Marginal Revenue) (Total Cost) (Marginal Cost)

where Q represents the quantity of output produced and sold as measured by thousands of hours of temporary accounting services (000). A. B. P2.8 Set M = MR - MC = 0 to determine the profit-maximizing price/output combination for ATI. Show that marginal revenue equals marginal cost at this profit-maximizing output level.

SOLUTION A. Set M = MR - MC = 0 to maximize profits, where: M = MR - MC 0 = $100 - $1Q + $10 - $1Q 2Q = 110 Q = 55 (000) And, P = TR/Q = ($100Q - $0.5Q2)/Q = $100 - $0.5Q = $100 - $0.05(55) = $72.50 B. At Q = 55 (000), note that: MR = $100 - $1Q = $100 - $55 = $45 MC = -$10 + $1Q = -$10 + $55 = $45

This numerical finding illustrates the general result that if M = MR - MC = 0, then MR = MC will always be true. P2.9 Profit Versus Revenue Maximization. West Wing Products, Inc., based in Durham, New Hampshire, produces and sells a wide variety of replacement parts and equipment for light aircraft. Leo McGarry, a product line specialist for the company, is reviewing the company=s Internet marketing strategy for a popular flight manual. Demand and cost relations for the guidebook are given by the equations: P = $155 - $0.05Q MR = = $155 - $0.1Q TR/ Q TC = $75,000 + $5Q + $0.0125Q2 MC = = $5 + $0.025Q TC/ Q where Q is the quantity produced and sold per week. A. B. C. P2.9 Calculate the revenue-maximizing price/output combination. Calculate the profit-maximizing price/output combination. Are the differences in your answers to parts A and B typical or atypical? Explain. (Demand) (Marginal Revenue) (Total Cost) (Marginal Cost)

SOLUTION A. Set MR = 0 to find the revenue-maximizing output level: MR = $155 - $0.1Q 0 = $155 - $0.1Q 0.1Q = 155 Q = 1,550 Because total revenue is declining beyond this point, Q = 1,550 is a point of maximum revenues. And, P = $155 - $0.05(1,550) = $77.50 B. Set M = MR - MC = 0 to find the profit-maximizing output level:

M = MR - MC 0 = $155 - $0.1Q - $5 - $0.025Q 0.125Q = 150 Q = 1,200 Because total profit is declining for Q > 1,200, Q = 1,200 is a point of maximum profits. And, P = $155 - $0.05(1,200) = $95 C. This is a typical result; so long as the product demand curve slopes downward and marginal cost exceeds zero, revenue maximization results in greater output (here, 1,550 versus 1,200) and lower prices (here, $77.50 versus $95) than is true with profit maximization.

P2.10

Profit Maximization Versus Average Cost Minimization. Immensely popular mystery writer Stan Marsh has just published a new book titled "South Park, Colorado.@ Relevant monthly demand and cost relations for this hard cover title are: P = $35 - $0.00075Q MR = = $35 - $0.0015Q TR/ Q TC = $50,000 + $5Q + $0.0005Q2 MC = = $5 + $0.001Q TC/ Q (Demand) (Marginal Revenue) (Total Cost) (Marginal Cost)

where Q is the number of books produced and sold per month. A. B. C. P2.10 Calculate the profit-maximizing price/output combination and profit level. Calculate the average cost-minimizing price/output combination and profit level. Contrast your answers to parts A and B.

SOLUTION A. To find the profit-maximizing activity level, set M = MR - MC = 0: M = MR - MC

0 0.0025Q Q P

= $35 - $0.0015Q - $5 - $0.001Q = 30 = 12,000. = $35 - $0.00075(12,000) = $26.

= TR-TC = $35Q - $0.00075Q2 - $50,000 - $5Q - $0.0005Q2 = -$50,000 + $30Q - $0.00125Q2 = -$50,000 + $30(12,000) - $0.00125(12,0002) = $130,000

Because total profit is declining for Q > 12,000, Q = 12,000 is a point of maximum profits per month. (Note: A publisher's price of $26 is consistent with a bookstore price of roughly $35.) B. To find the average cost-minimizing activity level, set MC = AC: MC = AC = TC/Q $5 + $0.001Q = ($50,000 + $5Q + $0.0005Q2)/Q $5 + $0.001Q = $50,000/Q + $5 + $0.0005Q 0.0005Q = 50,000/Q Q2 = 100,000,000 Q = 10,000 P = $35 - $0.00075(10,000) = $27.50 = -$50,000 + $30(10,000) - $0.00125(10,0002) = $125,000

Because average cost is rising for Q > 10,000, Q = 10,000 is a point of minimum average costs per month. C. Profit maximization involves a comparison of the marginal revenues and marginal costs of production. Average-cost minimization involves a consideration of cost relations only. Therefore, it is not surprising that these two approaches often yield different price/output combinations. In this instance, the added revenues associated with an additional 2,000 units beyond the average cost-minimizing level of 10,000 is so great as to overcome the disadvantage of somewhat higher average costs at the 12,000 units versus 10,000 units activity level.