1 Marine Ecosystem

Marine ecosystem is any marine environment in which plants and animals interact with the chemical and physical features of the environment. They are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice-versa. The large and complex marine environment is subdivided into several zones: the intertidal zone, the benthic (ocean floor) environment and the pelagic (ocean water) environment.

Zoonation in the ocean

Interidal zone - is the shoreline area between low and high tide. It is the transitional zone between land and ocean. It has a high level of light and nutrients with an abundance of oxygen. Benthic Environment is the ocean floor and is divided into zones based on distance from land, light, availability and depth.
Abyssal zone is a part of benthic environment that extends of a depth of 4000m to 6000m. The hadal zone extends to a depth more than 6000m. The benthic community in shallow ocean waters consists of the sea grass beds, the kelp forests, and the coral reefs. Sea grass is flowering plants that have adapted to complete submersion in ocean water. Seagrass only live in shallow water where they receive enough light to photosynthesize efficiently. Kelps, reaches a length of 60m are the largest brown algae. Kelps are common in cooler temperature marine waters of the Northern and Southern Hemisphere. Coral reefs are built from accumulated layers of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are found in warm (usually higher than 21C), shallow seawater. Zooxanthellae are coral animals require light for a large number of symbiotic dinoflagellates. Important of Coral Reefs 1. They provide habitat for a wide variety of marine organisms. 2. Protect the coastlines from shoreline erosion. 3. They provide human with seafood, pharmaceutical and recreation.

Pelagic Environment - Any water in a sea or lake that is neither close to the bottom nor near the
shore can be said to be in the pelagic zone. The word pelagic comes from the Ancient Greek: (plagos) "open sea".

Two provinces of pelagic environment 1. Neritic Province is Open Ocean that overlies the continental shelves, the ocean floor from the shoreline to the depth of 200m. Organisms that live in the neritic province are floaters or swimmers. The upper part of neritic province makes up the euphotic zone which extends from the surface to a depth of about 100m. Enough light penetrates this zone to support photosynthesis.

Phytoplankton Cold water diatoms Dinoflagellates Zooplankton Tiny Crustaceans Jellyfish Larvae of Barnacles Sea urchin Worms Crab Sardines Squid Manta Ray Baleen Whales Carnivorous Nekton Sharks Tuna Dolphin 2. Oceanic Province is that part of the open ocean that covers the deep ocean basin that is the ocean floor at depths more than 200m. It is the largest marine environment and contains about 75% of oceans water. Most organisms in this portion of the ocean depend on marine snow, organic debris down into the aphotic (without sunlight) region from the upper lighted regions. Ecotones The transition zone where two communities or biomes meet and intergrade is called an ecotone. Ectones vary in small, such as the area when an agricultural land or field meets woodland or where a stream flows through forests which cover several countries.

Aquatic Ecosystem
-is an ecosystem in a body of water 3 main ecological categories of organisms of aquatic ecosystems 1. Free floating plankton Two major categories a. phytoplankton b. zooplankton 2. Strongly swimming nekton 3. The bottom-dwelling benthos (benthic zone) Two types a. phytobenthos b. Zoobenthos

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Two main types of Aquatic Ecosystem 1. Freshwater ecosystem 2. marine ecosystem

BIOMES
TUNDRA -occurs in extreme northern latitudes wherever snow melts seasonally.) -arctic tundra has long, harsh winters and extremely short summers. -there is little precipitation. -soils are usually nutrient poor and have little organic litter (dead leaves and stems, animal droppings, and remains of organisms) in the uppermost layer of the soil. -tundra soils tend to be geologically young. -few species occur, but individual species often exist in great numbers. -tundra plants seldom grow taller in open areas. TAIGA -is the evergreen forest of the north. -is just south of tundra. -taiga or boreal forest is the largest biome in the world. -Covering approximately 11% of the Earths land. -the growing season of the boreal forest is longer than that of the tundra. -taiga has a little precipitation and the soil is typically acidic and mineral poor. -taiga has ponds and lakes. -small to medium-sized animals are also present, these includes: rodents, rabbits, and fur bearing predators such as lynx, sable, and mink. -there are plenty of birds species but migrate to warm climates for winter. -most taiga is not suitable for agriculture because of its short growing season and poor mineral in soil. -taiga trees are harvested as primarily as the main source of industrial wood and wood fiber. TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST -has cool weather, dense fog, and high precipitation. -winters are mild and summers are cool. -has nutrient-poor soil, although its organic content may be high. -common temperate animals are squirrels, wood rats, mule deer, elk, numerous bird species (such as jays, nuthatches, and chickadees), several species of reptiles (such as painted turtles and western terrestrial garter snakes) and amphibians (such as Pacific tree frogs). -temperate rain forest is one of the richest wood producers in the world, supplying lumber and pulpwood. -it is one of the most complex ecosystems in terms of species richness. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST (-reptiles (such as box turtles and rat snakes) and amphibians (such as spotted salamanders and wood frog) are present.) -temperate deciduous forest is often in a seminatural state that is greatly modified by humans for recreation, livestock foraging, timber harvest, and other uses. -temperate deciduous forest was among the first biomes to be converted to agricultural use. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND -grassland soil contains organic material because surface parts of many grasses die off each winter and contributes to the organic content of the soil.) -moist temperate grasslands are also known as tallgrass prairies occur in the United States in Iowa, western Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, and across Canadas prairie provinces.

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-few trees grow except near rivers and streams. -the main predators were wolves. -smaller fauna include prairie dogs and their predators (foxes, blackfooted ferrets, and birds of prey such as prairie falcons), western meadowlarks, reptiles, and a great number of insects.) -plants grow in less abundance than in the moister grasslands and occasionally some bare soil is exposed. -today, the tallgrass prairie is considered North Americas rarest biome. -temperate grasslands became the breadbaskets of the world because they provide ideal growing conditions for crops such as corn and wheat which are also grasses.

Species Evenness
Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an ecological community that incorporates both species richness (the number of species in a community) and the evenness of species' abundances. Species diversity is one component of the concept of biodiversity. Species diversity consists of two components, species richness and species evenness. Species Evenness Measures the variation in the abundance of individuals per species within a community. The relative abundances of species, referred to as evenness or equitability. Refers to how close in numbers each species in an environment are. Mathematically it is defined as a diversity index, a measure of biodiversity which quantifies how equal the community is numerically. If a community has a large disparity between the number of individuals within each species it has low evenness. If the number of individuals within a species is fairly constant throughout the community it has a high evenness. Abundance can be measured Percentage cover the proportion of each quadrat occupied by the species. Population density the number of individuals per quadrat. Species frequency the proportion of quadrats with the species in it. Measurement of Species Diversity Determining which community has greater species diversity is easy when either species richness or evenness is held constant while the other parameter varies, but often communities will vary in both richness and evenness. Scientists have developed a variety of mathematical equations (or indices) that incorporate both species richness and evenness into a single measure of species diversity (e.g., the Shannon-Wiener Index and Simpsons Index). Different diversity indices assign different weightings to species richness and evenness, so the so most useful index to choose depends on the circumstances. Simpsons diversity index (D) is a measure of biodiversity that takes into account richness and evenness. A high value for D is good and means the habitat is diverse, species rich, and able to withstand some environmental impact. A low value for D is poor and means the habitat is low in species, so a small change to the environment ( e.g pollution) would have a serious impact. Equation: D = 1 [ ( n / N)2 ] n = number of individuals, N = total number of individuals

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Shannon-Weiner Index, accounts for both abundance and evenness of the species present. The index of diversity is H' = [ pi ln pi ] Where pi = the proportion of individuals of species i.

Diversity is measured for three main reasons: (1) to measure stability to determine if an environment is degrading, (2) to compare two or more environments, and (3) to eliminate the need for extensive lists.

Important Action to Protect declining Biodiversity

Protect Habitat In order to save species, we must protect their habitats. Most of species facing extinction are endangered by destruction of natural habitats. The construction of roads, parking lots, building of structures, clearing of forests to grow crops of graze domestic animals, and logging forest for timber all take their toll on natural habitats. Draining of marshes convers aquatic habitats to terrestrial ones, whereas construction of dams and canals floods terrestrial habitat. The destruction of habitat threatens the survival or species because most organism require a particular type of environment, and such habitat destruction reduces their biological range and ability to survive. Control invasion of Foreign Species To save native species, we must control invasions of invasive species. Biotic pollution, the introduction of foreign species into an area where it is not native often upset the balance among the organisms living in that area. If the foreign species is economic or environmental harm, it is known as invasive species. An invasive species may prey on native species or compete with them for food or habitat. In general, a foreign competitor or predator harms local organisms more than do the native competitors or predators In Situ Conservation In situ conversation is the best way to preserve biological diversity. Conservation biologists maintain that protecting animals and plant habitats is the best way to protect biological diversity. Many nations appreciate the need to protect their biological heritage and have set aside areas for wildlife habitats. Such nature ecosystems offer the best strategy for the long-term protection and preservation of biological diversity. Restore Damage Habitat Restoration is broadly defined as the act, process, or result of returning a degraded or former habitat to a healthy, self-sustaining condition that resembles as closely as possible its pre-disturbed state. Examples of restoration include removing material from a filled wetland, increasing tidal flow to a restricted wetland, reestablishing natural river flow, enhancing degraded seafloor habitats, treating runoff to improve water quality, cleaning up contaminated habitats, and managing invasive species. Many projects involve multiple types of restoration and focus on improving the health of whole ecosystems. In some instances scientists reclaim disturbed lands and convert them into areas with high biological diversity. Restoration ecology, in which the principle of ecology are used to return a degraded environment as close as possible to its former state is an important part of situ conservation. Restoration of disturbed lands not only creates biological habitats but also has additional benefits such as the regeneration of soil that agriculture or mining damage. Restoration ecology is an important aspect of conservation biology, as it is thought that restoration will deter much extinction. Conservation organization

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Conservation organizations are an important part of the effort to maintain biological diversity. They also provide financial support for conservation organizations projects, and help to maintain biological diversity. The World Conservation Union (IUNC) helps countries with conservation biology projects.

Distribution of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is not evenly distributed . It is richer in the topics and other localized regions. Diversity of flora and fauna depends largely on climate altitude, soil and the presence of the other species. What is a biodiversity hotspot? Biodiversity hotspots are defined as areas featuring exceptional concentrations of endemic species and experiencing exceptional loss of habitat. Species are described as endemic if they are unique to a specific area or region, and don't naturally occur anywhere else. Due to their limited ranges, endemic species are particularly vulnerable to extinction. The biodiversity hotspots concept was first proposed by Norman Myers in 1988. Since then, the hotspots have been reassessed and updated, and there are currently 25 hotspots. Because of the large number of species under threat and lack of conservation funding it is economically unfeasible to protect them all; areas must be given priority for conservation. The hotspots concept aims to protect the greatest number of species at the least cost. The 25 hotspots contain 44% of all vascular plant species and 35% of terrestrial vertebrates and encompass only 1.4% of the earths surface. However, collectively they have lost 88% of their original primary vegetation. Species in these areas are at risk from extinction if further habitat loss occurs. Where are the hotspots? 1. Tropical Andes 2. Mesoamerica 3. Caribbean 4. Brazil's Atlantic Forest 5. Choco/Darien/Western Ecuador 6. Brazil's Cerrado 7. Central Chile 8. California Floristic Province 9. Madagascar 10. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Distribution of Organisms .

