Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References

Hamiltons principle and Symmetries

Sourendu Gupta
TIFR, Mumbai, India
Classical Mechanics 2012
August 13, 2012
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Action
For a mechanical system with generalized coordinates q
1
, q
2
, in
motion between times t
1
and t
2
, the action is dened as the
integral
S[t
1
, t
2
] =
_
t
2
t
1
dtL(q
1
, q
2
, , q
1
, q
2
, , t)
The value of the action depends on the world line of the particle
{q
1
(t), q
2
(t), }: it is a functional of the world line.
world line
trajectory
t
q
1
q
2
Hamiltons principle
The particles actual trajectory is the one that minimizes the action
subject to the boundary conditions imposed on it.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Functionals: easy as
An example of a functional of a curve: the area under a curve!
A[y] =
_
x
f
x
i
dxy(x).
x
y
y(x)
x
y
y(x)
x
y
y(x)
The area is a functional of the curve. Use Riemann sums to
approximate the area in terms of N variables y(x
1
), y(x
2
), etc.,
A[y] = h
N
N

i =1
y(x
i
), where h
N
=
x
f
x
i
N
.
Finding variations of the area with the curve is just calculus of
many variables.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Calculus of variations
Finding an extremum of a function involves setting its derivatives
to zero and then solving the resulting equations. Checking whether
an extremum is a maximum or minimum involves checking the sign
of the second derivative. The minimum of a functional is similar.
Make small variations q
k
(t) around a trajectory specied by q
k
(t)
and q
k
(t). Since the boundary conditions are xed, so
q
k
(t
1
) = q
k
(t
2
) = 0. The variation of L under such a variation
of the trajectory is
L =

k
q
k
L
q
k
+
d
dt
_
q
k
L
q
k
_
q
k
d
dt
_
L
q
k
_
Now we put this inside the integral to evaluate S. Since
_
t
2
t
1
dt
d
dt
_
q
k
L
q
k
_
= q
k
L
q
k

t
2
t
1
= 0,
we recover the Euler-Lagrange equations.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Two examples
Quartic oscillator Physical pendulum
L
1
2
m q
2

1
4
V
0
q
4 1
2
m
2

2
mg(1 cos )
Q V
0
q
3
mg sin
p m q m
2

EoM m q + V
0
q
3
= 0 m
2

+ mg sin = 0
q +
2
q
3
= 0

+
2
sin = 0
where
2
=
V
0
m
where
2
=
_
g
L
t t

+ sin = 0
q q/ q + q
3
= 0
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Numerical solutions
Minimization of the action can be carried out numerically very
simply using a lattice discretization. Work with D degrees of
freedom, q
1
, q
2
, q
D
. Divide the time interval into N equal
pieces. At times t
j
= t
0
+jh
N
use the notation q
j
k
= q
k
(t
j
), so that
the action is a function of D(N 1) variables
S =
m
k
2h
2
N
D,N

k=1,j =1
_
q
j
k
q
j 1
k
_
2

j =1
V(q
j
1
, q
j
2
, , q
j
D
)
= N
2
N

j =1
_
D

k=1
q
j
k
q
j 1
k
V(q
j
1
, q
j
2
, , q
j
D
)
_
.
In the second line we have assumed that units have been chosen so
that m
k
= 1 and t
N
t
0
= 1. Since V depends only the q
k
at one
xed time, we have dened V = V N
2

k
(q
j
k
)
2
. The only
connection between dierent times is the hopping term q
j
k
q
j 1
k
.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
An idiotically simple algorithm for minimization
There are many ways to minimize a function of many variables. A
mindlessly simple algorithm is:
1
Choose a stopping criterion .
2
Start with a trajectory {q
j
k
}. The corresponding value of the
action is S.
3
Select a random set of values {q

j
k
} and compute the
corresponding value of the action, S

.
4
|S S

| < then stop. The trajectory is now {q

j
k
}.
5
If S

< S set q
j
k
= q

j
k
. Repeat from step 3.
Minimization of a function of many variables
Can you think of other ways of minimizing the action which do not
use the Euler-Lagrange equations?
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Two Problems
Problem 6: Simple harmonic motion
The Lagrangian for a simple harmonic oscillator becomes
L =
1
2

