JULY/AUGUST 2004 SERIES 2 MODULE 04

The Continuing Professional Development programme SERIES

CURRENT THINKING ON...

ENERGY-EFFICIENT BOILERS & BURNERS

By Phil Jones, Building Energy Solutions
There have been a lot of changes in the boiler world over the last ten years, much of which has been a drive towards greater energy efficiency. Condensing boilers are now becoming a common option; even the entry level is what used to be called 'high efficiency'. You may think that one boiler is much the same as another; they all look roughly the same on the outside but there are a wide range of products and their selection ultimately determines the efficiency of the heating system. Back to basics! Most heating boilers don't boil, they generally produce Low Temperature Hot Water (LTHW) at 80900C. Only steam boilers actually boil the water and they are mainly used in very large industrial sites these days. Some large multi building sites operate on medium (MTHW) or even high (HTHW) temperature hot water allowing the designer to minimise the diameter of distribution pipework and hence capital costs. Some heating systems (e.g. underfloor) operate as low as 400C and these are ideal for condensing boilers (see page 27). Space heating boilers are most commonly fuelled (fired) by natural gas but oil is still widely used. Different grades of oil are used, rated by their viscosity (thickness). Light kerosene and fuel oil are used in smaller buildings while heavy fuel oil that requires some heat to make it viscous enough to pump to the boiler, is generally used in very large multi-building sites. Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is also used where natural gas is not available, although this can be expensive. Bio-fuels are becoming more popular, fired on crops specifically raised as a fuel or where organic waste is readily available (e.g. tree pruning in local authorities). Boilers generally consist of a burner that produces a flame that raises the temperature of a heat exchanger which then passes the heat to the water in the heating system. Waste gases called "products of combustion" are then emitted to the atmosphere via a chimney (flue) including carbon dioxide (CO2) which is a contributor to global warming. There is a wide range of burner and heat exchanger designs, all with different configurations and materials combined in arrangements that are manufacturer specific.

Energy in Buildings and Industry and the Energy Institute are delighted to have teamed up to bring you this Continuing Professional Development initiative aimed at energy managers. This is the fourth module in this series and focuses on boilers and burners. It is accompanied by a set of multiplechoice questions. To qualify for a CPD certificate readers must submit at least eight of the ten sets of questions from this series of modules to EiBI for the Energy Institute to mark. Anyone achieving at least eight out of ten correct answers on eight separate articles qualifies for an Energy Institute CPD certificate. This can be obtained, on successful completion of the course, for a fee of 15 (for members) or 25 (for non-members). The articles, each written by a qualified member of the Energy Institute, will appeal to those new to energy management and those with more experience of the subject. The following topics will be coming up: drives and controls; air conditioning; monitoring and targeting; training; utility purchasing; and building management systems. Previous modules covered metering, lighting, and space heating. If you miss any of the modules during the year let us know (mark.thrower@btinternet.com) and we will send the missing modules to you by e-mail in pdf format. We hope you enjoy the series and hope they provide useful information. Let us know what you think of them and what subjects you would like to see covered in the future. MARK THROWER, MANAGING EDITOR

WELCOME

Burners
The objective of a burner is to achieve combustion with the correct mix of fuel and air so that all the fuel is burnt efficiently. A poor air/fuel ratio giving poor combustion of fuels like oil can lead to "carry-over" of unburnt oil into the chimney, wasting fuel and increasing emissions. There are three main categories of burner (see Fig. 1):

Atmospheric burners - gas is injected through the burner which entrains the air necessary for combustion. This is the most basic and least-efficient approach, and one that the market is moving away from as a result of tighter building regulations.

Produced in association with

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Pressure jet burners - a fan forces air into the burner, the fuel (gas or oil) is then mixed in at the burner nozzle and fired into a combustion chamber. Usually used on larger boilers. Pre-mixed burners - gas/air is mixed before combustion in a mixing chamber then forced through a burner (often a foil arrangement) and the flame sits on the burner. The main advantage of the pre-mix method is that the combustion air can be controlled very closely to achieve the correct ratio of air and gas mixture at all times. This has the effect of improving combustion efficiency. Some boilers achieve increased efficiencies by pre-heating the combustion air. This is often accomplished by passing the air around the outside of the heat exchanger before it reaches the burner and this, in effect, also provides an insulating jacket to minimise case losses from the boiler. There are three main approaches to burner/boiler operation: On/off - the most basic approach with single-stage burner operation either on or off. At part load, the burner cycles on and off to achieve the necessary heat output. 10 minutes on and 10 minutes off is operating at 50 per cent part load. (see Fig. 2).

