Lukan Atticism

Comments on the Hypothesis of a Lukan Atticist Style in Luke-Acts

Octavian D. Baban1 Many authors have noted Lukes fluency and rhetoric performance in Luke-Acts, and some times this has been interpreted as a sort of excellence in a sort of oriental regional Greek. From such a standing point Luke is to be seen as a conscious artist and the most versatile of all NT writers.2 However, the suggestions of a Lukan Jewish Greek had a significant opponent in Creed who readily dismissed such assumptions:
Broadly speaking, however, the generalisations have won acceptance (1) that the Greek of the NT is on the whole the common Greek of the Empire; and (2) that evidence has failed to confirm the hypothesis that there was a special Semitic dialect of the . Moreover, against the
____________ 1 This essay was written and presented in partial fulfilment of the local PhD requirements at LST, London, Brunel University in 1995, as part of a larger thesis presented in 1998. 2 N. Turner, The Quality of the Greek of Luke -Acts, p.387.

NT Studies

hypothesis that there existed such a dialect appeal may be made to the writings of Greek speaking Jews -- Philo, Josephus, St. Paul -where we might find traces of the influence of such a dialect if it existed. They shew no trace of it.

Moreover, Luke actually removes Aramaic and Latin loan words from his accounts, showing sensitivity towards the good literary taste which considered such loan words to be barbaric. As Koester notes, Luke uses for , for / , for / census, for / 4 centurio. Lukes Atticisim First, we note that Lukes vocabulary is more extensive than that of any other N.T. writer.5 Further, there can
____________ 3 Creed, The Gospel of St. Luke, (London: Macmillan, 1930), p.lxxvii; For a specific characterization of Luke see also, Creed, Luke, p.lxxvi; and A. Plummer, St. Luke (I.C.C.; 5th ed; Edinburgh: T& T Clark, 1922), p.xlix. 4 H. Koester, History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age, Fortress Press, Philadephia and Walter de Gruyter Berlin and N.Y., 1980; series Hermeneia, Foundations and Facets; p.108. 5 Creed, Luke, p.lxxxii; In the Gospel alone Lukes vocabulary is estimated at about 1800. The total number of words used in Luke-Acts (excluding proper names) has been reckoned at 2697. (cf. R. Smith quoted in Cadbury, Style and Literary Method of Luke, pt i., p.1).

Lukan Atticism

be identified a certain link between Lukes style and that of the Greek writers, even with Atticism. Trocm pointed that through the study of the Luke-Acts vocabulary one could determine if Luke follows the literary fashion of his time:
A laube de lge atticiste (IIe sicle aprs JsusChrist surtout), ltude du vocabulaire de loeuvre Thophile peut tout dabord rvler si son auteur tait sensible la mode littraire de son temps, qui allait riger limitation des classiques en principe.6

H.J. Cadburys detailed research has concluded that every element of a Hellenistic vocabulary is present in Luke, but the post-classical element is considerably larger than in any of the Atticists whom Schmidt studies, that is, Dio Chrysostom, Lucian, Aristides, Aelian, and the younger Philostratus.7 As Trocm put it, this difference is la seule diffrence importante between Lukes vocabulary and that of the Atticists from the end of the first century AD and the beginning of the second century. Luke presents a 42% percentage of characteristic words versus 9 to 23% percentage as found in the works of the considered Atticists. This shows that notre crivain na pas, comme les atticistes,
____________ 6 Trocm, Le livre des Actes, p.105. 7 Cadbury, The Style and the Literary Method of Luke , p.8ff; cf pp.4-39.

NT Studies

cherch purer son vocabulaire en remplaant des termes post-classiques par dautres emprunts aux grand auteurs attiques du ve sicle ou aux potes.8 Yet, Lukes peculiarities of language should probably rather be attributed to his specific Christian subject matter than to his literary style. Apart from that, for the sake of credibility, literary quality meant that vocabulary quality had to be balanced by a proper local colour. In this context, it is important to understand the force of Cadburys observation, when he notes that after one deducts the number of quasi-technical Jewish and Christian terms, the vocabulary of Luke, while it has its natural affinities whith the Greek of the Bible, is not so far removed from the the literary style of the Atticistss to be beyond comparison with them. Lukes Atticism took him close to the literary of the Greek-Roman historians:
Le vocabulaire de notre crivain est trs proche de celui de certaines des historiens de la fin du Ier et du dbut du IIe sicles, comme Josphe ou Plutarque, dont les prtensions littraires ne sont pas contestes, malgr leur indiffrance latticisme. Par contre, il se distingue davantage de celui des papyri, o lon en retrouve seulement 65% de ses mots, et de celui du reste du Nouveau Testament, o lon rencontre 70%. Or ces deux groupes de textes sont unanimement reconnus
____________ 8 Trocm, Le livre des Actes, p.105. 9 Cadbury, The Style and Literary Method of Luke, p.8ff.

Lukan Atticism

comme des littraire.10

tmoins

typiques

de

la

In conclusion, one has to admit that Lukes vocabulary is that of relatively educated writer, albeit it is quite influenced by the specific language of the Septuagint (LXX) and of his major source, Mark. One can find in Creeds commentary an interesting test of Lukes Atticism, in relation to the lexical notes of Phrynichus. In a good number of cases Lukes literary preferences have led him to replace the original wording of his sources with culturally adequate words and phrases, that correspond with Phrynicuss list of suggested replacements. Thus is condemned by Phryn. ccclxviii (cf. New Phrynichus, by Rutherford). It occurs in Mk 5.23 and Luke substitutes (Lk 8.42). in the sense of a corpse is condemned by Phryn.cccli. We see Luke substituting for in Lk 23.52 (cf. Mk. 15.45), and probably also at 17.37 (cf. Mt.24.28). a needle is condemned by Phryn.lxxii. For (Mk 10.25) Luke substitutes (18.25), the word recommended by Phrynichus. , condemned by Phryn.lvi., occurs in Mk 5.41 and Luke substitutes for it. It has to be said, however, that on the other hand Luke himself