1
2

2
, (0) =
1
2
, (1) =
1
2
.
Find the trajectory by numerical minimization.
Problem 7: The physical pendulum
The Lagrangian for the physical pendulum is
L =
1
2

2
(1 cos ), (0) =
1
2
, (1) =
1
2
.
Find the trajectory by numerical minimization.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Integrals of motion
Some constraints on the solutions of the equations of motion can
be found without solving the full problem, i.e., without giving qs
as functions of time. One example is of a free particle in this
case the integral of motion is the conserved value of the
momentum. Similarly for a freely rotating body the conserved
angular momentum is an integral of motion.
First integrals of motion
In general a rst integral of motion is some relation
f (q
1
, q
2
, , q
1
, q
2
, , t) = constant.
They are called rst integrals because the equations of motion
involve q
k
, i.e., dierential equations of the second order.
However, these conditions integrate the equations once, so that
they provide dierential equations of rst order.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Symmetries of a system
For a free particle, any point in space looks the same as any other,
because every point is free of forces. As a result, the Lagrangian is
independent of the coordinates, i.e., V = constant.
For a freely rotating body, any orientation is the same as any
other, since there is no moment that arises as it rotates. As a
result, the Lagrangian is independent of the angle the body makes
with respect to a xed frame.
Symmetries of mechanical systems
These notions of symmetry permit immediate generalization. We
say that a system posseses a symmetry (or symmetries) if one (or
more) of the generalized coordinates do not appear in the
Lagrangian.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Symmetries and integrals of motion
Write the Euler-Lagrange equations in the form
p
k
=
L
q
k
.
If a Lagrangian possesses a symmetry with respect to one of the
generalized coordinates, q
k
, then the right hand side vanishes. The
symmetry leads to a rst integral of motion, the conservation of
the corresponding momentum.
Noethers Theorem
Every symmetry leads to a conservation law for the corresponding
momentum. Generalized coordinates associated with such integrals
of motion are called cyclic coordinates.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Motion of a charged particle
Problem 8: Motion of a charged particle
What is the canonical momentum of a charged particle in a EM
eld? If the external elds are time-independent, then L does not
depend explicitly on the time. In this case check whether T + V is
conserved. system?
Problem 9: A charged particle in a constant magnetic eld
Are there any conserved quantities when a charged particle moves
in a constant magnetic eld and zero electric eld? What does
your analysis show about the general character of the trajectories?
Problem 10: A charged particle around a magnetic monopole
A magnetic monopole is any source which produces a radial
magnetic eld. For a charged particle moving in the eld of a xed
magnetic monopole, what are the conserved quantities?
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Scaling symmetries
Under a scaling L L the equations of motion and its solutions
remain unchanged.
Assume that under a scaling of coordinates q
k
q
k
, the
potential scales as V

V. Scale the time as t

t; the
kinetic energy scales as T
2(1)
T. For the Lagrangian to
scale uniformly, one must have
2(1 ) = , i .e. = 1

2
.
As a result, two trajectories related by scaling must obey the law
t

t
=
_
l

l
_
(1/2)
.
Then Keplers third law that the cube of the distance of a planet
from the sun is proportional to the square of its period of
revolution implies = 1, i.e., Newtons law of gravity.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3
Hamiltons Principle Symmetries Keywords and References
Keywords and References
Keywords
action, world line, functional, lattice discretization, hopping term,
algorithm, stopping criterion, rst integral of motion, symmetry,
conservation law, cyclic coordinates, Noethers theorem, scaling,
Keplers third law, Newtons law of gravity
References
Goldstein, Chapter 2
Landau, Chapter II
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 3