The Pennsylvania State University

The Graduate School

College of Education


EXPLORING EDUCATION IN ISLAM:
AL-GHAZALIS MODEL OF THE MASTER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIP APPLIED
TO EDUCATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE ISLAMIC FAMILY


A Thesis in
Educational Theory and Policy
by
Latefah Alkanderi

2001 Latefah Alkanderi

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of


Doctor of Philosophy


December 2001
iii
ABSTRACT

In this thesis, I examined the philosophy of the medieval Muslim thinker, Abu
Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 CE), especially as it applies to the Master-Pupil
relationship. I consider his ideas in terms of the roles and responsibilities of educators and
learners, then superimpose them on his core concepts for the Parent-Child relationship. I
then extend this examination to include women as equal partners with their husbands in
childrearing.
I utilized two approaches to understand and to interpret the material: Hermeneutics,
which is the interpretation of texts (i.e., the Muslim sacred texts and Al-Ghazalis
publications), and Ethnographic Content Analysis, which provides an understanding of the
material in terms of the culture, society, and values of the people affected by this
information.
There have been many schools of thought throughout Islamic history. To depend on
a single scholar or school of thought as the basis for establishing a foundation for education
is misleading. Other scholars and schools of thought need to be considered. This process
must therefore include a comprehensive examination of a variety of key contributors to
Islamic education throughout history.
Al-Ghazali was very specific about the curricula, both informally in the family
setting and formally in a school, and proposed that the curricula be an integral part of the
model. Thus, these curricula are the key links in the Master-Pupil and Parent-Child
relationships. Since motherhood is an integral part of the family unit, my study includes a
re-examination of womens education from Al-Ghazalis point of view, because some
iv
Muslim women have been denied opportunities or have not been encouraged to become
fully educated due to several influences, including that of certain Muslim scholars who have
been promoting personal ideas rather than Islamic principles, and that exerted by other
cultures.
My findings indicate that Al-Ghazalis legacy contains the seeds of many powerful
ideas that can be applied to contemporary Islamic education. The pursuit of knowledge was
Al-Ghazalis highest priority, one that he considered to be among the highest forms of
worship. Al-Ghazalis theory of knowledge systematically formulated a series of
interrelated processes for gaining such knowledge. He discussed the role of the intellect, the
way of knowing, the learning process, and the obstacles to the learning process. This is his
legacy. Al-Ghazalis philosophy corresponds with the importance placed by Islam on
religious and spiritual formation, which is integral to the infrastructure of Muslim families.
The practical aim of family education is to motivate and assist believers in living the
Islamic way of life, both externally and internally (Gianotti, 1998, p. 23).
This research also discusses the possible implications for Al-Ghazalis philosophy on
the future of Islamic educational policy. First, in order to make Al-Ghazalis teachings more
accessible, the body of his resources could be published in a wider variety of media.
Perhaps what we need, as one UNESCO educational specialist suggests, is media exposure
of the interconnectivity between Al-Ghazalis philosophy and modern education in
Muslim countries, in order to demonstrate how his concepts actually can enrich
contemporary education in Islam (Idris, 2001). While all Kuwaiti women are officially
encouraged to pursue higher education, in reality few of these women are actually able to
v
seek this level of education. Some of the policies that are in place that are intended to
facilitate their education actually sabotage the effort.
My study also concludes that there has been very little examination of Al-Ghazalis
ideas concerning family life and interpersonal relationships (e.g., husband-wife, parent-
child, and child-child). This, too, leaves a wide variety of topics still to be explored.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Description Page
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ xi
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
Background ...................................................................................................... 1
Research Questions .............................................................................................. 5
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 6
Organization of the Thesis ................................................................................... 11
Chapter 2. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 14
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 14
Qualitative Media Analysis .................................................................................. 15
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 21
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 22
Summary ...................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 3. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................................................... 26
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 26
The Prophet Muhammad as an Educator ............................................................. 27
Education in an Islamic Context .............................................................. 30
The Aims of Islamic Education ................................................................ 36
The Social Climate of Early Islam ........................................................... 38
vii
Access to Educational Opportunities for Women .................................... 43
Spiritual and Intellectual Curricula .......................................................... 47
Prophetic Teaching Methods .................................................................... 48
Summary of the Prophets Approach to Education .................................. 51
Sufisms Influence on Islamic Education ............................................................. 52
Sufi Institutions ......................................................................................... 56
Sufism and Islam Today ........................................................................... 61
Summary of Sufisms Influence on Islamic Education ............................ 64
Al-Ghazalis Life and Legacies ............................................................................ 65
Al-Ghazalis Perception of Classical Philosophy .................................... 68
Spiritual and Personal Transformation ..................................................... 70
Lifelong Pursuit of Knowledge ................................................................ 73
Al-Ghazalis Legacy ............................................................................... 74
Summary of Al-Ghazali's Life and Legacies ........................................... 77
Chapter 4. AL-GHAZALIS THEORIES OF KNOWLEDGE ................................. 80
Introduction ............................................................................................. 80
The Definition of Knowledge (ilm) ........................................................ 80
The Merits of Knowledge (ilm) .............................................................. 82
The Role of the Intellect ........................................................................... 84
The Way of Knowing ............................................................................... 89
The Learning Process ............................................................................... 90
Summary of Al-Ghazalis Theories of Knowledge ................................. 93

viii
Chapter 5. AL-GHAZALIS RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR CURRICULA ...................................................................... 97
Introduction .............................................................................................. 97
Early Childhood Curricula ...................................................................... 99
Elementary Curricula Through Higher Education .................................. 101
Al-Ghazalis Curricula Classification ......................................... 103
Al-Ghazalis Teaching Methods ................................................. 109
Al-Ghazalis Curricula and Modern Perspectives .................................... 114
Summary of Al-Ghazalis Curricula ....................................................... 120
Chapter 6. AL-GHAZALIS EDUCATIONAL MODEL OF RELATIONSHIPS ... 124
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 124
Al-Ghazalis Ideal Master-Pupil Relationship .................................................... 127
Al-Ghazalis Ideal Parent-Child Relationship ..................................................... 138
Summary of Al-Ghazalis Educational Model of Relationships .......................... 150
Chapter 7. AL-GHAZALIS VIEWS ON WOMENS EDUCATION ..................... 153
Background ...................................................................................................... 153
Influences on Contemporary Islamic Womens Education ................................. 160
Summary of Al-Ghazali's Views on Womens Education ................................... 174
Chapter 8. THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF AL-GHAZALIS
RECOMMENDATIONS ON EDUCATIONAL
POLICY IN KUWAIT ............................................................................. 179
Summary and Recommendations ........................................................................ 186
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 194
ix
LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page
7-1. Biographies of Muslim Women ........................................................................... 159
x
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page
6-1. Al-Ghazalis Classifications of the Practical Sciences......................................... 108
xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For the last two years I have been studying Educational Theory and Policy at The
Pennsylvania State University, and researching the topic of the Master-Pupil relationship.
As part of the entire process of study, research, and writing, I had the help of many people
who deserve my deepest gratitude.
First, I want to thank my husband and children who came to be with me in the
United States to support me during my studies. I attribute my passion and inspiration for
this entire project to my wonderful husband, Bader. Together, we have established a family
unit that is supportive of all of us, always at the edge of new beginnings of our journey as
we learn together in the pursuit of knowledge. Without their daily help, understanding, and
patience, completing my degree would have been much more difficult. And finally, without
the love and support of my extended family at home in Kuwait, these last two years would
have been much more difficult. Their ongoing encouragement has been very important to
me.
Next, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Gerald LeTendre, who always opened
his heart when he opened his office door. His constant support and advice were crucial to
my work. I would also like to thank my other committee members: Drs. David P. Baker, J.
Daniel Marshall, and William L. Boyd, who guided my progress and supported my work. A
special thanks to Dr. Hegazi Idris, UNESCO education specialist for the Arab States, for his
valuable information on Al-Ghazalis works for todays Muslim educational goals. I would
also like to thank Dr. Timothy Gianotti, who encouraged me to write about Al-Ghazali, and
whose lectures and courses were beneficial to my research. All of my friends in the Penn
xii
State community also need to be thanked for their ongoing help and support, especially for
their advice on the topics in my paper.
Through my research of Al-Ghazalis Master-Pupil relationship and my application
of this model to the Parent-Child relationship, I have gained greater insight into my own
familys dynamics. My research has influenced the circumstances under which Bader and I
have established our family both influenced my research; the effects have been reciprocal. I
would hope that all familiesboth Muslim and non-Muslimfind this material useful
within their families.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this research to my late brother, Ali Alkanderi, who encouraged me from
the very beginning of my studies, but did not live to see the fruits of his love.

Prophet Muhammad said,
O Allah, forgive our living and our dead, those present and those absent,
our young and our old, our males and our females. O Allah, who amongst
us You keep alive, then let such a life be upon Islam, and who amongst us
You take unto Yourself, then let such a death be upon faith. O Allah, do
not deprive us of his reward and do not let us stray after him (Al-Qahtaani,
1996, p. 183).

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Background

Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 CE) was an Islamic theologian and educational
theorist. His writings, which he openly acknowledged to be based on Islamic principles,
have provided a foundation for Islamic educational practices for generations. His teachings
are still so influential that contemporary Kuwaiti teacher training includes coursework on his
philosophies. His many publications are a magnificent body of resources on the principles
and practices he recommended be applied to both formal and informal education.
Hegazi Idris, a contemporary specialist in Islamic educational policy and theory for
UNESCO, said:
You can say the spirit of Al-Ghazalis educational principles is affecting
our way of thinking in many ways, and, the [way] Muslims are
approaching education trends. But his ideas on the importance of early
childhood [education], his approach of interconnectivity among subject
areas in education, that teaching methodologies should affect mainstream
schooling goals and methodologysome of these thoughts are already in
place, but the educatorseven in Muslim countriesthink they are
modern thoughts (personal communication, February 27, 2001).

2
Before implementing Al-Ghazalis teachings, including his concepts of curricula and
teaching methods, however, one must first determine whether his information is still
applicable in light of contemporary societal needs, as well as ensuring that it does, in fact,
conform to the Islamic faith and principles upon which Islamic education and family life
should be ideally founded. Many groupsboth religious and secularare discovering that
they have strayed from the original intent and goals they established. Thus, they are
undertaking programs to re-examine their sources to determine whether they still comply
with their fundamental mission, as well as considering whether they will be able to meet
their contemporary needs more effectively by either a return to the original goals or by an
overhaul of the purpose of the organization. Therefore, the approach of re-examining these
original resources to facilitate modern education in Islam is appropriate.
In Islamic organizations, as in others, there are instances in which idiosyncratic
personal interpretations of spiritual matters have been accepted as tradition and integrated
into daily life. Some of these traditions, however, deviate from genuine Islamic principles.
For example, education for some Muslim women is being severely limited, even though
there is no foundation for this limitation in the sacred texts. The purpose of this research,
therefore, is to examine Al-Ghazalis writings to consider what his teachings can offer
contemporary Islamic education, especially to correct traditions that have deviated from the
original Islamic principles.
According to Al-Turabi (1997), the medieval scholars did make important
contributions to Islamic law. However, at the time in which Al-Ghazali lived, societys
understanding of womens rights concerning education was limited. He and other scholars
of this time were able to separate some of the educational concepts from Islamic principles,

3
perhaps because of the influence of other cultures, but probably more because of their
particular interpretation of the Islamic law in which womens rights were not denied but
were not given the importance demanded in the texts. The verses concerning men were
expanded, while those concerning women were kept to a minimum without actually
violating Islamic principles (Lang, 1994). In this dissertation, I will critically examine this
aspect of Al-Ghazali's thoughts, focusing especially on the problems that subsequent re-
interpretations of Al-Ghazali's teachings have created for womens education in Muslim
nations.
Therefore, I will compare Al-Ghazali's writings to the sacred texts to point out
consistencies, inconsistencies, and gaps, and to ensure that they conform to Islamic
principles, especially the all-important one that states that the pursuit of knowledge is the
highest form of worship. Once I have established the validity of these writings, I can make
recommendations concerning potential improvements or enhancements for education in
primarily Islamic nations.
Al-Ghazali stressed that his model for the Master-Pupil relationship supported the
delivery of information from educator to learner, and also that virtually anyone could be
either the educator or the learner. This research is also concerned with the process of
conveying knowledge among family membersprimarily parents to children, but also from
children to adults and among ones chronological peers, so my study includes an
examination of what Al-Ghazali said about family life and relationships. After comparing
his teachings on these models to the original documentation in the Holy Quran and

4
ahadith
1
, I superimpose his Master-Pupil model on three other interpersonal relationships:
informal education of youngsters by family members prior to formal schooling, family
support for formal education, and the process of educating women in Islam. This
investigation is intended to demonstrate that these teaching and learning concepts are
applicable regardless of age, gender, or family roles.
Al-Ghazalis writings emphasize how a strong Master-Pupil relationship fosters the
pursuit and acquisition of knowledge. My research considered whether Al-Ghazalis model
can be applied almost verbatim to the contemporary Muslim Parent-Child relationship.
While his model of the Master-Pupil relationship is widely accepted among Muslims
worldwide, there are some areas in his philosophy concerning family interpersonal
interactions and responsibilities that need to be re-examined in light of contemporary
educational theories, especially those regarding Muslim women. For example, some of his
suggestions pertaining to the education of females misinterpret the principles of Islam and
need to be updated to be applicable to a contemporary Parent-Child model.
This study also examines Al-Ghazalis key points that correspond with the Quran
and the ahadith, and those that do not, to develop an updated model for the Parent-Child
relationship, particularly as this relationship supports transmission of information among
family members. This new Parent-Child relationship, based on his Master-Pupil model,
makes full use of Al-Ghazalis positive points while revising those aspects that rely on
invalid traditions that he used to advocate limiting womens access to education. These non-
scriptural traditions were originally implemented in his era when it was customary for

1
To clarify the meanings of these terms, the contents of the Holy Quran are those words transmitted
to the Prophet Muhammad by Allah via the angel, Gabriel. The hadith (pl. ahadith) are those utterances,

5
females to be totally dependent on males, particularly in terms of access to education and
social involvement. It also appears that Al-Ghazali incorporated traditions from other
cultures, which did not always conform to genuine Islamic principles. While Al-Ghazali is
still highly respected, as a human, he was not infallible.
This redefinition of the concept of womens role in taking responsibility for
educating themselves and their children will necessarily include suggestions for more
effective educational policies and theories that may not agree with Al-Ghazalis medieval
perspectives. In order to develop educational theories and policies that meet contemporary
societal needs, however, there is no alternative but to consider Al-Ghazalis teachings and
compare them to genuine Islamic principles to ensure that future educational theories and
policies adhere to Islamic principles.

Research Questions

Many of Al-Ghazalis teachings offer guidelines for a healthy Master-Pupil
relationship. He discusses the rights, responsibilities, and intended outcomes from both
parties perspectives. This investigation uses the Master-Pupil model to develop similar
relationships within the family unit to facilitate the formal and informal education of both
children and women.
This paper will address the following research questions:

reports, and narratives conveyed by Prophet Muhammad, which include his attributes and actions. A hadith is
also a practical example of the implementation of the Quran (see Hasan, 1995; Netton, 1992).

6
1. What are the basic features of Al-Ghazalis Master-Pupil model, in
terms of the social and curricular components of this relationship?
2. What curricula does Al-Ghazali recommend for both informal
(family) and formal (institutional) education?
3. How can those aspects of Al-Ghazalis model for the Master-Pupil
relationship, which comply with Islamic principles, be applied to the
family unit to guide parents and children in learning from each other?
4. What topics or areas require special attention when translating Al-
Ghazalis theories into a family model?
5. How can we apply these models and curricula to meet contemporary
needs in the family and institutional educational environments?
With the answers to these questions, I can offer this body of information to
policymakers and educational theorists so that they can begin the difficult task of redefining
and clarifying educational goals and establishing new policies that reflect the Master-Pupil
relationship as a model for the Parent-Child relationship. This study scrutinizes the first
relationship, extracts the positive elements that can be applied to the second relationship,
and creates a new educational environment in which theorists and policymakers can operate
with confidence.

Significance of the Study

I address two significant concepts in this research. The first deals with my proposal
that Al-Ghazalis Master-Pupil model can be used as a model for the Parent-Child

7
relationship in Muslim families. This concept will be examined in terms of both Al-
Ghazalis and other Muslim thinkers contributions to the philosophy of education. The
second concept, which is linked to the first because of the mothers role in the Parent-Child
relationship, deals with rectifying Al-Ghazalis and others misinterpretation of womens
right to a comprehensive education equivalent to that afforded to men.
Although nearly nine centuries have passed since Al-Ghazalis death, his teachings
are still incorporated into standard course material in many Islamic universities and colleges
of education. He is acknowledged as one of the foremost contributors to education, but the
information taught is essentially the same as that offered in Al-Ghazalis day. Several
Muslim scholars (Ashraf, 1985; Khan, 1976; and others) have also noted that while some of
Al-Ghazalis teachings are essentially valid and can be applied directly to education in the
Islamic world todayor in any other country, for that matterthe entire body of his
philosophy is not wholly accurate or complete (Benomran, 1983), suggesting that there must
be additional examination of his teachings before they are applied to contemporary
education.
Although many researchers have studied Al-Ghazalis perceptions of various aspects
of education and religion (Abul Quasem, 1978; Al-Barjis, 1983; Asari, 1993; Gianotti, 1998;
Giladi, 1983; Khawajah, 1986; Nofal, 1994; Reagan, 1995; Sherif, 1975; Tritton, 1957),
there is a lack of scholarly research examining the concept of education within the family
unit from Al-Ghazalis perspective. In addition, there is an increasing interest in Muslim
family life among non-Muslim researchers, a development facilitated by migration and the
expansion of global communication. Some of these studies (Al-Barjis, 1983; Dakhil Allah,
1996) have investigated parents educational concerns, while others (Asari, 1993; Bazzun,

8
1997) have considered issues regarding the education of children. While this study focuses
on Al-Ghazalis perception of education within the family, this is not meant to imply that
other cultures and societies throughout time have not offered valuable information
concerning family management and activities. Especially today, when we have access to
global resources on virtually every conceivable topic, there is certainly nothing to be lost by
considering some of these other inputs.
Many researchers (e.g., Esposito, 1982; Giladi, 1992) have also proposed that the
body of Islamic literature is an abundant resource for information for meeting the needs of
contemporary life. Yet, it has been almost totally ignored by orientalists and that nothing
parallel to Family History and History of Childhood, developed by historians of the
Westexisted within the framework of Islamic studies (Giladi, 1992, p. ix). Because
there are fewer resources in Islamic literature like these Western treatises and because
language issues may inhibit European scholars access to Islamic resources, orientalists may
be unable to access this rich body of Islamic material. According to Al Zeera (2001a, p. 95),
apart from some creative and serious work produced by Muslim scholars and thinkers in
the West, the Islamic academic world at Western universities is far behind what one would
expect. She notes that there have been thousands of Muslim students have enrolled in
North American and European universities, but the majority of these students choose to
research topics of no relevance to Islamic issues and therefore do not contribute to the
development and growth of Islamic knowledge (Al Zeera, 2001a, p. 95). I offer this thesis
so that others have access to this kind of information.
With regard to Islamic women, if one were to review what is presented in the media
concerning their lives, it would not be unreasonable to assume that all Muslim women are

9
oppressed. There are reports that some women in various primarily-Islamic societies are
being denied certain rights that women in other societies and culturesboth Muslim and
non-Muslimenjoy, such as the right to vote, seek education, and travel. There are far
fewer reports in the media describing the accomplishments of successful Islamic women
who are scholars, researchers, or businesspeople, who are making valuable contributions to
many facets of modern society. However, lack of publicity does not mean that these women
do not exist and operate on a par with men.
In fact, a growing number of Muslim women scholars and activists (e.g., Al-Hibri,
2000; Bewley, 1999; Kahf, 2000; Wadud, 2000) are challenging the notion that Islam is
synonymous with the oppression of women. These women, many of whom consider
themselves to be feminists, are questioning the male and often misogynist interpretations of
the sacred tenets of Islam. These scholars are using, figuratively speaking, a womans, or
feminists, lens in examining Islams canon, returning to the original Islamic interpretations
rather than those misinterpretations that have prevailed for the last several centuries
(Simmons, 2000). The intent of this study is to contribute to this process, that is, to examine
Al-Ghazalis writings and compare them to both the original and current gender issues from
a womans perspective. Once we have corrected Al-Ghazalis inconsistencies about women
and education in terms of the foundations of Islam, the Parent-Child model can be expanded
to ensure that mothers have an equal share in making decisions about their childrens
education.
Currently, some women in Muslim countries do not participate actively in their
childrens education because they perceive that education for women is less important. This
may be manifested in two areas. First, both parents may offer less support to their female

10
child because they feel that her education is less important; second, the parents may still be
under the impression that it is the fathers role to educate the family. Even in those families
where both parents concur that all children need a comprehensive education, the unfortunate
legacy of failure to educate the mothers prevents these mothers from actively participating in
their childrens education, because they lack the tools and knowledge already written in the
sacred texts to support their children. By validating the need for both parents
inputparticularly the mothersin their childrens education, this research will provide an
opportunity for both parents to support Islamic families with young children. It will help
these parents take full advantage of opportunities for education within the family
environment, drawn from those works of Al-Ghazali and other Islamic thinkers that support
women.
In summary, this study explores several concepts (educational relationships,
curricula, womens education, and the pursuit of knowledge) in order to understand how the
Parent-Child model and the expansion of education for women in Islamic countries are
related. I found a lack of modern educational research from the perspective of Al-Ghazalis
concept of education within the family unit. My findings indicate that even though there is
ample evidence that the Master-Pupil relationship can serve as a model for the Parent-Child
relationship, modern researchers are ignoring this link and failing to take advantage of
possible further development of this concept.
By including Al-Ghazali and other Islamic educational theorists philosophies of
education in the classroom, Westerners will better understand Muslim philosophy and be
able to incorporate these resources into Western education. This will also help Muslim
students and others interested in Islam to become more knowledgeable about Al-Ghazalis

11
influence on education. Al-Ghazali was the author of many publications, covering an
enormous range of topics. Through a careful gleaning of Al-Ghazalis writings, I have been
able to collect his ideas on the Master-Pupil and Parent-Child relationships throughout his
works and compare them to genuine Islamic principles. It is noteworthy that many of his
writings addressed a wide variety of family matters; they did not simply focus on the
relationship between parents and children in an educational setting. This study gathers the
scattered information into a single resource, and then applies it so that the Parent-Child
relationship can more easily be identified as a replica of the Master-Pupil model, with some
adaptations and modifications to accommodate those ideas of Al-Ghazalis which
inadvertently misinterpret Islamic principles.
By updating Al-Ghazalis teachings in terms of the needs of contemporary education
and society, both Muslims and Westerners can benefit from his large body of work. In
addition, as the West becomes more familiar with Islamic contributions to society in terms
of education, business, and researchparticularly those made by womena greater
understanding of Muslim society will emerge. This understanding must include the re-
education of Muslim and non-Muslim societies to the realities of Islamic life for women in
order to gain a complete understanding of Muslim society.

Organization of the Thesis

The thesis is organized to reflect the historical background of Al-Ghazalis era. By
examining the historical context of this prolific philosopher, we can better understand his
ideas on education, which he claimed were drawn from the Prophet Mohammed and from

12
earlier scholars, both Muslim and non-Muslim. In the era in which he lived, however, there
were other, negative elements already absorbed into the prevalent culture in some Islamic
nations that had strayed from some of the original Islamic principles. In order to use Al-
Ghazalis resources and also to comply with authentic Islamic teachings, I will identify
which concepts are consistent with the sacred Islamic texts and which are inconsistent with
these texts. With each successive chapter, I will gradually bring Al-Ghazali into the 21
st

century, demonstrating both what was authentic and where he went astray, demonstrating
the need to restore Al-Ghazalis interpretations to the original Islamic principles, in order for
women to take their rightful places within the Parent-Child relationship and society in
general.
Chapter 2 will explain the methods I used to explore and ana1yze Al-Ghazalis
educational philosophy. Because Al-Ghazali relied on sacred Islamic texts, I have chosen
the hermeneutic method of interpretation and reexamination of Al-Ghazalis ideas. The
second method is enthnographic content analysis, which puts Al-Ghazali in the context of
his time and culture. In this way, his educatonal methods and ideas, both consistencies and
inconsistencies, will be better understood. Chapter 3 contains a review of the relevant
literature, starting with the birth of Islam and the Prophet Muhammad as a leader and
educator. Al-Ghazali used the Prophet Muhammads deeds as a model for his own life and
work, generally interpreting the Prophets teachings to the advantage of the society as a
whole, but not always to the benefit of the women. This chapter also includes an
examination and goals of Islamic education from an historical perspective. This historical
perspective explores the Sufi influence in Islamic education, because Al-Ghazali was a Sufi

13
Muslim. This chapter also contains Al-Ghazalis life and era, which includes the opinions
of other philosophers who have written about Al-Ghazalis Master-Pupil relationship.
Chapter 4 explains Al-Ghazalis theory of knowledge and learning, which logically
leads to Chapters 5 through 7, in which I evaluate and analyze the Master-Pupil model in
terms of curricula, childrens education, and womens education within the family. Chapter
5 discusses the potential impact of those of Al-Ghazalis recommendations for both informal
and formal curricula. In Chapter 6, I superimpose the Master-Pupil model onto the Parent-
Child model, emphasizing the lack of attention paid historically to the role of women and
mothers in their childrens education, and in Muslim society in general. Chapter 7 deals
with Al-Ghazalis views on womens education and the need to go beyond his philosophy
based on the time he lived. In Chapter 8, I examine and revise Al-Ghazalis model in light
of original Islamic texts, and their potential impact on educational policy in Islamic
countries today. This chapter also contains the summary and recommendations for further
study.

14
CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY

Introduction

In this chapter I will explain how the materials were gathered, examined, and
analyzed in terms of the relevance to each of the research questions. I conducted a search
for Al-Ghazalis thoughts on the theoretical and practical aspects of education within the
family unit, since this information is pivotal to this research. This included a consideration
of Al-Ghazalis previously overlooked perspective on family education issues, in order to
show how the Parent-Child relationship can be modeled on the Master-Pupil relationship,
and to determine the relevance of these issues to contemporary social education. This study
uses an ethnographic content analysis, guided by a hermeneutic approach to facilitate the
research. I used these qualitative research methods because they are particularly effective
for examining and explaining how things are (or were).
As an Islamic researcher, I also have certain spiritual obligations to fulfill as part of
my work. For example, wherever possible, I must cite information from the Holy Quran
and the Prophetic sayings (ahadith) to explain how or why something is the way it is. It is a
fundamental concept in Islam to use the sacred texts to support any findings; Muslims
maintain that, knowledge separated from its proper action is useless (Von Denffer, 1996).
Including references to the Holy Quran and the ahadith is not difficult in my research
because Al-Ghazali himself referred to and was strongly influenced by his spiritual

15
orientation. Accordingly, it would be impossible to discuss Al-Ghazalis teachings without
making such references. In Islam, all education has a theological component.
There are certain interpretations of some of these religious documents that differ
slightly from other Quranic interpretations, such as those offered by certain Sufi scholars.
Al-Ghazali was a Sufi and this orientation certainly affected his perceptions to a certain
degree, although he was not an extreme Sufi; many other persons in history have held more
mystical beliefs than he did. Sufi tafsir (exegesis/interpretation of the Holy Quran) is
notable for its attempt to go beyond the apparent meaning of the Quranic text in order to
derive deeper, hidden meanings through intuitive perception (Mir, 1995, p. 175). There is
uniform agreement among all Muslims that the Holy Quran is whole and complete as
written; however, I will adhere strictly to the essential texts without considering
interpretations that may have been embellished. For the purposes of this study, all
interpretations will adhere to those traditional orthodox understandings of the sacred texts
that are uniformly accepted by all Muslims.