____________ 10 Trocm, Le livre des Actes, p.105; Cf Cadbury op.cit., p.38 39.

NT Studies

uses a considerable number of words which Phrynichus condemns or disapproves.11 Thus, even from a reductionist source-criticism perspective, like that of Knox,12 one could recognise to Luke certain qualities as an editor/composer who wrote for a Greek public with some education, and had to do something to improve the barbarous form of those materials; his most obvious improvements are the introduction of Attic words, the omission of barbarous ones, and the removal of superfluous pronouns representing the Aramaic suffix.13 Lukes Greek and the issue of stylistic variations Stylistic variation is much of a Lukan characteristic, in the NT. He uses at times elements of elaborate language and skilfull composition. Koester noted this Lukan characteristic and remarked that the majority of the New Testament writings, unlike Luke, did not cross the treshold between vernacular and literary
____________ 11 Creed, Luke, p.lxxxiii; cf. the list at p.lxxxiv 12 Wilfred L. Knox, Some Hellenistic Elements in Primitive Christianity, London, OUP (Humphrey Milford), 1944; The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy, 1922, Lecture I, p.129; p.7, 19. For him Lukes method of dealing with his sources in Acts is so that in general, he reproduces them faithf ully with minor improvements of style, though his methods of revision are so spasmodic that as in the Gospel he preserves language which he avoides in his own writing. (p.19). 13 Knox, Some Hellenistic Elements, p.7

Lukan Atticism

language.14 In the same time, Luke relies considerably on external literary models, more than the other authors of the New Testament. He seems to be familiar with the higher Koine style the conversational and literary language of the educated Greeks.15 A comparison with the vocabulaire of the papyri would come in Lukes favour: La comparaison avec les papyri montre quelle [the Gospel of Luke, emph.mine] conserve un certain nombre de tournures classiques, qui avaint plus ou moins compltement disparu de la non littraire.16. Many Lucan idioms testify to a relatively high standard of [Greek] literary style.17 In the same time, however, there are literary inconsistencies, even abuses of certain constructions. For Trocm this is un indice de culture insufissante, de mme que la rserve lgard du prsent historique, entr dans la langue parle, mais qui avait primitivement constitu un bon usage littraire. In such cases, indeed lauteur ad Theophilum sefforce dviter le style vulgaire, [mais] sans toute-fois parvenir la correction classique. Luke is not capable to maintain himself for a longer time writing up to the higher standards of literary Greek: les tournures correctes cites ci-dessus voisinent souvent avec leur quivalents tardifs, comme si notre crivain navait pu
____________ 14 Koester, History, Culture, and Religion, p.109. 15 Koester, History, Culture, and Religion, p.108. 16 tienne Trocm, Le livre des Actes et LHistorie, p.106. 17 Creed, Luke, p.lxxxi.

NT Studies

se maintenir trs longtemps au niveau des classiques.18. This is the reason for which the commentator may feel inclined to affirm that Lukes style is rather addressing, from the beginning, un lecteur paen cultiv.19 Trocm accuses Luke quite openly of cultural superficiality: notre crivain ntait un mai*tre styliste, car il fait parfois succder une belle periode une phrase embarasse que rien ne justifie (Acts 19:3540; 26:19-23). Sa culture devait tre assez supperficielle.20. In a similar vein Knox adds with a certain irony that from time to time we find alterations in which Luke betrays himself by a use of Greek which shines like good deed in naughty world both in the Gospel and in the Acts.21 What appears yet as stylistic inconsequence may well have not been regarded as such by Luke or by Lukes audience. Luke should be judged by the literary standards of his contextualized form of Atticist/Asianist aspirations, not by the extreme forms of Atticist defense of the Classic style. Creed, for example, approached Luke in a much more positive mood. For him the evangelist manifests from the outset a great literary versatility. Lukes preface is a carefully balanced sentence written in irreproachable
____________ 18 tienne Trocm, Le livre des Actes et LHistorie, p.107. 19 tienne Trocm, Le livre des Actes et LHistorie, p.108. 20 tienne Trocm, Le livre des Actes et LHistorie, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1957; p.108. 21 Knox, Some Hellenistic Elements, p.9ff.

Lukan Atticism

literary Greek.22 For Creed this transition proves the author to be a conscious artist. He could, if he wished, have written throughout as a professional man of letters; if he does not maintain his polished and polite style, it is because he judges it unsuitable to transpose the traditional material into another idiom.23. More recently, Siegert wrote on this stylistic variety of Luke-Acts noting that Luke proves to be a writer conscious of his style, choosing at will the language appropriate to the situation, be it perfect classical Greek, semityzing Greek or Septuagintalisms. He mentions the example of Arrian, the historiographer, who used different styles for different works. He wrote in Attic Greek for his (following Xenophon) and in the Ionic dialect for his History of India ( ) - inspired by Herodotus, the classical model of ethnography. Thus Siegert concludes on Lukes style that learned authors used to have at their disposal more than one register.24 The same matter of stylistic variation in Luke-Acts prompted L. Alexander to suggest another approach: Luke wrote according to the fashion of scientific literature, and the scientific tradition provides a literary matrix contemporary with the Gospels.25
____________ 22 Creed, Luke, p.lxxvi. 23 Creed, Luke, p.lxxvi. 24 Siegert, Mass Communication, p. 53-54. 25 Alexander, The preface to Lukes Gospel, p .208. Also, Loveday Alexander, Lukes Preface in the Context of Greek Preface-Writing, NovT 28, 1986.

10

NT Studies

Alexanders thesis is thus built on a detailed attempt to contextualize culturally the genre of Lukes Gospel and of the book of Acts. She points that scientific texts were not polished literary works, but rather composite works in many cases (compilations), which reflected intensive redaction (additions, interpolations, borrowings, joined authorship or later revisions).26 Alexander argues that there were two main types of scientific texts: a. those which reflect more or less directly the oral situation of the lecture hall (most of the surviving works of Aristotle), and b. those which reflect a primarly written schematization of the techn, systematized into memorable form for use as school textbooks.27 According to her, the parallel between Lukes writings and the scientific literature, should be sought not in

____________ 26 Alexander, The preface to Lukes Gospel, p.44, [cf. Lloyds study, 1975, p.189]. Cf. p.43: the scientific writers also share an approach to composition which sets them apart from the rest of Greek literature. He mentions in this respect the witness of Theophrastus who pinpointed the distinction between the two approaches: Of the (two) forms of discourse, one c oncerns itself with the audience ( ), the other with the facts (ta pragmata): the former is [the one] pursued by poets and orators, the latter by philosophers (Fr. 64 Wimmer). By poets and orators Teophrastus refers to works that we should call literary composition, while by philosophy Theophrastus refers to the whole Aristotelian study of physics, biology etc. and can legitimately be extended to other scientific texts. 27 Alexander, The preface to Lukes Gospel, p.42-43.