Factors Affecting Distribution Many factors affect the distribution of organisms. In general these factors fall into two categories: biotic factors and abiotic factors. Biotic factors pertain to organism activity that affects the environment and/or the distribution of other organisms. Abiotic factors, on the other hand, are non-biological influences on an organisms environment, such as temperature, substrate type, pH or oxygen levels. For example, consider the red kangaroo. This species is distributed over the continent of Australia, but is not found in equal densities on all parts of the continent. Biotic factors, such as the presence of the appropriate forage grasses, and abiotic factors, such as the presence of local water sources, both play important roles in the kangaroos distribution. Biotic Factors Affect Distributions The interaction between biotic and abiotic factors plays a role in the distribution of organisms. An organisms behavior can greatly affect where it is found at certain times of the year. Migratory organisms, such as many birds, some mammals, and some insects, travel hundreds to thousands of miles every year between the seasonal habitats in which they live and reproduce. Often these travels are based on the

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location of suitable habitats for the organism at given times of the year or in certain stages of the organisms life cycle. In many cases, biotic factors, such as the presence of food organisms in different areas at different times of the year, strongly affect migratory patterns. However, note again that abiotic factors such as temperature or water availability also play significant roles, affecting the survival of the migratory species and its food supplies Abiotic Factors Affect Distributions Abiotic factors, as just mentioned, also play important roles in the distribution of organisms. Physical factors, such as day length and sunlight intensity, temperature, substrate type, topography and wind patterns, help define environments and so greatly influence the types of organisms that can live in them. For example, on a global scale the air circulation and wind patterns of our planet are very predictable. As you can see from the illustration here, air masses circulate regularly between zero and thirty degrees latitude, thirty and sixty degrees latitude, and sixty and ninety degrees latitude in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Air circulation patterns (and water circulation patterns), coupled with the rotation and orbit of the earth, help maintain relatively stable climatic patterns in different regions of the earth. This, in turn, helps maintain fairly stable environments over timeAs you may have noticed from the previous slide, abiotic factors (as well as biotic factors) tend to work in concert, rather than individually. Expanding to a New Location A third influence on the range of organisms, somewhat beyond biotic and abiotic factors, is historical distribution. Simply put, some organisms are found in areas because that is where they evolved. For example, if we look again at the distribution of the red kangaroo, we can see that this type of organism is found only in Australia, and nowhere else in the world. Evidence from the fossil record and the geologic history of Australia strongly suggest that the red kangaroo evolved from its marsupial ancestors after Australia had become physically isolated from the other continents. As a result of this, and because the red kangaroo had no way of moving from the Australian continents to other continents, the distribution of this organism is restricted to only Australia. This is not to say that organisms that historically have been present only in one area cannot persist in other areas. The history of life on earth has been continuously marked with introductions of various organisms into new habitats and environments, perhaps never more frequently than in the last several hundred years. In some cases, such introductions are failed experiments, and the introduced organism is not able to persist in its new environment. In other cases, the introduction is able to maintain small but stable populations in its new area. In yet other instances, introductions may become what we term invasive, and quickly dominate new environments.

Distribution of Biodiversity
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of biodiversity over space and time. It is very useful in understanding species distribution through factors such as speciation, extinction, continental drift, glaciation, variation of sea levels, river capture and available resources. This branch of study not only gives a description of the species distribution, but also a geographical explanation for the distribution of particular species. Species distribution is the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged. Species distribution is not to be confused with dispersal, which is the movement of individuals away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density. A similar concept is the species range. A species range is often represented with a species range map. Biogeographers try to understand the factors determining a species' distribution. The pattern of distribution is not permanent for each species. Distribution patterns can change seasonally, in response to the availability of resources, and also depending on the scale at which they are viewed. Dispersion usually takes place at the time of reproduction. Populations within a species are translocated through many methods, including dispersal by people, wind, water and animals. Humans are one of the largest distributors due to the current trends in globalization and the expanse of the transportation industry. For example, large tankers often fill their ballasts with water at one port and empty them in another, causing a wider distribution of aquatic species.

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There are three basic types of population distribution within an area. From top to bottom: uniform, random and clumped. 1. Clumped distribution Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In clumped distribution, the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of distribution is found in environments that are characterized by patchy resources. Animals need certain resources to survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year animals tend to clump together around these crucial resources. Individuals might be clustered together in an area due to social factors such as selfish herds and family groups. Organisms that usually serve as prey form clumped distributions in areas where they can hide and detect predators easily. Other causes of clumped distributions are the inability of offspring to independently move from their habitat. This is seen in juvenile animals that are immobile and strongly dependent upon parental care. Clumped distribution in species acts as a mechanism against predation as well as an efficient mechanism to trap or corner prey. 2. Regular or uniform distribution Less common than clumped distribution, uniform distribution, also known as even distribution, is evenly spaced. Uniform distributions are found in populations in which the distance between neighboring individuals is maximized. The need to maximize the space between individuals generally arises from competition for a resource such as moisture or nutrients, or as a result of direct social interactions between individuals within the population, such as territoriality. For example, penguins often exhibit uniform spacing by aggressively defending their territory among their neighbors. Plants also exhibit uniform distributions, like the creosote bushes in the southwestern region of the United States. Salvia leucophylla is a species in California that naturally grows in uniform spacing. This flower releases chemicals called terpenes which inhibit the growth of other plants around it and results in uniform distribution.[3] This is an example of allelopathy, which is the release of chemicals from plant parts by leaching, root exudation, volatilization, residue decomposition and other processes. Allelopathy can have beneficial, harmful, or neutral effects on surrounding organisms. Some allelochemicals even have selective effects on surrounding organisms; for example, the tree species Leucaena leucocephala exudes a chemical that inhibits the growth of other plants but not those of its own species, and thus can affect the distribution of specific rival species. Allelopathy usually results in uniform distributions, and its potential to suppress weeds is being researched.[4] Farming and agricultural practices often create uniform distribution in areas where it would not previously exist, for example, orange trees growing in rows on a plantation. 3. Random distribution Random distribution, also known as unpredictable spacing, is the least common form of distribution in nature and occurs when the members of a given species are found in homogeneous environments in which the position of each individual is independent of the other individuals: they neither attract nor repel one another. Random distribution is rare in nature as biotic factors, such as the interactions with neighboring individuals, and abiotic factors, such as climate or soil conditions, generally cause organisms to be either clustered or spread apart.[5] Random distribution usually occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent. This pattern of dispersion is characterized by the lack of any strong social interactions between species.[6] For example; When dandelion seeds are dispersed by wind, random distribution will often occur as the seedlings land in random places determined by uncontrollable factors. Tropical fig trees exhibit random distribution as well because of wind pollination. In addition to tropical fig trees and dandelion seeds, oyster larvae can travel hundreds of kilometers powered by sea currents, which causes random distribution when the larvae land in random places. NOTE: get a copy of Niajs report

The World Population

The world population has grown significantly since the year 1650 which has about 500 million. According to population statistics, after 200 years, in 1850 the population was doubled to 1 billion. By 1930, the population was doubled to 2 billion. In 1960, it reaches 3 billion, fifteen year later it reach 4 billion (in 1975), and 5 billion in 1987. By the year 2000, the population was estimated to reach 6 billion, and by 2010 world population is expected to reach 8 billion. Human population is growing at a rate of about 3 people per second, 260,000 per day or 1.8 million per week or 94 million per tear. Every three years, the global environment must support another 282 million people. With this data, we could imagine the implications in terms of resources that people will consume, the basic services they need: food, shelter, water and energy. The Philippine Population In the Philippines setting, when the Spaniards first landed in our soil in 1521 our estimated population was only 500,000. In 1960, our population reach 27 million. According to Britannica World Data, the population of the Philippines in 1991 stands at around 62.3 million. The population density is 208 people per square kilometre of land. This is one of the highest in the world. Based on the natural increase rate of 28.1% per 1000 population, the projected population by the year 200 is 74.6 million. Assuming the same rate of growth, it will be 86.4 million by the year 2010. It is interesting to note that the size of our land area have remained the same and the habitable area of or planet likewise remained the same. FACTORS OF POPULATION Low Death Rate (MORTALITY) High Birth Rate (NATALITY) ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Emigration The movement of people from one country to another to establish permanent or temporary residence, usually with the aim of finding work. The number of people leaving a country.

Two Types of Emigration Push Factor-characteristics of a place that causes people to leave. Refugees or Pull Factor- people who are forced to leave their country due to war, life-threatening discrimination, famine, or natural disasters. Mortality Rate Is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time. Is also sometimes inappropriately used to refer to the number of deaths among a set of diagnosed hospital cases for a disease or injury, rather than for the general population of a country or ethnic group.

Types of Mortality Rate There is several different mortality rates used to monitor the level of mortality in populations. In humanitarian emergencies, the following are most commonly used: Crude mortality rate

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It is the number of all deaths, all ages and both sexes, and denominator includes entire population. Age-specific mortality rate Counts only deaths in specific age group The following formula is used to calculate ASDR. ASDRa = Da/Pa * 1000 Where, Da = total number of deaths of particular age a in a plac e in a given year. Pa = total mid-year population of that age in a place in the given year a = age or age group ASDR = age specific death rate Infant mortality rate Counts deaths in children less than 12 months of age Maternal mortality rate Counts deaths in women due to pregnancy or child birth Under-5 mortality rate Counts deaths in the first 5 years of life Under-5 mortality rate are children who died in the causes of insecticide-treated mosquito nets, medicines, vaccines, proper breastfeeding, nutritional supplements and therapeutic food, rehydration treatment for diarrhea, and improved access to safe water and sanitation, among others. Perinatal mortality rate The sum of neonatal deaths and fetal deaths (stillbirths) Early mortality rate The total number of deaths in the early stages of an ongoing treatment Late mortality rate The total number of deaths in the late stages of an ongoing treatment

The 10 most common causes of death in the world 1.) Coronary heart disease 2.) Stroke and other Cerebrovascular Diseases 3.) Lower Respiratory Infections (Pneumonia) 4.) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 5.) Diarthrodial Diseases 6.) HIV/AIDS 7.) Tuberculosis. 8.) Trachea, bronchus, lung cancers. 9) Road traffic accidents 10.) Prematurity and low birth weight Life Expectancy-71.7 years (2011 est.) Male Expectancy-68.7 years (2011 est.) Female Expectancy-74.7years (2011 est.) Number of deaths Per second-1.78 Per minutes-106.8 Per hour-6408 Per day-153,000

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Per year-56.0million Number of deaths this year. Data as of October 6, 2013 at 6:49:33 PM Deaths This Day-64,732 Deaths This Year-43,906,270

Interactions Among Organisms in Ecosystem

Competition
Competition occurs when two or more individuals attempt to use the same initial source, such as food, water, shelter, living space or sunlight. o o

Intraspecific competition- competition that occurs among individuals within a population Interspecific competition- competition that occurs between different species

Predation
It is the consumption of one species, the prey and the predator. In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator (an animal that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the animal that is attacked). Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation often results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption. Other categories of consumption are herbivory (eating parts of plants),mycophagy (eating parts of fungi) and detritivory, the consumption of dead organic material (detritus).

Adaptations related to predator prey interactions Predator Strategy o o PURSUIT- hunting strategy of chasing after prey until the predator can secure it. AMBUSH- this strategy is used by organisms that are usually hide motionless and wait for prey to come within striking distance.