Qualitative Media Analysis

My study includes two primary sources of data: scholarly books and Internet
documentation. These sources yielded three classes of information: primary, secondary, and
auxiliary. These classifications correspond to those proposed by Altheide (1996). The first
group includes writings recorded by Al-Ghazali himself (including translations made many
years after his death), which are the primary documents to be analyzed. The main resource
is Al-Ghazalis Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), which is

16
comprised of several volumes written in the 12
th
century. Some of Al-Ghazalis other works
are explored, also, such as Deliverance from Error and O Disciple. Some of the materials
were written in English or translated into English by other authors. Some of the resources
were only available in Arabic; I translated these documents myself. In all cases, regardless
of the language used in the source document, the interpretations were equivalent.
Another primary resource for this research was Al-Zabidis (n.d.) Commentary on
Al-Ghazalis Ihya Ulum al-Din. This is a prestigious interpretation of Al-Ghazalis Ihya,
written by Al-Zabidi in the 18
th
century (b. 1732, d. 1790 CE). This comprehensive, 14-
volume study has attracted little attention from Western researchers, possibly because it is
only available in Arabic and is not in general circulation in the United States. Al-Zabidis
work is well respected among Arabic-speaking researchers, largely due to the
comprehensive nature of his research. Al-Zabidi possessed an extensive library of different
versions of Al-Ghazalis writings; he was and still is considered an expert on Al-Ghazali.
The secondary documents include records by and about the primary documents used
in the study (e.g., both contemporary and historical reviews of Al-Ghazalis works). These
secondary documents are contemporary works written by both Muslims and non-Muslims
interested in Islamic philosophy and who focus on the works of Al-Ghazali. These
researchers assert that there is an opportunity to integrate many of Al-Ghazalis ideas into
modern education because they are still applicable today.
The auxiliary documents include resources that support the primary data, but are not
the main focus of the research. For the purposes of this study, these auxiliary documents
will include background information on the cultural, spiritual, and historical environment
among Muslims to explore and understand the content in the context in which it was

17
produced. Altheide (1996) also cites Manning and Cullum-Swan (1994), who mention a
natural concern with the approach being used in this study.
As with most research approaches, any attempt to look backward from a
text toward the authors motivation is rich with problems, especially if the
author lacks an awareness of and familiarity with the historical, cultural,
and organizational context (p. 8).
I have addressed these concerns through the use of the historical information
resources in the auxiliary documents and by virtue of the fact that, like Al-Ghazali, I am a
Muslim and I understand the cultural and spiritual orientation he used in his approach to his
works. Because we cannot personally ask Al-Ghazali to explain what he meant in his
writings, I crosschecked the supporting information in order to validate my conclusions.
I applied two approaches to digest and to interpret the material. One approach is
hermeneutics, which is the interpretation of texts (i.e., Muslim sacred texts and Al-Ghazalis
publications). The term comes from the Greek word which means to interpret, and
commemorates Hermes, the messenger of the gods in Greek mythology (also known in
Roman mythology as Mercury), who interpreted the will of Zeus for mankind. The Greeks
developed a technique for interpreting texts, called hermeneutics, which they used to
interpret their own legends of the gods. This enabled them to find contemporary
equivalents for words and practices whose meaning had become obscure (Kneller, 1984,
p. 65). Some theologians have used this technique to interpret scriptures and sacred texts,
and judges use it when applying legal precedent to new cases.

18
The definition was expanded in the 19
th
century when some philosophers (e.g.,
Dilthey and others) argued that interpretation as a concept, although perhaps not the use of
the hermeneutic technique, is applicable to a much broader range of texts, from teaching
manuals to literary classics (Kneller, 1984, p. 66). Thus, in contemporary philosophy and
the social sciences, hermeneutics has come to refer to the study of the process by which
individuals arrive at the meaning of any text, and that the term text could refer not only to
documents, but also to social customs, cultural myths, and anything else containing a
message that can be read (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996, p. 630). Michrina and Richards (1996)
offer a description of the three-step cycle in the hermeneutic method:
The investigator first gathers data in a stepwise manner from sources such
as written texts, dialogues, and behaviors. Then he or she attributed some
meaning to the data. This is called interpretation. In the third step, the
hermeneut constructs an understanding of the whole group from
interpreted pieces of data. With each turn of the cycle, the hermeneut adds
more and more detail to his or her understandingthe overall description
shapes the interpretation of the next piece of information, andthe
interpretation adds detail to the description (p. 7).
Wadud (2000, p. 4) advocates a contemporary readdressing of the Islamic paradigm
for women using primary sources. By returning to these essential interpretations, the
hermeneutics of those sourceshow they are understood, interpreted, and then applied
[will] reflect new levels of understanding and human participation. Al Zeera (2001a,

19
2001b) notes that hermeneutics addresses social issues as well as collective consciousness.
Her perception is that collective social issues are perhaps even more important than personal
issues, because these issues impact the lives of groups of people, not just individuals. The
Islamic sacred texts address social issues, emphasizing the concept of a cohesive Islamic
community and nation, which support the use of hermeneutics to consider these texts for this
purpose (Al Zeera, 2001b, p. 112).
I applied hermeneutics by selecting a concept about which Al-Ghazali wrote on
educational relationships, curricula, and womens education, and then compared this concept
to the sacred texts (Holy Quran and ahadith) upon which Al-Ghazali bases his assertions to
identify points that agree or disagree with these sacred texts. In my final step, I considered
other scholars interpretations of Al-Ghazalis writings to determine whether my perceptions
correspond to theirs.
I supplemented this hermeneutic approach with an ethnographic content analysis,
which is a review of pertinent biographical, historical, and cultural information, in order to
fully understand not only Al-Ghazalis works, but also the other researchers perceptions in
the context in which they were produced. Hermeneutics works especially well in concert
with ethnographic content analysis. This second approach afforded me an understanding of
the material in terms of the culture, society, and values of the people affected by this
information. Thus, my study includes background on people and their roles and functions in
society, both in Al-Ghazali's era and today.
Ethnography can be as defined as a description of people and their culture (Denzin &
Lincoln, and Schwartz & Jacobs, in Altheide, 1996). Altheide also explains that
ethnography can be considered as a methodological orientation independent of a specific

20
subject matter. He asserts that the research process takes place in a historical-cultural
context, that research is essentially a social activity, and that the methods develop in and are
influenced by a social context. Further, he states that this approach is valid when there is a
theoretical perception or reason to believe that the method is appropriate for studying this
particular type of data. Ethnography can also be used to study products of social interaction,
that is, relationships, in terms of looking at one feature (e.g., the Parent-Child relationship)
in the context of what is understood about other features (e.g., the Master-Pupil
relationship).
This consideration of the observations in context allows for constant comparison
among the data (Glaser & Strauss, in Altheide, 1996). The subject matterin this case Al-
Ghazalis teachings on the Master-Pupil relationship and the application of these teachings
to family education and womens educationguided my orientation and inquiry process.
To analyze the Master-Pupil relationship I used these two approacheshermeneutics and
ethnography content analysisto suggest policies to foster education and interaction within
the family unit and to enhance the Parent-Child relationship. Because this approach and
these methods have been implemented not only in a systematic and sincere fashion but also
with a passion for the subject, as the researcher, I cannot distance myself from the topic I am
studying. As a Muslim, and as a woman, there is a great deal of myself invested in this
research. This supports Al Zeeras (2001a, p. xxvii) assertion that an intimate relationship
between the researcher and phenomena under study transforms all parties to higher and
deeper levels. More importantly, during the transformation, researchers become aware of
controversial and contradictory issues, gradually recognizing the wholeness and oneness of

21
the macrocosm and the microcosm. My goal is to help other Muslims in their Parent-Child
and peer relationships.

Data Collection

Several stages are involved in a qualitative study. Creswell (1998) describes seven
steps in the data collection process, which are presented here in a format that corresponds to
this study. To confirm the validity of Creswells procedures, the steps were compared to
those suggested by Marshall and Rossman (1989, pp. 98100). While Marshall and
Rossman use slightly different terminologies and explanations, their proposed data
collection process is essentially the same as Creswells.
The first step is to identify the subject, which in this case is Al-Ghazali. Not only
was he a prolific writer, but there have also been many interpretations of his works. The
primary documents selected for this study focus on those writings that apply to the
educational process, as well as on the sacred texts to which Al-Ghazali refers, arguing for
the family unit as the focus of this research, since the family is the first institution for
learning.
Next is the need to verify the reliability of the resource material. I have identified
resources written by and about Al-Ghazali, as well as historical resources describing the
culture and customs in his era. I tested each sample subject for relevance using several
criteria. First, is the book/article written by or about Al-Ghazali? This study includes only
those books and articles describing Al-Ghazalis life or concerning Al-Ghazalis teachings
in terms of the material being discussed in this study, such as education, family dynamics,

22
etc. Other subjects are outside the realm of this study. Alternatively, does the resource
discuss life in the late 11
th
and early 12
th
centuries, the period in which Al-Ghazali lived?
These resources include media describing the social, cultural, and/or educational
environment of that time period. The next level of resources will include documentation
concerning Islamic life, culture, or history in other time periods, for comparison purposes.
Once the resources were selected, verified, and validated as authentic, I collected the
data by reviewing the resources and selecting relevant statements, categorizing the
information according to topic and its relevance to the study. Once I completed recording
the data, I evaluated and synthesized the material and organized the data for presentation. I
selected this format to present my findings in order to show their relevance to educational
policymakers and administrators in their efforts to enhance and improve education and its
delivery to children and adults, particularly in primarily Islamic countries.

Limitations

Exclusive use of document review does have some inherent weaknesses as a data
collection method. One potential limitation is that the data may be open to multiple
interpretations due to cultural differences (see Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p. 135). In this
case, this is minimized because my cultural background is similar to Al-Ghazalis, which
affords me a more reliable interpretation of Al-Ghazalis teachings. To address differences
in interpretations among those authors commenting on his works, this examination compares
Al-Ghazalis actual writings to the Holy Quran and to the ahadith to which he refers as part
of the data collection process, so that there is a single axis around which the discussion

23
revolves. Also understood is that certain issues raised in Islamic literature are ambiguous,
addressing gray areas in tradition that are open to interpretation, such as the study of
music. In order to understand these areas, I searched for modern trends in either consensus
or disagreement as part of this examination. For the purposes of this study, I have
considered Al-Ghazalis works in terms of their influence on the average person, with the
exception of his collection of letters written to various kings.
Many of Al-Ghazalis teachings are written in very formal, scholarly language and
address very complex concepts in Islamic theory and law. Al-Ghazali also considered both
the conventional and Sufi tafasir (interpretations, pl. form) when developing his own
understanding of these concepts. The language and interpretation issues can make some of
these teachings very difficult for non-expert students to comprehend. There is also an
alternative Muslim orientation (Shiite) that embraces different interpretations of some
Islamic principles. Because the Sunni group comprises the overwhelming majority (Weiss,
2000) of the worldwide Muslim populationand Al-Ghazali himself was a Sunni Muslim
this research will speak from the Sunni perspective.
I also acknowledge that accurate data interpretation assumes the honesty and
integrity of the sources of materials reviewedboth Al-Ghazalis and those scholars
interpreting his works. I approached this study from the perspective that all Al-Ghazalis
writings portray his opinions accurately, and that all the scholars who have studied Al-
Ghazalis works recorded their genuine and authentic observations.
Among the secular and modern traditional critics of Al-Ghazalis teachings, there
has been no mention of the concept that many of the ahadith Al-Ghazali relied upon were
weakthat is, they had very little foundation in Islamic law. Al-Zabidi (n.d.) and others

24
have reported that Al-Ghazali relied heavily on Abu Talib al-Makki's (d. 386) Qut al-qulub
fi mu`amalat al-mahbub wa wasf tariq al-murid ila maqam al-tawhid (The nourishment of
hearts in dealing with the Beloved and the description of the seeker's way to the station of
declaring oneness), in developing his Ihya, and that many of the stories Al-Makki used (and
attributed incorrectly to ahadith) in fact contradicted Islamic law, especially as it related to
women. This suggests that some of Al-Ghazali's conclusions and assertions that might be
interpreted as misogynist may have inadvertently been based on false writings. Al-Makkis
book includes many contradictory reports and unsubstantiated stories, which Al-Ghazali
then used and repeated verbatim. The Ihya refers to some 4,000 Prophetic sayings, with
900 of them being understood today to be unreliable (i.e., 21.5% of the Prophetic sayings he
cites cannot be completely validated). This indicates that a detailed examination is in order,
taken on a case-by-case basis, to ensure that only authentic and valid Islamic principles are
included in any program designed to facilitate true Islamic education.

Summary

This chapter described the processes of hermeneutics and ethnographic content
analysis used to gather and interpret the data in this study. The investigation of
documentation from an historical perspective involves working with extant material
(Aldridge, 1998). For this study, the existing data consisted primarily of Al-Ghazalis works
and other researchers interpretations of his works. I will add to this my understanding of
Al-Ghazalis life history, and my interpretation of his works, as well as the Holy Quran and
Prophetic sayings upon which he relied for his inspiration. Using the conceptual template of

25
the social and spiritual climate of the late 11
th
and early 12
th
centuries, when Al-Ghazali
lived and worked, I can then discuss and explain his ideas from this historical persepective
in order to formulate conclusions based on the information.

26
CHAPTER 3
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

A careful examination of the various contributions to the body of knowledge
concerning Al-Ghazalis teachings regarding education reveals a paucity of recent research
in this area in the English language. A comprehensive search of virtually all of the
dissertations and theses written in the English language in either the U.S. or in Canada over
the last 75 years revealed nothing on this subject (Sadeq & Islam, 1998). Further in-depth
searches of all English-language publicationsboth professional and academicidentify
virtually nothing accessible in any published medium. This is supported by Avner Giladis
(1988, p. 3) observation that not a single important monograph on the educational
philosophy of any Muslim thinker has been published in the West, which would include
other prominent Islamic thinkers besides Al-Ghazali.
In contrast, there is a great deal of published research in Arabic language media
concerning Al-Ghazalis work and life in the 11
th
and 12
th
centuries. Some of the
researchers focused on theology and philosophy, others on education, and still others on
politics (Qarib Allah, 1978). Even within this Arabic context, however, very little research
has been done concerning education within the family unit. Since some of the research has
been documented in languages other than Arabic and English, I included a search for these
publications in this study.

27
The review of the literature, which includes both English and non-English resources,
examines Al-Ghazalis classification of the practical sciences and his prioritization of
subject matter in terms of the Master-Pupil relationship. I will use this information to
propose curricula to support the concept of lifelong learning within the family context. The
most logical place to start is where it all began: the birth of Islam and the Prophet
Muhammad as an educator.

The Prophet Muhammad as an Educator

The Prophet Muhammad established the Master-Pupil relationship in Islam with the
information and methods he used to teach his companions. In order to understand Al-
Ghazalis philosophy of the Master-Pupil relationship in Islamic education, I began by
considering the inception of Islam and the Prophet Muhammad, himself. This section
discusses the Prophets educational methods, ideas, and curricula. I will comment on the
continuing evolution of the Master-Pupil relationship in Islamic education since the
Prophets day, noting the influence of Sufism on education in Islam, as well as Al-Ghazalis
life and the era in which he lived in terms of their influence on his theories of knowledge.
The Prophet Muhammad was born in the late 6
th
century CE (c. 570) in Mecca,
which is now part of Saudi Arabia. His father died before he was born, and his uncle, Abu
Talib, who lived in Mecca, raised him. His familys religious practices included idol
worship, a practice uncomfortable to the Prophet even before his prophetic calling. As an
adult he worked as a shepherd and a trader. When he was 40 years old, the angel Gabriel
appeared to him to deliver a message from God, an event that was to recur throughout the

28
rest of the Prophets life. Thus began the process by which God directed the Prophet to
establish Islam.
Once he became a prophet, much of what the Prophet Muhammad said and did was
preserved in both oral and written form in the ahadith (Azami, 1992a, 1992b; see also
Malek, 1997). Historians have noted that the Prophet took every opportunity to use
whatever situation he found himself in to teach a lesson, and his entire life was devoted to
the propagation of the Islamic faith and its practices through word and deed. Even in his
interactions with non-believers, his approach was always that of an educator: a benevolent
teacher, very tolerant, and sympathetic (Hamidullah, 1939, p. 58; see also Bilgrami &
Ashraf, 1985; Semaan, 1966). He died in Medina at the age of 63, having established a
lifestyle that continues today.
There are several ahadith regarding the learning process. The Prophet said that,
seeking knowledge is obligatory for every Muslim (see Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 1, p. 8).
Al-Ghazali (1997a) referred to engaging in the learning process as the most sincere form of
worship. Knowledge and its pursuit were of the utmost importance to the Prophet. With the
very first revelation from Allah through the angel Gabriel, the messages stressed the
importance of learning, particularly reading and writing.
The Prophet emphasized that the context of worship includes more than just praying
or attending the mosque regularly. One hadith in particular reports that caring for ones
parents needs is an act of worship. Likewise, interacting properly (i.e., in harmony with
Gods requirements) with ones environmentwhether socially, ecologically, financially, or
otherwiseis also a form of worship. Another hadith states, Verily, knowledge comes by

29
learninghe who seeks good will get it. He who saves himself from sin will be secure from
it (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Ihya, Vol. 3, p. 333).
The Holy Quran reports that Allah directed Muslims to follow the example set by
the Prophet, citing the principles set forth in the Quran and the ahadith as the ultimate
guidelines for the personal conduct of all believers. In addition to the instructions in the
Holy Quran, over 100,000 ahadith are attributed to the Prophet. All of the Prophets
teachings offer guidance in the fundamentals of Islamic education for every Muslim. It
would be impossible to compile an extensive review of all of the Prophets teachings into a
single document, since his teachings address every aspect of Islamic life, which is certainly
beyond the scope of this research. A comprehensive review of Islamic literature reveals that
many scholars (e.g., Al-Ghazali, 1997a; Al-Asqalani, 2000; Suwayyid, 1988) have
investigated various aspects of the Prophets teachings. These early Islamic scholars were
able to survey the entire scope of the Prophets teachings. As time passed, the volume of
information grew exponentially. Different scholars then began to focus on specific content
areas to show how these teachings could be applied to particular areas and phases in ones
life.
Al-Ghazali asserted that the Prophets teachings addressed the entire life cycle (i.e.,
from birth to the afterlife). He specifically mentioned the importance of Prophet
Muhammads character and integrity in Ihya, including how the Prophet interacted with his
family and other people on a daily basis, supporting his reports with over 4,000 Prophetic
sayings (ahadith). Allah said, Indeed in the Messenger of Allah (Muhammad) you have a
good example to follow for him who hopes for (the meeting with) Allah and the Last Day,

30
and remembers Allah much (33:21). Al-Ghazali did not just tell people to be like the
Prophet; he personally emulated the Prophet in many ways.
Al-Ghazali (1997a) clearly stated that Prophet Muhammad is the leader and the
counselor for every teacher and parent. His discussions on the Master-Pupil relationship
referred to the Prophets teachings. The orientation of all Islamic teachers, then, must be to
follow the suggestions and methods of the Prophet. The Prophet conveyed the key
principles of Islam to his companions as guidelines for life, which are part of the goals of an
Islamic education. Clearly, then, Al-Ghazali's scholarship is part of the mainstream of
Islamic thought.

Education in an Islamic Context

In Arabic, the word tarbiyah refers to education, but encompasses more than just
sitting in a classroom and learning from books. The meaning of education in the Islamic
context includes every aspect of absorbing information, including learning by doing and also
by observing others. Ibn Manzur (in Roald, 1994), a 14
th
-century lexicographer, offers
several terms as synonyms for tarbiyah, including increase, formation, nourishment, care,
guarding, and grow/let grow. Roald explains that tarbiyah in the Islamist sense relates to a
lifelong process. This corresponds to Illich (1998), and other postmodernists theories
about de-schooling, or acknowledging that education takes place all the time, and not just
in the classroom.
This insight is evident in the Arabic words tarbiyah, talim, and tadib, all of which
refer to different aspects of the process of education. They are interrelated in their concern

31
for humans, society, and the environment, which, in turn, are all related to God and
represent the scope of education in Islam, both formal and informal (Erfan & Valie, 1995).
In two popular Arabic dictionaries, Lisan al-Arab (2000) and Al-qamus al-muhit (2000),
these three terms basically mean increasing, growing, reforming, cultivating, or purifying
ones knowledge so that one is a well-balanced person, inculcated with taddab (morality)
(Ibn Taymiyyah, 1994). Thus, these concepts can be applied to intellectual knowledge,
personal conduct, and spiritual growth.
The word tadib, which Al-Attas (1979, p. 1) refers to as encompassing the spiritual
and material life of a [person] that instills the quality of goodness that is sought after, is
also part of preparing a child for adulthooda process referred to more recently in Western
cultures as education (Illich, 1998). The Prophet Muhammad said, O Lord God! Thou hast
made good my creation; therefore make good my character (Al-Attas, p. 1; see also Winter,
1995). According to this hadith and others, the term education refers not only to
intellectual growth but is broadened to include moral development. The Prophet
Muhammad summarized his educational vision and mission when he said, I have been sent
only for the purpose of perfecting good morals (Al-Bukhari, 1999, No. 274, p. 126).
In terms of practicing good character not only with other humans, but also with
nature, Al-Ghazali (in Winter, 1995, p. 17) discussed how a trait of character, then, is a
firmly established condition (haya) of the soul, from which actions proceed easily without
any need for thinking or forethought. The Holy Quran connects teaching with purifying
ones soul. Allah says:

32
He it is Who sent among the unlettered ones a Messenger (Muhammad)
from among themselves, reciting to them His Verses, purifying them
(from the filth of disbelief and polytheism), and teaching them the Book
(this Quran, Islamic laws and Islamic jurisprudence) and Al-Hikmah (As-
Sunnah: legal ways, orders, acts of worship of Prophet Muhammad), And
verily, they had been before in manifest error (62:2).
Al-Ghazali, too, believed that developing good character traits was a form of
worshipping God. One opportunity parents have to influence their children in this regard is
to help them develop the positive attitudes that instill these character traits. Thus, when
parents nurture their children in positive ways, these beneficial characteristics become
personal habits. Likewise, when a Master nurtures his students in positive ways, these
characteristics can also become good study habits. Al-Ghazali (1951) further recognized that
character isnt fully realized until the student puts it into practice. In his words,
O disciple, be neither lacking in deeds, nor wanting in states,
2
but be sure
that knowledge alone does not strengthen the hand. Here is an illustration:

2
In the introduction to his translation of Al-Ghazalis book, O Disciple, Scherer (1951, p. xxiii)
explained that Al-Ghazalis understanding was that the human journeys through life through both stages and
states. The stages are steps in the ascetic and ethical discipline of the soul, which are practiced by the
traveler, but are in such a relationship that each stage must be fully mastered before proceeding to the next
stage. Stages are constant in nature; that is, one is always in one or another stage of the journey. He
differentiates this concept from the states, which are spiritual feelings and dispositions over which man has no
control. States are transient, and passing through or completing one makes the traveler eager to embark on
the next state.

33
Suppose a man in the wilderness, a brave warrior armed with ten Indian
swords and other weapons, is attacked by a terrifying lionwhat do you
think? Will the weapons ward off the danger if he does not use them?
Obviously not. Just so, if a man reads a hundred thousand scientific
problems and learns them or teaches them, his knowledge is of no use
unless he acts in accordance with it (p. 4).
More recently, various postmodern philosophers such as Berry (1992) and Dennison
(1992) suggest that attitudes are incipient acts. They assert that unless and until we change
the attitudes that form our behavior, we will have little success in preventing or halting the
acts to which we object. This corroborates Al-Ghazalis ideas concerning influencing
behavior through positive attitudes and character, despite the centuries and cultures that
separate these scholars.
Historically, philosophers and thinkers in many different civilizations have attempted
to transform the way we see, think, act, and interact; they have often considered themselves
to be mankinds ultimate educators (Rorty, 1998). Taha Hussein (in Galal, 1994) has long
been revered by some Egyptian scholars as a great educational philosopher. In The Future
of Education in Egypt, he devoted a whole section of his book to explaining the role of the
teacher. Galal offers Husseins example of the traditional Arab-Islamic educator whose job
was to prepare and develop the rulers sons to assume the tasks of government,
administration, and leadership, instilling in them the uprightness befitting an exemplar, who
must direct and manage the affairs of the people (p. 702). Hussein stresses that the teacher

34
does not merely fill the pupils head with knowledge, but also needs to train and
discipline [the pupils] mindto prepare him for practical life andto raise his intellectual
level (p. 702). (See also Al-Ghazali, 1997a; Esteva & Prakash, 1998; Illich, 1998; Prakash,
1993; Gajardo, 1993.)
Berry (in Smith, 2000) explains the intent of education from the post-modern
viewpoint. Smith (2000, p. 13) interviewed this prolific post-modernist writer and asked
him about education:
My approach to education would be like my approach to everything else.
Id change the standard. I would make the standard that of community
health rather than career of the student. You see, if you make the standard
the health of the community, that would change everything. Once you
begin to ask what would be best thing for our community, whats the best
thing that we can do here for our community, you can rule out any kind of
knowledge.
Berry (in Smith, p. 14) concludes by saying we are teaching as if the purpose of
knowledge is to help people have careers or to make them better employees, and thats a
great and tragic mistake. Al-Ghazali (in Faris, 1991, p. 202) encouraged his students to
seek knowledge in order to contribute to the entire community, not just for personal gain.
It is mentioned in the Books of Israel [al-Israeliyat] that a certain wise
man had composed three hundred and sixty works on wisdom and thus

35
earned the sobriquet al-Hakim (the wise). Thereupon God revealed to the
prophet of Israel at that time saying, speak unto such and such a person
and tell him. Thus said the Lord: You have filled the earth with twaddle
but you have not mentioned me in a single word; therefore, I accept
nothing of it. On being so informed, the wise man repented and, abjuring
his twaddle, mixed with the common folk and roamed the streets
befriending all the children of Israel, and humbled himself. Then God
revealed to the prophet saying, Tell him, now you have gained my
[favor].
In this light, researchers might reasonably inquire whether todays universities are
more oriented towards preparing students for successful careers, or towards fulfilling both
the students career goals and the communities wealth? Gianotti (2000, p. 3) confirms that
Al-Ghazalis philosophies acknowledge that the ultimate goal of learning and knowledge
should be to consider the welfare of the community, which was the original intent of todays
academic institutions, which he agrees were built to educate our emerging professionals
and leaders, but which have degenerated into something of an ego factory, encouraging
scholars to be more concerned with their publication records, grant applications, and public
notoriety than mentoring their students and serving the wider non-academic community.


36
The Aims of Islamic Education

The ultimate intention and goal for Muslims is to live their lives in accordance with
Gods requirements so that they can see God in the next life. This requires learning what
Gods requirements are in order to know in which direction to go. Several of the ahadith
illustrate these aims, which are generally reached by acquiring knowledge (education) and
implementing what one has learned.
The Prophet said, Fear Allah wherever you are, and follow up a bad deed with a
good deed and it will wipe it out. And behave towards people with a good behavior (see
Al-Nawawi, 1982, No. 18, p. 66; see also Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 2, pp. 155, 172, Vol. 4, p.
276). This hadith addresses several of the Prophet Muhammads aims. The first statement
is an acknowledgment between the human and Allah that one should maintain the purity of
ones soul for Allah at all times because Allah is always watching what we do. The second
statement recommends that one atone for ones misdeeds and make every effort to correct
ones mistakes.
The last aim of this hadith has to do with the social environment at the time this
hadith was recorded. The Prophet wanted people to know that they do not exist on this
planet alone; rather, we live in a society. Therefore, it is imperative that we interact with
each other politely, with consideration for the needs and feelings of others. A key point here
is that this does not apply only to human relationships, but to ones relationships with all of
Gods creations. Being good to all beings and dealing with them justly is one of the ultimate
aims of all religions. Allah said, Indeed, we have sent Our Messengers with clear proofs

37
and revealed with them the Scripture and the Balance (justice) that mankind may keep up
justice (57:25).
One day, the Prophet saw a young man who was very ill and asked him how he was
feeling. The young man replied that he feared Allah and that he hoped that Allah would
forgive his sins. The Prophet replied that Allah would give him security (Ahmad, 1983).
Fear and hope are two sides of the same coin. Allah said:
Is one who is obedient to Allah, prostrating himself or standing (in prayer)
during the hours of the night, fearing the Hereafter and hoping for the
Mercy of his Lord (like one who disbelieves)? Say: Are those who know
equal to those who know not? It is only [persons] of understanding who
will remember (get a lesson from Allahs Signs and Verses) (39:9).
Clearly, the Prophet wanted to inculcate the meaning and purpose of fear and hope in
his companions. Islamic education is driven by both of these motivations: fear of doing
wrong, as well as the desire to do what is right. For Muslims, fear and hope are like two
wings by which human beings can fly to every place and can cross onto the way to the next
life and reach the truth (Al-Ghazali, 1997a). Thus, the Prophet offered detailed directions
for Muslims to understand how to attain the goalwhat to do, when and how to do it, and
why. This included both men and women.