combustion chamber surrounded by water, the combustion gases then pass through a series of steel tubes that also pass through the water. These basic designs have moved on significantly with the use of aluminium blocks/tubes and many modern boilers use copper-finned-tubes as the heat exchanger. This has resulted in more lightweight boilers, the smaller versions being wall hung. As efficiency regulations have increased, boiler manufacturers have gradually increased heat transfer rates by improving heat exchanger designs to increase heat transfer. Associated with improved burner design and improvements in boiler insulation, this has meant that boiler efficiencies have increased substantially over the last 10-20 years.

Boiler efficiency
There is often confusion about the presentation and use of gross and net efficiency data for heating equipment. Gross efficiency includes the heat contained in the water vapour produced during combustion within the 100 per cent value and is therefore always less than 100 per cent. Net efficiency accounts for the heat in the water vapour over and above the 100 per cent value so the maximum is around 109 per cent. Condensing boilers recover some of the heat in the water vapour so it is possible to achieve efficiencies greater than 100 per cent net efficiency. The two approaches are simply different scales for measuring the same thing. (see Fig. 3).

part load efficiencies effectively disappeared. With Building Regulations placing additional demands on the boiler, high efficiency boilers are now becoming the minimum standard and condensing boilers the norm. To meet the efficiency requirements of the latest Building Regulations Part L, boilers must typically have a gross efficiency higher than 78 per cent at full load and 81.5 per cent (82.8 per cent in Scotland) at a part load of 30 per cent. A further revision of Part L is due in 2005 and it seems likely that these minimum values will be increased. All boilers have losses and in order to understand boiler efficiency it is important to recognise where the losses occur in boilers. Hot combustion products pass through the heat exchanger, giving up heat to the system water. Inevitably, there are heat losses in the products of combustion emitted to the atmosphere and a small amount of heat lost through the boiler casing. In traditional boilers, the greatest losses are often at part load. As the load reduces, the basic on/off boiler spends more time in standby mode - off but hot. If air is allowed to pass through the hot boiler when off then this results in significant losses. This can be prevented by introducing a flue damper to stop the passage of air, raising the part load efficiency and hence meeting the requirements of Part L. Modern highefficiency boilers are specifically designed to prevent this passage of air and therefore have inherently better part load efficiencies.

Multiple boiler arrangements

High/Low - two-stage burner operation with a low firing rate then stepping up to a high firing rate. This provides a greater number of stages which can be sequenced to match the load more closely. Fully Modulating - the burner adjusts both fuel and air together to meet the load with optimum combustion efficiency at all loads. This also provides very close matching of output to the heat demand and is the most energy efficient approach. Using multiple boilers (modules) in one installation can improve energy efficiency by enabling a good match between boiler output and system demand. During maximum demand on the system in midwinter, all the boilers will be firing. During periods of lower demand (e.g. spring/autumn) only a proportion of the boilers will be required to supply heat. As the load increases, individual modules are progressively switched on. The smaller modules spend more time operating at full load compared to a single large boiler, resulting in improved seasonal efficiencies. Although this is less pronounced in modern boilers, the principle remains the same, unless the plant has higher efficiency at part load (e.g. condensing boilers). Careful sequence control is fundamental to this approach. Benefits include greater energy efficiency, reduced running costs, improved load matching, built-in standby

Heat Exchangers
Heat exchange materials include cast iron, aluminium, steel and copper. Traditional boilers have been based on blocks of cast iron with water-ways passing through them. The burner sits underneath and fires upwards through passageways in the cast iron, giving up heat to the water. Larger boilers have been based on pressure jet burners firing into a steel

With the introduction of the EU Boiler Efficiency Directive in 1998, all boilers up to 400kW had to have a minimum efficiency at full load (e.g. 88 per cent net for a 100kW boiler). This directive also introduced a minimum efficiency requirement at part (30 per cent) load. It is important to remember that boilers spend most of their working lives at part load so a high part load efficiency will contribute significantly to improved seasonal/annual efficiencies. This directive meant that older traditional boilers with poor efficiency and very poor

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capacity, flexibility in maintenance and allowing the most efficient boilers to take the base load. Overall energy savings of 510 per cent are typical.