Predator- Prey interaction First way Warning Coloration Mimicry and Cryptic Coloration

Warning Coloration is conspicuous markings of an animal that make it easily recognizable and warn would be predators that is poisonous, foul- testing or dangerous species. Bright coloration in insects and other animals such as yellow, orange or red can act as signal warning other animals that they are poisonous or distasteful. Such color patterns are called aposematic. Mimicry is the resemblance of a plant or animal to another species or to a feature of its natural surroundings, developed as protection from predators. Mimicry is the physical or behavioral resemblance of one species to another to benefit itself or, in effect, sometimes both species. By mimicking the color bands and buzzing sounds of stinging bees, for example, several species of otherwise defenseless moths and flies avoid predation by birds. The animal or plant being mimicked is usually an abundant species whose noxious characteristics have left a lasting impression on predators. Instead of avoiding detection by predators through camouflage, the mimicking species displays the same conspicuous warning marks or behavior as the harmful species. Snake Mimicry In areas where their ranges overlap, some snakes mimic each other in order to avoid predation. The no venomous Sinaloa milk snake (right), for example, closely mimics the color pattern of the venomous coral snake. The strategy is a successful one, as some young, inexperienced snake-eating birds instinctively avoid a pattern of alternating red and yellow rings.

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Cryptic coloration is that organism matches its background, hiding camouflaging it from predators and prey. o Camouflage- the devices that animals use to blend into their environment in order to avoid being seen by predators or prey.

Second way Chemical Defenses

Chemical defenses, serve to repel or inhibit potential predators. Some organisms have evolved chemical weapons which are effective deterrents against predation. It is most common in insects, anthropoids, amphibians and snakes. Two main ways: o Animals which synthesize their own toxin are able to convert chemical compounds in their body to a poison. There are many amphibians that produce skin toxins. The skin toxins are produced by special poison glands, usually located on the animal's back or throughout the skin. o Animals accumulate toxin from their food rather than synthesizing it from scratch.

Third way Predator Satiation

Predator Satiation, timing reproduction so that a maximum number of offspring are produced in a short period of time, thus satiating predators and allowing a greater percentage of young to survive. It is an anti-predator adaptation in which prey occur at high population densities, reducing the probability of an individual organism being eaten. When predators are flooded with potential prey, they can consume only a certain amount, so by occurring at high densities prey benefit from a safety in numbers effect. This strategy has evolved in a diverse range of prey, from trees to insects. Predator satiation can be considered a type of refuge from predators. As available food increases, a predator has more chances of survival, growth, and reproduction. However, as food supply begins to overwhelm the predator's ability to consume and process it, consumption levels off.

Commensalism
Commensalism is a class of relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits without affecting the other. It compares with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit, amensalism, where one is harmed while the other is unaffected, andparasitism, where one benefits while the other is harmed. Commensalism derives from the English word commensal, meaning "eating at the same table" in human social interaction, which in turn comes through French from the Medieval Latin commensalis, meaning "sharing a table", from the prefix com-, meaning "together", andmensa, meaning "table" or "meal".Originally, the term was used to describe the use of waste food by second animals, like the carcass eaters that follow hunting animals, but wait until they have finished their meal. Types of commensal relationships There are several distinct types of commensal relationships that can be demonstrated, although sometimes more complex variants of the basic types can present. The most basic recognized functional forms of commensalism are: 1. Chemical These cases are most often, but not always, associated with two bacterial species, such that one bacterium metabolises a chemical not useful to the second, producing a product waste metabolite that is a useful energy source for the beneficiary second bacterium.

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2. Inquilism Inquilinism is the use of a second species as a platform or cavity for the living circumstance of the beneficiary species. Attachment of barnacles to other marine creatures is a prominent example. The mosquito Wyeomyia smithii, whoselarvae reside in the structures of the aquatic carnivorous plantSarracenia purpurea, also demonstrates the concept of inquilism. 3.Metabiosis Metabiosis is a circumstance through which one species creates a useful habitat feature for a second species. A picturesque example is the reuse of holes created in the saguaro cactus by many different birds and mammals,most of the original holes being produced by the gila woodpecker. Another case is seen on places such as the Farne Islands, where rabbit burrows are re-used by the Atlantic puffin as protected nesting burrows. 4. Phoresy Phoresy is the actibity of one organism attaching to a second solely for the purpose of temporary transport. A common example is the attachment of burs or seeds of plants to (chiefly) furry land animals for the purpose of seed dispersal. There are also many cases of arthropod phoresty, including mites on wasps, flies or beetles.

Mutualism
Mutualism relationships are characterized by positive reciprocal relationship between two species, for survival. It helps the species to survive through the challenges of Mother Nature, and adapt for several future generations. Approximately 3.6 billion years ago, the first living organism, Prokaryote, appeared on Earth. And today, there are more than 8 million Eukaryotic species present on Earth. This astonishing transformation is the result of slow and gradual evolution. In this drive for evolution, or survival, natural selection was the most powerful engine. It automatically prolonged the life of the organism that was fit to survive, and ensured the reproduction of its future generations. The ones that were not so strong, started to adapt. It is impossible for any species to survive alone. Here, to survive does not refer to an organism's life-time, but rather the consistent transfer of his genes into the future generation. The nature and our environment is full of resources, which if judiciously used, any species can ensure its existence for many centuries. And all they need to learn is interaction, mainly biological, with other species and organisms. Ecologists term the relationship shared by two organisms as symbiosis. It means a long term interaction amongst different biological species, which benefits either both or at least one party. There has been an ongoing debate between several ecologists, as to what should be the scope, and kinds of symbiosis. However, they do reach a consensus, when it comes to symbiotic mutualism relationships. Mutualism Relationship There have always been three kinds of interactions amongst various species. These are competition, predation and mutualism. Now, the reciprocal relationship between two or more species, whereby the association is beneficial for all the involved parties, is generally called mutualism. But here, it is important to understand the nature of the benefit. The benefit can be of two types. Historically, it was considered to be regarded on the fitness of the species on an individual level, irrespective of the contribution to the relationship. However, this kind of benefit does not present a clear picture of evolution. As discussed earlier, evolution is far more extensive than the lifetime of the species; it is about generations.

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So, for the purpose of evolution, population level benefits are considered, which include growth in population of the species, and the genetic changes, if any. Until recently, mutualistic symbiosis had not interested many ecologists. But, after its significant contribution to the evolution chain, many studies are being conducted to closely observe the steps leading to such associations. In symbiotic mutualism, the species exchange nutritional and energy benefits. The other two benefits are rare. But in non-symbiotic mutualism, all the four benefits can be shared. Symbiotic Mutualism Almost every symbiotic mutualism relationship is about energy supply from one to another species. Certain species cannot fix carbon and depend on those species which can. In exchange for food or energy, such organisms provide services like breaking down compounds to facilitate digestion, bioluminescence, and constant survival in the environment. Nonsymbiotic Mutualism The exchange of benefits between two species, with little or no physical involvement, is called nonsymbiotic mutualism. In this case, the species can live on their own, but the mutualism relationship can elongate their life. As many examples of nutrition benefit have been discussed earlier, the examples of transport and protection are dealt with, here. Transport Pollination has been the first and the most studied aspect of symbiosis, and so has been dispersal. Transportation of reproductive particles by another species is either through exchange of nectar or consumption of fruits or nuts.

Proto-Cooperation
-interaction between two species and they are gaining benefit with each other.

Parasitism
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Concept of Climax
Climax: Culmination stage of plant succession for a given environment. If succession is allowed to progress without disturbance, a stage is reached when no more improvement is possible in the soil and the vegetation. At that stage the vegetation is in equilibrium with the environment, and stays unchanged indefinitely by reproducing itself. Characteristics of climax The vegetation is tolerant of environmental conditions. It has a wide diversity of species, a well-drained spatial structure, and complex food chains. The climax ecosystem is balanced. There is equilibrium between gross primary production and total respiration, between energy used from sunlight and energy released by decomposition, between uptake of nutrients from the soil and the return of nutrient by litterfall to the soil. Individuals in the climax stage are replaced by others of the same kind. Thus the species composition maintains equilibrium. It is an index of the climate of the area. The life or growth forms indicate the climatic type.

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Classification of Climax Even though the concept of climax is still developing, it can be classified as follows: 1. Climatic climax: It is the climax which owes its distinctive characters to climatic factors in conjunction with only such biotic influence as plants and animals naturally occurring in the area. Thought Clements considered climate as the dominant community forming factor, he recognized the importance of soil, topography, relief and biotic factors as being additional dimensions to the main factor which delayed the progress of vegetation to a climatic climax. 2. Edaphic climax: A community which differs from the climatic climax of the area owing to the influence of special soil factors. Succession ends in an edaphic climax where topography, soil, water, fire, or other disturbances are such that a climatic climax cannot develop. 3. Pre-climax : The plant community immediately preceding in seral development of the climatic climax of the region and found under conditions drier than are usual in the climate of the region. 4. Post climax: A plant community more exacting than the climatic climax of a given and found exceptionally favorable site conditions within that region. It actually occurs on sites very much moister than the normal sites in that climatic region. 5. Biotic climax or sub-climax: A climax which differs from the climatic climax of the area owing to the action of biotic factors. 6. Catastrophic Climax: Climax vegetation vulnerable to a catastrophic event such as a wildfire. For example, in California, Chaparral vegetation is the final vegetation. The wildfire removes the mature vegetation and decomposers. A rapid development of herbaceous vegetation follows until the shrub dominance is re-established. This is known as catastrophic climax. 7. Disclimax: When a stable community, which is not the climatic or edaphic climax for the given site, is maintained by man or his domestic animals, it is designated as Disclimax (disturbance climax) or anthropogenic subclimax (man-generated). For example, overgrazing by stock may produce a desert community of bushes and cacti where the local climate actually would allow grassland to maintain itself.

Mass Extinction
- The extinction of one of more species in a relatively short period of geological time, usually as a consequence of a catastrophic global event, a natural disaster, or an abrupt change in the environment, and based on studies of fossil records and macroscopic evidence. -One of the major devastating effects of such phenomenon is the abrupt decline of the diversity and the population of organisms. -Mass extinctions are usually associated with organisms that are macroscopic rather than microscopic. Examples of mass extinctions are Permian extinction of marinespecies, and Cretaceousextinction of various species, including dinosaurs.

Five Major extinction events 1. CretaceousPaleogene extinction event (End Cretaceous, K-T extinction, or K-Pg extinction): 66 Ma at the Cretaceous.Maastrichtian-Paleogene.Danian transition interval. The KT event is now officially called the CretaceousPaleogene (or KPg) extinction event in place of Cretaceous-Tertiary. About 17% of all families, 50% of all general and 75% of all species became extinct. In the seas it reduced the percentage of sessile animals to about 33%. The majority of non-avian dinosaurs became extinct during that time.The boundary event was severe with a significant amount of variability in the rate of extinction between and among different clades. Mammals and birds emerged as dominant land vertebrates in the age of new life .