38
The Social Climate of Early Islam

The first generation of Islam (622 C.E.) was its golden age with respect to many
aspects of life. In the context of womens rights, Islamic females had full rights equal to
men (Amal, 2000; Roded, 1999). They participated in business and politics, and were
generally highly respected as equal members of society. The rationale was that early Islam
was believed to have been built by every member of society, both men and women, rich and
poor, young and old, white and black, from all sections of society.
Also, in early Islam, transmission of knowledge was not confined to the male
members of the household. Women were encouraged to seek knowledge and to study with
others outside their immediate family. Gradually this changed so that only menpreferably
only male family memberstaught women in the home. However, let us not forget that, In
the earliest centuries of Islam, womens position was not bad at all. Only over the course of
centuries was she increasingly confined to the house and forced to veil herself (Schimme,
1992, p. 65; see also Roded, 1994, p. 76). By the ninth century, womens roles became even
more proscribed, limiting their educational opportunities further. Historically, womens role
in society was determined as much by social and economic factors as by religious
prescriptions (Haddad & Espositio, 1998, p. xiii).
Poverty, local customs, illiteracy, and various attitudes in different Muslim cultures
often determined the role of women in day-to-day life, which may have differed radically
from what Prophet Muhammad and his wives envisioned and practiced during the golden
age of Islam. For example, during this early era it is reported that Muslim women prayed in
the mosque (Reid, 1995); over time, womens access to the mosque became severely

39
restricted. This restriction is counter to the structure of Muslim practice. Regarding the five
pillars of Islam witnessing, ritual prayer, fasting during Ramadan, almsgiving, and
pilgrimage to Mecca are the responsibilities of both men and women. Islam, at its core, is
egalitarian, preaching the human dignity of both men and women. The Prophet, in one
hadith, is quoted as saying that They (men and women) are equal as the teeth on a comb
(Waddy, 1980, p. 5). He practiced what he preached, socializing with men and women in
the community, treating them equally.
The social aspects of any culture reflect its politics and economics. In the beginning
of Islam, society was very simple, easy to manage, and confined to a relatively small area.
By the 13
th
century C.E., Islam expanded beyond the Arab Peninsula. This expansion led
many cultures to influence and be influenced by Islam. With the collapse of the Abbasids
Dynasty (750 -1258 C.E.) as a result of Mongol invasion who brought with them a
patriarchal, nomadic culture the power of the dynasty declined. The last Caliph in
Baghdad was murdered by the Mongols (Netton, 1997, p. 1). This collapse had a negative
effect on the social life of the Muslims, as well as on their educational system. It is also
possible that the rise of a war-like state rendered women less important. Schools were
destroyed and people became fearful for their daughters. One of the characteristics during
the Ottoman period (1281-1924 C.E.) was seclusion of women, most likely necessitated to
maintain their safety and modesty. Unfortuantely, some Muslim thinkers interpreted this
need for modesty and privacy into an essentially prison-like existence. Seclusion may have
been a way to combat insecurity resulting from a society where law and order did not
prevail, such as it was during the Mongolian invasion (Waddy, 1980, p. 123). After years in
which seclusion was the norm, although some curious people were able to make a dramatic

40
shift, many people adjusted more slowly and gradually to the less dangerous social
environment.
Bewley (1999, p. 2) lists six other factors in explaining why women became inactive
community members in the last three centuries of Islams long history. (In the first three
centuries of Islam, women were not affected by these factors.) These factors are a
reassertion of pre-Islamic patriarchy, adoption of conquered peoples with pre-Islamic
practices (e.g., the harem), the infiltration of West perceptions of womens inferiority, and
colonial policies designed to keep Muslims, especially women, in a lower status. A legacy
of barbaric behavior established by the colonists became the norm; Muslims allowed
themselves to be defined by the colonial concepts of barbaric/civilized and eventually
defended and transformed it into a reality.
Many scholars note that as in other major religions of the world, in pre-modern Islam
the reassertion of tribal customs and historical (re)interpretations as well as daily practices
have become the norm. Quranic laws have been undermined to reaffirm the dominance of
males, thereby helping to perpetuate the increasing inequality between males and females.
By the twentieth century, the tension between ideal and real would become compounded by
conflicts between tradition and modernity (Haddad & Esposito, 1998, p. xiii). Hofmann
(1998) echoes this in his section on Cherzeh la Muslimah! which means that behind every
successful Muslim man is a woman; that is, her rights to education are valuable assets to
promoting society in general. Hofmann agrees with Haddad and Esposito, noting that there
is a sizeable gap between the Islam ideal and Muslim practice concerning the rights of
women as provided in the Quran (Hofmann, 1998, p. 99).

41
Lang (1994) reminds us that women in other cultures, including Islam, have
historically contributed more to literature and the legal sciences than to the natural sciences.
Thus, this may explain why more men are in the natural sciencesin other words, this may
not be a deliberate exclusion of women, since womens interests focus more in literature and
the legal sciences. This does not mean women should not be educated in the natural
sciences, but rather that their interests focus on other fields of study that make it appear they
are being excluded. According to Hofmann (1998, p. 99), womens competitive chances in
the Muslim world are complicated. While they may be intent on a career (either in a male
dominated field such as the natural sciences or in literature and the legal sciences), as
Muslims they fully endorse the Islamic concept of complementarity/polarity between male
and female, which may color perceptions of equality when compared with women of the
Western world.
Many emancipated women in the West have struggled with choosing between career
and family life, perhaps regretting that they may have rejected or compromised family
and/or motherhood values for a career. Muslim women, on the other hand, see family,
motherhood, and education/career as a form of worship, and do not seem to share identical
feminist attitudes about having to choose or sacrifice one for the other. As much as Western
females try to strike a balance between the often-conflicting demands of family and career
on a daily basis, which becomes a political struggle, for Muslim women this is a religious
struggle. The Prophet Muhammad said every Muslim is a shepherd and each of us is
responsible for our own family; thus both father and mother are responsible for their
individual families. For a Muslim woman, then, the conflict between family and career is a
religious struggle because according to her faith, she must be responsible as a wife and

42
mother while also fulfilling her rights as a woman to be educated under Quranic law, all as
forms of worship.
Unless Muslim women prefer to continue their lives as they were in the time before
Islam (Jahaliyah, or what Muslims refer to as the pre-Islam Time of Ignorance), they must
reclaim the rights conferred on them by the Prophet and the Quran. Pre-Islam, women
lived repressed lives with virtually no civil rights. Islam equalized womens status, allowing
them to be educated, have careers, and still maintain their status as wives and mothers, all
under the Islamic dual concepts of family rights and obligations as well as educational rights
equal to men under Islamic law (Abu Shuqqah, 1995; M. Al-Ghazali, 1990
3
).
In the 1980s and 1990s, the gender debate faced ground-breaking milestones with
many scholars noting that certain verses and hadith were being misinterpreted by later
conservative thinkers. These interpretations served to exclude women from areas of
authority. These modern scholars are not without their critics in the Muslim world. Thus,
intense debates on this topic come from many Gulf-state scholars who want to hold onto the
conservative traditions (Ghadbian, 1995, p. 28). This debate continues, and while there may
be great disagreement from both sides, at least there is dialog. Thus, there is hope that the
social customs, as opposed to religious texts that have suppressed women, will be altered.
As the later texts, which have strayed from the original meaning of Islamic law are
reexamined and corrected, Muslim women can take back their rightful place in modern
Islamic society as educated females, mothers, wives, and activists. The explanation for this

3
This Al-Ghazali is not the same person as described in this thesis. They do share the same family name. In
order to differentiate the references, this citation is attributed to Mr. M. Al-Ghazali.)

43
debate will be expanded in Chapter 7, when I talk about Al-Ghazalis views on womens
education.

Access to Educational Opportunities for Women

The Prophet taught that, Women and men are equal halves (Ahmad & Abu-
Dawud, in Al-Albani, 1986, Vol. 1, p. 399). His direction was that social and moral
responsibilities are borne by all, regardless of gender. Karen Armstrong (2000, p. 16)
asserts that the emancipation of women was a project dear to the Prophets heart. The
[Quran] gave women rights of inheritance and divorce centuries before Western women
were accorded such status. For example, one of the verses from the Quran quoted quite
often is:
Lo! Men who surrender unto Allah, and women who surrender, and men who
believe and women who believe, and men who obey and women who obey,
and men who speak the truth and women who speak the truth,
and men who persevere (in righteousness) and women who persevere, and
men who are humble and women who are humble, and men who give alms
and women who give alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and
men who guard their modesty and women who guard (their modesty), and
men who remember Allah much and women who remember-Allah hath
prepared for them forgiveness and a vast reward (33:35).


44
The reason this verse has been quoted so often is that it is meant to indicate that in
the eyes of Allah, men and women are created as equals, with the same religious duties.
Since the Islamic philosophy holds education as a form of worship, as Al-Ghazali
emphasized in is writings, then logically, women would also have equal access to education,
the same as men.
Why then do Al-Ghazali and other Islamic thinkers of the medieval era limit
womens education? Why is there such a contradiction? Turabi, a modern Islamic theorist
and political analyst, provides the logical answer. He argues that:

Medieval scholarsmade important contributions to understanding the
Shariah (Islamic law), but their contributions were limited by the
condition of their era and their historical context. These early scholars
developed a scholastic discipline whose considerations became separated
from the conditions of application of Islamic principles in real life (Turabi
in Esposito and Voll, 2001, p. 130).

Turabi and other modern Islamic scholars recommend that Muslims need to renew
the fiqh (interpretation of Islamic law) in order to meet the demands of contemporary life.
This does not mean that the faith changes, because the Quran and other sacred texts are
inviolate. Rather, the cultural norms of the day must constantly be challenged to make sure
they do not stray from the original principles of Islam, as did womens rights to education
become limited over a period of several hundred years. Concerning early Islam, for
example, Hafsa and other widows of the Prophet Muhammad, were directly involved in

45
transmitting Quran to the companions of the Prophet after his death. Hafsa, one of widows,
was so knowledgeable about the Quran that she corrected one of the scribes. Hafsa is also
indicated in the literature as the first person to handle the completed text. She may have also
assisted the caliph Uthman, the person who gathered the pages of the verses of the Quran,
and declared it to be the official version of this holy book of the Muslim faith. (Roded,
1999).
Armstrong (1992) reports the Prophets engagement in the day-to-day management
of his household and the advocacy of womens rights. This indicates that the Prophets
intent was to inspire all Muslims to respect women as he did. The Prophets wife, Aishah,
reported that the Prophet would be involved in the service of his family, and when the time
for prayers was due, he would wash up and go out for prayers (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 3,
p. 73; see also Elkadi, 1982, p. 56). Aishah narrated that the Messenger has never beaten
a wife nor a servant, and he has never hit anything with his hand except when fighting in the
cause of God (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 3, p. 79; see also Elkadi, 1982, p. 56).
Throughout history, however, some scholars (Al-Qurtubi, 1966) have embraced
competing reports, mostly weaker, less specific ahadith, alleging that women were not
entitled to the same educational and social opportunities as men. The foundations of the
faith, however, emphasize that it is incorrect to restrict a womans education or social life,
and the Prophet did not differentiate between the genders regarding what each was supposed
to or entitled to learn. Some of the Prophets lectures were addressed specifically to women.
Despite the fact that the Prophet was confident enough to act on his own, he did not
disregard the advice of others, females included. There are several occasions, especially
during some of the battles for religious freedom, where he sought input from his most

46
trusted companions. It is worth noting that not only did the Prophet not discriminate
between genders in the learning environment, but he also did not place his trust solely in
men. One example of this is when he wanted to encourage his companions to do something,
but encountered resistance. He asked one of his wives for advice on how to get them to
cooperate and she suggested that he set the example by doing it himself, and then the
companions would follow suit. He took her advicein this instance, cutting his hairand
his companions then cut their hair (Al-Mawdudi, 2001). This demonstrates that he did
consult with women, that he did take their advice, and that their observations are worthwhile
because his wife correctly recognized what would happen as a result. This is certainly not
the only recorded incidence of intelligent Muslim women offering advice to Muslim men,
and until about 300 years ago this kind of situation was not unusual.
Ahmed (1992) suggests that the Prophets commitment to seeking womens opinions
demonstrated his affirmation of their perspective, even concerning matters of spiritual and
social importance. This inclusiveness continued to be a feature of the Muslim community in
the years immediately following the Prophets death. One demonstration of this is the
acceptance of womens contributions to the collection and narration of the ahadith (Ahmed,
p. 72). Ibn Umar (in Al-Bukhari, 1999, No. 212) reported that the Prophet said, All of you
are shepherds, and all of you are responsible for your flocks. A trustee is a shepherd, and he
is responsible. A man is a shepherd for his family, and he is responsible. A woman is a
shepherd over the home, and she is responsible. Verily, all of you are shepherds. From the
beginning of Islam (622 CE), men and women were instructed in both the spiritual and
intellectual aspects of Muslim life as part of the learning process. As life becomes more
complex, people are required to learn and do more in order to function effectively in the

47
world. Consequently, limiting anyones knowledge or access to information seriously
hinders the persons ability to manage in life.

Spiritual and Intellectual Curricula

As part of gaining spiritual and intellectual knowledge of the Quran, the Prophet
also provided instruction in the language skills necessary to read the Holy Quran, as well as
in the recreational sciences needed to develop a healthy personality (Hamidullah, 1939; see
also Bilgrami & Ashraf, 1985). Muslims are encouraged to remember their spiritual and
intellectual knowledge and integrate these skills throughout their lives. The Prophet
instructed that both males and females learn to read and write, advocating universal literacy.
For example, he recognized that one of his wives, Hafsah, wanted to learn to read and write,
and knew that another woman in his family, Shifa bint Abd Allah Al-Qurashi, knew how to
read and write, so he arranged for Shifa to teach Hafsah. He also asked one of his
companions, Abdu Allah Ibn Said Ibn Al-as, to travel from Mecca to Medina to teach the
people there to read and write (Bilgrami & Ashraf, 1985). The Prophet said,
How can some people not educate, teach, advise and admonish their
[neighbors], and how can some people not learn, not be enlightened or
advised by their [neighbors]? By Allah, people should teach, enlighten,
advise, enjoin and admonish their [neighbors], and others should learn, be
enlightened and be advised by their [neighbors], otherwise I will speed up

48
punishment to them (Al-Tabarani, in Al-Kabir, cited in Al-Qaradawi,
2000).
These accounts clearly demonstrate that the Prophets instructions were that
knowledge is for everyone, and that all who have knowledge are encouraged to share it with
others. The Prophet did not distinguish between men and women when he advised all
believers to seek knowledge.

Prophetic Teaching Methods

The Prophet spoke in a very easy and understandable manner. Because of this, his
companions were able to memorize many of his teachings. His wife, Aishah, said that he
used to speak so clearly that if somebody wanted to count the number of his words, he
could do so (in Al-Bukhari, 2001). This was repeated by many other scholars: Allahs
Messenger never talked so quickly as you do (Al-Bukhari, 1999, p. 701); he spoke
distinctly so that all those who listened to him, understood him (Al-Nawawi, 1991, Vol. 1, p.
435).
The Prophet used a variety of methods to instruct his companions, such as telling
stories and making gestures to illustrate his point. Another approach was to draw simple
illustrations to convey some of his abstract ideas. The implication here is to tailor the lesson
to the learner, with the goal being that the learner gains from the interchange. The Prophet
stressed the honor in this process when he said, I and the person who looks after an orphan

49
and provides for him, will be in Paradise like this, putting his index and middle fingers
together (Al-Bukhari, 2001, Vol. 8, Book 73, No. 34).
Besides the content of the lessons, the Prophet endeavored to optimize the
atmosphere for learning, such as considering location and timing. One of his companions
reported that, the Prophet used to take care of us in preaching by selecting a suitable time,
so that we might not get bored. He abstained from pestering us with sermons and
knowledge all the time (Al-Bukhari, 2001, Vol. 1, Book 3, No. 68). Another factor was the
nature of the audience. It is clearly evident that the Prophets teachings were clear enough
to have meaning for the ignorant as well as for the learned and sophisticated (Muessig &
Allen, 1962, p. 136).
The Prophet was also known for tailoring specific lessons to a particular pupil, just
as a parent may modify instructions to a specific child. For example, one day the Prophet
heard someone mocking the man making the call to prayer (known as the Adhan). The
Prophet disciplined the offender in front of his friends. The punishment was for the mocker
to repeat the Adhan, himself. At first, the man was very uncomfortable and nervous
because he did not know the words. But, after being personally taught by the Prophet how
to make the call to prayer, he realized that the Prophet had given him a gift. The man later
acknowledged that being able to make the Adhan became one of his favorite activities (Ibn
Jurayj, 1992). Allah said, And by the mercy of Allah, you dealt with them gently. And had
you been severe and harsh-hearted, they would have broken away from about you; so pass
over (their faults), and ask (Allahs) Forgiveness for them; and consult them in the affairs
(3:159). The implication here is that the success of any lesson depends on its being
appropriate to the learner.

50
The Prophets guidelines for determining an appropriate punishment or penalty for
undesirable behavior were that the consequences should be related to the offense. The
Prophets companions commented that this approach to discipline helped them remember
what they were taught. The implication here is that undesirable behavior need not be merely
suppressed (e.g., just telling the person to stop the inappropriate action), and that the
consequences could be used to reinforce a lesson in proper conduct. The Prophet also used
logical reasoning and taught his companions by personal example. His guidelines for
human interactionwhether teacher and pupil or parent and childare as valid today as the
day he spoke them. The following section will focus on some of his recommendations
concerning social relationships and personal conduct.
The Prophet directed people to be nice to one other. He said, He who is not
merciful to others, will not be treated mercifully (Al-Bukhari, 2001, Vol. 8, Book 73, No.
42). The Prophet also said, Make things easy for the people, and do not make it difficult
for them, and make them calm (with glad tidings) and do not repulse (them) (Al-Bukhari,
2001, Vol. 8, Book 73, No. 146), advising his companions that their intent should be to
support and encourage each other, not to make each other angry. These concepts reinforce
the belief that one can expect to receive the same treatment one has bestowed on others.
Another hadith states, Teach, facilitate, and do not make things difficult. If one of
you loses his temper, remain silent (Al-Bukhari, 1999, No. 2445). In other words, it may
be wise to step back and calm down before one responds in anger. The Prophet also
instructed his companions to be wise in selecting their associates. He said, The person
follows the religion [or habits] of his friends; so each one should consider whom he makes
his friend (see Abu-Dawud, 1996, No. 4833).

51
One of the Prophets companions reported that he visited the Prophet one day and
entered his room without permission. The Prophet said, Go back and say, Peace be on
you. May I enter? (Al-Nawawi, 1991, Vol. 1, p. 535). Muslims are required to respect the
rights and privacy of others. Indeed, good manners (adab) are seen as an essential
dimension of ones religious education.

Summary of the Prophets Approach to Education

All of the topics discussed in this section are related to the basic tenets laid down by
the Prophet Muhammad. While they may have undergone some changes over the centuries,
Muslims are still taught to live in accordance with the Quran and ahadith requirements to
love God and follow his laws so that they may be with God in the next life.
One book of the Prophets ahadith (see Al-Bukhari, 2001) contains over 90 chapters,
addressing a wide range of topics, including pursuit of knowledge, health maintenance,
praying, environmental responsibility, social conduct, support for ones family, politics and
government, and finance. These ahadith and others serve as guidelines for conducting ones
life as a member of a cohesive society. The following hadith explains these principles.
The first concept concerns the five pillars of Islam: 1) to testify that there is no God
but Allah and that Muhammad is Allahs Messenger; 2) to perform the prayers; 3) to pay
zakat (obligatory almsgiving); 4) to fast (sawm) during the month of Ramadan; and 5) to
perform a hajj (a pilgrimage to Mecca) (see Al-Ghazali, Ihya, Vol. 1, p. 12; Al-Bukhari,
2001, Vol. 1, Book 2, No. 7). Muslims are required to participate in all five areas.

52
Change and personal growth come from both without and within. Education is
envisioned as a moral process as well as an intellectual one for both males and females.
Muslims are required to persist in modifying unacceptable behaviors, and to follow up bad
deeds with good deeds in order to atone for transgressions. Allah said, Verily never will
Allah change the condition of a people until they change it themselves (with their own
souls) (13:11).
A comprehensive Islamic education pertains to ones inner life as well as to ones
relationships with other people, the environment, animals, and the whole of creation. Thus,
the entire world becomes the classroomthe theater in which ones journey to moral
perfection and intellectual excellence is considered the rehearsal for the afterlife.

Sufisms Influence on Islamic Education

Al-Ghazali was an outstanding follower of the Prophet Muhammads teachings. As
a Sufi, his teachings agreed with the Quran, and he integrated his personal Sufi beliefs with
the Islamic principles. He was not as extreme as some Sufis were. Instead he brought the
basic concepts of the Islamic teachings into Sufism. Historically, the origin of the term Sufi
is uncertain. Some scholars claim that it comes from either a Greek word or an Arabic
word, stemming from a Latinized derivation from the Arabic root s-(w)-f, the meaning of
which was already disputed in early Sufi literature (Knysh, 2000). Al-Qushayri (1992) notes
that there is no etymology or analogy with another word in the Arabic language to be drawn
from the name Sufi. The most plausible interpretation is that it is much like a surname,
tasawwuf referring to the wearing of wool. Al-Qushayri concluded that the concept of

53
Sufism is so well known that it is not necessary to find an analogy or derivation for their
designation (p. 302). In any case, it has been called Sufism in English and other Western
languages since the early 19
th
century (Knysh, 2000).
The normative literature of Sufism identifies the first Sufis as the Prophet and some
of his companions who were engaged in self-imposed asceticism. In early Sufi tradition,
several people are mentioned in the Prophets immediate retinue as Sufis, although the term
does not appear to have gained widespread usage until the beginning of the 9
th
century CE,
when it came to be applied to the Muslim ascetics and recluses in Syria, Iraq, and some parts
of Egypt. Other literature refers to these individuals as nussak (devout ones), zuhhad
(renouncers of worldliness), and ubbad (worshipers) (Knysh, 2000).
Al-Suhrawardi (1991) notes that true Sufi is he who strived in the purifying of his
heart, and alloweth no pollution to abide in him (p. 41). The first documented Sufi scholar
was Al-Hasan Al-Basri (b. 642-d. 728 CE), and the founder of the first school of Sufi
thought was Al-Muhasibi (d. 857 CE) (Ibn Khaldun, 1967. See also Al-Kaylani, 1985;
Knysh, 2000).
Sufis have been involved in Islamic society since its inception, and Sufism is
manifested at many different levels. It consists of a variety of mystical paths that are
designed to ascertain the nature of man and God and to facilitate the experience of the
presence of divine love and wisdom in the world. Some branches of these mystical beliefs
follow the Islamic spiritual literature (e.g., the Quran and/or the Prophetic sayings) more
closely than others. Ibn Taymiyyah (1999), Ibn Khaldun (1967), and others assert that the
early Sufis were sincerely and honestly devoted to their spiritual pursuits, but that some
contemporary Sufis have deviated from Islamic law.

54
In O Disciple, Al-Ghazali (1951, p. 18) mentioned two characteristics that people
practicing Sufism aspire to: uprightness with God the exalted and quietude with mankind;
and whoever is upright with God, and improves his conduct among the people, treating them
with forbearance. Al-Ghazali self-identified as a Sunni Sufi Muslim, worshipping Allah
and believing in the Prophet Muhammad and the Day of Judgment. He was dedicated to
purifying his soul and practicing what he believed, in order to prepare himself for the next
life (Al-Barjis, 1996). Al-Ghazalis Sufi orientation is evidenced in his writings, and he
explained many of his ideas using Sufi examples. For example, Al-Ghazali advised both
Master and Pupil to work and act only for the sake of Allah.
Al-Madkhalee (1995) expresses concern that, in his experience, some Sufi students
(muridin) have been known at various times in history to become so devoted to their
teachers (shaykhs) that they perceive their relationship to the shaykh as being more
beneficial than their relationship with Allah. Tabari (1988) reports an extreme situation in
which one shaykh allowed his students to interact with him in a fashion that resembled
idolizationabove and beyond the students (muridin) being merely respectful of the
teacher, and now approaching worship, mentioning that some shaykhs foster this perception.
Tabari notes that some Sufis feel that they need the shaykh in order to be linked with Allah,
perceiving their teachers to be superhuman or divine (p. 14), and that failure to honor the
shaykh in this way will cause the student to fail (Al-Dhahabi, 1994).
Al-Qaradawi (2000) reports that, as in any group, there are some extreme Sufis who
assert that they have heard directly from God or who have attributed superhuman qualities to
their teachers (shaykhs). These extremists can confuse less experienced students (muridin).
For instance, it is one thing to dream that one has conversed with a former teacher, even if

55
the teacher has died. It is quite another to report that the conversation was actually with the
dead teacher speaking with you from the next world. Al-Qaradawi notes that there are Sufis
who are true and genuine in their intentions and interpretations, and that these people are
admirable for their devotion to Islam.
Tabari (1988, p. B) offers an alternative perspective. He expresses concern that
there are hidden dangers [in] Sufism and that inexperienced Muslims could be duped into
believing that salvation is attained only by way of ascetic, mystical doctrines, and that the
relationship between man and Allah is maintained through a few self-appointed priests.
Tabaris perception confirms Al-Qaradawis observations. The debate about whether the
average believer needs a human intermediary to communicate with the divine being is not
new, nor is it restricted to any particular faith. In Islam, however, the principle is that each
believer prays directly to God.

56
Sufi Institutions

In the 12
th
century CE, the mosque continued to be an institution of learning in
conjunction with a madrasah or similar institution. These institutions were known as a
khanqah
4
, zawiyah
5
, or ribat
6
, depending on which country they were in (Iran/Persia, Egypt,
or Morocco, respectively). The differences among these facilities were less clear in terms of
function, although Al-Subki (1983) specifies that the khanqah was established in town and
the zawiyah was located in the wilderness (Makdisi, 1981; see also Hermansen, 1995;
Netton, 1997).
They might include an area reserved for prayer, a shrine, a religious school, and
residential quarters for students, guests, and pilgrims or travelers. It was not unusual for the
facility to also house a Sufi settlement or monastery. Towards the end of his life, Al-Ghazali
built a khanqah at Tus, where he and his disciples lived together. Al-Ghazali recognized
several advantages to the ribat, in that here the student could learn without the distractions
of everyday life (Al-Ghazali, 1989).

4
In a khanqah, you might find two types of students: those who travel to study there and those who
live there in the monastery. Later, they served as centers for devotions such as listening to poetry and music,
and performance of certain ceremonies.
5
Zawiya is literally a corner where the tasawwuf (Sufi students) are taught. It has also been defined as
a small khanqah (Netton, 1992, p. 264). In some Arabic countries, the term zawiya is also used to refer to any
small, private oratory not paid for with community funds.
6
Ribat literally means ribbon or band, although today this word in Arabic has assumed other
seemingly unrelated meanings including frontier post. While most of the ribats were in Morocco, there were
a few in Egypt, and the students who lived there were not necessarily Sufi (Netton, 1992, pp. 213-214).

57
The ribat offered an environment in which both teachers and learners could focus
exclusively on full-time education. Al-Ghazali also emphasized this as an opportunity to
bring together people of like interests (i.e., Islamic scholarship). At that time, there were
also institutions exclusively for women. Tritton (1956, p. 142) cites instances of ribat
founded by women.
These opportunities existed to provide housing, study, and socialization for women
who otherwise had no families, such as widows and older spinsters. It was not unusual in
the early Middle Ages for women to be educated, and Tritton (1956), Roded (1994), and
Bewley (1999) offer many examples of women who were both learned in their own right
and even taught others. He also notes with some irony that the prestige associated with
being an educated woman had no effect on the practice of succeeding centuries (p. 140).
Two kinds of people lived in a khanqah: the travelers and the dwellers (Al-
Suhrawardi, 1991). Each of these institutions had their own shaykh (master), and each
shaykh had their own method of instruction or formula for prayers. Al-Subki (1983) reports
that the Shaykh al-khanqah was sometimes called Chief Abbot (Shaykh ash-shuyukh) or
sometimes Chief Abbot of the Sufi Gnostics (Shaykh shuyukh al-arifin). The duties of the
shaykh included training the Sufi novices (muridin)protecting them from harm; caring for
the soul, not the bodies, of his charges; and teaching them the ritual prayers and recitation of
the Quran (Makdisi, 1981).