Lukan Atticism

11

content or form but in literary praxis.28 A hypothetical informed reader of the first century would find himself familiar with the literary praxis of Luke-Acts:
A Christian reader, on our hypothesis, would already be familiar with its basic outline; an outsider would simply wait for the nature of the tradition to be made clear once the preface was over. Neither would be surprised by the abrupt change in style as the narrative begins at Luke

____________ 28 Alexander, The preface to Lukes Gospel, p.205; A critique of L. Alexander, as well as an emphasis on the importance of orality and school tradition for the process of Gospel-writing, see S.L. Mattila, A Question Too Often Neglected, New Test. Stud., vol 41., 1995, pp.199-217. At pp.216-217 Mattila writes that Alexander conducts an investigation leading her to scientific Greek texts which have prefaces very similar to the Lukan preface. The texts themselves differ widely as to content and form, but they have in common a similarity of function. They derive more or less directly from a school context. According to Alexander, respect for tradition is a prime value in school texts, and especially respect for the passing on of tradition by direct personal contact from master to disciple. This respect for tradition does not preclude, but often goes along with the reworking of tradition, and it is in fact characteristic of these texts that their material is constantly reworked and updated. Further, Mattila writes that Alexanders hypothesis would imply that those who wrote the synoptic gospels may need to be assigned a more medial position along the form/redaction-critical, compiler/creative author spectrum than they have hitherto occupied.(op.cit., p.217)

12

NT Studies

1.5: this is a normal feature in scientific texts (ch.6 p.103-104).29

Not only that scientific texts would allow for a precedent for Lukes use of prefaces, yet they also shared with the synoptic Gospels the common features of a puzzling combination of fixity and fluidity, in terms of literary forms and traditions.30 Even if the NT Gospels are not part of the high Greek literary heritage (Norden) they still belong to the popular genre. Particularly Lukes double work ad Theophilum, as C.F. Evans recognises in a study on Lukes rhetoric, belong to the real Greek literature, even if this is only Kleinliteratur.31
____________ 29 Alexander, The preface to Lukes Gospel, p.206; He adds that Likewise such a reader would not expect the familiar parade of proofs from the official archives which, as Cadbury rightly noted, is so conspicuously absent in Luke-Acts. 30 Alexander, The preface to Lukes Gospel, p.208. 31 C.F. Evans, Speeches in Acts, in Mlanges Bibliques en hommage an R.P. Bda Rigaux, ed., Albert Descamps, R.P. Andr de Halleux, ditions J. Duculot, Gembloux, Belgique, p.287-302; Cf Koester, History, Culture, and Religion, p.103: Koine Greek as a common language of discourse, commerce and administration developed according to its own laws and dynamics. It was a complex phenomenon, comprising the actually spoken vernacular as the technical languages of law, science, economy, and administration, the language of school and rhetoric, and various degrees of influence from classical literary conventions. There were also a number of writers who wrote in an elevated Koine, i.e., in a kind of cultivated common language.

Lukan Atticism

13

Polemic argumentation: the use of enthymeme William S. Kurz made a credible case, in an earlier article, by suggesting that Luke has used in his Christological argument the well known Hellenistic rhetoric form of enthymeme (a syllogism with one of the premises implicit, specifically described by Aristotle).32 So, he enumerates a few examples in Lukes writings, like Acts 2:31-36; Acts 17:2b-3. The enthymeme is also present in Lk 24:26-27, in Jesus explanation of his suffering to the two disciples on the Emmaus road: Was it not necessary that the Messiah should suffer these things and then enter into his glory? Then beginning with Moses and all the prophets, he interpreted to them the things about himself in all the scriptures. (NRSV) The same type of argument in favour of Jesus Messiaship is mentioned in the account of Sauls conversion, Acts 9:20b,22c.33 The use of enthymeme underlines the apologetic content of the Christian kerygma, the polemic issues raised by the Christian Way. There is further evidence to support the affirmation that Luke was quite knowledgeable in the GreekRoman rules of rhetoric, in the use of the art of argumentation. Thus, the mention of Tertullus well
____________ 32 W. S. Kurz, Hellenistic Rhetoric in the Christological Proof of Luke-Acts, CBQ 42, [1980], p.171-195. 33 The full argument for Jesus messiaship is: Messiah had to suffer for people and be glorified; Jesus has suffered like a Messiah, and has risen; Jesus is the Messiah.

14

NT Studies

designed speech (Acts 24) shows Lukes aquiantance with such orators and their rhetorical style and conventions (especially the introductory prosopopoeia). Luke is aware of the importance of witnesses, especially if they knew Christ personally and saw the special events in his life. Quintilian refers to the importance of witnesses, as well of the divina testimonia (Institutiones Oratoriae, 5.1.2; 5.7.35, LCL). Aristotle, at his turn, is another classic reference that emphasizes the importance of witnesses, ancient and recent (Rhetoric 1.15.13, LCL). Kurz observes that there is in Luke a certain use of proofs that comes close to the Aristotelian argument related to the validity of contracts (Acts 13:34-39; cf Aristotle, Rhetorica, 1.15.21, etc).34 He concludes, that there is a high likelihood,
____________ 34 Kurz, Hellenistic Rhetoric in Luke-Acts, p.188. He adds in p.189 further evidence of Lukes very probably knowledge of classical argumentation: the proofs in which certainty has been converted into certainty (Quintilian, 5.12.3); proofs from the arguments preferred by the judge (Acts 26, arguments aimed at convincing Agrippa; cf Quintilian 5.12.11), etc. Kurz emphasizes then, that the whole educational context in the first century favours the probability that Luke was exposed to the teachings of Aristotle and Quintilian (Hellenistic Rhetoric in Luke -Acts, p.192). As M.L. Clarke contends, rhetoric was in the first century even more important than grammar, arts, and dialectic (Higher education in the Ancient World, London: Routlefge & Kegan PAul, 1971, p.5-7). Dyonisius of Halicarnassus deplores the extent to which rhetoric was taught in the detriment of other arts (Comp. Verb. 25.206). Theon, another author from the first century had a similar complaint (Progymnasmata 1).