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2. TriassicJurassic extinction event (End Triassic): 200 Ma at the Triassic-Jurassic transition. About 23% of all families, 48% of all genera (20% of marine families and 55% of marine genera) and 70% to 75% of all species went extinct. Most non-dinosaurian archosaurs, most therapsids, and most of the large amphibians were eliminated, leaving dinosaurs with little terrestrial competition. Non-dinosaurian archosaurs continued to dominate aquatic environments, while non-archosauriandiapsids continued to dominate marine environments. The Temnospondyl lineage of large amphibians also survived until the Cretaceous in Australia (e.g., Koolasuchus). 3. PermianTriassic extinction event (End Permian): 251 Ma at the Permian-Triassic transition. Earth's largest extinction killed 57% of all families, 83% of all genera and 90% to 96% of all species. (53% of marine families, 84% of marine genera, about 96% of all marine species and an estimated 70% of land species, including insects. The evidence of plants is less clear, but new taxa became dominant after the extinction. The "Great Dying" had enormous evolutionary significance: on land, it ended the primacy of mammal-like reptiles. The recovery of vertebrates took 30 million years, but the vacant niches created the opportunity for archosaurs to become ascendant. In the seas, the percentage of animals that were sessile dropped from 67% to 50%. The whole late Permian was a difficult time for at least marine life, even before the "Great Dying". 4. Late Devonian extinction: 375360 Ma near the Devonian-Carboniferous transition. At the end of the Frasnian Age in the later part(s) of the Devonian Period, a prolonged series of extinctions eliminated about 19% of all families, 50% of all generaand 70% of all species. This extinction event lasted perhaps as long as 20 Ma, and there is evidence for a series of extinction pulses within this period. 5. OrdovicianSilurian extinction event (End Ordovician or O-S): 450440 Ma at the Ordovician-Silurian transition. Two events occurred that killed off 27% of all families, 57% of all genera and 60% to 70% of all species.Together they are ranked by many scientists as the second largest of the five major extinctions in Earth's history in terms of percentage of genera that went extinct. 3 CAUSES OF MASS EXTINCTION 1. FLOOD BASALT EVENTS Are a type of large scle volcanic activity ,both in terms of extent and duration, that occur on land or on the ocean floor. A flood basalt may continue to erupt for tens of thousands millions of years and the lava can cover hundreds of thousand km. The huge volume of lava is accompanied by similarly large release volcanic gases such as sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide. These can affect climate and cause acid rain, so flood basalts are thought to be a potential cause of mass extinction. 2. IMPACT EVENTS proposed as causes of mass extinction are when planet is stuck by a comet or meteor large enough to create a huge shockwave felt around and globe. Widespread dust and debris rain down disrupting the climate and causing extinction on a global rather than local scale. 3. SEA LEVEL/CLIMATE CHANGE Earths climate is not constant over geological time the Earths dominant has gone from ice age to tropical heat and from steamy jungles, for rearing desert. When such climate change occurs abruptly in the form of a global warming /cooling animals and plants have no time to adapt so mass extinction can occur. Note: get a copy of Tonets report ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What is Climate Change?

Climate change is a substantial change in a regions average weather patterns including average temperature, precipitation, and wind. This phenomenon has naturally occurred through out our planets history. Such periods as the ice age are allegoric possibilities of the degree in a regions conclusive shift. The difference

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between historic events and current ones arethe speed at which these shifts may be occurring, due to an increase of human activities contributing to the production of greenhouse gases. The earth's climate is dynamic and always changing through a natural cycle. What the world is more worried about is that the changes that are occurring today have been speeded up because of man's activities. Causes of Climate Change The earth's climate is dynamic and always changing through a natural cycle. What the world is more worried about is that the changes that are occurring today have been speeded up because of man's activities. These changes are being studied by scientists all over the world who are finding evidence from tree rings, pollen samples, ice cores, and sea sediments. The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories those that are due to natural causes and those that are created by man. The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories - those that are due to natural causes and those that are created by man or the human activities.

Natural Causes
There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some of the more prominent ones are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth's tilt, and comets and meteorites. Let's look at them in a little detail. Continental Drifts You may have noticed something peculiar about South America and Africa on a map of the world - don't they seem to fit into each other like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle? About 200 million years ago they were joined together! Scientists believe that back then, the earth was not as we see it today, but the continents were all part of one large landmass. Proof of this comes from the similarity between plant and animal fossils and broad belts of rocks found on the eastern coastline of South America and western coastline of Africa, which are now widely separated by the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery of fossils of tropical plants (in the form of coal deposits) in Antarctica has led to the conclusion that this frozen land at some time in the past, must have been situated closer to the equator, where the climate was tropical, with swamps and plenty of lush vegetation. The continents that we are familiar with today were formed when the landmass began gradually drifting apart, millions of years back. This drift also had an impact on the climate because it changed the physical features of the landmass, their position and the position of water bodies. The separation of the landmasses changed the flow of ocean currents and winds, which affected the climate. This drift of the continents continues even today; the Himalayan range is rising by about 1 mm (millimeter) every year because the Indian land mass is moving towards the Asian land mass, slowly but steadily. theory governing movement of continents: a theory that explains the formation, alteration, and extremely slow movement of the continents across the Earth's crust. The continents are thought to have been formed from one large landmass that split, drifted apart, and in places collided again.

Geologists think that millions of years ago Earth had only one continent. Earth today has seven continents. The continents look like pieces of a big jigsaw puzzle. They look like they could fit together to make one continent. Volcanoes When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and ash into the atmosphere. Although the volcanic activity may last only a few days, yet the large volumes of gases and ash can influence climatic patterns for years. Millions of tonnes of sulphur dioxide gas can reach the upper levels of the atmosphere (called the stratosphere) from a major eruption. The gases and dust particles partially block the incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling. Sulphur dioxide combines with water to form tiny droplets of sulphuric acid. These droplets are so small that many of them can stay aloft for several years. They are efficient reflectors of sunlight, and screen the ground from some of the energy that it would ordinarily receive from the sun. Winds in the upper levels of the atmopshere, called the stratosphere, carry the aerosols

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rapidly around the globe in either an easterly or westerly direction. Movement of aerosols north and south is always much slower. This should give you some idea of the ways by which cooling can be brought about for a few years after a major volcanic eruption. The earth's tilt or the Earth Orbital changes The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at an angle of 23.5 to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. For one half of the year when it is summer, the northern hemisphere tilts towards the sun. In the other half when it is winter, the earth is tilted away from the sun. If there was no tilt we would not have experienced seasons. Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect the severity of the seasons more tilt means warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters. The Earth's orbit is somewhat elliptical, which means that the distance between the earth and the Sun varies over the course of a year. We usually think of the earth's axis as being fixed, after all, it always seems to point toward Polaris (also known as the Pole Star and the North Star). Actually, it is not quite constant: the axis does move, at the rate of a little more than a half-degree each century. So Polaris has not always been, and will not always be, the star pointing to the North. When the pyramids were built, around 2500 BC, the pole was near the star Thuban (Alpha Draconis). This gradual change in the direction of the earth's axis, called precession is responsible for changes in the climate. Ocean currents The oceans are a major component of the climate system. They cover about 71% of the Earth and absorb about twice as much of the sun's radiation as the atmosphere or the land surface. Ocean currents move vast amounts of heat across the planet - roughly the same amount as the atmosphere does. But the oceans are surrounded by land masses, so heat transport through the water is through channels. Winds push horizontally against the sea surface and drive ocean current patterns. Certain parts of the world are influenced by ocean currents more than others. The coast of Peru and other adjoining regions are directly influenced by the Humboldt current that flows along the coastline of Peru. The El Nio event in the Pacific Ocean can affect climatic conditions all over the world. Solar variation The Sun is the source of energy for the Earths climate system. Although the Suns energy output appears constant from an everyday point of view, small changes over an extended period of time can lead to climate changes. Some scientists suspect that a portion of the warming in the first half of the 20th century was due to an increase in the output of solar energy. As the sun is the fundamental source of energy that is instrumental in our climate system it would be reasonable to assume that changes in the sun's energy output would cause the climate to change. Scientific studies demonstrate that solar variations have performed a role in past climate changes. For instance a decrease in solar activity was thought to have triggered the Little Ice Age between approximately 1650 and 1850, when Greenland was largely cut off by ice from 1410 to the 1720s and glaciers advanced in the Alps

Human Activities
The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century Saw the large-scale use of fossil fuels for industrial activities. These industries created jobs and over the years, people moved from rural areas to the cities. This trend is continuing even today. More and more land that was covered with vegetation has been cleared to make way for houses. Natural resources are being used extensively for construction, industries, transport, and consumption. Consumerism (our increasing want for material things) has increased by leaps and bounds, creating mountains of waste. Also, our population has increased to an incredible extent. All this has contributed to a rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles, generate electricity for industries, households, etc. The energy sector is responsible for about of the carbon dioxide emissions, 1/5 of the methane emissions and a large quantity of nitrous oxide. It also produces nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) which are

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not greenhouse gases but do have an influence on the chemical cycles in the atmosphere that produce or destroy greenhouse gases.e Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw the large-scale use of fossfuels for i The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw the large-scale use of fossil fuels for industrial activities. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles, generate electricity for industries and households. The energy sector is responsible for about of the carbon dioxide emissions, 1/5 of the methane emissions and a large quantity of nitrous oxide. Carbon dioxide is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities have all led to a rise in the emission of carbon dioxide. Methane is another important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. It is released from animals such as dairy cows, goats, pigs, buffaloes, camels, horses and sheep Methane is also emitted during the process of oil drilling, coal mining, leaking gas pipelines, landfills and waste dumps. The certainty of global warming can be seen through some of the natural phenomenon like the effect on crops and extreme weather conditions around the world. It is especially clear in the dramatic change of the polar caps, i.e. the Arctic ice cap is shrinking and the Antarctica ice shelf is melting. o Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities have all led to a rise in the emission of carbon dioxide. Methane is another important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. About of all methane emissions are said to come from domesticated animals such as dairy cows, goats, pigs, buffaloes, camels, horses, and sheep. These animals produce methane during the cud-chewing process. Methane is also released from rice or paddy fields that are flooded during the sowing and maturing periods. When soil is covered with water it becomes anaerobic or lacking in oxygen. Under such conditions, methane-producing bacteria and other organisms decompose organic matter in the soil to form methane. Nearly 90% of the paddy-growing area in the world is found in Asia, as rice is the staple food there. China and India, between them, have 80-90% of the world's rice-growing areas. Methane is also emitted from landfills and other waste dumps. If the waste is put into anincinerator or burnt in the open, carbon dioxide is emitted. Methane is also emitted during the process of oil drilling, coal mining and also from leaking gas pipelines (due to accidents and poor maintenance of sites). How we all contribute every day All of us in our daily lives contribute our bit to this change in the climate. Give these points a good, serious thought: Electricity is the main source of power in urban areas. All our gadgets run on electricity generated mainly from thermal power plants. These thermal power plants are run on fossil fuels (mostly coal) and are responsible for the emission of huge amounts of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Cars, buses, and trucks are the principal ways by which goods and people are transported in most of our cities. These are run mainly on petrol or diesel, both fossil fuels. - We generate large quantities of waste in the form of plastics that remain in the environment for many years and cause damage. - We use a huge quantity of paper in our work at schools and in offices. Have we ever thought about the number of trees that we use in a day? - Timber is used in large quantities for construction of houses, which means that large areas of forest have to be cut down. A growing population has meant more and more mouths to feed. Because the land area available for agriculture is limited (and in fact, is actually shrinking as a result of ecological degradation!), highyielding varieties of crop are being grown to increase the agricultural output from a given area of land. However, such high-yielding varieties of crops require large quantities of fertilizers; and more fertilizer means more emissions of nitrous oxide, both from the field into which it is put and the fertilizer industry that makes it. Pollution also results from the run-off of fertilizer into water bodies.