58
The qari al-kursi
7
(chairman) was one of the various kinds of preachers in medieval
Islam who narrated the lives of the saints and recited Quranic verses and the Prophetic
sayings.
Unlike some who recited these things from memory and were inclined to preach in
public, the qari al-kursi was always seated; he preached in a jami, masjid, madrasah, or
khanqah; and read from a book. He was bound by such rules as presenting what the average
person would understand and teaching things without harmful consequences.
The sort of books that could be recited for them were Al-Ghazalis Ihya, Nawawis
Riyad as-salihin, al- adkar, Ibn Al-Jawzis books, and others (Makdisi, 1981, p. 218; see
also Al-Subki, 1983). For the most part, they followed the philosophies of the authors from
whom they read, and were essentially warned against delving into matters theological
(Makdisi, 1981, p. 218).
There is some controversy about whether establishing free-standing khanqahs for
Sufi educationand sometimes worshipwas acceptable in Islam. As reported by Ibn Al-
Jawzi (n.d), a prominent Islamic scholar born in the early 12
th
century, using these non-
mosque facilities for Sufi education alone was controversial because it tended to segregate
the worship aspect from the educational aspect, with which he disagreed. He openly
criticized using these free-standing khanqahs for worship, stating that this was the primary
purpose of the mosque, and that worship conducted in a khanqah was taking people away
from the mosque.

7
Malek (1997) notes that Al-Sabbagh (1988) believed that the West adopted the term chairman as
term taken from the early Arabs.

59
If additional worship space was needed, build a new or larger mosque, not a separate
khanqah.
Ibn Al-Jawzi also took issue with the concept of certain of the faithful differentiating
themselves from the rest of the congregation (e.g., Sufi practitioners in monasteries),
especially using this as justification for attendance at these free-standing khanqahs. One of
the principles of Islam is that all Muslims are equal, are subject to the same requirements
and values, and should worship together without discriminating amongst themselves. In his
book on Sufism and the relationship between shaykh and murid, Al-Suhrawardi (1991)
reports that there was a special garment worn by some Sufi shaykhs called a khirqah (dervish
mantle). He goes into detail about appropriate colors, who is entitled to wear these
garments, and why. Unfortunately, there is no supporting evidence in any Islamic law
requiring people to wear any particular article to distinguish themselves from other Muslims.
They should dress and act alike; no special clothes or accessories are needed by Muslims to
set themselves aside with respect to rank.
Some shaykhs were also noted as telling their muridin that they (the shaykhs) were
infallible and that they deserved their students absolute devotion. There is nothing in
Islamic law on which to base this claim. In fact, it is acknowledged that even the most
learned scholars are human and therefore flawedless flawed than others, perhaps, but
imperfect nonetheless. Al-Ghazali said in one of his manuscripts that this is a dangerous
tendencyto present ones self as being somehow inherently better than anotherand says
that these teachers are misguided. He cites an explanation that Jesus gave to his students of
these kinds of teachers being like a large stone in a river in a valley. All the stone (teacher)

60
does is hold up the progress (learning) of the flowing water (students). It doesnt take
anything from the water, but impedes the waters usefulness farther downstream.
As a side issue, the guidelines for acts of worship in Islam are clear and have been in
practice since the inception of the faith in the early 7
th
century CE. Some of these
independent Sufi khanqahs integrated other, non-authorized activities, such as dancing, into
the worship service, which is not a sanctioned activity in Islamic worship. This would,
therefore, seem to point to restricting group worship to the original format in the mosque
only, which was what Ibn Al-Jawzi was advocating.
Ibn Al-Jawzi was particularly concerned about the Sufi practice of encouraging youth
to enter these khanqahs and devote their lives exclusively to solitary spiritual pursuits. It is
a principle of Islam that a balanced life includes human interaction such as marriage, having
children, teaching others, group worship, and community involvement. While the faithful
are encouraged to avoid excessive materialism and worldly involvement, it is incorrect to
advocate that these youngsters eschew virtually all human interaction in favor of a mystical
solitary lifestyle. In addition, the communitys welfare in those days depended on the
contributions of its members. If nobody worked as a farmer, for instance, there would be no
food to eat. By involving these youth in the khanqah to the exclusion of all other activities,
they would reach adulthood without learning any trade or means of self-support, and not
giving back any of the community resources they had enjoyed earlier in life. This also
perpetuated their dependency on the khanqah for survival, since they were not equipped to
be self-sufficient.
There are also instances cited in the literature (Al-Madkhalee 1995; Al-Dhahabi,
1994; and others) of some of the shaykhs in these Sufi khanqahs teaching the muridin

61
(students who live in these khanqahs) to just pray incessantly, repeating certain prayers over
and over. Very little emphasis was placed on expanding knowledge by investigating Gods
word. In true Islamic worship, however, the faithful are encouraged to come to know God
through in-depth study of Islamic law through the Holy Quran and the ahadith. Thus, these
religious leaders were actually misleading their disciples and giving them inaccurate
guidance instead of doing what the Prophet said, which was just to follow the Quran and
my example. Consequently, any shaykh who gave instructions which conflict with the
Prophets instructions was clearly giving false advice.
There is also a hadith that essentially states that the more effort one expends getting
to the mosque to worship, the better the reward from God. Incorporating worship into the
program at the khanqah, where the students may also be living and studying (and spending
the majority of their time), minimized the effort needed to get to worship services, thus
eliminating the opportunity for spiritual benefits obtained through that effort.

Sufism and Islam Today

Al-Ghazali (1997a) suggested that there were three parts to religion: Belief, Works
or Conduct, and Experience of Spirituality. The first two comprise what is commonly
thought of as formal religion. Al-Ghazali asserted that while each is necessary, both
together are not even enough to offer any reliable guarantee of salvation, which he
interpreted to mean absolute escape from the fires of Hell (in Gardener, 1916). In order to
be cleansed of sin so that one can have this hope of salvation, Gardener reports that Muslims
can turn to Sufism, which offers the experience of spirituality that Al-Ghazali referred to.

62
Before Al-Ghazalis day, and even long after, there has been a tendency to
distinguish between Islam and Sufism. There is a non-Islamic branch of Sufism, and
Gardener attributes this to the tendency on the part of Muslim Sufis to break away from
formal Islam once theyve reached a certain stage in their Sufi life. In all times and in all
religions there has been a similar tendency among those who have followed the path of the
mystic (Gardener, 1916, p. 132). Thus, Gardener suggests that it is to Al-Ghazalis credit
that he recognized that there could be a Muslim Sufism and a non-Muslim Sufism, and
suggests that Al-Ghazali may have been a key actor in bringing this to general attention. It
is worth noting, too, that Al-Ghazalis position on this was that there could be no Sufism
apart from revealed religion. Al-Qaradawi (2000, p. 1), a contemporary Islamic scholar
from Egypt, validates the belief that some mystical aspects are needed by Muslims:
We are in need of a kind of divine, positive, and moderate mysticism,
which is referred to by other scholars as truth with the Righteous and
morality with the CreatorThis is the essence of the right faithTrue
mysticism is, before all, faith and morality.
He further explains those concepts he supports:
This is the mysticism that we need: mysticism concerning the Quran and
the Prophets tradition-based education and behavior; a mysticism which
increases faith, makes for gentler hearts, moves feelings, strengthens will,
refines the self, and straightens behavior in light of the Quran, the

63
Prophets tradition, and the guidance of the righteous ancestors. That is
what [Muslims] try to preserve and what we advocate (p. 1).
To clarify his position, Al-Qaradawi describes the negative approaches to mysticism
8

that he feels are detrimental. He offers as an example an instance in which a Sufi shaykh
was advancing his own agenda over the traditional concepts of doing good works and
avoiding evil. Al-Qaradawi and other scholars call this approach unacceptable (Al-
Qaradawi, 2000, p. 2). He expresses concern in his reports of instances where shaykhs have
misled their muridin to believe that the shaykh is invaluable and the murid is worthless, and
that this misinterpretation leads to the annihilation of the personality of the disciple before
his teacher (p. 2). Al-Qaradawi also discusses instances of differentiation between law
and reality, such that one would ordinarily condemn this shaykhs behavior according to
Islamic law, but that the student might excuse or not even recognize the consequences of
these inaccurate instructions because he has been so misled by his teacher (p. 2).
Al-Qaradawi and other Muslim scholars (e.g., Ibn Khaldun, 1967; Alwani; and
others) advocate the following belief:
. . . the true renovation of religion resides in the call back to Islam as it
was revealed in the Holy Quran and interpreted in the noble tradition, and
as it was understood by the companions and their followers in good deeds.
That is, before it was mixed with external beliefs and weaknesses and with
the philosophies of the East and the West (Al-Qaradawi, p. 2).

64
He cites this Quranic verse to support his position: And verily, this is my straight
path, so follow it and not (other) paths, for they will separate you away from His path. This
He has ordained for you that you may become Al-Muttaqn (the pious) (6:153). In
compliance with Gods instructions, Al-Qaradawi advocates Islams adherence to its pure
form without any partnership, in its clean form without any external additions, complete
without any division, balanced without any exaggeration or oversight, a straight path
without deviance (p. 2).

Summary of Sufisms Influence on Islamic Education

The Quran and ahadith can be used as instruction manuals for human operation.
Many parts are very specific; others leave room for interpretation. Correct interpretation of
these guidelines, however, is essential to knowing how to conduct ones life. Humans must
be held accountable for their actions and how they interact with the environment. Each
person must behave appropriately and treat fellow humans with respect, and these rules are
the same for both men and women. Women are entitled to the same education and
opportunities as men, and likewise, are equally responsible for conveying these principles to
their children. In order to know what to do, one must take every opportunity to learn. It is
easier to follow the rules when you know what they are, and the same rules apply today as
applied then.

8
Sufism is the mysticism of Islam. It is Islams inner dimension, described as the Science of the
Heart (Netton, 1992, p. 246).

65
Some Muslims, like Al-Ghazali, self-identify as Sufis, a term used by some to refer
to a more mystical, ascetic approach to Islam. As in all faiths, there are certain practitioners
who assume a more spiritual approach than otherssome even reject some or all
materialism and worldliness in the process. As long as one adheres to the essential practices
and guidelines in Islam, one is free to feel as spiritual as one likes. As Al-Qaradawi states,
however, once one acts or says things that contradict Islamic principles, particularly if these
incorrect behaviors mislead others, one has begun to contradict Gods instructions in the
Quran, which are to add nothing to it and take nothing away from it.

Al-Ghazalis Life and Legacies

Al-Ghazali was born into the Sufi tradition, and is a prime example of a non-extreme
Sufi who not only followed the Islamic teachings, but also worked to make them an integral
part of Sufism (Dakhil Allah, 1996), while at the same time incorporating Sufism into his
entire philosophy. Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazali was born in 1058,
in Tus, Persia, near the modern Meshad in eastern Iran. His family was Persian, of modest
means, had a reputation for learning, and displayed an open tendency towards Sufism. Al-
Ghazalis father died while he was very young; a friend of his fathers who was also a
mystic (Sufi) raised Al Ghazali and his brother.

66
Al-Ghazali began his education in Tus, and moved to Jurjan
9
at the age of 15. At 23
he moved to Nishapur
10
, where he began his studies with his mentor, Al-Juwayni. Al-
Juwayni served as the Imam al-Haramayn (Imam of the two sacred cities of Mecca and
Medina) due to his extensive knowledge of and contributions to Islamic jurisprudence. Al-
Juwayni was an expert in the Shafii school of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)
11
. He taught
jurisprudence to Al-Ghazali, who subsequently taught and wrote a text on the subject. Al-
Ghazalis great admiration for his mentor was evident in the way he referred to Al-Juwayni
when teaching others.
The respect was mutual because Al-Juwayni is also noted as describing his student as
being like the sea, in terms of the wealth of information Al-Ghazali possessed.
Al-Ghazali recorded every detail of his teachers lectures in his taliqah (book of
lecture notes).
12
Al-Ghazali subsequently memorized much of the taliqah and published
them as a book entitled, Al-Mankhul min taliqat al-usul (Purified Selections from

9
A region in Iran on the southeastern coast of the Caspian Sea. The region was conquered by
Muslims during the reign of Sulaiman bin `Abdul-Malik in the early 8th century A.D (Islamic dectinary,
2001).
10
Also spelled Nishapur Town, northeastern Iran. Neyshabur is situated 46 miles (74 km) west of
Meshed. Neyshabur derived its name from its alleged founder, the Sasanian king Shapur I (d. 272). It was
once one of the four great cities of the region of Khorasan and was important in the 5th century as the
residence of the Sasanian king Yazdegerd II (reigned 438457). By the time the Arabs came to Khorasan in the
mid-7th century, however, it had become insignificant. Under the T ahirid dynasty (821873), the city
flourished again, and it rose to importance under the Samanid dynasty (ended 999). Toghrl Beg, the first
Seljuq ruler, made Neyshabur his residence in 1037, but it declined in the 12th century and in the 13
th
, twice
suffered earthquakes as well as the Mongol invasion (Encyclopdia Britannica, 2001).
11
The Shafii School of Law was named after Al-Shafii, who focused on the function of traditions
(Netton, 1992, p. 229).
12
Classical Islamic literature indicates that there were many Arabic terms used in administrational
jargon to refer to different levels of achievement, rank, and knowledge of students, teachers, and policymakers,
some of which are no longer in common use: mufti (one who delivers legal judgments), muid (a repetitor),
mufid (one who imparts useful knowledge), etc. (see Makdisi, 1981).

67
Comments on the Roots), noting that he had compiled these notes to make it easy for the
reader to understand.
13

Al-Ghazali (1996) explains his thirst for knowledge in his works. In Al-munqidh min
al-Dhalal (Deliverance from Error) (translated by Watt, 1996, p. 21), he says that to thirst
after a comprehension of things as they really are was my habit and custom from a very
early age. Al-Ghazali also studied law and theology with several teachers from different
countries. He studied Islamic law in Tus under Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Al-Radhakani.
In Jorjan, Al-Ghazali studied Islamic law using the taliqah of another professor,
Abu Nasr Al-Ismaili. He spent five years in Jorjan studying fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)
and al-Kalam (dogmatic theology) with his mentor, Imam Al-Haramayn Al-Juwayni, both
assisting his professor and teaching at the same time (Abd Al-Ghafir, 1980; Al-Dhahabi,
1994; Al-Subki, 1976; see also Durant, 1950).
Al-Ghazalis formal apprenticeship ended at the age of 28 after the death of Al-
Juwayni. He was subsequently invited to go to the court of Nizam Al-Mulk, the powerful
vizier (leader) of the Seljuq
14
sultan. The vizier was so impressed by Al-Ghazalis
scholarship that in 1091 he appointed Al-Ghazali chief professor in the Nizamiyyah College
in Baghdad, where he worked for four years. Hyman (1983, p. 265) mentions that Al-
Ghazali was a popular lecturer who attracted over three hundred students.

13
Like many of his colleagues, Al-Ghazali memorized a great deal of information. This was not
uncommon in an era when most education was delivered orally and memorized by students. Paper was scarce
and literacy was by no means universal, although Bloom and Blair (2000) note that literacy was more prevalent
in the medieval Islamic lands than other areas of the world. When Al-Ghazali was reportedly robbed of his
books, he offered the robber anything else just to leave the books. The robber reportedly asked how Al-
Ghazali could claim to know these books when by taking them, he could deprive him of their contents. After
that, Al-Ghazali reportedly spent the next three years memorizing his notes (Bloom & Blair).
14
The Saljuq (also Seljuk) Turks emigrated from the Steppe country north of the Caspian Sea to Persia
in the early 5
th
century. The Saljuq dynasty was established in Persia in 429 (mid-11
th
century CE), and

68

Al-Ghazalis Perception of Classical Philosophy

While he was a professor at the Nizamiyyah College, Al-Ghazali thoroughly studied
philosophy, particularly the writings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi, the greatest of
Muslim philosophers, whose thoughts were profoundly influenced by Neo-Platonic
interpretations of Aristotle, Plato, and Plotinus. Although he later came to reject much of
the Neo-Platonic philosophy, his initial investigation appears to have been a sincere search
for truth.
After I was done with theology, I started on philosophy. I therefore set out
in all earnestness to acquire knowledge of philosophy from books, by
private study, without the help of an instructor. God brought me in less
than two years to a complete understanding of the science of philosophers
(Al-Ghazali, in Watt, 1996, pp. 29-30).
As Al-Ghazali studied philosophy, he documented his understanding of these
thoughts in a book entitled Maqasid al-Falasifah (The Intentions of the Philosophers)
(1913). After some time, Al-Ghazali determined that the conclusions reached by these
philosophers, as he interpreted them, did not coincide with Islamic principles. This was
especially true in the cases of the philosophical doctrines of an eternal world and an afterlife
devoid of materiality or embodiment. In both cases, he found that the philosophers

gradually extended to rule over Persia, Iraq, and parts of Syria and Kirman until the late 6
th
century (12
th


69
thoughts were diametrically opposed to mainstream Islamic dogma (Al-Ghazali, 1997b).
Thereafter, he refuted philosophy, detailing his arguments in Tahafut al-Falasifah (The
Incoherence of the Philosophers) (Al-Ghazali, 1997b).
Al-Ghazali (in Watt, 1996) differentiated among the philosophers according to three
orientations. The first group he called the Materialists. This group included some of the
most ancient philosophers who denied the existence of an omnipresent/omnipotent Creator,
asserting instead that the world exists by itself without divine intervention. He calls these
the irreligious.
The second group he called the Naturalists. He acknowledged that this group
included those who had studied natureplants, animals, and peopleand agreed that these
creations did, indeed, come forth from a wise Creator cognizant of the aims and purposes
of all things. Al-Ghazali identified these philosophers, too, as irreligious, because basic
faith is belief in God and the Last Day, which these philosophers did not accept. Thus,
what differentiated these philosophers from the third group was that they denied the
concepts of consequences for actions and the afterlife, Heaven, Hell, the Assembly and the
Recall, and the Resurrection and the Reckoning.
The third group was referred to by Al-Ghazali as Theists. Al-Ghazali includes the
classical philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, in this group. While the Theist
philosophers were primarily of Greek origin, Al-Ghazali also includes two Muslim
philosophers, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi, as part of this group because of their
support for Aristotles teachings. Al-Ghazali acknowledged that Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle did contribute a great deal to the organization and systematization of the logic of

century CE) (Netton, 1997).

70
philosophy, even though he did not agree with all of it. He also reported that there was a
great deal of disagreement within the ranks of philosophers. While they essentially agreed
with the Naturalists that there must have been a Creator/Source for Nature, their overall
views essentially refuted much of what the two earlier groups said. Thus, while Al-Ghazali
agreed that some of these non-Islamic philosophers may have had some content of value to
contribute, he rejected their context as a whole because of the conflicts with Islam.

Spiritual and Personal Transformation

In 1095, Al-Ghazali underwent a period of emotional distress caused by a spiritual
crisis, rendering him physically unable to teach. As successful and popular as he was as a
teacher, Al-Ghazali had become increasingly aware that he was teaching others because it
brought him fame and prestige, rather than because he felt compelled to share his knowledge
with others. He felt himself questioning his convictions and motivations. He became aware
that he felt torn between the comfort and security associated with teaching and his desire to
reject worldliness to pursue strictly spiritual concerns (Al-Ghazali, 1980). It was only after
he became physically ill from the strain imposed by this emotional conflicta condition
acknowledged even by his physiciansthat he felt he had the answer to his prayers.
Then, when I perceived my powerlessness, and when my capacity to make
a choice had completely collapsed, I had recourse to God Most High as
does a hard-pressed man who has no way out of his difficultyHe made it

71
easy for my heart to turn away from fame and fortune, family, children,
and associates (Al-Ghazali, 1980, p. 80).
Al-Ghazali became obsessed with his search for knowledge. He was driven by his
need to differentiate what was true Islam from what was merely tradition (Al-Ghazali,
1980). After some months, he announced that he was leaving Baghdad under the pretense of
making a pilgrimage to Mecca, when he actually intended to travel to Damascus. He felt he
had to hide his true motives because he perceived that none of [his associates] could allow
that my giving up my career had a religious motive. For they thought that my post was the
highest dignity in our religion (p. 80). He stopped teaching and began traveling in search
of knowledge. He spent the majority of his time traveling, primarily in Damascus and
Jerusalem, occupying himself with reading and meditating. Although he was well known
throughout the Islamic world as both a teacher and a philosopher, he did not identify himself
to those he met in order to remain anonymous (Al-Ghazali, 1980).
As he grew in wisdom and was better able to integrate his search into a more
conventional life, he began to recognize four distinct approaches to seeking truth. In
Deliverance from Error, Al-Ghazali (1980, p. 58) wrote, When God Most High, of His
kindness and abundant generosity, had cured me of this sickness, I was of the view that the
categories of those seeking the truth were limited to four groups. He referred to these
groups as:
1. Mutakallimin, who allege that they areof independent judgment and
reason;

72
2. Batinites, who claim to be the unique possessors of al-talim, and the
privileged recipients of knowledge acquired from the Infallible Imam;
3. Philosophers, who maintain that they are men of logic and apodictic
demonstration; and
4. Sufis, who claim to be the familiars of the Divine Presence and men
of mystic vision and illumination.
Although he recognized all of these groups, he favored the views of the Sufi mystics.
He preferred their approach and way of life, and followed that path for the rest of his life.
When I had finished with these sciences, I next turned with set purpose to
the method of mysticism (or Sufism). I knew that the complete mystic
way includes both intellectual belief and practical activity; the latter
consists in getting rid of the obstacles in the self and in stripping off its
base characteristics and vicious morals, so that the heart may attain to
freedom from what is not God and to constant recollection of Him (Al-
Ghazali, in Watt, 1996, p. 54).
After spending two years traveling to Damascus, Jerusalem, and Mecca, he began
work on his most important book, Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious
Sciences). The sheer enormity of this effort makes it his magnum opus, and its contents
establish it as his defining masterpiece. This work contains the greatest concentrations of
Al-Ghazalis thoughts about education, and it deals with every aspect of the inner and outer
life of Muslims (MacDonald, 1953, 1965).

73
After two years, Al-Ghazali returned to Baghdad in 1097. He resumed teaching
while continuing to work on Ihya. In 1104, Al-Ghazali returned to his position at the
Nizamiyyah College at Nishapur at the request of the Seljuq minister, Fakhr al-Mulk, and
taught for another five years. In 1109, Al-Ghazali returned to his family in Tus, thereafter
devoting his life to asceticism, alternately spending his time teaching in a Sufi khanqah (a
facility located adjacent to a mosque where students lived and attended lectures given by
various shaykhs) and living in a Sufi hermitage. During this time, Al-Ghazali also wrote
Minhaj al-abidin (The Path of the Worshippers) (Al-Dhahabi, 1994).

Lifelong Pursuit of Knowledge

Even after he resumed teaching, he still recognized there was much left to learn. As
one example, Al-Ghazali admitted that he was not as knowledgeable about the ahadith as he
would have liked, and he spent his free time studying them. Muhammad (2000, p. 20) notes
that at his death, Al-Ghazali was found with Al-Bukharis book of ahadith open on his
chest. Thus, he was learning to the very end of his life.
Al-Ghazali died in Tus in 1111, at the age of 55, after an independent and
controversial yet highly influential life. He left a legacy of major works, along with
numerous stories of his legendary humility, piety, and asceticism. In his book The Story of
Civilization, Durant (1950) argues that, all orthodoxy took comfort from [Al-Ghazali].
Even Christian theologians were glad to find, in his translated works, such a defense of
religion, and such an exposition of piety, as no one had written since Augustine (p. 332).

74
Al-Ghazalis Legacy

To facilitate and support the review of this literature, the Holy Quran and ahadith
(Prophetic sayings) to which Al-Ghazali referred and relevant comments made by other
scholars who have analyzed his works have also been explored. According to Mir (1995),
Al-Ghazali was concerned not only with reviving the Islamic disciplines, but also with
reforming society in a practical way (p. 62). He also revived scientific thought concerning
Islam in his documentation of his perceptions about Islamic life, family relationships, and
education. Al-Ghazali felt that everything he taught and wrote about grew out of Islam.
Al-Ghazali wrote about all aspects of Islamic life, including education, social
customs, religious practices, and interpersonal relationships. Everything that Al-Ghazali
thought and wrote was rooted in and influenced by his experiences. His multi-volume tome,
Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), covered the entire human life
cycle and what is involved in it. Gianotti (2000) asserts that:
the entire Ihya is designed to be a detailed and accessible handbook for
human perfection, beginning with the outer, action-oriented perfection of
the persons worship and social dealings and culminating in the inner,
disposition-oriented perfection of the mind or heart. This entire journey,
Al-Ghazali explains, entails the outer and the inner aspects of the science
of Right Practice (p. 5).

75
Many Islamic scholars agree that Al-Ghazali documented his works within an
Islamic social-spiritual context (Al-Barjis, 1983; Al-Sawi, 1999; Al-Zabidi, n.d.; Dakhil
Allah, 1996; Shafshaq, 1980; Tibawi, 1972). Thus, his specific philosophies may not seem
as applicable within a Western educational environment, although his concept of childrens
early education beginning within the family does have universal application.
Al-Ghazali researched many diverse fields such as Islamic jurisprudence,
educational theory, logic, and philosophy, and left a legacy of more than 400 books (Ul-
Karim, 1978). He discussed formal and informal education from the spiritual, moral, and
intellectual perspectives. In the Ihya (1997a), alone, Al-Ghazali discussed the Islamic
perspective on topics such as birth, naming, womens and childrens education, marital
relationships, wives rights and obligations, parent-child relationships, childrens rights and
duties, and child development.
Al-Ghazalis views on education were drawn from many elements of Islamic law
and precepts that address moral training of the novice within the family context. Al-Ghazali
himself proposed implementing his model for the Master-Pupil relationship in the family
environment to support parents education of their children prior to their beginning formal
education and to support their childrens continuing education throughout their lives. Al-
Ghazali placed a lot of emphasis on family life and education. He recommended that
parents begin teaching their children how to live good lives from birth, emphasizing the
importance of personally modeling the behaviors desired. According to Al-Ghazali (1997a),
God entrusts children into the hands of their parents: The heart of a child is bright like a
jewel and soft like a candle and free from all impressions (Ihya, Vol. 3, p. 75). This means
that the new addition to the family is like a sponge, ready to absorb information as soon as it

76
is alive, and that parents must take responsibility for controlling which external influences
make impressions on the childs life.
Al-Ghazali asserted that the family plays a critical role in a childs education and, as
a unit, bears the ultimate responsibility for children and for their education. The family unit
is accountable for extending its language, customs, and religious traditions to its members.
The family adults (parents, grandparents, aunts, etc.) bear the primary responsibility for
educating the familys children, and are entrusted to teach them about integrity. Al-Ghazali
(1997a) believed that neglected children will grow up with bad character (Ihya, Vol. 3, p.
87). Thus, if the parents neglect the childrens upbringing, they bear the burden of the sin of
neglect (Ihya, Vol. 3, p. 77).
Al-Ghazalis perspectives on education of the family can be studied in terms of
theory and practice. He explained his theory of learning according to the Holy Quran:
Save yourselves and your families from the Fire (66:6), meaning that each family member
is uniquely and individually responsible for teaching and modeling those behaviors that will
contribute to proper conduct of the other family members and, thus, afford them
opportunities for everlasting life (the hereafter), thereby avoiding the Fire (the alternative).
Al-Ghazali (1997a, 1951) asserted that it enhanced the teachers credibility to live the life
you promote.
In Islam, children are born without original sin. The Prophet Muhammad stated that
all children are born with fitrah, a true faith in Islam (i.e., the desire to worship none but
Allah), but his parents convert him to Judaism, Christianity, or Zoroastrianism (Winter,
1995; see also Al-Bukhari, 2001). Al-Ghazali emphasized the need for parents to nurture
this seed of faith so that it grows and matures throughout childhood; the parents cannot wait

77
until the child goes off to school (about age six), but must instill values and teach manners
and social responsibilities from birth.
Before automatically invalidating any of Al-Ghazalis teachings that might seem
irrelevant, they need to be considered in the context of the Middle Ages. At that time,
women were learning the Quran and the Prophetic sayings at home, so many of Al-
Ghazalis ideas about education might have been reasonable. In addition, when education
for boys was first offered in the mosques, they, too, were given only a religious education.
Al-Ghazali categorized certain subjects as not being important unless there was a specific
need to know them. Thus, there were aspects of education that Al-Ghazali restricted for
both girls and boys within the parameters of what he felt was important to learn.