Boilers
Boilers generally fall into three main categories (see Fig. 4):

Standard boilers - based on upgraded traditional designs, often cast iron with atmospheric burners. Due to improvements in heat exchange and insulation they provide the entry level technology with a clear efficiency margin over older existing plant. While they meet the full load efficiency requirements of the building regulations many fail at part load. This is due to the fact that at part load, an atmospheric boiler draws an excess volume of combustion air, because the flue is sized for the maximum full load, and unless the excess air is controlled, then the boiler efficiency performance is reduced. Reducing the excess air using a flue damper can result in gross efficiencies up to 85 per cent at part load, well above the minimum requirements of Part L. Alternatively, standard boilers could be used as part of a mixed installation with higher efficiency boilers in order to meet Part L. High-efficiency boilers - These boilers generally have low water content (and/or low thermal mass) with even greater heat exchange surface and insulation. They achieve around 85 per cent at full load falling slightly to around 83 per cent at 30 per cent part load and comply with Part L requirements. The higher part load efficiencies make them particularly suitable for applications with a wide range of loads. They sometimes come in a packaged modular arrangement or as smaller individual wall hung boilers.

Condensing boilers - use an additional heat exchanger to extract extra heat by condensing water vapour from the products of combustion. They operate at a minimum efficiency of around 85 per cent, even when not condensing and can achieve efficiencies in the range 85-95 per cent depending upon the system return water temperature. Condensation begins to occur at return water temperatures below 55C and the lower the return the more efficient the boiler. In underfloor heating systems that operate at 30-400C they can achieve seasonal efficiencies over 90 per cent However, the more common approach for standard radiator systems is direct weather compensation to achieve around 88 per cent. Constant temperature 80C flow systems for fan coil units or air handling units are less appropriate for condensing boilers as payback periods will be less attractive. Condensing boiler efficiency is often higher at part load than at full load and they easily comply with Part L requirements with 85 per cent at full load rising to around 90 per cent at 30 per cent load. Condensing boilers provide typical energy savings of 1020 per cent when replacing existing older plant resulting in paybacks of 2-5 years depending on the installation. Condensing boilers can be more expensive than the standard boiler. To keep capital cost to a minimum while still retaining high efficiencies it is sensible to mix and match condensing and noncondensing boilers. Other than very low temperature systems, combinations of condensing and non-condensing boilers are normally more cost effective than all condensing boilers. Specifying the lead boiler(s) as condensing, with high

efficiency or standard boiler(s) to top-up, optimises capital cost while still keeping overall plant efficiency high. It is common to find that half to three quarters condensing plant provides the most economic approach. Condensing boilers should always be the first choice for 'lead' gas boilers in multiple installations.

Controls
It is very difficult to separate boilers from the heating system as the two interact to form an overall system efficiency. Equally important is the dynamic nature of heating systems with heat demand changing almost constantly. The most efficient systems have efficient boilers, good heat distribution systems and good controls. The key requirement is to provide heat only when and where it is needed and at the right temperature while minimising boiler cycling. Use optimum start/stop for time control and weather compensation for temperature control, trimmed by motorised valves or TRVs for zone control. Good sequence control is fundamental to achieving an energy-efficient multiple boiler installation. In particular, careful location of the sensor in a representative part of a constant flow primary circuit is essential for stable control. All boilers have a boiler control thermostat and a high limit thermostat for safety purposes. In multiple boiler installations these should be set much higher then the sequence controls so that they allow the sequence control to act without interference. Where boilers are more efficient in 'low' fire than in 'high' fire then the sequence should begin by bringing the more efficient 'low' stages on first. The sequence should therefore go LOW-LOW-LOW then HIGHHIGH-HIGH.