Lukan Atticism

15

then, that Luke was familiar with Greek rhetoric and with the Aristotelian heritage.35 The presence and the significance of enthymemes in Luke-Acts is a subject that has been discussed in several works and it has important implications in evaluating Luke-Actss, and in general NTs use of Aristotelian and classic categories. In his struggle to admit that NT writings use ancient methods of rhetorics, G. Kennedy came gradually to formulate that there are three types of classical modes of persuasion: (1) the classical rhetorical persuasion, (2) the early Christian rhetoric, and (3) the radical Christian rhetoric.36 In his earlier books he had suggested that classical rhetoric and early Christian rhetoric were different phenomena.37 The disjuncture functions as Christian preaching is thus not persuasion, but proclamation, and is based on authority and grace, not on proof.38 As he stated it at the time, For rhetoric the Christian can rely only on God, both to supply words and to accomplish persuasion if it is Gods will.39 In the 1984 book he would limit the validity of this statement
____________ 35 Kurz, Hellenistic Rhetoric in Luke-Acts, p. 191-195 36 G. Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation through Rhetorical Criticism, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1984, pp.7-8, 104. 37 G. Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric and its Christian and Secular Tradition from Abcient to Modern Times, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980 38 Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric, p.127 39 Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric, p.131-132

16

NT Studies

to the radical Christian rhetoric. He allows thus that the rest of the NT writings could present in different forms the use of classical rhetorics, that can be studied through the means of rhetorical criticism. But, as J.R. Levison notes, Kennedy did not provide a complete set of criteria for distinguishing the two types of early Christian rhetoric the basic criterion for discerning radical Christian rhetoric seems to be merely the absence of enthymemes.40 As the proof texts were Marks Gospel and Pauls rejection of human wisdom in 1 Corinthians, it is interesting to discover that Kennedy discovers enthymems even in Mark, eventually, even if of a very simple sort.41 As well, in Pauls case there is a disparity between what Paul says and how [he] says it. Although he ostensibly rejects rhetoric, 1 Corinthians 1-2 constitutes a rhetorical tour de force. In other words, althouhg Paul rejects rhetoric, he utilizes rhetoric unreservedly!.42
____________ 40 J.R. Levison, Did the Spirit Inspire Rhetoric? An Exploration of George Kennedys Definition of Early Chriatian Rhetoric, in Persuasive Artistry, Studies in NT Rhetoric in Honour of George A. Kennedy, Duane F. Watson (ed), JSNT, Supp. Series 50, JSOT Press, Sheffield: 1991, p.25-40. p.27. cf also Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, p.7. At p.16, op.cit., Kennedy defines the enthymeme as Deductive proof in rhetoric that commonly takes the form of a tatemen t and supporting reason, as in Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (Matt 5:3). 41 Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, p.105 42 Levison, Did the Spirit Inspire Rhetoric?, p.36. He continues these chapters are pepperd with figures of thought and speech:

Lukan Atticism

17

The case in favor of Lukes use of Aristotles rhetoric is however, better represented than for Mark and 1 Corinthians. R.B. Vinson discovers 77 occurences of enthymemes in Mark, 164 in Matthew, and 165 times in Luke.43 He adds that a specific form - the narrative enthymeme is one of Lukes preferred devices:
Even though Lukes numbers are not as great as Marks (36), Lukes narratives uses the form in 10 places where there are no parallels in Matthew and in Mark, and inserts the form into four places where both have parallel material but no enthymeme. It is curious that Luke and Mark do not shre more narrative enthymemes (seven).
________________________ antithesis (1.17); anaphora and litotes (1.26); antistrophe (1.2628); accumulation (2.1-5), etc. In them Paul employs the internal proof of enthymemes (2.10). 43 R.B. Vinson, A Comparative Study of the Use of Enthymemes in the Synoptic Gospels, in Persuasive Artistry Studies in NT Rhetoric in Honour of George A. Kennedy , ed. Duane F. Watson, JSNT, SUpp. Series 50, JSOT Press, Sheffield, 1991. p.119-141; p.119-122ff; Lukes use of enthymemes is more varieted than Matthews: 97 in Jesus words, 23 in narrative, 14 in the words of parables, and 33 in speeches uttered by someone else than Jesus (Matthew: 16 times in narratives, 121 times Jesus words, 24 times in someone elses speech, 3 times in parables; Mark: 36 in narratives and 35 in Jesus words; Mark is infamous for some of his narrative enthymemes which appear unnecessary at times - 1.16: casting their nets into the sea, for they were fishermen or non-sequiturs: e.g. in 5.42 and immediately the girl rose and walked around, for she was twelve years old).

18

NT Studies

However, Luke shares more with Mark than with Matthew (two).44

Lukes Jesus often explains himself by using enthymemes (the ratio between enthymemes spoken by others and those spoken by Jesus is 17% in Mark, 20% in Matthew, and 33% in Luke).45 Also, is Luke alone, who, among the Synoptics, uses enthymeme frequently in the speeches of his parables characters (Luke: 15 times; Mark: never; Matthew 4 times).46 As Vinson notes Lukes unique feature is the degree to which characters, including characters in parables, are allowed to use enthymemes in their speech.47 Lukes Use of Rhythms Lukes familiarity with the stylistic devices of classical rhetoric was proved as well through the study of the presence of classic prose rhythms in Luke-Acts.48 Prose
____________ 44 Vinson, Use of Enthymemes in the Synoptic Gospels, p.122 45 Vinson, Enthymemes in the Synoptic Gospels, p.129 (cf. p.126-130). 46 Vinson, Enthymeme in the Synoptic Gospels, p.130 . 47 Vinson, Enthymemes in the Synoptic Gospels, p.31. 48 Folker Siegert, Mass Communication and Prose Rhythm in Luke-Acts, in Rhetoric and the New Testament, Essays from the 1992 Heidelberg Conference, ed. S. E. Porter and Thomas H. Olbricht, JNST, Supp. Series, JSOT, Sheffield, 1993, p.42-58. On Mark, one can cite E.I. Robson, Rhythm and Intonation in St. Mark i-x, in JTh 17 (1916) pp.270-80; G. Lderitz,