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Effects of Climate Change

Over 100 years ago, people worldwide began burning more coal and oil for homes, factories, and transportation. Burning these fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These added greenhouses gases have caused Earth to warm more quickly than it has in the past. How much warming has happened? Scientists from around the world with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) tell us that during the past 100 years, the world's surface air temperature increased an average of 0.6 Celsius (1.1F). This may not sound like very much change, but even one degree can affect the Earth. Below are some effects of climate change that we see happening now. 1. Species Distinction 2. Stress in Coastal Areas Rising seas threaten to inundate low-lying areas and islands, threaten dense coastal populations, erode shorelines, damage property and destroy ecosystems such as mangroves and wetlands that protect coasts against storms. . Sea levels have risen between four and eight inches in the past 100 years. Current projections suggest that sea levels could continue to rise between 4 inches and 36 inches over the next 100 years. One of the cause why sea levels have risen is because of the melting of ice in the arctic ocean. A 36-inch increase in sea levels would swamp every city on the East Coast of the United States, from Miami to Boston. Worldwide, approximately 100 million people live within three feet of sea level. Sea level rise associated with climate change could displace tens of millions of people in low-lying areas especially in developing countries. Inhabitants of some small island countries that rest barely above the existing sea level are already abandoning their islands, some of the worlds first climate change refugees. Climate change is intensifying the circulation of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth causing drought and floods to be more frequent, severe and widespread.

3. Agriculture Moderate warming and more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may help plants to grow faster. However, more severe warming, floods, and drought may reduce yields. Livestock may be at risk, both directly from heat stress and indirectly from reduced quality of their food supply. Fisheries will be affected by changes in water temperature that shift species ranges, make waters more hospitable to invasive species, and change lifecycle timing.

4. Forest Fires 5. Storms Scientific research indicates that climate change will cause hurricanes and tropical storms to become more intense lasting longer, unleashing stronger winds, and causing more damage to coastal ecosystems and communities. Scientists point to higher ocean temperatures as the main culprit, since hurricanes and tropical storms get their energy from warm water. As sea surface temperatures rise, developing storms will contain more energy. At the same time, other factors such as rising sea levels, disappearing wetlands, and increased coastal development threaten to intensify the damage caused by hurricanes and tropical storms.

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6. Hurricane Storm Surge Hurricanes cause most of their damage with strong winds, but they can also cause sudden storm surges, or rises in water level. Storm surges can rise as high as 6 m (20 ft) above normal sea level, flooding coastal areas. 7. Human Health As temperatures rise, so do the risks of heat-related illness and even death for the most vulnerable human populations. In 2003, for example, extreme heat waves caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe and more than 1,500 deaths in India. Scientists have linked the deadly heat waves to climate change and warn of more to come. In addition to heat-related illness, climate change may increase the spread of infectious diseases, mainly because warmer temperatures allow disease-carrying insects, animals and microbes to survive in areas where they were once thwarted by cold weather. Diseases and pests that were once limited to the tropics such as mosquitoes that carry malaria may find hospitable conditions in new areas that were once too cold to support them. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that climate change may have caused more than 150,000 deaths in the year 2000 alone, with an increase in deaths likely in the future.

Climate change is already beginning to transform life on Earth. Around the globe, seasons are shifting, temperatures are climbing and sea levels are rising. And meanwhile, our planet must still supply us and all living things with air, water, food and safe places to live. If we don't act now, climate change will rapidly alter the lands and waters we all depend upon for survival, leaving our children and grandchildren with a very different world. A STRATEGY AND ACTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVING AND DEVELOPMENT A Strategy of Care For Planet Earth Sustainability A dynamic equilibrium in the processes of interaction between a population and the carrying capacity of an environment such, that the population develops to express its full potential without adversely and irreversibly affecting the carrying capacity of the environment upon which it depends. Caring For The Earth This is a strategy for a kind of development that provides real improvements in the quality of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and diversity of the Earth. The goal is development that will be sustainable. It is an analysis and a plan for action. It is intended as a broad but a practical guide policies and strategy we must adopt and the actions we must undertake. Caring for the earth is divided into three parts: Part I Principles of a sustainable society and recommended actions Part II Additional actions required to apply principles set out in Part I to the more familiar sectors of environment and policy Part III Implementation and Follow up I. Principles of a sustainable society and recommended actions

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A . Respect and Care for the Community of Life It is foundation for sustainable living.

Disturbing

one

component

can

affect

the

whole.

There are four actions needed to implement this principle: 1. The ethic for sustainable living should be developed by dialogue between leaders and citizens group that should be concerning linked national coalitions and on international network 2. States should adopt a Universal Declaration and Covenant on Sustainability and commits them to the world ethic and should incorporate its principles into their national constitution and legislation. 3. People in all walks of life should be incorporating the ethic into codes of personal behaviour and professional conduct. 4. A anew world organization should be established to watch over the implementation of the world ethic and draw public attention B. Improve the Quality of Life Development is real only if it makes our lives better an all aspects. Economic growth (quality of life) In lower-income countries, economic growth is needed urgently to improve the quality of life. In upperincome countries the need to reduce resource consumption, energy use and environmental impact while extending am acceptable quality of life to all. Health standards (safe water) Health standards need to be raised worldwide but especially in the lower income counties, to cut the number of deaths due to infections and malnutrition, Safe water is essential: over half the illness is some countries are carried through contaminated water supplies. Universal education (unleash potentials) Universal education is the most important development target, because it can unleash the potential of so many people. Finally, improved security against natural disasters and war would greatly enhance the quality of life. C. Conserve the Earths Vitality and Diversity Development must be conservation based: it must protect the structure, functions and diversity of the worlds natural systems, on which our species depends. We need to: 1. Conserve of life-support system. these ate ecological processes that keep the planet safe for life. They shape climate, cleanse air, water, regulate water flow, recycle essential elements, create generate soil, and enable ecosystems to renew themselves. 2. Conserve biodiversity. This includes all species of plants, animals and other organisms: the range genetic stocks within the species, and the variety of ecosystems. 3. Ensure that the use of renewable resources is sustainable. These resources include soil, wild and domesticated organisms, forests, range lands, cultivated land, and marine and freshwater ecosystems that support fisheries. A use is sustainable if it is within the resources capacity for regeneration The actions that must be taken fall into four categories: 1. Pollution must be prevented 2. Maintain the integrity of Earths Ecosystem. 3. Conservation of biological diversity 4. Use biological resources sustainability D. Minimize the depletion of non-renewable resources The depletion of non-renewable resources like minerals, oil, gas, coal must be minimized. While these cannot be used sustainability, their life can be extended, for example by recycling, by using less of a resource to make a particular product, or by switching to renewable substitutes where possible. These practices are essential if the earth is to sustain billions more people in the future, and give everyone a life of decent quality. E. Change personal Attitudes and Practices. To adopt the ethic for living sustainability, people must:

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Re examine their values and alter their behaviour. Society must promote values that support the ethic and discourage those that are incompatible with sustainable way of life. Information must be disseminated through formal and informal education so that needed actions are widely understood. Changing peoples attitude and practices will require an information campaign, encouraged by governments and led by the non-governmental movement. Plans, to motivate, educate and equip individuals to lead sustainable lives should be prepared in all countries. All communication media could help in caring out the plans. Formal environmental education for children and adults should be extended and integrated in education at all levels. Curricula and teaching approaches as well as the materials available to teachers, will need re-examination Give trainings for sustainable development. Extension workers and trainers are badly needed to help farmers, fisher folks, forest workers, the urban and rural poor and many other groups within society to use natural resources more productively and sustainably. Development assistance agencies should give high priority to this.

F. Enable Communities to Care for their own Environment Communities and local groups provide the easiest channels for people to express their concern and take action to create securely-based sustainable societies. However, such communities need the authority, power and knowledge to act. People who organize themselves to work for sustainability in their own communities can be effective force whether their community is rich, poor urban, suburban or rural. 3 Kinds of Actions Needed 1. The communities need effective control over their own affairs, including secure access to resources and an equitable share in managing them: the right to participate in decisions: and education and training. Land tenure, other property rights, and power to decide within the community on allocation of shred resources are crucial. 2. Communities must be able to meet their essential needs sustainability while conserving their environment. Improved exchange of information, skills and technologies is one ingredient in this process. So in making local governments, communities, business and other interest group full partners with central government in decisions on policies, programs and projects that directly affect them, their environments and the resources on which they depend. 3. The need is to empower and enable local government and communities to discharge their role in environmental care. National economic strategy and policy should favor community action to care for their environment.

II.

ADDITIONAL ACTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVING

The traditional approach to the management of the environment has been sectoral dealing with agriculture, forestry, fisheries, nature conservation, pollution prevention , energy use and conservation, human settlements planning and other components of the worlds system as if they were independent beings. Indeed, too much sectoralism within the machinery of government is responsible for many problems of today. This strategy advocates a different approach, particularly for policy making and planning. But sector approach to management will succeed in many fields, and this does not matter so as their inter linkages are appreciated, and actions to one area are fully evaluated for their impacts in another. A. Energy Commercial energy is essential for development. But commercial energy production and use can cause impacts on the environment. There is much waste in the commercial industry and in the use of its products. Needed actions are: 1. Long term energy strategies for all countries 2. Increases efficiency in energy generation from fossil fuels, and increase use of alternative, particularly renewable energy sources. 3. Increased efficiency in the distribution of the energy 4. Reduce energy use per person in all sectors, and major increase in efficiency of use in home, industry, business, and transport.

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B. Business, industry and commerce We must adopt practices that build concern for the earth into the structure of business, industry and commerce. We need introduced processes that minimize the use of raw materials an energy, reduce waste and prevent pollution. And we need products that do not damage the people or the earth. These needs will be met only if we established a new relationship between business and industry and other groups working towards sustainable societies. Needed actions are: 1. Bring governments, business, and the environmental movement into a new dialogue 2. Commit business to sustainability and environmental excellence, express in a high performance standard and advance by economic incentives 3. Build confidence in industry by discussion of objectives, processes and practices and open disclosure of the results of the monitoring. C. Human settlements The movement of people from rural to urban areas is swelling the cities of the lower income countries. Cities generate and accumulate wealth, and are center for education new jobs, innovation, culture and greater economic opportunity. But they are massive consumers of natural resources. They spread and sterilized the land. They require enormous quantities of water, energy, foodstuffs and raw materials and generate enormous pollution. In all countries, changes in city design, transport system, and resource use will be essential f sustainability is to be assured. The poverty suffered by the monitory of urban dwellers in richer countries and the majority in poorer countries can be reduced without a large expansion in consumption. In both, instances, more effective and representative local government and far sighted national government are requires. The immediate need for action that will: 1. Implement an ecological approach to human settlement planning 2. Develop more effective and representative government committed to caring for their environments. 3. Develop an efficient and sustainable urban transport policy. 4. Make cities clean, green efficient. D. Farm and range lands More people are hungry now than ever before, and their numbers is increasing. Large areas are affected by land degradation resulting from mis-use. Unused land has a=little agricultural and is best used to maintain life support and provide timber, fuel wood and other resources. In all countries progress toward sustainable agriculture will require: 1. Strategies and plans to use agricultural land optimally. 2. Control of the use of fertilizers and pesticides 3. Conservation of genetic resources 4. Use economic incentives. E. Forest land Forests and closed and open woodlands cover 40% of the earths land surface. They are part of the planets life support system and a priceless natural resource. Needed actions: 1. Prepare an inventory of its forest resources, and a strategy for their management. 2. Protect areas of natural forest including old growth, maintain modified forests and use them sustainably, and establish plantations for intensive production 3. Involve local communities n=in forest management. F. Fresh water Life on earth depends on water, but water management is reducing agricultural productivity, spreading disease, and endangering ecological balance. Action is needed on the ff. areas: 1. Improve the information base and promote public awareness on the water cycle and the need for the better management