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Other observations
It is essential to select the most efficient plant and ensure that plant and equipment are not oversized. Plant that is too large will operate further down the part load curve and hence at lower efficiencies unless it is condensing. Where possible, segregate domestic hot water from space heating in order to avoid poor summertime efficiencies. Plant sized to meet space heating and hot water will effectively be far too large for small summer hot water demands and this could reduce seasonal efficiency significantly. Even a well-designed system can perform badly with poor controls. Conversely, you can't fix a poor heating design by just adding controls. The boilers, heating distribution and controls have to be seen as one overall system. Regularly carrying out good boiler maintenance is essential to ensure continual high efficiencies. This includes cleaning and setting up the burner, cleaning the heat exchanger to ensure good heat transfer and setting the boiler controls correctly. Above all, keep it simple! Over-complex systems and controls can lead to installation, commissioning and maintenance problems which result in poor operation and efficiency.

FURTHER READING
Heating CIBSE Guide B1 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (2002) Heating systems and their control GIR 40 (Action Energy 0800 585794) www.actionenergy.org.uk (1996) Heating controls for wet central heating systems in small, commercial and multi-residential buildings GPG 132 (Action Energy 0800 585794) www.actionenergy.org.uk (2000) Domestic Heating Design Guide published by HVCA and others, November 2000. (ISBN 0-903783-33-9) Condensing boilers CIBSE Applications Manual AM3 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1989) Heating system option appraisal - an engineer's guide for

existing buildings GPG 187 (Action Energy 0800 585794) www.actionenergy.org.uk (1996) Building control systems CIBSE Guide H (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (2000) Energy Efficiency in Buildings - CIBSE Guide F (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (2003) Heating Systems Plant and Control by Day, Ratcliffe and Shepherd (Blackwell Science, 2003)

Phil Jones is an independent energy consultant specialising in buildings. He is the author of many guides on the subject including CIBSE Guide F - Energy Efficiency In Buildings. Phil is a member of the CIBSE Carbon Task Group and chairman of the CIBSE CHP Group.

MODULE 04 TEST QUESTIONS

Please mark your answers on the sheet below by placing a cross in the box next to the correct answer. Only mark one box for each question. You may find it helpful to mark the answers in pencil first before filling in the final answers in ink. Once you have completed the answer sheet in ink, return it to the address below. Photocopies are acceptable.

1. Approximately what return water temperature does condensation begin to occur in a condensing boiler system? A. below 1014C B. below 3014C C. below 5514C D. above 7514C 2. What is the most efficient mode of burner operation? A. Fully modulating B. High/low C. On/off D. Reverse return 3. What is an ideal application for condensing boilers? A. High temperature hot water systems B. Fixed 82/7114C systems including fan convectors C. Underfloor heating systems at 30-4014C D. Steam condensate systems 4. Typically, what is the optimum proportion of

condensing boilers in a multiple boiler installation with standard radiators? A. 10-25 per cent condensing B. 25-50 per cent condensing C. 50-75 per cent condensing D. 75-100 per cent condensing

multiple boiler installations? A. Differential control B. Open loop control C. Linear control D. Sequence control

5. Which measure of boiler efficiency can reach over 100 per cent? A. Forward B. Net C. Plus D. Gross 6. What can be used to improve the part load efficiency of traditional and standard boilers? A. Flue dampers B. Additional chimney height C. Introducing fan dilution D. Removing insulation 7. What is the most important form of control for

8. What renewable energy can be burnt in boilers? A. Wind energy B. Wave energy C. Biomass energy D. Solar energy 9. What is the efficiency requirement to meet Part L at full load in England & Wales? A. 78 per cent B. 80 per cent C. 85 per cent D. 90 per cent 10. Which boilers should always be considered first as lead boilers in an energy efficient multiple boiler installation? A. Atmospheric B. High efficiency C. Stratospheric D. Condensing

Name ....................................................................................................................................................................................... (Mr. Mrs, Ms) Business Address .......................................................................................................................................................................................... Town ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Post Code................................................................................................... email address.......................................................................... Tel No...............................................................................................................................................................................................................

Completed answers should be mailed to:

The Education Department, Energy in Buildings & Industry, P. O. Box 825, GUILDFORD, GU4 8WQ

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EDITORIAL Managing Editor: Mark Thrower Tel: 01483 452854 E-mail: mark.thrower@btinternet.com PUBLISHER Pinede Publishing, 16-18 Hawkesyard Hall, Armitage Park, Nr. Rugeley, Staffordshire WS15 1PU. Tel: 01889 577222 Fax: 01889 579177