Summary of Al-Ghazalis Life and Legacies

An extensive review of the body of research and commentary on Al-Ghazalis works
reveals that he is still a respected philosopher and religious thinker (Al-Barjis, 1983; Al-
Sawi, 1999; Al-Zabidi, n.d.; Shafshaq, 1980; Dakhil Allah, 1996; Durant, 1950; Tibawi,
1972; and others). His writings clearly emphasize preparation for the next life, spiritual
development, forming healthy physical habits, and purifying the soul. His foremost
pedagogical intent was to achieve nearness to Allah by attaining good morals.
This examination of the literature also includes a review of the significant events in
Al-Ghazalis life, particularly as they concerned his education, his educational philosophy,
and how he developed some of the ideas he taught. Because he was well respected in the
Muslim community as both a theologian and a teacher, and was able to teach sincerely from

78
his own experiences, he enjoyed wide acceptance in his endeavors. Within his own lifetime,
however, he endured a great deal of opposition because of his Sufi orientation.
He spent a significant period of time studying the Greek and Muslim philosophers to
see what they had to offer about the classifications of knowledge. Although he shared some
of their terminology and discussed some of the same concepts, he ultimately reached the
conclusion that much of the Greek philosophy contradicted his own Islamic background and
orientation, and he refuted the value of these philosophies, even to the point of asking that
he not be called a philosopher because of the negative connotation he associated with the
term.
Al-Ghazali did not reach his decision to pursue a Sufi lifestyle suddenly. He first
investigated virtually every expression of faith known at the time, and chose his path armed
with this knowledge. He had determined that Sufism included a very strict interpretation of
the shariah (Islamic law), which he identified with closely. In his book, Deliverance from
Error, Al-Ghazali wrote candidly about his life experiences and emotional and theological
journeys, to the point of admitting personal qualities he perceived to be shortcomings. He
described his intense personal search for the truth and source of happiness, which he
eventually determined to be the commitment to pursuing the path to see God in the
Hereafter.
Al-Ghazali (1997a) perceived that pursuing knowledge is the highest form of
worship. He used many Quranic verses and ahadith in his writings to support his
assertions concerning the merit of knowledge as part of his foundation for the Master-Pupil
relationship. Al-Ghazalis theory of knowledge offers information to help both Master and
Pupil understand how acquire knowledgeboth in theory and in practice.

79
After his death, both his extensive body of writings and the impact he had made on
his students continued in his stead. His lasting legacy in the field of education is his
contributions to the process of education, his inspiration of others to pursue knowledge, and
his formal model for the Master-Pupil relationship. He also valued and wrote about the
interpersonal aspects of the family unit and its members.

80
CHAPTER 4
AL-GHAZALIS THEORIES OF KNOWLEDGE

Introduction

In this chapter I will describe some of Al-Ghazalis goals and principles regarding
knowledge (ilm), and interpersonal relationships. This section will also focus on Al-
Ghazalis theory of knowledge. The discussion will lead us to define knowledge, the merit
of knowledge, the ways of acquiring knowledge, the nature of knowledge, sources of
knowledge, hindrances to the learning process, and individual differences among learners.
Al-Ghazalis theories of knowledge will lead to a better understanding of the Master-Pupil
relationship and how it can then be superimposed into the family environment.

The Definition of Knowledge (ilm)

Knowledge (ilm) has always been a fundamental concept for Muslim scholars
throughout the centuries. For much of this time in Islamic educational history, the word
knowledge (ilm) referred only to the learning of ahadith and related subjects (Azami,
1992). This was largely because the only formal requirements for learning early in Islamic
history were that all Muslims memorize at least a part of the Quran and the ahadith. There
were no organized universities in those days. As education has expanded and grown to
include more subjects, the term has come to encompass a more comprehensive meaning.

81
Al-Ghazali cited various definitions and aspects of knowledge in his works. He
attributed part of the concept of knowledge to gnosis (marifah). He also defined it as
identifying an object based on a persons experience of that object (ala ma huwa bayyin)
(Al-Mustasfah, 2000, Vol.1, p. 24), and as a quality or a characteristic (wasf) (Al-Mustasfah,
Vol. 1, p. 26). Rosenthal (1970, p. 65) reports that Al-Ghazali asserted that there is no
meaning to knowledge except that of its being an image (mithal) that arrives in the soul,
which conforms to that which is an image in sense perception, namely, the object known
(see also Asari, 1993, p. 40).
Like the Prophet Muhammad, Al-Ghazali perceived that the pursuit of knowledge
should be ones highest priority. He believed that a Muslims search for knowledge should
dominate all aspects of his intellectual, spiritual, and social life. Because knowledge was so
important to Al-Ghazali, he intitled the opening chapter of his multi-volume Ihya Ulum al-
Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) The Book of Knowledge. Al-Ghazali (1994)
noted that he opened his book with a chapter about knowledge (bab alilm) because the
harvest of good knowledge is to fear God and become pious.
Al-Ghazali (in Gianotti, 2000) wrote:
I begin the whole thing with the Book of Knowledge because it is of the
utmost importance. First of all, [I do this] in order that I make known the
knowledge that is devoted to the service of God according to the words of
His Prophet (may God bless him and grant him salvation), the [kinds of
knowledge that are] required to be sought. [To this effect], the Prophet

82
(may God bless him and grant him salvation) said, the pursuit of
knowledge is an obligation for every Muslim.
[Secondly, I begin with this book] in order that I may distinguish the
beneficial knowledge from the harmful, since the Prophet (may God bless
him and grant him salvation) said, I seek refuge in God from knowledge that
has no benefit. [All this is] in order that I correct the present generation in
their inclination away from the way of what is right, in their willingness to be
duped by glimmering phantoms, and in their [total] contentment with
sciences [that treat] the outer husk [rather than] the essential core (p. 2).
In the Book of Knowledge, Al-Ghazali cited more than ten verses of the Quran and
many prophetic sayings (ahadith) about the virtues of knowledge. This is not unusual
because Al-Ghazali relied heavily on the Quran for the bases of his own knowledge, and
the Quran mentions the word for knowledge (ilm) about 750 times (Rosenthal, 1970, p.
20). According to the Quran, Allah said, It is only those who have knowledge among His
slaves that fear Allah (35:28). In other words, he supported his philosophy of knowledge
with the hadith and the Quran.

The Merits of Knowledge (ilm)

Al-Ghazali recognized that knowledge has two expressions: theory (knowing, or
ilm) and practice (doing, or amal); for him these two dimensions were inseparable (Al-
Ghazali, 1951, 1997b). Islam maintains that true knowledge is the marriage of active virtue

83
and knowledge, which requires both knowledge and practice (Gianotti, 2000). There is a
traditional saying in Islamic literature that essentially states that faith increases when you
practice good deeds, but decreases by doing bad deeds. The key is to know the difference
between the two. Thus, it is imperative to have knowledge in order to differentiate between
what is good and what is not. Within this context, human beings are capable of free choice
between right and wrong, growth and stagnation.
From a practical perspective, Al-Ghazali believed that children acquire personality
characteristics and behavior through living in society and interacting with the environment.
Al-Ghazali (1978) claimed that, nobody can be learned unless he puts his learning into
practice (Ihya, Vol. 2, p. 71). Again, both the ahadith and the Quran emphasize
knowing and doing, that is, both theory and practice. In advising his disciples, Al-
Ghazali (1951, p. 11) wrote, Know that obedience and worship are conformity to Sacred
Law in commands and prohibitions, in both word and deed.
Like Al-Shatibi (2000), Al-Ghazali believed that doing (amal) included not only
those manifestations of the five senses, but the practices of the heart as well. He referred to
the hadith, saying, Islam is built upon five pillars. Taken together, all of these pillars
(duties) lie either in conviction or in action (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 1, p. 23). Thus, Al-
Ghazalis understanding of knowledge cannot be honed into a single definition because its
interpretations are complex and subtle. In the Ihya, Al-Ghazali (1997a, p. 23) explained his
concept of knowledge, which is an essential component of his educational theories. He
identified three categories of active learning which are universal among all theistic faiths:
belief in God, action according to Gods commands, and abstention from what He forbade.
Al-Ghazali (1980) asserted that the noblest kind of knowledge is the knowledge of God and

84
His attributes and His acts (p.319). Al-Ghazali, in his theory of knowledge, described the
role of the intellect as being noble in nature because it is included in the ahadith, it is
established by its very use, and it is what makes us human (Asari, 1993, p. 41). All learning
is worship, with the knowledge of God as the starting point of knowledge for every Muslim.

The Role of the Intellect

Al-Ghazali (1997a) viewed the intellect as the most precious thing that has been
created in this world.
The Noble Nature of the Intellect: it will be superfluous to show the noble
nature of the intellect (al-aql), especially because through it the noble
nature of knowledge has been revealed. Intellect is the source and
fountainhead of knowledge as well its foundation. Knowledge springs
from it as the fruit from the tree and the light from the sun and vision from
the eye. How then could that which is the means of happiness in this
world and the next not be noble or how could it ever be doubted? (See Al-
Ghazali, in Faris, 1991, p. 221).
In order to discuss the role of intellect, it is important to know how Al-Ghazali
defined intellect in his works. In Chapter 7 of Ihya, Al-Ghazali offered four attributes of
intellect (aql).

85
1. The first definition was that quality (wasf) which distinguishes
humans from animals. Al-Ghazali cites Al-Muhasibi, who defines
intellect as an inborn (gharizah) faculty that is like a light shed into
the heart, which allows the learner to understand.
2. The second definition is those necessary truths, which make their
appearance at adolescence, when ones intellect is fully developed.
Al-Ghazali refers to this as the awareness of the impossible, such as
the knowledge that two is more that one, and that one person cannot
be in two places at the same time.
3. Al-Ghazali offered a third definition for intellect, that knowledge is
attained through religious and worldly experiences and the interaction
of human beings with their environment.
4. Finally, he asserts that knowledge can be used to denote that point in
ones life when inborn power had developed to the extent that one can
determine the consequences for ones actions. This intellect can be
used to conquer and subdue bad desires. The person who has
developed this capacity is also referred to as an aqil (experienced
person) (Al-Ghazali, 1997b; see also Asari, 1993; Bazzun, 1997).
Al-Ghazali clarified his explanations to note that the first definition is the foundation
for the other three, that the second definition is the closest branch (or application), the third
is the result of combining the first and second, and the fourth is the supreme aim and the
ultimate result. Al-Ghazali concluded that the first two kinds of intellect are inherent
properties (bittab) (i.e., that humans were created with it), and the second two are learned

86
(biliktisab) (Al-Ghazali, 1997a; see also Ali, 1960; Asari, 1993). Al-Mawirdi (1979)
confirms these explanations that humans are born with some qualities and others are learned
through experience. Through the Master-Pupil relationship, the teacher can help pupils
learn through experience both in the classroom setting and outside the school, according to
their individual abilities and differences.
Al-Ghazali also used the term al-mudrik lil-ulum (the perceiver of knowledge) to
refer to intellect. He acknowledged that the perceiver has two aspects: 1) the outward aspect
which is represented by the five senses: hearing, seeing, smelling, touching, and tasting; and
2) five inward qualities: common sense (his al-mushtarak), imagination (takhayyul),
thinking (tafakkur), recollection (tadhakkur), and retention (hifz). Al-Ghazali called these
characteristics the soldiers of the heart (junud al-qalb) (Al-Ghazali, 1997a; see also Asari,
1993). Ihya is not the only book in which he discusses the concepts of the soldiers of the
heart, although he sometimes refers to them in a slightly different order and using different
terms.
The reason for these differences is probably due to the different natures of the
books which represent different stages of Al-Ghazalis intellectual development (Asari,
1993, p. 46). As he learned more and grew spiritually, Al-Ghazali had different experiences
during his life. He studied Greek and Muslim philosophers when he was teaching in
Baghdad. He most likely adopted his Sufi lifestyle during his stay in Damascus and
Jerusalem, during which time he became convinced that Sufism was the best way for him.
His teachings at any given point in his life were, thus, a product of everything he had studied
up to that point. Even though he disagreed in principle with philosophers such as Ibn Sina

87
and Al-Farabi, he also used some of the same terminology that they did (Watt, 1952; see
also Asari, 1993).
As important as the intellect is, it cannot be separated from the spirit (Al Zeera,
2001b; Nasr, 1991). Together they form the wholeness of Islam. Supreme knowledge is
identified with the highest realization, and certain aspects of knowledge are realized by the
soul (Al Zeera, 2001b, p. 9). In discussing the wholeness of Islam, both the intellect and
spirit must be included. Although there are some differences between al-nafs (soul) and al-
ruh (spirit), they are related to the intellect (aql) at certain levels as part of the wholeness in
Islamic education.
Al-Ghazali (1998) also associates the term intellect (al-aql) with the same three
terms of the heart (al-qalb), the spirit (al-ruh), and the soul (al-nafs) (p. 5). It is important to
note that the term heart (al-aql) in Al-Ghazalis writings refers to the intellect, that is, the
human ability to consider and understand what is learned (Asari, 1993). It is important to
clarify Al-Ghazalis terminology concerning al-aql, because he used different terms to refer
to the same concept in different books. I will explain other words that Al-Ghazali used as
synonyms for the term al-aql. The heart (qalb) has two meanings:
1. One is the cone-shaped piece of flesh inside the left side of the chest,
which circulates the blood and is the source of animal spirits. It is
found in all animals. This is the physical heart.
2. The spiritual heart, that is the very essence of human being that is
responsible to perceive the spiritual knowledge and therefore is the
same as al-aql, the intellect.
The second term, spirit (ruh), also has two meanings:

88
1. An intangible experience felt in the material heart, which quickens
every part of the body. It is like a lamp that sheds its light beyond
itself on all sides.
2. A subtle thing that knows and perceives (the same as qalb) Again, the
word knowledge is key and al-aql is implied (Asari, 1993, p. 44).
The third concept is the soul (al-nafs), which also has two interpretations:
1. The collected energy initiated by ones appetites and passions.
2. The different aspects of the ego, which are recognized by different
names in accordance with the qualities acquired when passions
change its condition. By subjugating passions, one acquires mastery
over them and feels undisturbed. This is called the tranquil self (nafs
mutmainnah). When it upbraids humans for their actions, it is called
conscience (nafs lawwamah). When it freely indulges in the
gratification of passions, it is called the inordinate self (nafs
ammarah) (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 3, pp.113-114; see also Al-
Ghazali, in McCarthy, 1980; Ali, 1960; Asari, 1993; Bazzun, 1997).
The intellect or al-aql is part of this ego self and must be exercised in
order to subjugate passions.
Once Al-Ghazali defined the parts of the body that take the knowledge in his theory
and practice it, he then explained the way of knowing, that is, the way to gain this
knowledge, including obstacles to the learning process, which he felt was crucial to this
process.


89
The Way of Knowing

The search for truth through knowledge was Al-Ghazalis highest priority.
Abrahamov (1993) and others have offered different explanations for Al-Ghazalis
perception of the supreme way to know the truth. Some scholars (e.g., Upper, 1952;
Wensinck, 1941) note that Al-Ghazali preferred the Sufi experience (meditation) as the best
way to understand the truth, while others such as Abrahamov (1993) and Basyl (n.d.)
maintain that although Al-Ghazali gave the impression that he preferred the Sufi approach,
he actually regarded intellectual endeavors as the most effective way. Still others (Watt,
1949) have offered a combination of the Sufi and intellectual approaches.
Al-Ghazalis philosophy of the learning process included using the outward
aspectsthe five sensesworking in concert in order to recognize and know something
(Al-Ghazali, 1996, p. 421). His illustration was that when seeing an object, one gets an
image of that particular object in the imaginative part of the brain. This image is retained in
the mind. Using the power of thought, the observer can consider that which is retained.
Thinking or reasoning requires multiple images. This is where the collective faculty of the
mind functions as a provider of more images, by recalling past images stored in the memory.
The sensory image is then harmonized through the use of common sense. By this point, one
would have perceived that object and established the level of understanding of it in the mind
(Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 3, pp. 116-117; see also Nakosteen, 1964).
Al-Ghazali (1994) believed that the heart plays a vital role in the retention of
knowledge, and that it is the foundation of the body. He illustrates the heart/intellect
combination and its different faculties, comparing it to a kingdom: The imaginative powers

90
serve as a postal system for gathering and imparting knowledge. The retentive capacity is a
kings treasure and is responsible for storage, with speech functioning as the minds
interpreter. The five senses serve the king as spies, and each is responsible for different,
specific information. This interesting analogy shows how the heart/intellect interacts with
the rest of the body and its different faculties (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, 1994; see also Nakosteen,
1964). This illustration corresponds with the Islamic understanding that the body contains a
morsel of flesh; if it is whole, all the body is wholeif it diseased, all of it is diseased. This
concept refers to the heart.

The Learning Process

In the learning process, Al-Ghazali used both theory and practice, stating that
knowledge without work is insanity, and work without knowledge is vanity (O Disciple,
1951, p. 8). He mentioned a general process of knowing, using the analogy that knowledge
is the tree and the deeds are the fruit. He described the first step as silence, then hearing,
then learning it by heart, then knowing and doing, and finally, teaching it to others. He
noted that:
. . . whoever learns, acts and teaches shall be mighty in the kingdom of
heaven, for he is as the sun, whose resplendence illuminates other bodies,
or as musk, whose fragrance perfumes other objects; in undertaking to
teach, he accomplishes a great and momentous task, and must therefore be
mindful of his rules of conduct and functions (Nofal, 1994, p. 48).

91
Al-Ghazali used three elements to explain this process: the perceiver,
15
reality (that
which is known), and the occurrence of realitys images in the mind (the learning process).
He also believed that the potential for knowledge exists in peoples souls before they are
created, like the seed in the earth and the gem in the depths of the sea. Thus, the role of the
parents and teachers is to help children realize that potential. Each science requires its own
approach and its specific method of study. One of his recommendations is that students:
should not address themselves at the same time to all branches of
knowledge, but they must follow a certain order and begin with the most
importantfor sciences are of necessity so arranged that one branch
prepares for another (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 1, p. 23; see also Al-Rabe,
1984).
Al-Ghazali used two examples to explain his process of knowing. First, he said that
knowing is like the relationship of a mirror to the object it reflects. The image of the object
reflected in the mirror is like the image of a known object in ones mind. Second, as when
one holds a sword, the hand represents the perceiver, the sword is the known, and the
holding is the knowing (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 3, p. 125). Thus, images of reality are
reflected by ones intellect and images are reflected by ones understanding of reality. The
process of reflection (mirroring) is actually the process of learning or having knowledge.
Benomran (1983) suggests that Al-Ghazalis theories of knowledge may have been
state of the art then, but that a great many new theories exist today that eclipse his theories.

15
The word Al-Ghazali used was qalb (heart), which he used to mean the perceiver of knowledge (al-

92
He offers as an example that Al-Ghazali did not provide explanations of how a teacher can
bring a student to know. He did not talk about the tutorial relationship between a teacher
and a student. He only explained the moral duties of teacher and student toward each other
(Benomran, p. 2). This leaves an opportunity to merge the old and the new in todays
educational environment to develop an integrated context of what works and what doesnt,
which proposes alternatives if the original plan isnt working (for whatever reason), and
which leaves room for adjustment to meet the needs of the students in that setting.

Obstacles to the Learning Process

Al-Ghazalis (1994, 1997a, 2000) works explain that the heart is also a mirror that
reflects all peoples knowledge. Although the human heart is capable of knowing the
realities, Al-Ghazali believed that the heart might be devoid of knowledge and make the
intellect unable to reflect an accurate image due to various obstacles:
1. The mirror may be unfinished due to youth, or the natural immaturity
of ones intellect (e.g., the hearts of young children).
2. The reflection may not be visible because of the residue of sins
attributable to greed, passion, and immoral desires accumulated on its
surface (in the intellect) after doing bad deeds. These deeds
contaminate the purity of the heart and the intellect, making it
impossible for the truth to be reflected by the mirror. Al-Ghazali
recommends that if one has committed a sin and wants to compensate

mudrik lil-ulum), which is synonymous with al-aql (mind).

93
for it, one should do the opposite, which is a good deed (i.e., clear off
the residue), in order to see the reflection again.
3. Worldly distractions may impede ones ability to see the reflection
(turn one away from God).
4. The mirror might be tarnished by confusing tradition (dogma) for
principles. (Example, theories about womens education became
merely a reflection of other cultures and traditions.)
5. Not knowing how to use a mirror properly (ignorance of the direction
to be followed in order to get to the truth).
Many of Al-Ghazalis (2000; 1997a) works offered examples of how the mind can
be conditioned to accept and respond to inputs, such as when a person has been bitten by a
snake, he then fears any rope that might look like a snake. Another example is that if people
imagine food or see it, they might find their mouths watering. Thus, he explains how ones
imagination, perceptions, and habits can affect the human mind and create their own
obstacles to learning.

Summary of Al-Ghazalis Theories of Knowledge

Al-Ghazali maintained that education is one of the most important opportunities for
humans, and that every situation should be considered a chance to seek or transmit
knowledge. There are descriptions of Al-Ghazalis theories about knowledge, the merit of
knowledge, the ways of acquiring knowledge, the nature of knowledge, sources of
knowledge, hindrances to the learning process, and individual differences among learners.

94
He asserted that the taking in of knowledge involves not just the concept of mental
cognition (intellect or al-aql), but also includes the soul, spirit, and heart, which are part of
al-aql. He described these terms and his understanding of these concepts in several of his
books.
It is interesting to note that he sometimes used different Arabic words and terms to
depict these concepts from different perspectives, but it is clear from studying these texts
that he was referring to the same aspects of human knowledge. Al-Ghazali spent a good
deal of time investigating knowledge and how humans acquire it. He discussed the value of
being knowledgeable, the role intellect plays in the acquisition of knowledge, and how
people come to know. In the Ihya, he related the intellect to a mirror that reflects things
observed into the intellect to be known. He offered some conditions that could act as
impediments to the knowing process, relating them to similar characteristics in mirrors, such
as how not knowing how to use a mirror properly or the mirrors being tarnished result in
failure of the observation to be absorbed accurately into the intellect. He also emphasized
that learning something without putting it into practice invalidated what had been learned.
He referred here not only to expressing ones self through the five physical senses, but also
through ones heart. In the Ihya, he used the analogy of the body being like a kingdom,
where the heart and mind were the king and the other part of the body were the kings
servants.
Both Aristotle, who lived before Al-Ghazali, and Descartes, who lived after Al-
Ghazali, embraced the idea of accepting something as true only after considering it. One
should not automatically assume knowledge blindly. Al-Ghazali (1989) recommended
examining the truth, and noted that whoever does not doubt does not look, whoever does not

95
look does not see, and whoever does not see remains blind and perplexed (see also Young,
Latham, & Serjeant, 1990). This is not to say that everything is automatically unreliable,
but he wanted students to take the time to investigate and not just assume that something is
as it appeared. Al-Ghazali asserted that those who do not know the truth will stay in
darkness and error.
Taking Al-Ghazalis theories of knowledge step furthur to the Master-Pupil
relationship, one might conclude that Al-Ghazali in his theories of knowledge wanted to tell
the Master that teachers needed to be aware of all of these processes of knowing (role of
intellect, way of knowing, process of learning, and obstacle to learning) in their educational
relationships with the pupils. According to the purpose of this study, this concept can be
superimposed to the Parent-Child relationship, that is, parents awareness is important when
teaching their children.
In order to understand Al-Ghazalis philosophy, I responded to the research
questions in separate chapters to show what other researchers say about this relationship
from Al-Ghazalis point of view. These questions explore the curricula and methods,
Master-Pupil model, childrens education, and womens education. The answers to these
questions will demonstrate why Al-Ghazalis works are key to understanding the importance
of education within the family unit and the parent-child relationship. Included in the
discussion will be the consistencies and inconsistencies in his philosophy, as well as some of
the gaps in his approach to education. In these chapters I will also explain Al-Ghazalis
ideas within the context of other researchers comments, some of who agree with Al-
Ghazali, and some who disagree. An analysis and evaluation of the curricula, model, and

96
womens education must be discussed in order to understand my theory of superimposing
the Master-Pupil model onto the Parent-Child relationship.

97
CHAPTER 5
AL-GHAZALIS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CURRICULA

Introduction

The climate of the community around the school affects the curricula offered by the
school. The values, politics, and economics of the community have an influence on what is
taught in the schools, and vice versa (Schubert, 1986). In Islam, the community and the
school are more integrated because the Islamic way of life is reflected both in the schools
and in the community. In Islamic society, the curricula go beyond academics to include the
development of a good Muslim who follows the laws of the Quran and the prophetic
sayings. There is no separation between church and state; therefore, whatever behavior is
learned at home crosses over into the school, and what is learned in school influences home
life.
Al-Ghazali (1997a) discussed his recommendations for formal and informal curricula
from birth through college. He wrote about the influence of the family and the skills and
knowledge acquired in the home, and advised that the familys goals and the schools goals
are inextricably linked because the Islamic faith is part of the school curricula, which are
extensions of the beliefs taught in the home. Thus, curricula are a tool that Al-Ghazali
implemented not only to describe the Master-Pupil relationship, but also to help parents use
the curricula to interact with one another along specified guidelines. As the researcher, I am
using the curricula, both informal and formal, to describe the relationship between parent
and child and expand his concept even further.

98
Al-Ghazali (2001) emphasized five critical components that education needs to
protect: the religion, soul, intellect, family integrity, and resources. He asserted that any
matter that supported these components would benefit society, while anything that
compromised the integrity of these components would harm society. He recognized that
these concepts were found in every religion and thus determined that they are humanistic
foundations for all societies. Al-Ghazalis proposed curricula were geared toward
developing the individual to assume a responsible position in society, and ultimately
preparing one for the afterlife. Thus, by educating ourselves and our children in these five
important areas (i.e., religion, soul, intellect, family integrity, and resources), we can ensure
a strong society of humanistic, educated citizens.
Muslims facilitate this cycle of supporting their children. By educating them at home
they learn to function in society, hopefullly living full lives, passing onto the next life, ready
to reap what they have sowed in this life. Some parents attempt to control the cycle by
restricting the childs experiences (e.g., channeling a child into the education and career
paths a parent chooses), thereby creating young adults with low self-esteem if they do not
succeed in the path their parents have chosen for them. While Al-Ghazali (1997a)
encouraged education as a worthwhile goal, he also realized that for society to operate in
balance, its members needed to be doing what they are good at and enjoy doing. Thus, Al-
Ghazali stated that it is better to give the child the opportunity to decide some things for
themselves, such as their intellectual interests.
Concerning curricula methodology, Al-Ghazali (1997a) offered a number of ways
teachers can transmit information to students (e.g., lecturing, telling related stories, setting a
personal example), and differentiated between what was critical to know for survival in this

99
life and progress to the next life, and what was important to know so that ones life on earth
runs smoothly (Dakhil Allah, 1996, p. 217). Although Al-Ghazali was clear about the
context of what needed to be taught, the teacher was allowed to determine the content of the
lecture, and choose which stories to tell to make ones point. Al-Ghazali also applied these
same principles to guide parents and other family adults in educating children.