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2. Provide for integrated management of water and land use. 3. Conserve aquatic species and ecosystems 4. Strengthen international cooperation. G. Oceans and coastal areas They are sources of food and oil and serve as the highways for the world shipping. 1. To make people more aware of the importance of the oceans and seas 2. To apply integrated approaches to coastal and ocean management 3. To involve local communities in the management of marine resources 4. To conserve coastal and e=oceanic ecological processes 5. To strengthen regional and global cooperation. Conclusion Caring for the earth is exerting all effort and working towards a world that lives sustainability within the natural limits of our planet. The challenges we face cannot be solve overnight. Actions by governments and strengthened international institutions are of primary importance. The attitudes and practices of individuals together with the actions on the ground are of equal importance. Caring for the earth is addressed to the whole world community. It is very essential but people take the actions which they believe to be right and timely, and that they do so with a sense of urgency. The world is running out of space and time. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________

LAND POLLUTION
The two main resources of our planet are land and water. Both resources are the basic ingredients or components that support the existence of life on Earth. In particular, land is the foundation of our mountains, deserts, forests and it supports our agricultural crops, industrial and commercial areas, transport systems, and all other human activities that exist on land. About 90% of the food supplies of man are sourced on land, considering its extensive usage, it also served as a convenient place for dumping all kinds of waste materials leading to the contamination and pollution of the soil or land. Land pollution is the deterioration (destruction) of the earths land surfaces, often directly or indirectly as a result of mans activities and their misuse of land resources. LAND POLLUTANTS 4 Kinds of Land and Soil Pollutants a. b. c. d. Organic waste from municipal and industrial waste Pesticides, such as DDT Inorganic pollutant like mercury, lead and cadmium Household garbage and waste

Causes of Land Pollution Below are the sources of land pollution: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Deforestation and soil erosion: Agricultural activities: Mining activities Overcrowded landfills: Industrialization: Construction activities: Nuclear waste: Sewage treatment:

Residential Waste

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Residential waste generated by millions of household in urban centers including Metro Manila are primarily made up of food and kitchen waste owing to the daily preparation of food by each family. Subsequently, the packaging and wrapping materials and other containers of consumer products used by the family marketing man contribute a significant portion of waste output. In addition, metal scrap, decayed wood and non-wood materials also constitute a bulk of waste material in residential areas. Results of the Metro Manila Waste Management Study showed that the socio-economic status had a bearing on the amount and composition of residential waste of each particular household. Extensive source sampling of various households belonging to different socio-economic groups showed that generation of residual waste increases with the increasing income of households. Residential wastes constitute about 50% of the total waste generated by all sectors, cities and municipalities in the region. Household waste, street and market wastes contribute about 80% of the total solid stream. The remaining 20% is generated by the commercial, industrial, construction and demolition resources. Disposal of Solid Waste The disposal of solid waste is commonly done by the following methods: 1. Open dumping The most common and simplest method of disposing garbage is to deposit it into an open pit or area. Solid waste is usually compacted and then transported and dumped in selected sites or location. Some organic substances undergo decaying process and are consumed by rodents, birds and other animals. Scavengers usually collect or recover bottles, plastic containers, and metals and are sold to junk shops. Open dumping system pose some serious problems to the environment. It is a potential source of disease caused by flies, rats, other insects and animals. In some areas, when the pile of waste is becoming high, the residents will try to burn the pile in order to reduce the volume and at the same time promoting pollution of the atmosphere. 2. River and Ocean dumping The practice of dumping solid waste in rivers and seas is being done by people near river banks and seashores. Boats and other means of sea transport are utilized to carry solid wastes to certain distance from the shoreline and then dumped in the sea. For people living near river banks, waste materials are usually thrown into the rivers. Most families living under bridges and river sides generally practiced this method of waste disposal. This type of human activity greatly contributes to the pollution of the seas and rivers. 3. Sanitary Landfill This method of disposing solid wastes is the filling of depressed land surface with thin compacted waste and followed by the application of compacted soil over it. This procedure eliminates the unfavorable and disgusting site of mountains of trash which serves as breeding place of diseasecarrying insects and the unpleasant odor emitted. Sanitary landfill of solid waste disposal has some advantages. It is cost effective and environment-less damaging compared to open dumping. It is also flexible because it can accommodate a variety of waste materials. When the landfill is completed, sub marginal areas may be reclaimed for residential purposes. A good example of this is the Smokey Mountain of the City of Manila. Looking at it in another angle, there also exists some potential hazards of land and water pollution particularly with poorly planned, designed, compacted and operated landfills. 4. Incineration Incineration is the burning of the combustible materials in a properly designed incinerator in order to reduce solid wastes to a minimum residue of ash. Under controlled combustion process, the volume of waste materials can be reduced up to 90%. Disposal of waste by this method is suitable in urban industrial areas because it requires less land area and easily situated near the service area. On the other hand, experiences in the Philippines showed some difficulties in its successful operation. Some questions and controversies have been raised as to its adaptability in the co untry. The governments Clean Air Act bans the use of incinerator in the Philippines with limited exceptions.

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5. Composting Composting is a process of biochemical degradation of solid organic waste materials and producing sanitary, nuisance free, human-like material. Modern scientific composting has been described as a rapid and partial decomposition of solid waste into humus material or organic fertilizer through an aerobic, biological stabilization procedure. The resulting composed material is an excellent soil conditioner which replaces organic matter that has been depleted often some years of farming. Composting of sewage sludge and animal manure produces methane gas which is used as fuel. Biogas energy production using animal manure to generate electricity involved the same principle as in composting of animal manure to produce methane gas. 6. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle Reducing solid waste, reusing, and recycling of raw materials from solid waste are innovative processes being developed and practiced for a long-range solution to the problem of solid waste disposal. Reuse denotes the use of a material or product more than once. Recycling means that a specific product is reintroduce into the production cycle for the production of the same product. Recycling industrial waste is a common practice in many industries. Typical of this is the glass and bottle industries use about 50% of their old glass for manufacturing. Metal and metal recovery industries also depend somehow on recovery and for supplies. The pulp and paper industries can also produce products from recycled paper scraps in the form of cardboards. Used tires of trucks, cars, buses and other vehicles are also sources of rubber. With regard to the proper management of municipal waste in the Philippines, as US-based expert Neil Tangri, a waste and climate campaigner of the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives suggested that the country should focus on reduce, reuse and recycle methods instead of investing in disposal methods such as open dumps and landfill. Reduce, reuse and recycle methods is going toward zero waste that will dramatically reduce the amount of trash sent for disposal. To reduce the amount of waste going to dumps, reduce greenhouse gas and toxic air emissions and provide additional employment, local authorities should seek cooperative arrangements with waste gatherers to implement source separation and treatment of organics. Effects of Land Pollution 1. Soil pollution: Soil pollution is another form of land pollution, where the upper layer of the soil is damaged. This is caused by the overuse of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion caused by running water and other pest control measures; this leads to loss of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder patches for grazing etc. 2. Change in climate patterns: The effects of land pollution are very hazardous and can lead to the loss of ecosystems. When land is polluted, it directly or indirectly affects the climate patterns. 3. Environmental Impact: When deforestation is committed, the tree cover is compromised on. This leads to a steep imbalance in the rain cycle. A disturbed rain cycle affects a lot of factors. To begin with, the green cover is reduced. Trees and plants help balance the atmosphere, without them we are subjected to various concerns like Global warming, the green house effect, irregular rainfall and flash floods among other imbalances. 4. Effect on human health: The land when contaminated with toxic chemicals and pesticides lead to problem of skin cancer and human respiratory system. The toxic chemicals can reach our body through foods and vegetables that we eat as they are grown in polluted soil. 5. Cause Air pollution: Landfills across the city keep on growing due to increase in waste and are later burned which leads to air pollution. They become home for rodents, mice etc which in turn transmit diseases. 6. Distraction for Tourist: The city loses its attraction as tourist destination as landfills do not look good when you move around the city. It leads to loss of revenue for the state government. 7. Effect on wildlife: The animal kingdom has suffered mostly in the past decades. They face a serious threat with regards to loss of habitat and natural environment. The constant human activity on land, is leaving it polluted;

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forcing these species to move further away and adapt to new regions or die trying to adjust. Several species are pushed to the verge of extinction, due to no homeland. Other issues that we face include increased temperature, unseasonal weather activity, acid rains etc. The discharge of chemicals on land, makes it dangerous for the ecosystem too. These chemicals are consumed by the animals and plants and thereby make their way in the ecosystem. This process is called bio magnification and is a serious threat to the ecology. Solutions for Land Pollution 1. Make people aware about the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse. 2. Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities. 3. Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in landfill site. 4. Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of garbage. 5. Buy biodegradable products. 6. Do Organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the use of pesticides. 7. Create dumping ground away from residential areas.

AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is defined as the introduction of impurities into the atmosphere, which are considered harmful to plants and animals including human. Air pollution may also affect buildings, other structures built on land, and also land, sea and air transport systems. Principals Sources of Air Pollution 1. Natural Resources The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in Central Luzon, Philippines in June 1991 which gave off an estimated of 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulates and other effluents altered the quality of air in the region. The sulfur dioxide ejected by the volcano to the atmosphere reaches a height of about 40km. the concentration of sulfur dioxide, volcanic ash and steam altered the climate in the Philippines also in regions across the China Sea. To some extent it may also affect the equatorial part of the ozone layer. The eruptions of Krakatoa Volcano in Indonesia, Mt. St. Helens in Washington USA and Katmai Volcano in Alaska have caused climatic changes. 2. Man-made Source The widespread forest fires that occurred in Indonesia between April and October 1997 caused extensive episodes of haze or smoke throughout the region, particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and parts of the Philippines and Thailand. Satellite imagery analysis has revealed that most of the fires started in the plantation areas in Borneo and Sumatra as a result of burning for land clearing and preparation for agriculture. The dry conditions in Southeast Asia resulting from the 1997 El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) climate phenomenon exacerbated the problems and make forest fire control more difficult. The severity and extent of the smoke haze pollution were unprecedented and the region experienced extended periods of high particulate levels and severe reductions in visibility. The haze pollution also resulted in considerable health impacts to people. In conclusion, the haze episode was caused by forest fires and the nature of habitat damage and the impacts on human and environment were similar throughout the region. As far as economic impacts are concerned, the haze episodes cause considerable loss both directly and indirectly to the impacted countries. 3. Stationary Industrial Plants The phenomenal process in the transfer of doing work by human hands and feet to the use of machines was called Industrial Revolution. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution human burned coal, mineral, oil and gas as sources of heat and energy for industrial processing of various products. Burning of these fossil fuels produces incomplete combustion and gives off oxides of carbon, oxides of sulfur and oxides of nitrogen and water. Carbon monoxide may be produced. The oxide of nitrogen may generate

