Avionics

SAA SESA6002

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON: SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES Module Title: AVIONICS 1 Module Code: SESA6002 Level: PART llI/IV Provider: Aerospace Engineering Module Load: 1 Units (10 CATS points) Semester(s): 2 Duration: 12 weeks Lectures: 24 x .45 minutes = 18 hours Tutorials: None Laboratories: None Independent Learning: 80 hours Examination: 2-hour written examination Total Student Workload: 100 hours Pre-requisites: Part II Dynamics & Control Follow On Modules: None Degree Programmes: All Aerospace Engineering courses Aims: To present the fundamental scientific principles and engineering techniques used in radar and communication systems and to relate them to the current and future systems used by civilian and military aircraft. Objectives: The course will provide a comprehensive account of the many radar and communication systems and techniques in use at present so that students can gain a clear understanding of the principles involved, the methods of implementation and how the systems relate to the operation of military and civilian aircraft radar. The use of countermeasures and stealth will also be covered. Future requirements will be discussed to indicate the development required of current and future radar systems. Advanced radars used for imaging will also be included. Outcomes: A knowledge of airborne sensors, (including microwave, millimetric wave, and laser radars and infra-red systems), radar, radio navigation systems and communication systems. Teaching/Learning Methods: A course of 24 lectures. Assessment: 2-hour written closed-book examination (100%) Coordinator/Lecturer(s): Dr Adrian Tatnall, Tizard 5065, ext 23516 email art4

Syllabus
Introduction to Avionics and Radio Communication Systems (2 lectures) Antennas and Communication (6 lectures) o Basic e.m. waves. Definition of antenna. Propagation equation. Radio wave propagation. Ground wave, sky wave and space wave propagation. Types of Communication, modulation systems, Basic antennas and arrays. Waveguides Radar (8 lectures) o Ground and airborne radar techniques. Radar range equation. Radar crosssection, stealth, noise, Pulse, c.w Counter measures (4 lectures) o chaff, jamming, masking, decoys Imaging Radar ( 2 lectures) o Side looking radar, synthetic aperture radar Revision (2 lectures)

Core Texts G.W.Stimson Introduction to airborne radar, 2nd edition ISBN 0 85296 942 2, 1998, Price 85 . Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan ISBN-10: 1891121057 Understanding Radar Systems SciTech Publishing Inc,US (Dec 1998) Price
54.50

M I Skolnik Introduction to Radar Systems (McGraw-Hill International Editions: Electrical Engineering Series) (Paperback) 44.64

Lectures Wednesday 13.00 27/1137 Friday 16.00 13/3021

AVIONICS PART 1 Communications, Radar and Electromagnetic Propagation

Source is the transmitter of the data or message Transmission path is the distance between the receiver and the transmitter and can be many million of km Receiver recovers original message or data in the best possible form

Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field (which is shown in red arrows below) couples with a magnetic field (which is shown in blue arrows). Magnetic and electric fields of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the wave.

Electromagnetic waves move electromagnetic energy through space (either empty or filled with transparent matter) The energy in an electromagnetic wave is tied up in the electric and magnetic fields. In general, the energy per unit volume in an electric field (E) is given by:
1 0 E 2 where 0 is the permittivity of free space 2

In a magnetic field, the energy per unit volume is:

1 B2 2 0

0 is the permeability of free space

An electromagnetic wave has both electric and magnetic fields, so the total energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave is:
since c 2 = and 1 0 0

E =c B 1 1 B2 1 1 E2 0 E 2 + = 0 E 2 + 2 2 0 2 2 c 2 0

= 0 E 2

In free space: = 1.26 x 10-6 H/m = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m The electrical field (E) and the magnetic field (B) vary sinusoidally with time. These fields are in phase, perpendicular to each other, and perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. This is given by the Poynting vector
S= 1

Ex B

Poynting vector describes the the flow of energy ( Power) through a surface in terms of electric and magnetic properties. It is the vector product of the electric and the magnetic fields. The Poynting vector points in the direction of propagation of a travelling electromagnetic wave. Poynting vector has the dimensions of power per area.

Polarisation of Electromagnetic Waves

Normally, the plane of polarization of a radio wave is the plane in which the E field propagates with respect to the Earth. If the E field component of the radiated wave travels in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's surface (vertical), the radiation is said to be VERTICALLY POLARIZED, as shown in figure below, view A. If the E field propagates in a plane parallel to the Earth's surface (horizontal), the radiation is said to be HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED, as shown in view B.

RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION Frequency 3Hz-3KHz 3Khz-30KHz 30KHz-300KHz 300KHz- 3MHz 3MHz-30MHz 30MHz-300MHz Band ELF VLF LF MF HF VHF Propagation Method Earth-Ionosphere Earth-Ionosphere Surface Wave Surface Wave Sky Wave Spacewave System Applications Submarine Applications Long Range Navigation. Emergency communication Medium/Long Range communications, navigational aids Broadcasting.Nav aids Marine/Mobile Services Mobile land comms Ship shore comms Over horizon radar FM and Television Air/Ground comms Nav. Aids Local Services UHF-TV broadcasts, portable and mobile UHFFM radios. Cellular telephones, satellite telephone systems. Radar-all types Surveillance/Tracking Navigational aids Satellite Communication Microwave Relays Satellite links Radar short range ?