Early Childhood Curricula

In one of the chapters in the Ihya, Disciplining the Soul, Al-Ghazali outlined his
philosophy for a curriculum for daily life. This comprehensive curriculum addressed the
childs needs in terms of spiritual and intellectual development, health, recreation, and
interpersonal skills. Al-Ghazali directed parents to teach their children the Holy Quran and
the guidelines offered there, as well as the Prophetic traditions concerning the beginning of
Islam and also about key figures in Islamic history. From the inception of Islam, before the
written text was completed, Muslims were encouraged to memorize the Quran as a
principle means of preserving it and of transmitting the information contained there. This
practice of memorization continues even today.
Al-Ghazali (1951, 1997a) encouraged parents to instill the Quran from the
beginning, even before the child had a comprehensive grasp of the language, to ensure that
the principles and guidelines were firmly implanted in the childs mind. Ibn Al-Arabi (in
Ibn Khaldun, 1967), who was apparently a student of Al-Ghazalis, suggested alternatively
that children first be taught the language and helped to memorize the Quran later, in order
that the child not just know the words, but also understand the concepts. Ibn Khaldun noted

100
that starting with language and calculation clashes with habits too deeply because custom
has greater power over conditions than anything else. Accepted custom gives preference to
teaching of the Quran. Ibn Khaldun concluded that if one waits until the child becomes a
youth, they might miss the chance to learn the Quran (p. 428). Today, in most of the
Islamic communities, reading is taught alongside of memorization of the Quran.
According to Al-Ghazali, education also included exercise. In the Ihya, Al-Ghazali
(1997a) reported that some physical activity is necessary for children and suggests activities
such as daily walks and exercises. Al-Ghazali was inspired in this area by Ibn Miskawayh,
whose ideas are also reflected elsewhere in Ihya. Both Giladi (1992) and Winter (1995)
discuss Al-Ghazalis proposals, and assert that Al-Ghazalis objective was to prevent sloth
and obesity. Al-Ghazali advocated a balance in activities, such that the child is not so worn
out by playing as to be exhausted, nor so deprived of opportunities to move that he is
overburdened by incessant lessons that will cause his heart to die and harm his intelligence,
and make life so hateful to him that he will cast around for some means of escape (Al-
Ghazali in Winter, 1995, p. 80). This demonstrates that Al-Ghazali recognized not only
instruction in the critical subjects, but also the value of diversion from study. Preventing a
child from playingonly deadens his heart, numbs his intelligence, and spoils his life
(Young, Latham, & Serjeant, p. 441).
The instruction Al-Ghazali advocated in the daily life curriculum (Al-Ghazali,
1997a) recommended teaching a love of spirituality, the basics of worship, and appropriate
social conduct. Parents should discourage practices such as gluttony by teaching children
not to overeat. Children can be taught to appreciate what they have on their plate by

101
sometimes eating nothing but bread, in order that they not perceive themselves entitled to
fancier foods.
Al-Ghazali also suggested interactive curricula such as games, and describes toys
popular in his era, such as toy animals and sawlajan (similar to baseball). He also proposed
using games as teaching opportunities, especially with the very young. Giladi (1992) notes
that the only restrictions were on games of chance. Another suggestion was to own and care
for a small pet. Al-Ghazali (1997a) acknowledged that young children learn even beyond
the spiritual and intellectual aspects of informal education offered in their own homes. He
suggested that parents are also responsible for finding appropriate social contacts, and
directing their children to associate with good company. His perception was that interaction
with respectable friends is part of the foundation of childrens education.

Elementary Curricula Through Higher Education

In Ihya, Al-Ghazali (1997a) established a program of compulsory education for
younger children, both in the home and in the maktab or madrasah (school)
16
. In The Book
of Knowledge, Al-Ghazali included a detailed discussion of the curricula for older students
and for teaching in schools of higher learning, using methods with identifiable Sufi
components (Giladi, 1983). In terms of the course content, Al-Ghazali distinguished
between two main categories of subjects: the religious sciences (the individuals obligations)
and the intellectual (practical) sciences (the communitys obligations). He divided the

102
community obligations into religious and non-religious subjects. The religious subjects
include both the theoretical (kalam) and the practical (religious devotion, jurisprudence,
politics, and ethics). He also advocated learning language and grammar in order to
understand the religious sciences. Al-Rabe (1984, p. 127) notes that, it is important to keep
in mind here that Al-Ghazali did not consider language and grammar part of the religious
sciences, but as a means to study them. When he wrote Ihya, Al-Ghazali added another
part to the religious sciences: the study of the Quranic readings and hadith sciences.
He added the study of logic to his curricula as a tool of thought, asserting that,
nothing in logic is relevant to religion by way of denial of affirmation (in Watt, 1996, p.
35). Al-Ghazali used logic to illustrate some of his examples of jurisprudence, and he tried
to teach religion by means of logical analysis (see Al-Rabe, 1984). Although some Muslim
thinkers such as Ibn Taymiyyah criticized Al-Ghazali for including logic in his
curriculumIbn Taymiyyah considered it to be in contradiction with religious beliefs and
leading to heresy (Al-Rabe, 1984, p. 146)others such as As-Subki (in Rosenthal, 1975)
agreed to the inclusion of logic. Al-Ghazali acknowledged that logic, in and of itself, was
not the problem, and that some level of logic was necessary in order to convince someone
that you know what you are talking about and make sense, but that there is the likelihood
that it can also be misused to prove false doctrines and lead to disbelief (in Watt, p. 36).
As-Subki (in Rosenthal, p. 82) defined the value of logic, noting that logic was like a
sword, which can be used either for holy war or for highway robbery. As-Subki
emphasized that it is more important for the student to master the Quran, the Prophetic

16
Al-Zabidis (n.d.) commentary on Ihya noted that Al-Ghazali specified that a maktab is for
studying the Quran only, while madrasah is the school for studying the Quran with other subjects (Vol. 7, p.

103
sayings (ahadith), and jurisprudence, and to be firmly grounded in the dogmas before taking
on the study or use of logic.

Al-Ghazalis Curricula Classification

In order to understand Al-Ghazalis formal curricula, a discussion of his
classification method is needed. Al-Ghazali classified the different branches of knowledge
according to those concepts that are necessary to spend time on (i.e., that knowledge of these
topics contributes to living a devout life), and those that are not necessary. Thus, it would
seem that Al-Ghazali would not advocate teaching children abstract subjects if they had no
relevance to a childs moral development. Al-Ghazalis curricula further classified the
usefulness of knowledge into the practical or rational sciences (ilm al-muamalah) and the
spiritual sciences (ilm al-mukashafah), which are part of Sufism. Al-Ghazali also accepted
that not all people master the spiritual sciences; only highly spiritual people generally attain
them.
17
This section will focus on the learning of the practical sciences, because those are
the subjects taught in schools and colleges. Al-Ghazali divided the practical sciences into

27).
17
Al-Ghazali (in Gianotti, 2000, p. 4) asserted that, by the sciences of the unveiling I mean whatever
is sought exclusively [for the purpose of] laying bare the object of knowledge. For Al-Ghazali (1997),
knowledge of the unveiling sciences was the ultimate goal. He proposed that not everyone is worthy of the
vision of unveiling science but only those humans who are pure and blessed, or those he calls Sufi.
As an indication of the difficulty expressing these sciences, Gianotti (2000, p. 5) reports Al-Ghazalis
acknowledgment that the prophets did not speak about the unveiling science except by way of symbol and
gesture, by way of example and brief summarization because the specifics of this knowledge would be more
than the average person would understand.
From a hermeneutic perspective, it is important to note that Islam asserts that true belief is proper
worship; Allah casts it in the hearts of whomever He chooses among His servants. Disclosure of knowledge,
notions, inspirations, and dreams are not authentic references in Islamic law. Thus, they should not be given
any consideration except when they do not conflict with the Quran and Prophetic sayings and established
principles of Islam (Al-Banna, 2000).

104
community obligations and individual obligations. The community obligations were divided
into religious and non-religious study. He believed that knowledge of the different sciences,
classified as both practical and religious, is a necessary step to the knowledge of God
himself (Al-Zeera, 2001a, p. 80).
Researchers comment on Al-Ghazalis classification and describe it from differerent
points of view. Benomrans (1983) study identifies Al-Ghazalis classification of sciences:
In the quantitative domain of knowing, Al-Ghazali classified sciences into the religious and
the non-religious sciences (p. 34). The religious sciences were those derived from the
prophets and revealed books. He characterized the non-religious sciences as those learned
by reason, and divided them into necessary sciences and acquired sciences. The necessary
sciences are essential in coming to know God and further ones well-being (e.g., medicine,
ethics, and metallurgy). The non-necessary sciences are neither essential in coming to know
God nor do they further ones well being (e.g., history, poetry, mathematics, philosophy, and
music). In several respects, Benomrans study contributed to a better understanding of many
of the scientific branches that were popular in medieval Muslim society. His study noted
that, according to Al-Ghazali, parents need to pay more attention to the sciences, which
concentrate on ultimate goals and impress good qualities on souls (Benomran, 1983).
Shafshaq (1980) also discusses Al-Ghazalis classification of knowledge, arguing that Al-
Ghazalis theory in his classification is incomplete because it did not focus on the handicraft
subjects.
In The Educational Thoughts of Al-Ghazali: Theory and Practice, Asari (1993)
speaks about three of Al-Ghazalis important concepts: the acquisition of knowledge, the
teacher-student relationship, and the learning process. Generally, Asari proposed that Al-

105
Ghazalis classification of the sciences favors the moral and spiritual sciences over the rest
of the sciences. Asari (1993) asserts
in his classification, [Al-Ghazali] places spiritual sciences over the rest
of the sciences. The practical aspect of his thought concerning education
centers on the duties of student and teacher, which must be fulfilled to
ensure the success of the learning process (p. 1).
From a theoretical point of view, Asaris (1993) observations serve the present study
by elaborating on the concepts of theory and practice from Al-Ghazalis point of view.
While this framework can be applied in studying family education, Asaris investigation
agrees with other researchers in this area (e.g., Benomran, 1983) that Al-Ghazali proposes
that the intrinsic pedagogical purpose of education is to instill good morals.

The Practical Sciences

Al-Ghazali categorized this branch into two subcategories: individual obligations
(fard ayn), which are comprised of those concepts which one personally needs to do or
know to conduct ones life (e.g., prayer) and community obligations (fard kifaya), which
include those concepts concerning ones involvement in the community as a whole, such as
mathematics and medicine. If a communal obligation is not met, then the entire community
is held accountable; each and every member of the community is not personally obligated to
perform the action. For example, if the country is educating too many lawyers and not

106
enough physicians, Al-Ghazali would encourage the community to examine this discrepancy
and encourage more young people to study medicine.
Al-Ghazali sorted the communal obligations into one of two categories: religious
sciences, which are those that are essential in coming to know God and which enhance ones
well-being; and non-religious (intellectual) sciences. Al-Ghazali further divided the
religious sciences into four sub-categories according to their importance in practicing
religious teaching: the foundation, the branches, the preliminaries, and the supplementaries.
Al-Ghazali assigned the non-religious sciences to three sub-categories.

Praiseworthy Sciences (ulum mahmudah) Any sciences essential to the
communitys welfare (e.g., medicine, mathematics, logic, arithmetic, agriculture, etc.).

Permissible Sciences (ulum mubahah), which are those neutral activities one is
allowed to know and do (e.g., poetry, history, and biography). They do not confer the
benefits of the praiseworthy sciences, but do not harm people, as do the objectionable
sciences. For instance, Al-Ghazali accepted that poetry and certain other artistic expressions
were appropriate as long as the subject material covered was valid (i.e., addressed religious
or spiritual themes, not passion). He did not agree with visual art and images, however,
because of the potential for idolization.

Objectionable Sciences (ulum madhmumah) include any subject which not only
has no benefit to the individual or community (e.g., magic, legerdemain, and divination), but
may also confer harm upon its practitioners.

107
Thus, Al-Ghazali established priorities and the sequence for subject matter according
to their value to the student and society. The highest priority was to learn the necessary
(religious) sciences, which means attaining a comprehensive knowledge of the Quran, the
ahadith, and Islamic law (fiqh). These topics he considered to be most important, and to be
the cornerstone of any further education. Thus, from Al-Ghazalis point of view, the student
would start with the Quran and then proceed to the non-religious (intellectual) sciences.
From the very beginning of a childs formal education, the child should learn both the
religious (Quran and ahadith) and non-religious (academic) subjects, as well as the value of
maintaining a balance among all the subjects.

108
Figure 5-1. Al-Ghazalis Classification of the Practical Sciences.

109
Al-Ghazalis Teaching Methods

One of Al-Ghazalis teaching methods was to tell stories about the pious as a model
for childrens behavior in their early, informal education. He depicted both the childrens
and parents responsibilities concerning punishment and reward, explained the value of
acting as good role models, and encouraged parents to take into account their childrens
individual differences when interacting with them (Al-Barjis, 1983). Al-Ghazali designed a
formal and informal curricula for childrens primary scholastic and moral education
concerning the beginning of Islam and its key historical figures, and training and fostering of
proper conduct and manners, such as instruction on eating habits (Winter, 1995). The
content of the actual stories was used to explain concepts, and the exact lesson to be
illustrated on a given day was chosen by the teacher or parent.
Researchers comments on Al-Ghazalis curricula and methods ideas are varied.
Asari (1993) agrees that Al-Ghazali felt that parents should be careful about managing their
young childrens time during their pre-school and elementary education years because
studying without breaks will destroy [their] young, growing intelligence (p. 86). Giladi
(1983) asserts that, the philosophers classify sciences on the basis of their epistemological
nature and according to the different grades of their objects, while Al-Ghazali applied
external criterion of their usefulness in attaining religious ends outside themselves (p. 13).
Thus, Giladi confirms Abul Quasems (1978) observation that most of Al-Ghazalis
direction in the area of education focused on character formation (i.e., personal conduct and
values), rather than intellectual development (i.e., learning to read and do mathematics).

110
Benomran (1983) and Asari (1993) also agree that Al-Ghazalis curriculum focused more on
moral and spiritual duties than on other issues.
In the second part of his book, Children of Islam (1992), Giladi describes childrens
education from Al-Ghazalis outlook. Giladis main themes are that Al-Ghazali defined the
responsibility for and purpose of education, which is to ensure the future of the believer in
the next world. Giladi notes that Al-Ghazali recommended that children begin their formal
education at about the age of six or seven (the age of discernment), at which time parents
need to increase their supervision, but that it is appropriate to begin informal learning at a
younger age because childrens hearts are less careworn.
In terms of moral curriculum, Giladi (1992) and Umaruddin (1970) report that Al-
Ghazalis focus was on developing a balanced person by impressing good qualities on the
childs soul. Al-Ghazali asserted that human nature could be molded by moral instruction,
which is what led him to consider the ways to raise and educate children. He believed that
natural inclinations and instincts should not be suppressed entirely, but rather focused on
their appropriate expression. That is, desire was created for some benefit (he cites an
example of desire for food motivating nourishment), but children should be steered away
from things that might cause depravity. In order to learn moderation (i.e., dealing
appropriately with the forces of desire), Al-Ghazali suggested addressing one of the earliest
manifestations of desire, the passion to eat, by teaching good eating habits based on restraint
and moderation. Al-Ghazali quotes from the Quran to emphasize moderation: Eat and
drink, but do not be extravagant (6: 141). The child absorbs these lessons gradually.
Al-Ghazali also suggested breaking up larger lessons into smaller segments, using
the example of teaching young children to fast gradually for Ramadan, a few days at a time,

111
to prepare them progressively for the time when they will have to fast for the entire month
(Al-Ghazali, in Winter, 1995, p. 80). Al-Ghazali took this method of gradual learning from
the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. This is exemplified in the Quran with the
following example. Before and early on in Islam, people drank wine and became drunk.
When the first verse was revealed to Prophet Muhammad about wine, the recommendation
was not to give up drinking wine altogether, but to start slowly. The verse states: O you
who believe! Approach not the prayer when you are in a drunken state until you know (the
meaning) of what you utter (4:43). The second notation about drinking comes later and
states: O! You who believe! Intoxicants (all kinds of alcoholic drinks), and gambling, Al-
Ansab, and Al-Azlam (arrows for seeking luck or decision) are an abomination of Shaitans
(Satan) handiwork. So avoid (strictly all) that (abominations) in order that you might be
successful (5:90). Gradually, the Quran recommended reducing and then giving up all
alcoholic drinks. Al-Ghazali used this same technique.
Winter (1995) mentions that Al-Ghazali taught parents to encourage their children to
distinguish between right and wrong and, once this point is reached, to use this discretion to
aid in [the childs] education (p. 76). The child will become shy about attempting things,
and it is useful to take advantage of this characteristic to further the childs education.
Young, Latham, and Serjeant (1990) mention praising a child for good conduct to encourage
the child to continue the behavior. But if the child does something wrong, Al-Ghazali
recommended that the parent ignore it the first timeparticularly if the child recognizes the
errorand admonish the child privately without excessive scolding; otherwise the parents
words will lose their effect on [the childs] heart (Young, Latham, & Serjeant, p. 440).

112
Avner Giladis (1983) doctoral dissertation, The educational thought of Al-Ghazali,
studied and documented Al-Ghazalis life and works from different perspectives. In this and
other works, Giladi (1983, 1992, 1999) focused on several concepts, including Al-Ghazalis
perception that knowledge of a topic is only useful if one acts upon what he knows (i.e., it is
not enough just to be familiar with any subject, one must also implement and act upon the
knowledge for it to be valid). Giladi also commented on Al-Ghazalis familiarity with the
Aristotelian system, which distinguishes between practical sciences and theoretical sciences,
and the similarities and differences between Aristotles characterizations and Al-Ghazalis
interpretations. There is an obvious difference between the Aristotelian system and Al-
Ghazalis system, especially concerning the criteria governing classification of knowledge.
Regarding comments on methodology, Winter (1997) states that Al-Ghazali stressed
that the same teaching methods will not work in all circumstances. He compares the idea to
the doctor who has one cure. For some patients, the cure will work, but for others, it might
kill them. Likewise, one technique used to successfully by a teacher or parent to impart
knowledge to one child or student might not work with another child. Were a physician to
treat all of his patients with a single medicine he would kill most of them; and so it is with
the shaykh, who, were he to charge all his aspirants with one kind of exercise, would destroy
and kill their hearts (Al-Ghazali, in Winter, p. 41).
In another study, Benomran (1983) asserts that while Al-Ghazali has some good
ideas, before re-implementing Al-Ghazalis suggestions as part of incorporating Islamic
spiritual thought into contemporary education methods he proposes that Al-Ghazalis
directives be augmented with instructions on how the teacher or parent should convey the
knowledge and the processes by which students absorb data. Al-Ghazali encouraged simple

113
delivery of information to the student without discussion or interaction. In this researchers
observations as both a parent and an educator, students learn more when there is interaction
and discussion. Further, there isnt one particular way to present data, because each student
(child) learns and takes in information differently.
Bazzun (1983) and Al-Barjis (1996) also describe Al-Ghazalis epistemology and
methods of teaching. Like other researchers, their studies focus on comparing Al-Ghazalis
philosophies to how religious education was perceived in that time period. Bazzun reports
that the preferred teaching practices in Al-Ghazalis era (late 11
th
to early 12
th
centuries)
were still in use some 600 years later. An example of this is that Al-Ghazalis methods
conform to some degree with Herbarts (1776-1841) method of instruction documented
almost 700 years later, which offers lectures as a method of communicating knowledge to
students. In Al-Ghazalis day, the usual method of instruction relied on the student
repeating what the teacher reported verbatim, without any discussion or critical thought.
Many Muslim countries, in fact, still use this method of rote memorization.
Ibn Al-Arabi, one of Al-Ghazalis students, criticized teaching methods that
transmit knowledge without providing students with the tools needed to comprehend the text
(in Giladi, 1992, p. 56). Ibn Al-Arabi suggests that simply giving the information to the
student without teaching the student how to find it, develop it further, or evaluate it doesnt
mean that the student comprehends the meaning of the information. Bennett and Demarrais
(1990) add that, as a result, children fail to become seekers of informationthey learn that
knowledge comes from an external source such as the teacher or the textbook (p. 191).
Eitzen and Zinn (1993) suggest that students are much more likely to understand the

114
material and cooperate with the learning process if they understand why it is so and how it
relates to the big picture (see also Posner, 1992).
Some of the researchers criticism seems to point to inconsistencies and gaps in Al-
Ghazalis teaching ideas and methods. Yet, for the most part, they have been used for
centuries. Teaching methods have always been criticized. Even today there are critics of
modern education. The criticism of researchers concerning Al-Ghazalis work in education
means that his works still have value, even if only for comparison to todays methods. The
fact that these researchers even consider criticizing Al-Ghazali, rather than dismissing his
philosophy altogether, is to his credit. He has not been ignored despite the fact that he lived
hundreds of year ago.

Al-Ghazalis Curricula and Modern Perspectives

Al-Ghazalis directions to organize ones education around character formation
reflected Islamic cultural norms of his time (Abul Quasem, 1978; Benomran, 1983; Giladi,
1993). These scholars concur that most of Al-Ghazalis guidance focused on teaching
appropriate personal conduct and strong values, and that he was concerned more with ones
moral and spiritual obligations than with academic achievement. Many researchers
(Benomran, 1983; Shafshaq, 1980; and others) have suggested that Al-Ghazali actually
discouraged students from learning about intellectual sciences. Armstrong (2000, p. 364)
argues that:

115
the attack against the [philosophers] mounted by [Al-Ghazali] had been
immoderate. It had caused division between piety and rationalism, which
had affected the intellectual standing of the [scholars]. This was apparent
in the outdated curriculum of Al-Azhar. Muslims should, therefore return
to the more receptive and rational spirit of the [Quran].
Al-Qaradawi (2001) explains that in todays context, while spiritual development
and adherence to shariah (Islamic law) are still important, the quality and character of
contemporary life indicate that the lower priority Al-Ghazali placed on comprehensive study
of non-religious topics is no longer adequate because lifestyles have changed. It used to be
sufficient that someone in the community was well versed in medicine and math; today, we
need many someones who know this in depth.
Al-Ghazali was also aware that the majority of scholars were studying Islamic law,
while other areas of learning were neglected. In other words, as his awareness grew, he
began to formulate educational policy. The prestige of a career in jurisprudence was like a
magnet to young students, drawing them into a worthwhile profession. But this ignored the
impracticality of the idea. Al-Ghazali was gratified that many students chose to study only
law, but recognized that it would create a society out of balance. He noted that the town is
crowded with jurisprudents employed in giving legal opinions and defending cases, and
that many a town has no physician (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, p. 23; see also Faris, 1991, p. 51).
He proposed that educational institutions needed to produce outcomes to support societys
workforce requirements. Further, he advised parents to encourage their children to study
what they like, and to teach them that even though math and science are not as prestigious as

116
religious studies, all professions are needed, not only law. Even though it need not be
mandatory to study all of the academic subjects in depth, all students can benefit from a
general introduction to these subjects.
While Al-Ghazalis observations were recognized, expanding the curricula took
time. For many years, the curricula at the Nizamiyyah College offered Islamic law courses
almost exclusively. Hoodbhoy (1995, p. 14) notes that this remained the standard until [it
was] somewhat modified by Shah Whali Allah (1703-1762) to include arithmetic and logic.
Even in modern Kuwait today, Al-Sibyh (2001), a policymaker in the Kuwaiti Ministry of
Education, and Al-Ibrahim (1996) a former minister of education in Kuwait, mention that
one still finds a disproportionate number of people studying Islamic law, and that not
enough students are pursuing careers in medicine, engineering, or other fields critically
needed in the country. Doctors, engineers, and other professionals are well respected in
Kuwait today, so there is no social reason for this phenomenon. In the junior and senior
high schools, many teachers have to be hired from other countries, particularly in math and
science, because there are not enough Kuwaitis trained in these fields. This indicates that
the higher education system in Kuwait provides educational opportunities based on supply
rather than demand, and consequently is not educating students according to the current and
future needs of the Kuwaiti workforce. Perhaps as more people seek education beyond high
schooland awareness of the need to balance societal needs is keenerthis situation will
change.
Shafshaq (1980) alleges that Al-Ghazali was interested only in the spiritual and
moral aspects of life, and did not address mundane practical issues. The fact that Al-Ghazali
did not address a certain subject does not prove that he disagreed with it or that it was

117
unimportant, thus refuting Shafshaqs claim that Al-Ghazali only directed that Muslims
study the religious sciences. Al-Ghazali merely had different priorities for the subjects he
considered more important than others (Al-Barjis, 1996).
Although Al-Ghazali did not designate specific handicrafts and other practical issues
in his classification of curricula, he taught that manual labor and handicrafts were among the
best forms of worshipping God, if one did them with pure intention and according to Islamic
law (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 2, pp. 30, 124-125). To support this assertion, Al-Ghazali
(1997a) reported how the companions of Prophet Muhammad earned their livelihood in land
and sea trades, and commented that these companions were good role models (Vol. 2, p.
125). Al-Ghazali (1997a) also supported the creation of various handicrafts, and explained
that these crafts contributed to the sustenance and aesthetics of society.
To confirm that there were, indeed, people involved in non-religious careers, Hill
(1994) describes various examples of fine engineering
18
evident in the early centuries of
Islam. Al-Ghazali may not have mentioned the use or construction of these devices, or have
provided details about them, but that does not mean they did not exist. For example, Al-
Ghazali did not avoid discussing engineering or discourage the study of engineering. He
merely focused on what was important to him. Other people have written about topics Al-
Ghazali did not address, and were not concerned about matters that Al-Ghazali considered
relevant. As one example, Umar al-Khayyam (b. 417/1048, d. 508/1131) was a scholar of
mathematics, astronomy, language, fiqh, and history. Because of his brilliance as an

18
Hill (1994, p. 25) describes fine engineering as those types of machines or instruments that were
designed to give pleasure to courtly circles, or for timekeeping, or for the use of scientists (mainly
astronomers). They distinguish this from utilitarian technology, which is concerned with machines, such as
mills, water-raising devices, and textile machinery. But these descriptions, which date back to the first few

118
astronomer, he was appointed to be the director of the observatory in Baghdad. This
indicated that respected medieval scholars must have been studying the practical sciences.
Al-Ghazali did assign a lower priority to knowledge of the arts (e.g., music, art,
drama), and did not include these subjects in his proposals for formal education (see Nofal,
1994), although he did specify in other discussions that any participation in these
permissible sciences would depend on the content being lawful. These subjects are
considered to be among those left to the believers discretion, and there is no supporting
documentation in the sacred texts about what is lawful and what is forbidden in these
particular topics. It is essentially up to the believer to determine exactly what is or is not
acceptable.
Rather than accidentally doing something unlawful, many Islamic scholars have
proposed not participating in the arts at all, and many Muslims have adopted these
guidelines. Some contemporary Muslim parents advise their children to avoid subjects such
as music. Al-Ghazali did acknowledge subjects such as music lessons and singing, and
referred to opportunities for listening to approved music and for singing (e.g., during a
pilgrimage, in warfare, to supplement religious shortcomings, festivals and marriage
celebrations, etc.). He felt such songs revived ones spirits, lightened the heart, and inspired
one to carry on the work of this world and next (Al-Faruqi, 1982; see also Smith, 1989). But
Al-Ghazali also warned Muslims not to waste time listening to music or singing if there
were other things to be done. His position seems to be that music, like medicine, is good but
only in prescribed doses.

centuries of Islam, indicate that mechanical devices did exist, and someone had to have been making and
operating them.

119
Sibai (1984) notes instances in Islamic history in which music was provided for
entertainment (i.e., not ceremonial) purposes because it was felt that music had a therapeutic
effect. One instance he cited from the 13
th
century (CE) described how one hospital
provided a place for fascinating music and interesting stories where insomniacs could go
to pass time (p. 196). Sibai explained that the understanding at the time was that
melodiousness was psychologically helpful to patients being treated for diseases, even
those with only physical ailments (p. 211). Libraries in the Middle Ages also had separate
areas designated for listening to music where students could refresh themselves with music
after long, tiring hours of study (p. 218). This implies that music as a form of relaxation
and psychological renewal was, indeed, accepted at one time.
Al-Qaradawi (1960, p. 300) notes that Islam permits singing under the condition
that it not be in any way obscene or harmful to Islamic morals, and notes that it creates an
atmosphere of joy and happiness. Music offers many advantages for family and community
celebrations, as well as many benefits associated with music as a component of education.
In order to make music accessible to those who seek it, without compromising the integrity
of those who choose to avoid it, perhaps music education could be offered as an elective
subject: available to all who want it, with equitable alternatives for those who dont. This is
also an opportunity to involve the parents in the childs education by allowing them to
suggest the alternative activities.
Al-Ghazalis principal objection to art was its potential as a form of idolatry. He
objected to drawings and other depictions of humans and animals, which he associated with
the veneration of idols or icons, and excluded art from his classifications of knowledge. He
emphatically recommended that existing pictures be removed or defaced, and he directed

120
that Muslims not engage in professions such as engraver, goldsmith, or decorator (see Nofal,
1994). Today, it would be almost impossible to avoid some form of drawing or
reproduction. Photographs are required for passports, and drawings are used in everything
from construction renderings to criminal apprehension. This would suggest that complete
avoidance of the arts would be unrealistic. Perhaps the more contemporary approach is to
ensure that the drawing has a legitimate purpose, making art training more acceptable to
conservative Muslims. Again, this is another opportunity for elective instruction, with other
alternative creative outlets for those who opt not to participate.