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unpleasant smell of a contaminated atmosphere. Cement factories, oil refineries and power plants exhaust enormous smoke, dust and soot into the atmosphere and pollute the environment. 4. Mobile Engine-Driven Vehicles Motor vehicles in the form of trucks, buses, cars and motorcycles use gasoline and diesel oil as source of power. During the combustion process, gasoline and diesel oil are not completely burned and the products of combustion contain hydrocarbon, oxides of carbon and oxides of nitrogen are being exhausted to the atmosphere and pollutes the air. These exhaust gases or products of combustion are primary pollutants. The exhaust from urning fuel in automobiles, homes and burning of wood and charcoal in fireplace and barbeque stands are sources of air pollution. Kinds of Pollutants Primary Pollutants These are the different oxides of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen as well as the particulate. Secondary Pollutants These are the other type which are formed in the atmosphere involving chemical reactions with the components of the air and with aid of sunlight. Is a combination of various gases with water vapor and dust. A large part of gases which form smog is produced when fuels are burnt. Smog forms when heat and sunlight react with these gases and fine particles in the air. Its occurrences are often linked to heavy traffic, high temperatures and calm winds. Sulfur dioxide Smog affects plants, causing their leaves to turn brownish or reddish in color. It also affects building materials. The emission of sulfur dioxide is common in smelting plants that treat sulfide ores of silver, copper and zinc. Photochemical Smog is common in urban centers and large cities like Tokyo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Sydney, Denver, Salt Lake City and Mexico City, where the main source of pollution is the internal combustion engines which generate substantial quantity of exhaust substances to the atmosphere. The gasoline fuel used in cars is not completely burned during the combustion process in the car engine. The gasoline itself contains hydrocarbons; lead, anti-oxidants and detergents. When this combination is burned, the products of combustion contain hydrocarbons, oxides of carbon and nitrogen and when these products of combustion enter the atmosphere, they react with each other and also with sunlight. The result is a photochemical smog. A typical photochemical smog contains the principal pollutants of nitrogen oxide (NO2), nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide and volatile hydrocarbons that are evaporated from gasoline.

Smog

Major Classes of Air Pollutants Carbon Oxides are in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO). the source of CO2 and CO is the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels in transportation, industry and in heating of homes in cold countries. Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas. Cigarette smokers also give off carbon dioxide. It is quite advisable that these smokers stay in isolated places when smoking. Carbon Monoxide is the most abundant pollutant known to affect human health. It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters the blood and combines with hemoglobin and may create problems for infants, the elderly and those with heart or respiratory diseases. It can slow human reflexes and make us confused and sleepy. It is also produced from the combustion of natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes.

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Sulfur Oxides are mainly sulfur dioxide (SO2) and are produced by the combustion of coal and oil (but primarily coal) in thermal power plants. Paper mills and steel plants also produce sulfur dioxide. About 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide is released per year. Sulfur dioxide can react with gases in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid (acid rain). Exposure to sulfur dioxide can cause impairment of respiratory function. Aggravation of existing respiratory disease and decrease the ability of the lungs to clear foreign particles. Nitrogen Oxide in the form nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can react with other gases in the atmosphere to form nitric acid (acid rain). It is produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel and coal. Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases. Nitrogen dioxide is released by power plants, heavy industries and motor vehicle traffic. Volatile Organic Compounds (hydrocarbons) methane, benzene, propane and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). The sources of these volatile organic componds (VOC) are motor vehicles, industry and various household products. About 18 million tons of VOC is released in the USA each year. The concentrations of many VOC are consistently higher indoors than outdoors. CFC gases are released mainly from air conditioning systems and refrigeration. These CFC gases rise to the stratosphere where they come in contact with few other gases, which lead to a reduction of the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Exposure to some VOC may cause irritation of the eye and respiratory tract, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders and memory impairment. Suspended Particulate Matter Solid particles in the form of dust, soot and asbestos and liquid droplets from pesticides are examples of particulate matter. The source of these particles are power plants, iron and steel mills, land clearing, highway construction, mining and other activities that disturb or disrupt the Earth surface. It can act as respiratory irritants; some are known carcinogens (such as asbestos). It can aggravate heart and respiratory diseases.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Air pollution Indoor Pollutants It refers to the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of air in the indoor environment within a home, building, or an institution or commercial establishments. In developed countries, indoor pollution occur in houses where construction of it are almost air tight to gain high energy efficiency inside the house or structure thereby reducing ventilation and raising pollutant levels. In the developing countries, it is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from indoor pollution, where some 3.5 billion people continue to rely on traditional fuels such as firewood, charcoal, and cow dung for cooking and heating. Concentrations of indoor pollutants in households that burn traditional fuels are alarming. Using such fuels produces large amount of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space of the home, resulting in high exposure. Examples of Indoor Pollutants 1. Volatile organic compounds 2. Tobacco smoke 3. Biological pollutants 4. Formaldehyde

Effects of Air Pollution

Health Effects Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough concentrations. Millions of Americans live in areas where urban smog, particle pollution, and toxic pollutants pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high enough levels of

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certain air pollutants may experience: Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties Worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as asthma Increased risk of heart attack In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the immune, neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems. In extreme cases, it can even cause death. Environmental Effects Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects: Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity. Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by sources such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction activities. Effects on wildlife. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many times higher than in the water or air. Ozone depletion. Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons. Crop and forest damage. Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways.Ground-level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather).

Solutions for Air Pollution

1. Use public mode of transportation 2. Conserve energy 3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: 4. Emphasis on clean energy resources: 5. Use energy efficient devices: 6. Use environmentally safe paints and cleaning products whenever possible. Water Pollution

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Among the Earths resources water is the most basic. All forms of life, plants and animals including human are completely dependent on water for their existence. Because of its paramount importance, it is urgently necessary that we must exert our efforts to conserve it and protect it from contaminations. The Earths water The Earths water came from the following resources: Ocean Ice caps, glaciers Ground water Fresh water lakes Inland seas Soil moisture Atmosphere Rivers Earths water Usable by humans The Earths renewable freshwater is approximately 41,678 cubic kilometers is available each year on the average. The constraints on its availability and use are increasingly evident. The growth of human population inevitably limits the average availability of freshwater per person, and the growing human thirst for freshwater comes at the expanse of natural ecosystem and threatens the survival of animals and plant species. In the past water scarcity was at most a local or temporary problem, but at present it is becoming pervasive in some regions of the world. In 1995, about 386 million people in 31 countries lived in conditions of water stress or water scarcity, based on hydrological benchmark of the minimum annual per capita availability of renewable freshwater needed for economic development. By the year 2020, the number of people living in such condition could be as high as 2.9 billion. Recent estimate indicated that more than half of the wor ld accessible renewable freshwater is already being used, indicating the problems the world may face if world population doubles. Water pollution Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies. Water pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. Pollution of water occurs when some substance degrades a body of water to such a degree that water cannot be used for a specific purpose. Thus, drinking water is considered polluted when it is not safe to drink. River water is polluted when fishes and other organism cannot live there in. the ocean become polluted when commercial fishing firms dumped millions of kilograms of unwanted dead fish and mammals back into the ocean and threatened many species of turtles, whales, and dolphins of survival. Major Water Pollutants The major water pollutants are: 1) disease-causing agents such as bacteria; 2) oxygen demanding waste, such as organic wastes decomposed by aerobic bacteria; 3) water-soluble inorganic chemicals, such as acid, salts, mercury, and lead; 4) inorganic plant nutrients; 5) organic chemicals, such as oil, gasoline, and pesticides; and 6) silt and sediments. Water pollution varies in degree to which they are degradable by natural process. The first degree of water pollutant is the non persistent pollutants, which include sewage, fertilizers, and some household cleaning products. They are generally less harmful because they can eventually be broken down and their damaging effects can be reversed. The second degree of water pollutants is the persistent pollutants, which degrade slowly and remain in water for years. They may bioaccumulate up the aquatic food chain, exposing animals, 97.24% 2.14% 0.61% 0.009% 0.008% 0.005% 0.001% 0.0001%

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birds, and people who eat fish to unacceptably high concentrations of chemicals. This can result in animal and human health risks and serious environmental damage. These pollutants include some pesticides, oil, or specific compounds of oil, and metals such as lead and mercury. Sources of Water Pollution Sources of water pollution came from a point source or from a non-point source. Point sources include sewagetreatment plants, industrial plants, and animal feed lots. Nonpoint source (NPS) pollutioncomes from many diffuse sources. NPS pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even our underground sources of drinking water. These pollutants include: Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production; Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding stream banks; Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines; Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems. Cause of Water Pollution Mining activities Accidental leaks and spills Intended/illegal discharges of waste Burning of fossil fuels Construction activities Plastic materials/wastes in contact with water Disposal of personal care products and household chemicals Leaking landfills Animal wastes Agriculture Energy Use

Effects of Water Pollution Many water bodies near urban areas (cities and towns) are highly polluted. Death of aquatic (water) animals Disruption of food-chains Spread of diseases Destruction of ecosystems

Water Pollution Solutions Re-establishing wetlands to act as a buffer zone to run-off and to assist in filtering pollutants Drive less to reduce the amount of air pollution being emitted into the environment and minimize the amount of nitrogen deposition. Improve the sewage treatment system to stop the leaks in the pipes. Conserve water Improve water management. Monitor watershed Stop deforestation to soak up the rain water and prevent run-off from occurring. Proper waste management and disposal Practice four R's of resource use (refuse, reduce, recycle, reuse) Reduce resource waste

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Reduce air pollution Reduce poverty Reduce birth rates

WHAT IS HUMAN GENETICS?

Human Genetics is an extremely complex topic. It is the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. It presents original and timely articles on all aspects of human genetics. In the past decades, the study of human inheritance patterns was difficult due to the following reasons: Humans produce very few offspring The limited number of offspring yields ratios that are very far from the expected ratios, thus, making it difficult to make conclusions. Humans mature slowly It takes many years before the next generation can actually be observed.

Controlled breeding experiments using humans as subjects are considered unethical.