300MHz-3GHz

UHF

Spacewave

3GHz-30GHz

SHF

Spacewave

30GHz-300GHz 300-3THz

EHF Submillimetre

Spacewave Spacewave

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Radiowave Propagation
Radiowaves propagate outward from the source, usually an antenna, at approximately the speed of light. The propagation of radiowaves is determined primarily by the medium of transmission. In free space, radiowaves travel in straight lines. The same geometrical reflection techniques may be applied to radiowaves as are applied to study the behaviour of light waves in physical optics (ray-tracing). Thus, in order for radiowaves to travel from the transmitter to the receiver, either the receiver and transmitter must be in line of sight or the radiowaves must arrive through some type of reflected path.

Propagation Paths
Earth-Ionosphere Waveguide At ELF / VLF, the surface of the Earth and the lower edge of the ionosphere act as good electrical conductors which form the Earth-ionosphere waveguide. This enables ELF/VLF radio waves to propagate globally with very little attenuation. ELF / VLF waves are important not only as communication tools, but also as remote diagnostic probes to determine the characteristics of the Earth such as the Ionosphere and Magnetosphere. Surface or Ground Waves The ground wave is that portion of the radiation that is directly affected by terrain and objects on the terrain. The ground wave travels in contact with the earths surface by scattering off buildings, vegetation, hills, mountains and other irregularities in the earths surface. Unless the transmitter and receiver can "see" each other, (line of sight), the ground wave propagation provides the dominant local signal at the receiver. The ground wave affects all frequencies from very low to microwave. For MF (0.33 MHz) and HF (3-30MHz) signals, the ground wave provides the local daytime propagation means. Conductivity of the surface affects the propagation of ground waves, with more conductive surfaces such as water providing better propagation. The refractive indices are subject to spatial and temporal changes. Since the ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated as they follow the earths surface. Ionospheric or Sky Waves The ionospheric wave arises from radio waves that leave the antenna at angles above the horizontal. By successive reflections at the earths surface and in the upper atmosphere, a communication can be established over distances of thousands of kilomteres. Most long-distance HF radio communication (between 3 and 30 MHz) is a result of skywave propagation. Ionospheric propagation is dependent upon the sunspot cycle and the skywave may be disrupted during geomagnetic storms. There is a diurnal variation in HF propagation that is characterized by a simple rule-of-thumb: the frequency follows the sun. At noon, the optimum frequency for traffic is generally higher than at night.

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oal Space Waves. - The space wave follows two distinct paths from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna - one through the air directly to the receiving antenna, the other reflected from the ground to the receiving antenna. The primary path of the space wave is directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. So, the receiving antenna must be located within the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna. Because space waves are refracted slightly, even when propagated through the troposphere, the radio horizon is actually about one-third farther than the line-of-sight or natural horizon Tropospheric Waves The tropospheric wave is that portion of the radiation that is kept close to the earths surface as a result of refraction (bending) in the lower atmosphere as a result of variations in the refractive index of the air. These variations may be caused by ice crystals, atmospheric pressure changes and temperature inversions (where warm air lies on top of cold). The amount of bending increases with frequency so tropospheric communication improves as the frequency increases and is inconsequential below 30 MHz. For VHF and UHF propagation (used in cellular and PCs communications), the tropospheric wave is a hindrance that causes interference and impedes dependability. Tropospheric propagation is frequently responsible for co-channel television interference in which ghosts of another channel can be seen beneath the normal signal.

Propagation Mechanisms
There are three major propagation mechanisms: Reflection A radiowave is reflected when it impinges upon an object very large in dimension compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave (e.g. earth surface, buildings and walls).

Diffraction Diffraction is a phenomenon whereby waves bend around objects. A radiowave is diffracted when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities. Diffraction effects are greater at the 12

lower frequencies. Thus, the radar beam of a lower frequency radar tends to illuminate more of the shadow region behind an obstruction than the beam of a radar of higher frequency or shorter wavelength.

Scattering Radiowave scattering occurs when a propagation electromagnetic wave encounters objects with dimensions smaller than the wavelength of the propagating wave (e.g. foliage, street signs etc). The scattering from molecules and very tiny particles (< 1 /10 wavelength) is predominantly Rayleigh scattering. Typical rain radar band =10cm. Raindrops therefore produce Rayleigh scattering For particle sizes larger than a wavelength, Mie scattering predominates. This scattering produces a pattern like an antenna lobe, with a sharper and more intense forward lobe for larger particles.

Mie scattering is not strongly wavelength dependent and produces the almost white glare around the sun when a lot of particulate material is present in the air. It also gives us the the white light from mist and fog.

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