Summary of Al-Ghazalis Curricula

Al-Ghazali provided a comprehensive description of educational processes and
relationships, and set the priorities for the subject matter in order to guide education
according to Islamic principles. He considered the various subjects pertaining to the needs
of both the students and the community, and integrated knowledge with practice in every
type of curricula. Al-Ghazalis guidelines suggest that there is a natural progression from
topic to topic through the various developmental and intellectual phases. He believed that
children begin learning at home with their parents and other family elders. Even after
children begin their formal education, parents are encouraged to continue participating
actively in their education (e.g., reading with the child, helping with homework, chaperoning
field trips, etc.)
Because Al-Ghazali tended to report the responsibilities of the parent and the
father using these terms interchangeably, it would seem that he meant that the father was

121
the primary teacher within the family, seemingly excluding the wife, which became a hidden
agenda for male superiority. Given the alternative use of these pronouns, it appears that Al-
Ghazali though mostly in terms of the fathers role, but was probably not as patriarchal as
some critiques (e.g., Giladi and others) have proposed. Interestingly, in contemporary
Muslim society, as in Western society, it is usually the mother who is more involved with
the school. This suggests that his imprecision has allowed Al-Ghazalis tendency to
downplay womens roles to be exaggerated over time. Thus, his model should be re-
examined in order to create an environment in which both mother and father are able to
share in their childs education equally.
Al-Ghazali established his extensive foundation for Islamic curricula in both home
and school to direct the education of both heart and mind. The religious subjects he
advocated are still an important and valuable way of life in many Islamic countries, although
contemporary society requires a deeper examination of the intellectual subjects than was
needed in his era. Al-Ghazalis classification of knowledge supports the concept that
education is obligatory, citing the Prophetic saying that, seeking knowledge is compulsory
for every Muslim (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 1, p. 25). Al-Ghazali also emphasized that
education needs to take the students individual differences and capacities into
consideration. There is some differentiation between formal education, which is that
knowledge acquired in educational institutions, and informal education, which encompasses
all of the learning opportunities outside the classroom. Many of the distinctions proposed by
Al-Ghazali are fundamentally applicable, although educational theories and policies have
shifted through the centuries and knowledge has expanded dramatically. For example, Al-
Ghazali (1997a) noted that it was not necessary to go into the intellectual (praiseworthy)

122
sciences too deeply. It would be reasonable to interpret that concept as his recommendation
that it is not necessary to study any non-spiritual topic too extensively. If you consider that
idea today, however, it would be more reasonable to accept that it is not necessary to
become an expert in every topic particularly when one recognizes the breadth of the
knowledge to be learned but it is necessary to be an expert in something. Even Al-Ghazali
recognized that it is commendable to be an expert in spiritual matters, but the world also
needs other professionals.
Over time, society has come to agree that certain subjects are primarily taught at
school and others at home or in extracurricular lessons. This doesnt mean that math, for
example, is only taught at school; many parents also find ways to teach math skills at home.
In some cultures, spiritual subjects are taught in the schools which is not done in many
Western countries. But the consensus remains that the essential intellectual topics (e.g.,
math, science, history, etc.) are taught at school, and other more socially-oriented skills
should be learned in the home.
Both classical and modern scholars in Muslim countries refer to Al-Ghazalis
teachings concerning education, particularly as they address the transfer of his educational
theories and human behavior to modern Islamic curricula (Khan, 1976; Shalabi, 1978). As
one can see, some researchers agree with Al-Ghazalis curriculum concepts and teaching
methods, while others, including Muslims, do not agree with him. Because no single
educational theory is used worldwide, there will always be corroboration and contradiction
of educational ideas.
In order to ensure that Al-Ghazalis foundation meets Kuwaits contemporary needs,
it is important to re-examine his writings in terms of what Kuwaiti society needs today.

123
Although Western education has much to offer this examination, Kuwait and other Islamic
countries need to evaluate these contributions to ensure that the course material and
presentation do not conflict with Islamic culture and tradition.

124
CHAPTER 6
AL-GHAZALIS EDUCATIONAL MODEL OF RELATIONSHIPS

Introduction

Al-Ghazali had a great deal to say about the rights and responsibilities of both
teachers and learners. He emphasized characteristics that each should possess, he praised
both those who teach and those who learn for participating in this act of worship, and he
even encouraged scholars to complete their spiritual and intellectual education fully before
embarking on a profession. Al-Ghazali prioritized various academic and spiritual subjects,
even recommending that certain subjects be avoided completely since they were a waste of
the learners efforts or could even be harmful.
In Al-Ghazalis teachings, he placed a strong emphasis upon the ideal of seeking
knowledge and devoting oneself to the process. In Ihya (1997a) he said: knowledge will
not give you of itself unless you give it yourself utterly (Vol. 1, p. 62). This suggests that a
good education is obtained by a motivated pursuit of knowledge; nothing is gained by a half-
hearted, casual acquaintance with the material. This is supported by one of the most
important ahadith, which emphasizes that whatever one does should be done with sincerity.
Here sincerity is defined as living within the guidelines laid down by the Sacred Texts,
doing all good deeds first for the sake of Allah, and then for those you love. Al-Ghazali
asserted that to experience salvation and nearness to God, one must do all things with
sincerity (see Al-Manawi, 2001).

125
Another medieval Islamic thinker, Al-Nawawi (see Rabah & Al-Daqaq, 1991), also
wrote that the most important characteristic of the Master-Pupil relationship was working
with sincerity, and that this quality should define the relationship. He acknowledged that it
was, in fact, very difficult to be sincere, and cited instances of both teachers and learners
who were insincere, to the detriment of both. Al-Nawawi offered guidelines for measuring
the sincerity in ones teaching, such as not being jealous if ones student consults with
another teacher, and willingness to share whatever knowledge one has.
As a teacher, Al-Ghazali modeled this sincerity to the end of his life. A student
came to visit with him as he lay dying and asked if Al-Ghazali had any final wisdom to
share with him. Al-Ghazalis advice was to be sincere, that is, to do everything properly
for the sake of doing a good job, not for some other ulterior motive. Zolondek (1963)
emphasized that, the respect which Al-Ghazali enjoyed as a theologian and as a teacher
amongst the Muslims, and the sincerity of his teaching, which resulted from his own
personal experience, favored the success of his endeavor (p. 15).
Al-Ghazali began Ihya (1997a) with a chapter on knowledge, both teaching and
learning with sincerity, and he ended this tome with discussions of death, Paradise, and Hell.
In Ihya, Al-Ghazali used the term sincere more than 80 times, and the term intention
more than 120 times. Al-Ghazalis model for the Master and Pupil described how the right
paththat is, being sincereled to Paradise. For example, he advised teachers to teach not
for the salary, but for the glory it brings to God. He discouraged students from doing
anything merely for the prospect of material gain.
Implemented successfully, this approach demonstrates Coveys (1997) concept of
win-win. When all members think in terms of mutual benefit, they foster support and

126
mutual respect. They think interdependentlywe not meand develop a win-win
agreement. They dont think selfishly (win-lose) or like a martyr (lose-win) (Covey, p.
390). McLaughlin and Talbert (1993) cite one teacher who noted that, I really dont care
how they learn it, as long as they learn it the object is to learn. If someone can get it
across better than I can, fine (p. 236). This teacher clearly emphasizes that reaching a
goalthe child learnsis more important than personal gain. Al-Ghazali acknowledged
that keeping ones intention on the goal was often difficult. In this case, the goal was to
teach selflessly, without being distracted by external influences. In an ideal society, if
everyone operated sincerely, from a win-win position, there would be no wars or conflicts
among and within the groups in society.
In order to make this concept the springboard from which family members can grow
as a unit, this chapter suggests that we teach from this perspective, starting on a small scale
the family environment. Al-Ghazali (1997a) recognized that the family unit is one of the
most significant and influential organizations in a persons life. In order to take advantage
of teachable moments occurring throughout the childs lifeeven before the child begins
schoolAl-Ghazali suggested having family members teach one another, primarily parents
and other adults teaching the youngsters, but also noting that children often teach their
parents as well. Family education is a reciprocal arrangement in that that knowledge
sometimes passes from parent to child, and sometimes it goes from child to parent.
Here is where I make the connection between Al-Ghazalis perspective of the
Master-Pupil relationship and my theory of superimposing the Master-Pupil model on his
perceptions of the family relationship as they relate to his understanding of the dynamics of
the family unit. His thoughts about education within the home are scattered throughout his

127
teachings. No single document or volume devotes more than a single chapter to this subject.
Yet almost everything he said about the family and the Parent-Child relationship can be seen
in the Master-Pupil relationship.
In Kuwait today, the mother usually has more time to devote to the childrens
schooling than the father. While the education system in Kuwait requires that both parents
be involved in their childrens education (Al-Houli, 1999), in truth, the mother who is
usually the more involved parent. If women have less education, how can they support their
own childrens education? As many researchers (Abu Shuqqah, 1995; Al-Hibri, 2000;
Bewley, 1999; Wadud, 2000) and others argue, Muslim women lost their rights to education
in the last 300 years. Now is the time to address Al-Ghazalis point of view about womens
education because of his centuries old influence regarding women needing less education.
Thus, this section will gather and synthesize the pertinent data in order to facilitate parents
developing worthwhile educational programs for their children, and the inclusion of women
in the Master-Pupil/Parent-Child relationship, especially since it is the women in modern
Kuwait who are most involved in their childrens education.

Al-Ghazalis Ideal Master-Pupil Relationship

Al-Ghazali (in Al-Barjis, 1983; see also Al-Shami, 1993; Muessig & Allen, 1962;
Shalabi, 1954; Shams Al-din, 1990) suggested that the students should purify their souls
from impure traits and blameworthy characteristics because knowledge is the worship of
mans heart as well as the prayer of his inmost self and the oblation of his inward being
before God (Al-Ghazali, Ihya, Vol. 1, p. 66).

128
Al-Ghazali had high expectations for his students in terms of respect and
responsibility. He said, A person has three fathers: one who begot him, another who
fostered him, and a third who educated him, and the last is the best of all (Al-Ghazali, in
Shalabi, 1954, p. 175). In this context, a teacher merits the same respect one shows ones
father. Despite these high expectations, he recommended that students should seek
knowledge gradually, striving towards the most important knowledge at every stage of
development. As part of the learning process, students need to complete one branch of
learning before embarking on the next branch, because knowing something about every area
of useful knowledge was also an important responsibility of the students.
Teachers are also counselors, and Al-Ghazali noted that teachers assume many roles
in their students lives, including advising or counseling students outside of the regular
classroom experience. Al-Ghazalis role model for the advisor comes directly from the
Prophet Muhammad, who said in one of the hadith that religion is advice. Since Al-Ghazali
was first and foremost a great Islamic thinker, we can understand that he would embrace the
idea of counseling as part of his calling as a teacher.
As part of the process of learning, Al-Ghazali suggested that virtuous thoughts and
deeds offer closeness to God and His angels. Therefore, paying attention to the primary
religious objects of knowledge, which is the Holy Quran and ahadith (Prophetic sayings), is
also part of the students educational responsibilities. Al-Ghazali also asserted that students
are accountable for keeping themselves free from impure habits, because he believed that
students of bad character and manner would never benefit by any knowledge they may
possibly acquire. These duties were the first steps in the Master-Pupil relationship because

129
without this purification of the soul and the idea that knowledge cannot come to you unless
you are sincere in your intentions.
Al-Ghazali was also very clear about the responsibilities of the Master to the Pupil.
These responsibilities included teachers being kind to their students and treating them like
their own children while encouraging good conduct and discipline with sympathy. Teachers
also should teach without expecting any remuneration for it, teaching what they can, but
reminding students that the object of education is to gain nearness to God. In addition, the
teacher has the responsibility of being honest with the students about their progress, teaching
only what the students are capable of learning. He also felt that teachers should speak well
of other teachers, as well as live what they taught. Teachers teach by [their] reputation
more usefully than by [their] tongue[s] (Al-Ghazali, in Shalabi, 1954, p. 146).
Al Ghazali noted that just as the student needs to respect the teacher, looking at the
teachers responsibilities, he concluded that teachers also must be sympathetic to their
pupils and treat them as his own children, citing a hadith that the Prophet said, I am to you
like a father (Al-Ghazali, in Faris, 1991, p. 145). Al-Ghazali added that those teachers who
desire to save their students from the fires of hell are more important than the parents
desires to save their children from the fires of the earth (Al-Ghazali, in Faris, 1991, p. 145).
My interpretation is that Al-Ghazali so the relationship as reciprocal much like a loving
parent with a child who receives love and respect in return for what is being taught kindly
and compassionately, keeping the Islamic principles at the core of the relationship.
Shams Al-dins (1990) two-part work investigated the Master-Pupil relationship and
the learning process from Al-Ghazalis point of view. In the first part, he concentrates on
Master-Pupil relationships, and in the second part he supports his research with writings

130
selected from Al-Ghazalis works. This researcher (1990) also asserts that Al-Ghazali
attached great importance to the environment in which teaching takes place, and to the kind
of relationships that are desirable for doing so. Malek (1999, pp. 69-71) also focuses on the
manners of both teachers and students from Al-Ghazalis viewpoint. These researchers find
no contradictions about Al-Ghazalis concept of the Master.
Even though there is more authority conferred upon the teacher, Muessig and Allen
(1962) emphasize that this implies a two-way relationship built upon mutual respect and
feeling, not merely that the teacher delivers the information and the student accepts it
without analysis. Totah (1926) asserts that Al-Ghazalis writings exemplify this mutually
satisfying relationship between teachers and students.
In his critical study entitled Al-Ghazalis Epistemology and Cognitive Educational
Objectives, Benomran (1983) reports that Al-Ghazalis theory of the acquisition of
knowledge does not address the learning process and dimensions of knowledge. For
example, most contemporary educational philosophies address not only the material to be
covered, but also the teacher-student interaction in terms of the intellectual and
psychological processes involved in acquiring knowledge. Al-Ghazali does not provide us
with any explanations of how a teacher can bring a student to know. He only explains the
moral duties of both teacher [to deliver the information] and student [to absorb the
information] (Benomran, 1983, p. 2). In light of this investigation into Al-Ghazalis life
and theory of knowledge, I believe that he purposely did not go beyond explaining the moral
duties in the Master-Pupil relationship, because each relationship of teacher to student is an
individual entity. Al-Ghazalis tools for learning and his faith in the sacred texts as
inspirational words for the students were the bases for the tutorial relationship. The

131
foundation was laid down first by the sacred texts, and Al-Ghazali clarified the concepts and
then purposely left the details to be developed by the teacher/parent and student/child.
Earlier, I discussed Al-Ghazalis theory of knowledge and the way of knowing, with his
focus on which part of the body and how the senses affect learning. Using all of this
information as tools, the teacher can build the relationship with his students.
Ihya Ulum al-Din (1997a) was Al-Ghazalis most significant effort, and the
majority of the information for this chapter has been gleaned from the first chapter, The
Book of Knowledge, which talks about Master-Pupil relationships, especially in terms of
their social and academic interactions. In another chapter, Disciplining the Soul, Al-
Ghazali discusses good and bad character, diseases of the heart, disciplining children, and
health information. Some of the stories he used in Ihya will be used to support the
recommendations in the model for this study.
Al-Ghazali asserted that his writings and teachings relied upon the Holy Quran and
ahadith, as expressed by the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. Al-Ghazali believed
that learning and teaching are the best forms of worship, and this worship is the highest
priority for Muslims. The Prophet Muhammad placed knowledge on an equal footing with
prophecy: The learned men are the heirs of the Prophets (in Al-Ghazali, Ihya, 1997a, Vol.
1, p. 12). Al-Ghazali (1989) believed that this modelthe Master-Pupil relationshipwas
the path to happiness. When Al-Ghazali ranked members of society, he positioned scholars
second only to the prophets. Al-Ghazali (in Faris 1991) reported that Al-Hassan Al-Basri (a
prominent Sufi figure) noted that Muhammads opinion was that the ink of the scholar is
more sacred than the blood of the martyr (p. 16). Al-Ghazalis teachings reflect Islamic
philosophy, which is that spiritual knowledge and intellectual knowledge are not mutually

132
exclusive, and a number of his educational recommendations still influence the education
systems in many Islamic countries. Al-Ghazali encouraged students to complete their
spiritual development before committing to the business world, recommending that one be
immersed in ones religious studies. He also believed that:
. . . the seeker after knowledge should not lord it over his teacher. One
manifestation of such a pride is the pupils reluctance to heed the advice of
anyone except the popular and well-known [teacher]. This is foolishness
itself because knowledge is the way to salvation and happiness. Besides
anyone who is seeking an escape from the claws of a threatening wild lion
does not mind, as long as he is saved, wether he is led to safety by a well-
know celebrity or by an obscure person. The tortures which the flames of
hell fire inflict upon those who are ignorant of God are greater than any
which the lions of the jungle are capable of inlicting. Wisdom is the aim
of every believer; he seizes it wherever he finds it, and is under obligation
to anyone who imparts it to him, no matter who the person may be (Al-
Ghazali, in Faris, 1991, p. 130).
Al-Ghazali (1997a) also admonished students to respect their teachers, and that the
teacher be kind to the students, each learning from the other. A review of classical Islamic
literature reveals that Al-Ghazali (1997a), Al-Mansur biallah (2001), and other scholars
encouraged both students and teachers to learn from one otherwherever they find good
knowledge, they should take it.

133
Al-Ghazali also encouraged students to demonstrate initiative and not be shy about
asking questions. The teacher should welcome inquiries, and it is permissible to ask the
teacher to explain his examples. Like Plato, Al-Ghazali favored the use of interactive
teaching methods where the students ask questions and the teacher responds. In Ihya and
other books, he spoke of not questioning the teacher, but this did not mean that the student
should never ask questions or seek clarification; only that the student should not badger the
teacher with incessant questions (Al-Zabidi, n.d.). The student should listen carefully to all
that the teacher says, or in Al-Ghazalis words, do not ask questions out of the proper time
and season; the teacher is better informed than you are as to the things you are capable of
understanding and as to their appropriate time for making them know (Al-Ghazali in Faris,
1991, p. 131). Then, if some clarification is needed on a particular point, it is acceptable to
ask. In fact, in Al-Ghazalis manuscript of Minhaj al-Mutaalim (The Path of the Learners),
he mentioned that how one presents or phrases a question is half of the process of the pursuit
of knowledge (Al-Ghazali, in Bazzun, 1997). Al-Ghazalis O Disciple is essentially a
response to an inquiry from one of his students, demonstrating that he readily accepted
comments from his students.
Al-Ghazali (1997a) suggested that teachers should be kind to their students, treating
them like their own children. He asserted that they should encourage good conduct and
discipline with sympathy. Teachers should be honest with their students about their
progress, not misleading them to think that they know more than they do, and teaching only
what the student is able to absorb in order to avoid teaching subject matter that is beyond the
comprehension of the student. Teachers should follow the example of the Prophet, and both
teacher and student need to remember that the object of an education is to gain nearness to

134
God. Teachers should exhort the students to do well, and rebuke them for misconduct.
They should not criticize the subjects of fellow teachers to their students. Unfortunately, in
todays Kuwait schools, some of this criticism does take place. Perhaps the information in
this paper will remind teachers of Al-Ghazalis valuable recommendation not to criticize the
subjects of other teachers.
Al-Ghazali advised teachers to practice what they teach in order not to confuse the
students, and to support their knowledge with practice in order to inculcate the knowledge in
the students minds (i.e., Al-Ghazali suggests that teachers teach by [their] reputation more
usefully than by [their] tongue[s] (Shalabi, 1957, p. 146):
If the actions of a teacher are contrary to what he preaches, it does not help
towards guidance, but it is like poison. A teacher is like a stamp to clay
and a student is like clay. If the stamp has no character, there is no
impression on clay. Or he [is] like a cane and the student is like the
shadow of the cane. How can the shadow of the cane be straight when the
cane itself is crooked? God said: Do you enjoin good to the people and
forget it for yourselves? (2:44) (Al-Ghazali, 1977a, Vol. 1, p. 70).
Al-Ghazali believed that a teacher should live:
. . . what he teaches and not allow his works to givelie to his words,
because knowledge is comprehended though the mind while it works
through the eyes. But those who see with their eyes are more than those

135
who perceive with their mind, therefore when practice contradicts theory,
righteousness is frustrated (in Faris, 1991, p. 152).
Al-Ghazali believed that it was possible to modify ones behavior and improve less
desirable personal characteristics through effort and training. He argued that the organic
function of religion is to guide people in the refinement of their character. If religion does
not control and influence the peoples behavior in this case, then all Prophetic messages,
advice, and education would have been groundless (Asari, 1993, p. 89). Al-Ghazali offered
the Master-Pupil relationship as the first step to modifying ones behavior and improving
personal characteristics. He suggests four ways to modify undesirable characteristics:
1. One should seek a spiritual guide, that is, a religious teacher was has
modeled his life according to the sacred texts of Islamic law (All
Nadwi, 1971, Vol. 1, p. 150).
2. One should seek good friends,
3. One should take advantage of ones enemies by listening to what they
say about him because they will describe his weaknesses, and
4. One should socialize with different people in society and pay
attention to their good manners (Abul Quasem, 1978, p. 87; Asari,
1993, p. 89).
I argue that Al-Ghazalis methods of modifying behavior through effort and training
contend that one must believe that evil character traits can be eliminated. To facilitate
spiritual, intellectual, and moral development, one should seek a teacher to guide the
process. This teacher should be able identify the students problem areas and recommend

136
the cure. The antidote for unacceptable conduct is to oppose its cause, which requires a
detailed investigation of the source of the problem (see Al-Ghazali, Ihya, 1997a, Vol. 3, p.
65; Abul Quasem, 1978, p. 92). As a practical example, if a person were miserly, the
remedy would be to recommend that the person make frequent charitable donations (Al-
Ghazali, Ihya, Vol. 3, p. 65).
When advising kings, Al-Ghazali (1987) attributed weaknesses in leadership to
weaknesses of their scholars (teachers), and vice versa. Thus if the teachers attitude can
affect the leaders of society, then these same attitudes can affect the students with whom the
teacher has a strong relationship. Superimposing this concept onto the family unit, it is
reasonable to conclude that the weaknesses of the parents will also affect their children.
Therefore, Al-Ghazali and other Islamic thinkers recognized that education can change and
mold society.
However, the relationship between teacher and student is more than just the
transmission of book knowledge. There are also the subtle elements of how to behave in a
way that honors the self, and ones parents and teachers. Al-Ghazali (1951) offered a story
that demonstrated the benefits beyond book knowledge. Here, a certain shaykh asked his
disciple what he had learned in 30 years, and the disciple answered that he had gained eight
benefits that served him well. The first was to do good deeds because it makes one feel
good. Next, he learned to reject passionate desires and discipline ones soul to obey God, to
seek comfort in spiritual wealth instead of worldly things, and to be pious because it is more
attractive to God than accumulated possessions. In addition he had gained insight into what
it meant to be satisfied with what one has, to hate none but Satan, to be thankful to God
because He put us here and thus, we have to appreciate His generosity, and not to rely on

137
material goods but trust in God, as He is an excellent provider. These benefits are
mentioned in the four great books of religion: the Torah, the Quran, the Psalms, and the
Gospels (Al-Ghazali, 1951, 1997a).
Although Al-Ghazali held educators in high regard, he nevertheless warned a student
that viewing ones teacher as a role model was acceptable, but that blind imitation of the
teacher was not. The role of the student is to seek the truth. He advised students to use their
minds to think and learn the truth, and not just rely on the teacher (Al-Ghazali, 1989). Al-
Qaradawi (2000) and others who agree with Al-Ghazali observed that certain Sufi shaykhs
essentially demanded devotion from their students (muridin), and that this was and is
excessive and extreme. Although Al-Ghazali did espouse a Sufi orientation, he was by no
means extreme and agreed that teachers serve as guides and that they are fallible.
Al-Ghazali (1989) believed that teachers should direct the efforts of the students, but
that students should then take these guidelines and follow their own individual paths to
reach the truth. He also proposed that students should research every school of thought
without depending on a particular philosophy or scholar, in order to be fully informed. In
practice, Al-Ghazali implemented this concept by researching all four branches of Sunni
Islamic law
19
in order to consider what the best approach would be to a particular situation.
Looking at Al-Ghazalis Master-Pupil rights and responsibilities, one might conclude
that the spiritual and moral characteristics were basic features of Al-Ghazalis model, with
no contradictions from the researchers, who agree with his concepts.

19
These four branches were developed on the second Islamic century (8
th
CE), to interpret Islamic
law. Their names are Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii, and Hanbali (Ziadeh, 1995, p. 456).

138
While most of the researchers are in agreement with Al-Ghazalis spiritual and moral ideas,
they feel he does not emphasize many practical aspects of education for Muslims. In other
words, his concepts are not complete for some researchers, and they make attempts to fill in
the gaps by placing more of the intellectual sciences in the curricula along with the spiritual
teachings.

Al-Ghazalis Ideal Parent-Child Relationship

Al-Ghazali (1997a) noted that a child is born with a thirst for knowledge, and that
one is ready to absorb information from the moment of ones birth into this world. To wait
until a child actually embarks on his or her formal education would mean missing these
opportunities for developing the childs growing spiritual and intellectual capacities.
Teaching not only the rituals but also the structure of the faith, therefore, begins within the
family, and does not wait until the child enters elementary school.
Al-Ghazali also believed that it was the parents primary responsibility to inculcate
these characteristics into their children, meaning that the parents are charged with instructing
their children on how to behave and what to do to assure everlasting life. Al-Ghazali also
stated that training in morality should start from the very beginning of a childs life (Abul
Quasem, 1978, p. 87). As an example, Al-Ghazali proposed that children have a wet nurse,
one who was observant of Islamic religious guidelines and traditions, and consumed only
lawful foods. Here, Al-Ghazali (1997a) believed the childs daily life would be affected in a
positive manner by the wet nurses pre-approved moral character.

139
Al-Ghazali discussed several different educational institutions, such as the mosque,
the maktab (elementary school), and the kuttab (higher education) (see Al-Zabidi, n.d.). Al-
Ghazali also described the family as the first educational institution for children. Thus, he
asserted that parents are mandated to be their childrens first teachers (Giladi, 1983). In
medieval times, most Muslim girls received an informal education from their fathers (and
then their husbands), either in their own home or in the home of another family in their
neighborhood (Rahman, 1982; Shalabi, 1954).
While Al-Ghazali mentioned throughout his works his reliance upon the Holy
Quran, he delegated primary responsibility for instruction within the family to the father,
even though it is a foundation of Islam that both parents are equally responsible for the
development of their children. Al-Ghazali specifically mentioned that it is the father who
should teach, although, in practice both parents could use these guidelines. Because Al-
Ghazali ascribed great importance to the family as the primary educative agent for young
children, he covered this subject in great detail. He proposed his thoughts concerning the
responsibility of every family member for teaching the others, acknowledging that each
family member was a necessary component in the learning process (Nofal, 1994).
Giladi (1983) also asserts that Al-Ghazali proposed that it is the parents
responsibility to formulate their childrens pre-school curricula at home. In his work The
Ethics of Al-Ghazali, Abul Quasem (1978) discusses some of Al-Ghazalis theories from the
latter part of his life.
20


20
Although there is some controversy about the authenticity of a few books ascribed to Al-Ghazali
these particular works have been unanimously accepted as authentic (see Watt, 1952, p. 24).