Lukan Atticism

19

rhythm is considered as one of the means for structuring texts, and its effect has been likened with an oral typesetting.49 For Siegert One might, therefore, anticipate a higher frequency of rhythmical clausulae wherever Luke was free to choose his words, which leads us to the hypothesis that prose rhythms may serve as evidence (not a proof, but a means of evidence) of Lukan formulation. For us such rhythms are important for they are part, as Siegert emphasizes, of the very characteristic features of the Greek Asianic type of eloquence.51
________________________ Rhetorik, Poetik, Kompositionstechnik im Marcusevangelium, in H. Canzik (ed.), Markus-Philologie, WUNT, 33; Tbingen, 1984, pp.165-203. 49 H. v.D. Parunak, Oral Typesetting: Some uses of Biblical Structure, Bib 62 (1981), pp.153-69. 50 Siegert, Mass Communication, p.50. 51 Siegert, Mass Communication, p.48 He notes that De r Kleine Pauly, in his article Asianismus , summarizes them as follows: Hauptmerkmale... Sund der klassischen Periode, Verwendung kurzer, stark rhytmischer Kommata, Wortspiele und Reime sowie sehr gewagte Metaphern. These prose rhythms are made up of a sequence or a repeated sequence of mainly long syllables, the so-called versus Creticus: (- * -). At the end of the phrase, it may be apocopated to - * or - (but not * * ). As Siegert puts it This rhythmical pattern belongs to the very index fossils of Asianic prose. It is absent from lyrical poetry as well as from epic, and rather rare in classical and atticist prose, both of which abhorred rhythmical regularity and any blurring of the demarcation between poetry and prose. It marks, however, the final syllables of any important sentence and especially in final syllables of paragraphs of Asianic prose.

20

NT Studies

Siegert notes the presence of these prose rhythms in many of the Lukan speeches, like Lk 14:24 and 14.33, in Acts 24:2-8 (Tertullus speech). A special case then is that of the two prologues, in Acts and the Gospel, and of the end of Acts. He comes across some rhythmic clausulae at the beginning of Peters Pentecost speech (Acts 2:14b, 15, 16; v.22), in his discourse near the Beautiful Gate (Acts 3:12; vv. 16-19; vv. 21-24, 25-26). In this context he remarks that Lukes report of Stephens apology is an exception from the rule: There we find such irregularity in the ends of phrases that the few rhythms which might be found prove to be unintentional. As a whole, this text is remarkable for its (intended) lack of any trace of eloquence.52 Also, while Pauls Speech on the Aeropagus (Acts 17:16-33) proves to be a Lukan formulation by its elaborate rhythms it shows in the same time that Luke respects the historical facts and reports the failure of the historical Paul who was not a public orator.53
________________________ One can consult the examples in Quintillian 9.4.63-66, where all paragraph endings have the structure - * - | - x. 52 Siegert, Mass Communication, p.53, note 29-30. 53 Siegert, Mass Communication, p.55-56. Cf p.51 So far, I have not found in Pauls letters much prose rhythm that could be understood as intentional, not even in those passages of 2 Corinthians which are most charged with emotion. Rhythmical clausulae like Rom. 13:7 (ending up with 7 lengths), 1 Cor 4.7 ( ) and 2 Cor 2:6 ( ) are exceptional. (The deuter-Pauline epistles are different [see Norden, Kunstprosa, II, p.506, n.2.]). In Paul, as a rule, a sequence of two short syllables not capable of

Lukan Atticism

21

A further remarkable passage is then Lk 22:6 Jesus formally refuses to plead, and Luke presents it in four short and well-balanced clauses: | | Here assonance amounts to rhyme. Another example is the language of the penitent thief in Luke 23:41. After a poor sentence in v.40, Luke breaks in v.41 into fine Greek prose, with good rhythm [emph. mine] | | , a contrast with and , a cretic with the last long syllables resolved to end the second clause, with a double assonance and , and a cretic with both syllables resolved and a trochee to end the third clause.54 Lk 17:2 is yet an another example of remarkable rhetorical prose. The saying about the days of Noah is presented in four verbs making a tetracolon with asyndeton, and the days of Lot in a tricolon, where each colon consists of two verbs with asyndeton; Luke finishes both accounts in assonance, using the conclusion (Lk 17:2 ).

________________________ positional length or of crasis prevents any effect of quatitative gravity. From this point of view, we may agree with Pauls claim in the same letter (1 Cor. 2:4; cf 2 Cor. 11:6), that he is not using words of persuasion and of human eloquence. His elonquence is not that of a professional. 54 Knox, Some Hellenistic elements, pp.10-11. 55 Knox, Some Hellenistic Elements, pp.10-11.

22

NT Studies

Parallelism and word-play, often based on aliteration or on similarity of rhythm, are found as well in Lukes reports of the post-Easter journeys. The most conspicuous examples are in the account about Philip and the Ethiopian. In Acts 8:30-31 we find thus the famous paronomasia (cf the Vulgate reproduction: intellegis quae legis?). F.F. Bruce remarks here as well the literary use of .56 It is interesting to note that (a) Luke uses good rhythm and such balanced constructions in passages where he reproduces speeches, and (b) that, at least in the post-easter journeys, we have these constructions occurring at the beginning of the dialogue, in a sort of captatio benevolentie. Apart from the above example, one can mention further the presence of parallelism and almost of rhyme in Acts 9:6,

The Assianic rhythmed phrase occurs again in Acts 9:17

____________ 56 F.F. Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles, revised and enlarged edition, Apollos, Leicester, 1990 (3rd; 1st: 1951), p.226.