GENES Genes is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is located usually on a chromosome and that is the functional unit of inheritance controlling the transmission and expression of one or more traits by specifying the structure of a particular polypeptide and especially a protein or controlling the function of other genetic material. Genes can be the common factor of the qualities of most human inherited traits. Study of human genetics can be useful as it can answer questions about human nature, understand the diseases and development of effective disease treatment, and understand genetics of human life. Our bodies are made up of millions of cells, and each cell receives information from the genes in its nucleus. The information encoded in genes guides the structure and function of cells and tissues, as well as how an individual responds to external environmental influences. The effects of genes are very important in guiding early development in embryo specifying how organs like the heart and brain develop. The importance of genes in shaping an individuals basic phenotype can be seen in the case of identical twins, who have exactly the same combination of alleles, and who resemble each other very closely. One of the most dangerous misconceptions about genes is the false belief that genes determine all human characteristics. This thinking can lead to discrimination against people with certain genotypes. It can also discourage people from taking responsibility for their health and actions, because they incorrectly assume that their choices do not have an important effect. Characteristics can refer to many traits including appearance, personality and behavior. The traits an individual exhibits are sometimes referred to as a phenotype. PHENOTYPE Phenotype is often related to genetic information, or genotype, but genes are not the only determining influences. It is observable properties of an organism that are produce by the interaction of the genotype and the environment. KARYOTYPING Human chromosomes may now be available in color pictures. Thanks to a technique known as karyotyping. In karyotyping cells from a person, preferably skin cells or white blood cells are obtained and are

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kept in a tissue culture that promotes growth and mitosis. The cells are arrested at metaphase stage using a chemical known as colchicines. Then the cells are placed in a solution that ruptures the plasma membrane. The individual chromosomes are isolated, stained, and photographed. The photographs of the chromosomes are cut and arranged in pairs, starting with the longest ones. A photogra ph of an individuals paired chromosomes is called a karyotype. Analysis of a karyotype may reveal chromosomal abnormalities. For example, a karyotype my show if there is a missing or an extra chromosome, as in the case of persons with genetic syndromes. Furthermore, an abnormal- sized chromosome may indicate deletion or addition of a segment KARYOTYPE OF A PERSON WITH DOWNS SYNDROME (There are three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the normal two.) MUTATIONS Mutations are spontaneous changes in the genetic materials. A few mutations are favorable because they contribute to the adaptability of a species to its environment. Most mutations, however, are unfavorable and may cause death in an organism. Each of us inherits hundreds of genetic mutations from our parents. In addition, the DNA in our own cells undergoes an estimated 30 new mutations during our lifetime. These mutations are either through mistakes during DNA replication or cell division or, more often because of environmental factors. CAUSES OF MUTATIONS Mutations are caused by certain environmental factors known as mutagens. Exposure to mutagens may alter the base sequences of genes or the structure or number of chromosomes. An individual who expresses a mutation is called a MUTANT. HAVE YOU EVER WONDERED WHY PREGNANT WOMEN ARE PREVENTED FROM X- RAY EXPOSURE? This is because X- rays can cause mutations in the cells of developing fetus. UV rays and other forms of high- energy radiation are likewise considered mutagens. It is common knowledge that ultraviolet ray from the sun causes mutations in the skin cells thereby resulting in skin cancer. TYPES OF MUTATIONS 1. GENE MUTATION It is the alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the DNA that makes up a gene. The change may be due to a substitution of a base pair in nucleotide sequence. For example, a substitution of a single base pair in a gene that codes for normal hemoglobin results in abnormally shaped red blood cells, a disease known as SICKLE- CELL ANEMIA. An addition or deletion of one or more bases may also cause gene mutations. When a base is added or deleted, the genetic code is altered, and protein synthesis will be affected. ALBINISM is caused by a change in nucleotide sequence of the gene that code for an enzyme necessary for pigment production. Albinism in plant is due to lack of chlorophyll. They cannot carry out photosynthesis. Humans and animals with this condition have white hair, pink eyes, and pinkish skin. 2. CHROMOSOME MUTATION It involves a change in the structure of an entire chromosome or pieces of it. Chromosome mutation has more drastic effects on the organism because it involves thousands of genes. 3. GERM MUTATIONS Mutations that occur in genes or chromosomes of productive cells are called germ mutations. Individuals with this kind of mutation are not affected. But because the egg cells or sperm cells carry the mutated genetic materials, germ mutations can be passed on to offspring.

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4. SOMATIC MUTATIONS

It occurs in the body cells. Unlike germ mutations, the somatic mutations are not passed on to offspring. Somatic mutations usually affect the genes that control cell reproduction. In this case, cells divide rapidly, causing cancerous growths. A mutation in one body cell produces more mutant cells by mitosis and the individuals physical characteristics and metabolic functions are affected. CHROMOSOMAL NONDISJUNCTION It is the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis I or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, may occur. This results in gametes bearing an extra chromosome and gametes lacking a chromosome. ABNORMAL CHROMOSOME NUMBERS When an abnormal gamete resulting from chromosomal nondisjunction fertilizes a normal gamete, the offspring bears an abnormal chromosome number. MONOSOMY Monosomy occurs when an individual has only one chromosome of a particular type instead of two. A monosomic human being has 45 chromosomes. Monosomies with the exception of Turners syndrome do not survive due to the absence of many genes that are essential for normal metabolic functions. TRISOMY Trisomy occurs when an individual has three chromosomes of a particular type. Individual with trisomy have 47 chromosomes instead of the normal 46. Compared to monosomy, many trisomies survive. However, they exhibit many physical deformities and metabolic malfunctions associated with the excess chromosome. POLYPLOIDY Nondisjunction of all the chromosome pairs result in a condition known as polyploidy. Organisms with this condition are called polyploids. Triploids have three sets of chromosomes. Tetraploids have four sets and soon. There are no polyploidy animals and humans because the multiple sets of chromosomes are latheral. HUMAN GENETIC SYNDROME Individuals who survive chromosomal mutations are characterized by a distinctive set of mental and physical abnormalities called SYNDROME. CRI DU CHAT SYNDROME It is a French term meaning cat- cry . It is a syndrome caused by the deletion of a portion of chromosome 5. The name is derived from the distinctive sound made when children with this problem are crying, similar to a cats meow. This anomaly is very rare though. It occurs about 1 in every 50 000 liv e births. Persons with this syndrome barely survive two years after birth. They have very small heads and suffer from mental retardation. WILLIAMS SYNDROME This syndrome results from the loss of a segment in chromosome 7. Affected individuals have large ears and share distinctive facial features that make them look like elves. They usually have teeth/ gum problems and cardiovascular disease. They have learning difficulties but are observed to have very loving personality. HUMAN BEINGS WITH 47 CHROMOSOMES TRISOMY 21

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Known as Mongolism, it is now more appropriately called Trisomy 21 or Downs syndrome. It is the most common mental retardation and malformation in a newborn baby. Affected individuals have an extra number of 21 chromosomes; thus they have a total of 47 chromosomes. Characteristics of Downs syndrome include decreased muscle tone at birth, small and deformed skull, broad short hands, single crease on the palm, retarded growth and development, and mental retardation. TRISOMY 18 It is the second most common genetic disorder in humans. It is also called Edwards Syndrome. Individuals affected with this syndrome have an extra eighteenth chromosome. Low set ears, deformed fingers, narrow nose, and a receding jaw as well as congenital heart disease ch aracterize Edwards syndrome. They usually die while still in the uterus or within a short time after birth. TRISOMY 13 Trisomy 13 is caused by an extra copy of nineteenth chromosome. It is also called Pataus syndrome. The characteristics of this syndrome include the following: heart defects, structural eye defects, hare lip, low set ears, and scalp defects. They also have abnormal palm pattern, and extra digits of the hands and feet. About 90% of babies with this syndrome do no survive infancy. KLINEFELTERS SYNDROME: XXY A male with this syndrome has two or more X- chromosomes in addition to the Y- chromosome. The testes and prostate gland are underdeveloped, and they lack facial hair. They have large feet and hands and very long arms and legs. They are slow learners but not mentally retarded unless they inherit more than two Xchromosomes. TRIPLE- X SYNDROME: XXX A triple- X individual has three X- chromosomes. Most of them have no apparent physical abnormalities except for irregularities in menstruation and early onset of menopause. JACOBS SYNDROME: XYY Persons with this syndrome are phenol- typically mal. They are generally very tall and have persistent acne problems. HUMAN BEINGS WITH 45 CHROMOSOMES TURNERS SYNDROME: XO Individuals with this syndrome have the sex chromosomes XO, and are pheno- typically females. The O signifies the absence of one X chromosome. They are short and stocky, have a broad flat chest and webbed neck. HUMAN INHERITANCE: NATURE OR NURTURE? Have you seen identical twins? Are identical twins really identical? A closer look at them would reveal certain differences. Identical twins are so called because they contain the same genetic make up. They came from a single fertilized egg. This fertilized egg divided into two daughter cells that grew and developed into two separate individuals. Identical twins are always of the same sex. Studies show that identical twins raised separately in different environments develop certain differences in height, weight, skin color, intelligence, preferences and behavior among others. This gives us an insight that heredity is not purely attributed to the genes. Environment accounts for the differences that identical twins may develop. A child might have inherited genes for tall height, but may be dwarfed due to malnutrition. Similarly, a student might have inherited genes for logical and mathematical abilities, but due to poor study habits, he may not perform well in school. We can say that heredity is both due to nature (genetic) and nurture (environment).

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HUMAN ECOLOGY
Human ecology is a branch of sociology dealing especially with the spatial and temporal interrelationships between humans and their economic, social and political organization. It is the study of relationship between humans and nature, all intimately connected in a web of interactions. In here, we see humans as part of ecosystems, not as actors having an effect on environment out there, but each of us are part of everyone else, and as part of the environment of every other species.

Ecology in principle covers all of these relationships, but ecology cannot study ecosystems without humans in them. Human beings were part of the ecosystem because we are the biggest influence on ecosystem change today and also because we are different from all other species. Humans are conscious beings that bring meaning and value to the natural world the behavior of each individual person is influenced not just by his or her knowledge, but by his or her values, beliefs and goals. Humans build up their distinctive sets of values in relation to nature, so that collaborations and conflict among individuals and groups also contribute to the web of interactions that impact on our biosphere. Human ecology explores not only the influence of humans on their environment but also the influence of environment on human behavior, and their adaptive strategies as they come to better understand those influences. Human ecology is methodology as much as an area of research. It is the way of thinking about the world. Each of us contributes to the human ecological web, not as biological automatons, but as beings full of longings and anxiety. Human ecology affects the environment in a way that peoples knowledge is being used to improve our environment. In here, people and environment are related to each other. We cannot study human ecology without human and ecology.

SOCIETY
Society is defined as: Relationships among groups: The sum of social relationships among groups of humans or animals. It is structured community of people: A structured community of people bound together by similar tradition, institutions or nationality. Societys Impact on the Environment: We humans can create society. Society can affect the environment in variety of ways, both positive and negative. As humans occupy every continent, we have changed the environment around us in countless ways. Understanding the human impact on environment is crucial understanding that people need to have. The problems from the human impact on the environment continue to grow. Overtime, it becomes increasingly important for people to take the time to carefully consider what they can do to lessen this impact. So what is the societys impact on the environment? To understand this, conside r how people use the environment around them for everyday life. 1. We use the environment as a resource for food to keep us alive and well. 2. We use the environment to produce energy so that tasks can be accomplished. 3. The environment is used as a source of medications that help to keep people healthy and heal many ailments. 4. It is used for a source of enjoyment, recreation and simple fun. 5. The environment is used as a natural source for the production of products including industrial products and supplies.

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In every way, the human impact on environment happens every day. The world has also changed because of these needs and impacts. For example, human pressure, as scientists call it, is greater than every which means more potential problems in the long term. This includes more intensive agriculture that has taken the place of traditional farming methods. Tourism, on a massive scale has taken a toll on the planet as well. The natural landscapes have changed considerably, especially coastal areas, mountains and larger lakes. This not only affects the look of these areas but also their ability to sustain wildlife. What are other ways does the society affect the environment? 1. There is decreased diversity of species since so many habitats have been destroyed. Many species are endemic to forested areas, If large areas of forest are lost, they will be unable to move from one area to another, this will result in isolated populations which may lead to decrease in genetic diversity. 2. Deforestation Deforestation is the rapid destruction of wood land. Although it can occur due to natural catastrophe, it is most commonly caused by human intervention. 3. Reduced soil fertility Removal of trees, particularly deciduous ones, removes the major source of nutrients foe the soil. There is much as 90 percent loss of nutrients because of deforestation. The human impact on the environment is significant and in some situations, it cannot be reversed. For this reason, it becomes important and even essential for people to make changes now so tomorrow becomes much easier to live with.