Lukan Atticism

23

A similar situation is met in Lk 24:32,

Also, aliteration is present in Lk 24:29,

and repetition and chiasm in Acts 9:4-6:

In all these instances Luke uses striking stylistic figures in order to catch the attention of his reader with a good sounding phrase. He is aware of the effect of

24

NT Studies

such phrases at the beginning of a speech or of a dialogue. Luke-Acts and Hellenistic Composition Mattila has stressed that there was a credible overlap between the compositional procedures of the Hellenists and that of the Gospel writers. According to her the question of compositional procedures must be addressed so that we can be sure we have grounded the synoptic gospels and related early Christian literature, together with those who composed them, in a concrete and historically credible world.57 After a comprehensive analysis of the elements of Lukes literary style, Satterthwaite writes at the end of a recent article that in general, it seems fair to speak of a considerable indebtedness to classical rhetoric; that is, he [Luke] gives clear indication of having received the kind of (rhetorical) education one would expect in a Graeco-Roman writer of this period who embarked on a work of this sort.58
____________ 57 S.L. Mattila, A Question Too Often Neglected , NTS, vol 41., 1995, pp.199-217; p.217. 58 E.Ph. Satterthwaite, Acts against the Background of Classical Rhetoric, The Book of Acts in Its Ancient Literary Setting, ed. by W. Winter and Andrew D. Clarke, vol.1 of The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting, The Paternoster Press, Carlisle, and Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1993, p.337379, p.378. the discussion is somewhat similar in approach to that of R. Morgenthaler, Lukas and Quintilian. Rhetorik als

Lukan Atticism

25

Lukes literary skills, notoriously noticeable in the way he presents his arguments in the Luke-Acts speeches, suggest that Lukes relation with classical rhetoric is extended to more than vocabulary, that is, to notions of style as well. Is it, however, extending also to composition, structure of plot, artistical and dramatical report of the historical events? Thurn observed that the non-verbal aspects of the argumentation are at least as important as the verbal ones.59 Observations
________________________ Erzhlkunst, Zurich: Gotthelf, 1993, albeit some detailed conclusions do differ. 59 Lauri Thurn, On Studying Ethical Argumentation and Persuasion, in Rhetoric and the New Testament, Essays from the 1992 Heidelberg Conference, ed. Stanley E. Porter, Thomas H. Olbricht, JSNT, Supp. Series, JSOT Press, Sheffield, 1993. p.464-78, p.473; This shift from formal logic to argumentation analysis corresponds to the rhetorical turn in general philosophy [R. Barilli, Rhetoric, Minneapolis, 1989; H.W. Simons, The Rhetorical Turn, Chicago, 1990; H.W. Simons, Persuasion, Reading, 1976, p.32; J.W. Fischer. The Rhetorical View on Argumentation: Exploring a Paradigm, in Argumentation 1, pp.73-88; Thurn, The Rhetorical Strategy of 1 Peter, Abo, 1990, p.41-42. Also, Thurn adds, in cited article, p.473 that Not only the the logical structure of the explicit argumentation, but especially the function of the arguments in the argumentative situation are crucial for understanding and evaluating the argumentation. Two major theoretical studies printed in the same year, of S.E. Toulmin, The Uses of Argument, Cambridge, 1958, and C. Perelman, and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric, Notre Dame, 1969, (french edition 1958), share the view that ordinary argumentation cannot be adequately analysed with traditional, logical

26

NT Studies

like these open a larger field of rhetorical investigation concerning Luke-Acts. Lukes invention and arrangement in Acts is seen as tributary to the rules of classic rhetoric in his choice of material, large-scale and small-scale arrangement, in narrative proportions, speeches and speech structure, in Lukes implicit commentary to his sources.60 Common ground with classical rhetorics makes room also for differences, however, and, in Satterthwaite words, it is hard, for example, to see Cicero or Quintilian approving of his [Lukes] frequent citations of the Old Testament as a testimony in the speeches. However, Luke should be seen not as an incompetent pupil, but rather as a master over these accepted conventions.61 Lukes linguistic art and compositional skills should be noticed together with certain literary subtlety from his part. J.S. Sibinga notes that the author of Acts, whose literary technique is highly sophisticated indeed, is a past master in the art of concealing his art. In this respect Luke is following the norms of the first century rhetoric, as expressed, for example, by Quintilian in his Institution Oratoria 4.2.126.62
________________________ methods, since there is a quantum leap from demonstration to practical reasoning. 60 Sattherthwaite, The Background of Classical Rhetoric, p.346-367. 61 Satterthwaite, The Background of Classical Rhetoric, p.379. 62 J. Smit Sibinga, Acts 9:37 and other cases of ellipsis obiecti, in Text and Testimony. Essays on New Testament and

Lukan Atticism

27

According to K. von Fritz, Duris, and others like him could have adopted certain principles under the influence of the Poetics in a way not intended by Aristotle. Aristotles views about the philosophical precedence of poetry over history, because poetry it is (comprehensive, about the general things), while history is (detailed, about the particulars), see Poet. 1451 b 5 ff, seems to have given Duris school the stimulus to make compete with poetry for the quality of by adopting its means of presentation. The same point of view would also make it inevitable that they should oppose the didactic tendency of the Isocrateans.63.
________________________ Aporcryphal Literature in Honor of A.F.J. Klijn, eds. T. Baarda, A. Hilhorst, G.P. Luttikuizen, A.S. van der Woude; Uitvergsmaatsschapij J.H. Kole - Kampen, 1988, 242-246, p.246. 63 K. von Fritz, in Die Bedeutung des Aristoteles fr die Geschichtsschreibung, in Histoire et historiens dans lantiquit, Entretiens sur lantiquit classique. 4. Fondation Hardt, Vandoeuvres-Geneva 1956, p.85; Cf. Albin Lesky, A History of Greek Literature, Methuen & Co Ltd, London, first transl. 1966; first published as Geschichte der Griechischen Literatur, Francke Verlag, Bern, 1957-1958; second ed. 1963; p.765; Duris was an historian of Samous, who flourished B.C. 257. He wrote the life of Agathocles of Syracuse, a treatise on tragedy, a history of Macedonia, and other works, often quoted with approbation by ancient writers, but now lost. Von Fritz note comes in opposition with the traditional view on the influence of Aristotle. This view affirms that despite literary brilliance, Aristotles Poetics exerted little influence for approximately 1800 years after its first transcriptions. It has been affirmed

28

NT Studies

It seems then that Aristotles de Poetica was known in the third century and so, through other channels it could have influenced the NT writers with its standards and literary ideals. In this context, it is relevant to discuss how two of the Greek classic rhetoric devices are reflected in Luke: the dramatic plot and the imitation . The
________________________ that the Poetics was largely unknown to Horace, Longinus, Plutarch, Augustine, Aquinas, Dante, and Boccacio. Only after its recovery by the Renaissance scholars, the treatise seems to have entered its first period of majory popularity as a core document in the syntheses of neoclassical criticism ( Classical Literary Criticism, Translations and Intepretations , edd. Alex Preminger; Leon Golden; O.B. Hardison, Jr; Kevin Kerrane; Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York: 1974; p.97-139; Aristotles Poetics, by Leon Golden and O. B. Hardison, Jr.; in Aristotles Poetics: A Translation and Commentary for Students of Literature, copyright 1968, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; p.106). 64 On mimesis, see the previous subsections on Hellenist rhetoric. On Plot, cf the following passage, transl. by I. Bywater, from Aristotles Poetics, ch.6-9; The Unity of a Plot [of a tragedy] does not consist, as some suppose, in its having one man as its subject Poetics, 8:1; 1451 a.15, p.11.; p.1451]. An infinity of things befall that one man, some of which it is impossible to reduce to unity; and inlike manner there are many actions of one man which cannot be made to form one action. One sees, therefore, the mistake of all poets who have written a Heracleid, a Theseid, or similar poems; they suppose that, because Heracles was one man, the story also of Heracles must be one story. Homer, however, evidently understood this point quite well, whether by art or instinct, just in the same way as he excells the rest in every other respect. In writing an

Lukan Atticism

29

journey scheme and motif in Luke-Acts and the postEaster appearances of Jesus constitute an appropriate ground to discuss the presence and the relevance of the above mentioned rhetorical devices. Especially Lukes reports on Sauls conversion appear to illustrate through imitation the one specific tradition about Sauls encounter with Jesus, and its relevance in various witnessing situations. G. Ldemann, for example, refers to it when commenting on Lukes literary skills displaye din the Emmaus story
At the end of the analysis of the Emmaus pericope it should be stressed that a purely historical enquiry produces only meagre results
________________________ Odyssey, he did not make the poem cover all that ever befell his hero - it befell him, for instance, to get wounded on Parnassus and also to feign madness at the time of the call to arms, but the two incidents had no probable or necessary connection with one another - instead of doing that, he took an action with Unity of the kind we are describing as the subject of the Odyssey, as also of the Iliad. The truth is that, just as in the other imitative arts one imitation is always of one thing, so in poetry the story, as an imitation of action, must represent one action, a complete whole, with its several incidents so closely connected that the transposal or withdrawal of any one of them will disjoin and dislocate the whole. For that which makes no perceptible difference by its presence or absence is no real part of the whole. (in J.D. Denniston, Greek Literary Criticism, 1924, London and Toronto: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd.; E.P.Dutton & Co, in N.Y.; pp.124-125).

30

NT Studies

and that the value of the narrative lies elsewhere than in history. Rather, its author gave it the task that Aristotle asigned to poetry. In his view, the poets function is to describe, not the thing that has happened, but the kind of thing that might happen, i.e. what is possible as being probable or necessary... the statements of poetry are of the nature rather of universals, whereas those of history are singulars (Poetics, 9). So we can learn virtually nothing which is specifically historical from the Emmaus story proper, but a good deal about the general character of Christian faith.65

Following this discussion it will be easier to apreciate and evaluate Lukes use of a journey pattern in describing the post-Easter period, his repetition of the motif of a special encounter during journeying. He was writing according to the rules of Hellenistic popular literature, and he was doing it in a style that intended to reveal the special character of Christian faith. In this context, how much could we asses Lukes awareness of Aristotles Poetics, for example, and be sure that Luke used some of the acknowledged rules of rhetoric? The answers to these and other similar
____________ 65 G. Ldemann, The Resurrection of Jesus, History, Experience, Theology, SCM Press Ltd., 1994, transl. John Bowden, (Die Auferstehung Jesu. Historie, Erfahrung, Theologie, 1994, Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, Gttingen; subsequent edition by Radius Verlag, Stuttgart, p.146

Lukan Atticism

31

questions can contribute to the way we understand Lukes composition and will help us put into literary perspective Lukes use of (imitation, artistic report; or stylistic imitation of a famous and established literary source) and of his way of constructing the storys plot (cf. for example Lukes three reports of Pauls calling: a historical fact creatively reported in three different instances and three different sets of details, or Luke use of LXX). G. Kennedy emphasizes well that mimsis was accepted and used with two general meanings. Thus he mentions a rhetorical mimsis as imitation, according to which one studied an author and tried to reproduce his style. In the Hellenistic times this fashion tended to overshadow the older Aristotelian meaning.66 Kennedy adds that this new concept of imitation should be carefully distinguished from imitation as used by Plato and Aristotle. They meant imitation of reality or of nature, whereas the
____________ 66 Kennedy, The Art of Persuasion in Greece, Princeton UP, Princeton, New Jersey, 1963; p.332; See also Doreen C. Innes, Longinus: Structure and Unity, (in Greek Literary Theory After Aristotle, a collection of papers in honour of D.M. Schenkeweld ; eds.: J.G.J. Abbenes, S.R. Slings, I. Sluiter. VU University Press, Amsterdam 1995, p.111-124) points that the Greek author known as Longinus emphasize in his treatise On the Sublime that at the beginning and end of the work the sublime is what wins first place for authors (1.3; 44.2); also, that in our mimesis of the past masters we contend like athletes in order to win the first place of excellence. (13.4) (p.117).

32

NT Studies

rhetoricians meant imitation or emulation of a classical literary model.67 Leon Golden makes a further distinction when he stresses that Aristotles mimsis can refer to the actual process of composition and has a content which is far different from that customarily attributed to Plato. In Book X of the Republic Plato regards poetic imitation as identical with copying and on this basis mimsis is labelled as trivial. As a result, the definition of Poetry as such is affected, and with it the act of reciting is debased. Yet, Aristotles concept of imitation, as presented in his Poetics, constitutes an emphatic rejection of Platos view: Aristotle emphasizes the dynamic, conscious craft (techn) of art, recognizing the artists creativity.68 S.H. Butcher has stressed the complexity and modernity of Aristotles mimsis where the artists may imitate things as they ought to be.69 Aristotle himself emphasizes a distinction between the art of the historian and that of the poet as based not
____________ 67 Kennedy, The Art of Persuasion, p.333. Cf. Richard McKean, Literary criticism and the concept of imitation in antiquity, Modern philology 34 (1936) p.1 ff., and D.L. Clark, Imitation: theory and practice in Roman rhetoric, QJS 37, (1951), p.11 ff. 68 L. Golden, Introduction to Aristotles Poetics, in Classical Literary Criticism, Translations and Interpretations , ed. Alex Preminger, Leon Golden, O.B. Hardison,Jr., Kevin Kerrane, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York, 1974, pp.97-107; p.101. 69 S.H. Butcher in Aristotles Theory of Poetry and Fine Art NY: Dover Publications, 1951; 4th ed., p.121-162.

Lukan Atticism

33

on the fact that historians write prose and poets write verse, but as one which consists really in this, that the one describes the thing that has been, and the other a kind of thing that might be [ .70 And further Aristotle adds that hence poetry is something more philosophic and of graver import than history, since its statements are of the nature rather of universals, whereas theose of history are singulars.71 Writing on the art of literary plot, Aristotle presents it in terms of mimsis the truth is that, just as in the other imitative arts one imitation is always of one thing, so in poetry the story, as an imitation of action, must represent one action, a complete whole, with its several incidents so closely connected that the transposal or withdrawal of any one of them will disjoin and dislocate the whole. For that which makes no perceptible difference by its presence or absence is no real part of the whole.72
____________ 70 Aristotelis, De Arte Poetica, Lipsiae, in aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1878; recensuit Guilelmus Christ, p.12, Poetics, 1451 b. 71 Aristotle, Poetics, 8:1-9:10; Aristotelis Opera, ex recensione Immanuelis Bekkeri, edidit Academia Regia Borussica, vol. II [volumen alterum], Berolini apud W. de Gruyter et Socios [Walter de Gruyter et Co.], MCMLX (1960), p.1447-1462; p.1451) 72 Aristotle, Poetics, ch.6-9; p.124-125; 8:1ff; 1451 a.15, in J.D. Denniston, Greek Literary Criticism, 1924, London and Toronto: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd.; transl. I. Bywater.

34

NT Studies

However, mimsis has been studied in Luke mainly from the Platonic point of view, as imitation. and mainly in relation to the OT (LXX) models. Gross, and later Berg referred to this aspect of Lukes style, as Motivtransposition.73 Alter referred to the same feature under the name of type-scenes.74 In his several studies on this stylistic figure in Luke-Acts, Brodie resorted to the Greek-Roman terminology of mimsis and among his conclusions was that Luke manifests a general affinity with rhetoric and the spirit of imitation, and his style bears a more detailed resemblance to the imitative practices of particular Greco-Roman authors. For him it appears as fully reasonable to conclude that Lukes Gospel should be classified as an imitation, or at least should be regarded as involving imitative techniques.75
____________ 73 H. Gross, Motivtransposition als berlieferungsgeschichtliche Prinzip im Altes Testament, BEthL, 12-13 [1959], pp.325-334; W. Berg, Die Rezeption alttestamentlicher Motive im Neuen Testament - dargestellt and den Seewandelerzhlungen, Freiburg, Hochschul: 1979; Cf for this discussion, G. J. Steyn, Intertextual Similarities Between Septuagint Pretexts and Lukes Gospel, Neotestamentica 24 (2) 1990, 229-246; pp. 234-235. 74 R. Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative. New York, Basic Books: 1981. 75 T.L. Brodie, Towards unravelling Lukes use of the Old Testament: Luke 7.11-17 as an imitatio of 1 Kings 17.17-24, NTS 32 [1986], 247-267, p.261-262 Cf. also Brodie, The Departure for Jerusalem (Luke 9:51--56) as rhetorical imitation of Elijahs departure for the Jordan (2 Kgs 1,1 -2,6), Bib. 70

Lukan Atticism

35

The present study suggests that, having in view Lukes acquaintance with the Hellenistic rhetoric, we should analize Lukes use of mimsis in the alternative Aristotelian sense, which leaves a larger room to Lukes composition or literary presentation (arrangement) of the available traditions. This use of mimsis is studied here in the context of Lukes journeying texts, with a particular focus on the post-Easter encounters on the way. Such a perspective does not suggest that Luke creates the post-Easter accounts of special encounters during a journey, but that he emphasizes certain aspects of these accounts, according to a literary motif of challenge on the way, developed through the use of mimsis. There are several implications, or benefits of this approach. First, it does justice to a certain aspect of mimsis (imitatio) which was overlooked, despite the increasing awareness about Lukes acquiantance with Hellenistic rhetoric. In the second place, brings light on the links between Lukes writings with the Hellenistic culture, on the literary methods in which early
________________________ [1989], p.96-109; Greco-Roman imitation of texts as a partial guide to Lukes use of sources, in C.H. Talbert (ed), Luke-Acts: New perspectives from the Society of Biblical Literature Seminar, N.Y., Crossroad: 1984, p.17-46; and Luke 7,36-50 as an internalization of 2 Kings 4,1-37: A study in Lukes use of rhetorical imitation, Bib 64 [1983], p.457-485 (see also in this study, the section Jewish culture: OT traditions in Luke -Acts, and Jewish paradigms.)

36

NT Studies

Christians understood that they can present their message. Thirdly, it allows us to note that certain stylistic figures were used in a conscious way in both Luke and Acts; their stylistic unity is thus re-affirmed at a compositional (authorial) level. In the fourth place, the use of mimsis is in a position to put into literary perspective the journey motif in Luke-Acts. There is more than LXX emulation to it, there is internal coherence, artistic emulation, a cultural high Hellenistic paradigm.