140
In his third chapter, Abul Quasem discusses Al-Ghazalis directions for training
children to have good character. Interestingly, in the family context, Abul Quasem (1978),
too, notes that Al-Ghazali gives the mother less parental authority regarding punishment and
reward. He confirms the observation that Al-Ghazali places the responsibility for childrens
education solely on the father, which is a departure from the Islamic foundation that both
parents educate their children.
While Abul Quasem reports this directive, he does not address the very real concept
that this philosophy undermines the mothers influence in the home by designating authority
for punishment solely on the father. In fact, even among contemporary Islamic educational
scholars, virtually none of the researchers commenting on Al-Ghazalis works have noted
his preference for the father as family teacher. Some researchers, such as Giladi Nofal and
Abul Quasem, contradict Al-Ghazalis emphasis on the fathers role because it ignores the
importance of the mothers role. The fact that he gave greater responsibility to the father
also contradicts Islamic principles.
However, Al-Ghazalis writings did acknowledge that the husband had certain
responsibilities to his wife to ensure her spiritual and intellectual growth, which has yet to be
explored in depth by other Islamic scholars. If one were to read only the works of the
scholars examining Al-Ghazalis works, one would think that he never addressed these
husband-wife interpersonal issues. In truth, Al-Ghazali did discuss husband-wife
relationships, which these scholars have chosen to overlook. Perhaps his ideas about fathers
and mothers followed the current practices or norms of his time, even though they were not
exactly the words of the sacred texts, which require all Muslims to be guardians in their
environment.

141
In order to integrate the Master-Pupil model with the Parent-Child relationship, first
we need to look at two things. First, the parents and childrens rights and responsibilities in
their interactive relationships; and second, what Al-Ghazali had already covered in his
writings, briefly touching on the subject of education within the family. By using the
Master-Pupil relationship as a model for the Parent-Child relationship, families can take full
advantage of implementing some of the educational methods and materials in the family
context that are customarily used only in formal schooling.
In the institutional school setting, the relationships and interactions are for a few
hours a day, for a few years. Eventually the teachers retire and the students move on to have
families of their own. While children are in school, their teachers may have as much or
more influence on them than their parents, since young children spend the majority of their
day in school. But the educator-learner context is always present in life; one never
finishes learning. The anticipated outcome is that families realize and practice the belief
that living is more than just eating and sleeping together, but also a lifelong learning process.
An example of actively seeking knowledge and then sharing it with family members
is that of one of Al-Ghazalis students, Saad Al-Khayr. He traveled to many countries (e.g.,
China and Spain), crossing seas and deserts in order to consult with different shaykhs
(teachers), and returning with many unique books.
21
Al-Khayr then taught what he had
learned to his daughter, Fatima bint Saad. Fatima ultimately learned enough ahadith and
fiqh (Islamic law) not only to obtain a license (ijazah) to teach ahadith, but also to award the
ijazah to other students who were sufficiently knowledgeable (Al-Dhahabi, 1994, 2001). In

142
this example of sharing education within the family, Fatima learned from her father, and she
subsequently taught her grandson, Ali Ibn Ibrahim.
22

This explains several aspects of what we know about the history of education in
Islam, and confirms that a Muslim woman in Al-Ghazalis era could be educated and could
also be a shaykhah (the feminine noun form for teacher). Thus at least among the elite, it
was accepted that women were capable of both learning and teaching, both at the elementary
and advanced levels. Second, these women had both male and female students, suggesting
that there was no discrimination or difference in desirability according to teacher gender, so
there was no reason to believe that female teachers were inferior. Some women even went
on to become musnidat,
23
which are highly qualified people (pl. feminine form) who can
narrate the ahadith, as in Fatimas case.
Roded (1994) and Tritton (1957) note that not only were men and women teaching
and learning from one other, but also that the proximity of the family members created a
natural environment for learning. In addition, Roded reports that learned men frequently
brought their young daughters to learn from scholarly colleagues. Thus, not only were they
teaching the youngsters themselves, but they were also facilitating access to additional
education. These models demonstrate how family members can interact as both learners and
teachers.

21
He was such a frequent traveler, in fact, that when people mentioned him by name, they referred to
him as Saad Al-Khayr al-Andalusi al-Sini, which means Saad Al-Khayr from Andalus who traveled to China
(Al-Dhahabi, 1994).
22
An ethnographic content analysis revealed that some scholars (i.e., Khatib Murda and Ibn Al-
Hafidh) traveled long distances to consult with Fatima bint Saad in order to discuss such topics. Other
scholars, such as Ibn Magreb, have included some of her teaching in their writings (Al-Dhahabi, 1994, Vol. 22,
p. 318; Vol. 23, p. 325).
23
This is an obsolete term used to refer to someone qualified to teach hadith science (in this case, the
feminine form of the word), but it is no longer in common use.

143
Rosenthal (1952) notes the strong influence parents have on their children, and the
importance of taking advantage of these opportunities to teach. He reports that children will
do even dangerous things, like playing with wild animals, because they have no instinctive
sense of self-preservation. That sense is acquired from the parents, who demonstrate when
and where fear is appropriate. Al-Ghazali (in Watt, 1996) illustrated how children imitate
their parents, since small children are imitative by nature:
The snake-charmer must refrain from touching the snake in front of his
small boy, because he knows that the boy imagines he is like his father
and will imitate him, and must even caution the boy by himself showing
caution in front of him (p. 42).
My interpretation of Al-Ghazalis perceptions is that the Master-Pupil relationship is
actually a reflection of the Parent-Child relationship which Al-Ghazali often referred to as
the Father-Child relationship; -- meaning that once children embark on a formal education,
they develop a relationship with their teachers similar to the ones they maintain with their
parents. Al-Ghazali was emphatic that parents are the childs first teachers. Many great
philosophers have examined the nature of children and how they learn, and have confirmed
that children learn from their parents, both formally and informally. Researchers have
pointed out that even infants have the magnificent ability to develop self-esteem (Pettapiece,
1992, p. 158). Strom (1989, p. 40) notes the opportunity for early childhood education in
the home because preschoolers respect their parents, imitate them, and are responsive to
family guidance.

144
Al-Nashmi (2000) notes that some modern Kuwaiti parents seem to be retired
from educating their children. The concept seems to be that their job is done and that it is
now the schools responsibility to teach them. Part of the purpose of my research is to
reestablish the educational aspects of the Parent-Child relationship by showing how Al-
Ghazali took that original relationship, adapted it and expanded it to the Master-Pupil
relationship. Recognizing the value of his philosophy, I have taken all his theories about the
educational relationship between Master and Pupil, extracting what is appropriate for the
family, and (re) superimposing the model back onto the Parent-Child relationship, extending
it to include the role of the mother as an active participant in her childs education.
Al-Ghazali (1997a, Vol. 3, p. 202) felt that the childs heart is like a lump of clay,
and the parents have the opportunity and responsibility to mold this clay into something
valuable. Purification of the soul and acquisition of good traits cannot be accomplished
without action. Therefore, parents must model the behaviors they want to inculcate in their
children in order to demonstrate what is appropriate and how to avoid impure habits as much
as possible, according to their capacities and abilities. Al-Ghazali (1997a) also believed that
teaching the children when they are young is like writing on stone; it cannot be removed.
Historically, Muslims have believed that children need to realize and practice moral
and spiritual virtues in order to be good learners. The Islamic philosophy of education of
children emphasizes that the essential spiritual matters be grasped while the children are still
young. Al-Ghazali and other Islamic thinkers have supported a practice of the Prophets in
which, immediately after a child is born, one of the parents takes the infant and whispers in
one ear the call to prayer (Adhan) and in the other ear, the announcement that praying is to
begin (iqamah). This is done to establish from the beginning one of the five pillars of Islam,

145
which is prayer (salah). Thus, children grow up practicing many sacred traditions and
rituals, and by the time they reach adulthood, these concepts are second nature. This aspect
of Islamic training is still practiced today, particularly in primarily Islamic countries.
Zarabozo (1999) emphasizes the importance of being accountable for ones actions, and
notes that proper training of children must start early in order that they know exactly what is
expected of them by the time they reach puberty. He also advised them to seek knowledge
gradually, without rushing through it; and that the lifelong goal is to pay attention to the
primary object of knowledge, which is the Islamic faith and principles.
For example, Islam teaches that happiness in the next life must be the essential aim
of any learning. Al-Ghazali cited one of the hadith that says, When a man dies, all except
three of his works perish: namely, a permanent endowment for charity, useful knowledge,
and righteous progeny that bring honor upon his memory (in Faris, 1991, p. 22). Al-
Ghazali believed that even if a parent dies, the relationship with the children continues in the
values the children have learned. The children visit the remaining family members and the
deceased parents peers, and offer prayers on the parents behalf. Al-Ghazali consistently
advocated that children respect the adults in their livesparents, teachers, and othersand
emphasized that this was a critical component of spiritual growth and harmonious social
order.
From a socioeconomic perspective, Al-Ghazali suggests that parents from rich
families teach their children the excellence of giving and to be generous, while children
from less affluent families should be taught that it is mean and disgraceful to be greedy and
not to depend on the generosity of others (Abul Quasem, 1978, p. 98). The Quran
mandates that all people are held to the same moral and behavioral standards, without regard

146
to affluence, and that good manners and morals are as important for the poor as they are for
the rich:
The one who does not know that they are poor thinks that they are rich
because of their modesty. You may know them by their mark, they do not
beg of people at all (2:273).
Al-Ghazali (1997a) recommended that these lessons be introduced to children in the
home and incorporated throughout the learning experience. Parents cannot wait until the
child reaches school and depend on the teacher to convey these lessons, because by then the
child wont be socialized to co-exist in the classroom. From a theoretical perspective, many
of Al-Ghazalis arguments concerning family education resemble those of a functional
theorist. Functional perspectives explain how systems stay in a state of equilibrium. When
those in higher socioeconomic classes use their resources to help the needy, this
redistribution is the natural inclination to return to an equal state.
As with teachers, Al-Ghazali notes that the parents reputations must be impeccable
in order that the child perceives the parent to be a good and consistent example. The child is
a reflection of the parents; unattractive and undesirable traits in the parents will be mirrored
in the behavior of the children. In order that parents be qualified to perform this function,
Al-Ghazali emphasizes that it is important to get rid of the obstacles in the self and in
stripping off its base characteristics and vicious morals, so that the heart may attain to
freedom from what is not God, and to constant recollection of Him (Watt, 1996, p. 54).

147
Al-Ghazali advised the teachers to have a compelling impact on the development of
their students. They need to observe the students manners carefully in order to tailor
punishments and rewards to the specific behaviors. Many scholars (e.g., Al-Ghazali, 1997a;
Ibn Khaldun, 1967; Taha Hussein, 1994; and others) discussed the concepts of punishment
and reward for students:
Students should be admired and rewarded with something that gives him
joy, and should be praised in front of others. But if the student does
something bad, it is best to pretend not to notice and not to bring it to the
attention of others, and if he repeats the action, he should be privately
reproached and made to feel that it was a very serious thing and be told
beware of doing anything like this again or I shall tell others and you will
be disgraced in front of them (Al-Ghazali, in Winter, 1995, pp. 77-78).
Many of these thinkers, Al-Ghazali included, supported a systematic approach to
punishment. For example, one shouldnt just beat the offender the first time the mistake is
made. Rather, first bring the matter to the students attention and request the better
alternative. At the next offense, again call the mistake to the childs attention and remind
the student of the desired action. If it persists, gradually increase the severity of the
consequences until the unacceptable behavior is eliminated. We can take this concept one
step further and apply it to Parent-Child relationship understanding the fact that Al-Ghazali
afforded fathers more authority than mothers, especially in terms of educating the child. He
discussed alternative educational means, such as fear through warnings and rebukes (Giladi,

148
1992, p. 64). These methods give the mother less authority regarding punishment and
rewards. One example of this philosophy is what leads to such comments as, Just wait
until your father gets home. This is a particularly ineffective concept if the father travels
or is out of the home when the child commits the offense.
24

To explain his understanding from a different perspective, Al-Ghazali (1951)
compared the role of an educator to that of a farmer. The farmer takes the undeveloped
resources (earth, seeds, water) and combines them to make food. In this same fashion, the
Master/Parent takes the Pupil/Child and the lessons, and puts them together to convey
knowledge and help the child to grow. As part of the process, the farmer removes the weeds
and thorns and dead leaves to help nurture the growing item. When the Master/Parent
fosters appropriate interpersonal relationships, corrects inaccurate ideas, and demonstrates
what is good and what is not, this further nurtures the childs good character. The primary
responsibility for childrens education and integrity falls on the shoulders of the parents, and
the parents will reap what they sow. If they neglect the childs upbringingthat is, do not
remove the weedsthey will bear the burden of the sin of neglect (Al-Ghazali, 1977a).
Al-Ghazali recommended that the parent/teacher consider what the child/student is
capable of learning in terms of these phases when developing or assigning curricula to
young children. In terms of individual differences, parents should remember each childs
ability and capacity for learning. In this light, children should not be taught things that are

24
Al-Barjas (1983) suggests that Al-Ghazalis intent was not, in fact, to limit the mothers authority
over the children, but rather that each parent approach discipline from a different direction. He proposes that
Al-Ghazali meant that the father should be the person who metes out the punishment, and that the mother
should use reasoning skills, to balance the impact of discipline imposed on the child.

149
beyond their comprehension. Al-Ghazali encourages educators to speak to men by way of
illustrations and examples as they were ordered to speak to men according to the degree of
their intelligence (Al-Ghazali, Ihya, Vol. 2, p. 25).
Although Al-Ghazali did not talk about girls education within the family unit, other
researchers describe his era by saying that transmission of knowledge from adult to child
within the family, especially for the education of girls, was not uncommon in medieval
Islam, and that the transmitters were both men and women (Roded, 1994). Roded also
comments that this was a natural occurrence because of the proximity of the relatives, and
that many of the young women who began their education at home were so fascinated by
learning that they subsequently sought further education with other teachers.
To summarize Al-Ghazalis perception of parents as educators, one finds that
families need to provide an adequate learning environment that is also a nurturing place with
clear religious purpose. Family education must be based on a fundamental concept of
parents responsibilities. Parents are accountable for training their children and implanting
in their hearts and minds the seeds of good traits. These enable them to practice the
obligatory devotional acts such as praying and fasting in order to become conscious of their
own choices. Parents need to safeguard their children by preventing them from hearing vile
anecdotes and associating with bad friends: A [child] should be directed not to join bad
company (Al-Ghazali, 1997a, Vol. 3, pp. 75-76).

150
Summary of Al-Ghazalis Educational Model of Relationships

I have demonstrated that the Master-Pupil relationship can be superimposed over the
Parent-Child relationship, so that in most cases what Al-Ghazali recommended for teachers
and their students could also apply to what he would have recommended for parents and
their children. For example, Al-Ghazali made note of how teachers are role models for their
students, in the same way parents are role models for their children. Al-Ghazali (1997a) was
referring to the Quran and hadith, where there are several instructions directing people to
model the kind of behavior they expect from others. This is especially true with children,
who learn how to behave from observing the adults in their environment.
In this chapter I discussed the details of Al-Ghazalis core understanding of such
topics as treating the child as a tabula rasa (Nofal, 1994), meaning that he believed that
children are born with the true faith (fitrah)ready to learn and absorb this knowledge.
Al-Ghazali is one of many scholars who recognized the enormous potential for learning in
the home. The family environment is the childs first educational institution. Because the
parents teach the children first and direct them in their spiritual growth, he advocated that all
parents take advantage of these learning opportunities and offered guidance to support this
process. Al-Ghazali (1997a, 1989) had many suggestions for how both teachers and students
should conduct themselves and respond to others, and what each party can expect to obtain
from and contribute to education. He also had many suggestions for what to teach, when to
teach, and how to teach in the home. Even after children embark on their formal education,
the family is still involved in facilitating that process (e.g., helping with homework,
involvement in school activities, and introducing children to additional educational

151
resources), as well as instilling in their children a life-long love of learning such that they
continue pursuing knowledge even after completing their formal education. Then, as now,
the family is the first place that learning begins. Ideally, the ideal model of the Master-Pupil
relationship can be superimposed on the Parent-Child relationship so that learning at home
prepares the child for formal education.
This discussion involved an extensive search for all analyses and comments related
to Al-Ghazalis teachings. While there may have been some documentation missed for the
purpose of this review, the other writers commentaries on Al-Ghazalis works (Khawajah,
1986; Mubarak, 1988) located in this search, however, indicate that few of the other studies
refer to his thoughts on education regarding the rights of women. One could conclude from
this idea that Al-Ghazali did not address these issues in his works, although that would be
incorrect.
Before one can officially identify Al-Ghazalis theories as either germane or
outdated, however, one must recognize that Islamic society in Al-Ghazalis era differed in
terms of its priorities and values than society today. In his time, and until the last 40 to 50
years, it was customary to offer direction in terms of he should do such and such. This
does not necessarily mean that the directive applied only to boys or men, only that writers
were less concerned with what was politically correct than they are today. It is, therefore,
necessary first to determine which of his philosophies he addressed specifically to men (i.e.,
excluding women), and which Al-Ghazali directed that he do something or he be
responsible for something, where he included all persons. In those situations where he
speaks directly to or about women, however, this would obviously not apply.

152
Finally, if I were to compress all of Al-Ghazalis ideas concerning the Master-Pupil
relationship and, by parallel, the Parent-Child relationship, I might choose the hadith that
Al-Ghazali brought to the people: Whoever does not respect elders and be kind to children
does not belong to us (Muslims) (Al-Bukhari, 1999, p. 157). All of Al-Ghazalis teachings,
advice, writings, and philosophies are based on this idea that older people are valued for
their wisdom and need to be respected. In addition, children need to be treated kindly so
that they will model the adults and grow up to be kind to their children, just as Prophet
Muhammad respected elders and showed kindness to children. The cycle repeats itself
generation after generation. Even though Al-Ghazali lived hundreds of years agoand the
companions of Prophet Muhammad even before thatthe basic concepts of the Quran
remain the core of Islam, with the ahadith providing daily guidance for parents, teachers,
and children. The most critical concept that Al-Ghazali offered for all professions, not just
teaching, is to do all things sincerely. Be genuine in all you do.

153
CHAPTER 7
AL-GHAZALIS VIEWS ON WOMENS EDUCATION

Background

Women are part of the family unit and their educations have a great impact on their
children and family members. As mentioned before, there are critical analyses that must be
brought to bear when translating Al-Ghazalis theories into a family model. Thus, this
section will discuss Al-Ghazalis views on womens education and social status, and how
this has an impact on the Parent-Child role, especially in relation to the current social trends
in Islamic countries.
In order to understand Al-Ghazalis perceptions and teachings about womens
education, they need to be considered in the context of the era in which he wrote. By
examining these concepts and comparing them to the sacred texts on which he relied for
inspiration, we will gain a greater understanding of womens status in his day, and can
extend our findings to the present day.
In medieval Muslim societyand in other cultures during the same time periodthe
majority of the literature concerning raising children refers to males as authority figures.
Giladi (1992) reports that there was explicit discrimination against females. Al-Ghazalis
concept of knowledge and ideas on methods of teaching, like those of many Western
philosophers in the 18
th
century (e.g., Rousseau), was concerned more with boys education
than with girls education. Even though the Islamic religion encourages females to educate
themselves, Al-Ghazali proposed that education for women be very limited, maintaining that

154
females should be educated only by their parents or husbands. Ironically, even though Al-
Ghazali (1997a) acknowledged that teaching and learning are the highest level of worship,
he asserted that women needed only religious education. Al-Ghazali perceived that women
needed to learn only the fundamentals of religion in order to fulfill their duties as wives and
mothers. In the Ihya, Al-Ghazali (in Holland, 1998) reported his opinion that women
should not endeavor to acquire any loftier forms of knowledge other than religious
education. Al-Ghazali noted that the womans fatherand her husband, after she
marrieswere responsible for educating her about the rules of ritual prayer and other
necessary spiritual and moral qualities.

A man who is getting married should learn about menstruation and its
rules, so as to observe the necessary restraints. He should teach his wife
the rules of ritual prayer, and about when prayers must or need not be
made up by women after menstruation. For he is commanded to preserve
her from the Fire, in the words of Allah (Exalted is He): Guard yourselves
and your families against the Fire (66:6).
He should instruct her in the beliefs of those who follow the
Prophetic model, and should remove from her heart any innovation she
may have heard of. He should instill the fear of Allah in her if she is lax
in the matter of religion.
He should teach her all that is necessary of the rules of
menstruation and irregular bleeding, although the latter is a lengthy

155
subject. The essential knowledge a woman must be given about
menstruation concerns the prayers that are to be repeated.
If her bleeding stops just before the sunset prayer, she is obliged to
make up the midday and afternoon prayers; if she stops bleeding by
midnight, then the next morning, she must make up the [preceding] sunset
and late evening prayers. This is the minimum that women observe.
If the husband is seeing to her instruction, she may not go out to
consult the scholars. If the husbands own knowledge is inadequate, but
he consults the Mufti [scholar] on her behalf and conveys the reply back to
her, again she may not go out. Otherwise, she does not merely have the
right to go out for consultation, but is duty-bound to do so, and it is a sin
for the husband to stop her. Once she has learned her religious
obligations, she may not go out for a session of divine remembrance
[dhikr] nor for extra studies, unless she has her husbands consent.
Whenever the wife neglects one of the rules governing
menstruation and irregular bleeding, and the husband does not tell her
about it, he is equally at fault and becomes her partner in sin (Al-Ghazali,
in Holland, 1998, pp. 70, 92-93).

The information above is the total extent of Al-Ghazalis references to womens
education. Given his enormous body of works, this information, although quite minor,
contradicts original Islamic principles. In her anthropological study, Dahl (1997, pp. 157,
179) found that some of Al-Ghazalis arguments concerning womens duties and rights have

156
been and still are taken quite literally to this very day. Bear in mind that even though Al-
Ghazali proposed that only males be well educatedwhich was not unusual in his erait is
not a foundation of Islam that women have fewer educational opportunities. Safi (2001)
emphasizes that:
. . . while Islamic sources differentiate mens and womens responsibilities
within the family, all limitations imposed by classical scholars on
womens rights in the public sphere were based on faulty interpretation of
Islamic texts, or practical limitations associated with the social and
political structures of historical society (p. 34).
Safi notes that some classical scholars have misinterpreted the genuine Islamic
sources. This situation supports a comprehensive re-examination of the genuine Islamic
texts to ensure that todays interpretation is both accurate and applicable to contemporary
societal needs.
In addition to considering only that fathers be responsible for teaching their children,
another important factor is that Al-Ghazali spoke about education being provided for male
children only. As mentioned earlier, it is a foundation of the Islamic faith that all persons
are entitled to education (male and female) to the full potential of their capacity, and that any
person (male or female) is capable of teaching another. One must realize that there were
many women in early Islam, even in his time, who had achieved prestigious academic

157
status.
25
Nevertheless, Al-Ghazalis view of women, for the most part, was that they had
limited intelligence and that a virtuous woman was a rare phenomenon (in Ihya, 1997a, pp.
163-164). He placed women at a lower rank than men, and he enjoined them to obey men
and to remain inside the home (Nofal, 1994, p. 533).
Although Al-Ghazali maintained that girls may claim from their parentsand wives
from their husbandsthe right to be educated, such education would be limited. Khawajah
asserts that Al-Ghazali felt that it was sufficient that a young girl learn the fundamentals of
religion; she should not endeavor to acquire any loftier forms of knowledge, nor should she,
except with the permission of her husband, go outside the home to seek knowledge as long
as he performs his duty by educating her. If, however, the husband does not educate his
wife, she may go outside the home to seek education, and that any man who would prevent
her from so doing is at fault.
While many of the researchers I investigated contradict this limited view of women
by Al-Ghazali. In addition, he was not the only early Islamic philosopher to confer inferior
status upon females. Despite the fact that Islams spiritual policy is concerned with
improving the social status of women and devoting attention to their education, the later
ahadith and the social and educational principles derived from them limited their status
because of the influence of other cultures as well as the time in which Al-Ghzali lived.

25
Some of the most important Islamic male scholars were taught by women, Berkey (1991, p. 151)
reports that Al-Asqalani (852/1449) provided the name of 53 women with whom, in one way or another, he
studied [ahadith]. Jalal Al-Din Al-Suyuti (d. 911/1505) relied heavily on women as his sources for hadith: of
the 130 shaikhs of exceptional reliability on whose authority he recited [ahadith], 33 more than a quarter of
the total were women.

158
Nofals (1994), Mubaraks (1988), and Khawajahs (1986) studies explain Al-
Ghazalis negative tendencies regarding the way in which women are to be considered, dealt
with, and educated. The number of his writings that actually refer only to men, however, is
sometimes difficult to determine due to Al-Ghazalis use of the pronoun he to refer to all
persons (male and female), rather than just men (Winter, 1997).
In light of Nofals (1994) and others criticism, Al-Ghazalis views on womens
education merit additional intensive investigation. However, while Nofal criticizes Al-
Ghazalis gender discrimination, he offers no supporting data to validate his (Nofals)
position. There has also been no investigation into how or why Al-Ghazali reached these
restrictive conclusions, in light of the fact that Islam holds more tolerant views on the same
subject. Contrary to Al-Ghazalis negative point of view on educating women, Tritton
(1957) notes that, historically, Islamic women were not only trained to read and writethey
were actually employed to do both, giving as an example a woman in the Middle Ages
named Fatima bint Al-Hasan who received 1,000 dinars from Khalifa Al-Kunderi for
writing a treaty. This is especially significant when one realizes that they did not have
conventional printing methods at the time. All printed matter was copied, one document
from another, so accuracy and penmanship were critical skills.
Ibn Al-Jawzi (d. 1201 CE) and other medieval Islamic thinkers have documented
their observations and interpretations of life in the Middle Ages, reporting that Islamic
women in the 11
th
century (CE) were mostly illiterate, although it is worth noting that
women were still making significant contributions to society, regardless of literacy, as
indicated in Table 7.1. Evidence of this is included in Ibn Al-Jawzis collection of
biographies of his contemporaries, in which 240 women (23% of the total number of people

159
mentioned in his writings) were mentioned as having made notable achievements (in Roded,
1994, p. iv).
It is important to note that these womens biographies do not include every
significant female in medieval Islamic history. It is also impossible to compare these figures
to equivalent information about noteworthy women at the same point in Western history,
because European history also makes comparatively few references to the contributions of
women and, of course, there is no information to report about women in North America, the
U.S. in particular, prior to the early 17
th
century. Roded (1994, p. viii), however, notes the
plethora of source materials concerning women in Islamic history.

Table 7-1
Biographies of Muslim Women (in Roded, 1994)


Author

Date
(AD)
# Women
Entries
# Male
Entries

Total
% Bios of
Women


Ibn Saad

845

629

3621

4250

14.8%


Ibd Al-Barr

1070

399

3826

4225

9.4%


Ibn Al-Jawzi

1201

240

793

1033

23.2%


Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani

1449

1551

11753

12304

13.0%


Al-Sakhawi

1497

1075

10616

11691

9.2%





160
A reasonable conclusion to make is that as Al-Ghazali looked around the society he
lived in and documented his observations, he would have reflected what he noticed in his
recommendations concerning womens education. Understandably, he might limit or
control female formal education to some extent, and he probably wanted to ensure that
women did not miss out on learning the family traditions and basic education, first learned
informally at home with fathers and husbands. He stressed the importance of religious
education and mentioned several guidelines for teaching this material, but addressed only
teaching boys and men; he did not specifically mention what or how to teach unmarried
girls. Al-Ghazalis writings give us the impression that boys are entitled to more education
than girls. Because he is not here today to clarify this impression, it is a complex task to
determine what he intended. In addition, undoing Al-Ghazalis opinion of women has not
been easy because his influence has been felt for centuries, with his works still found in
university textbooks and in current literature on Islamic law.

Influences on Contemporary Islamic Womens Education

The concept of reexamining the classical literature to return to ones original roots is
not exclusive to Islamic theory. There are many scholars (e.g., Pagels, 1979; Scholer, 1993,
1997; Wilson, 1849) who have addressed a comparable shift in womens roles in other
times, places, and cultures. This section will address Al-Ghazalis philosophies concerning
womens education and analyze how they have influenced women in many primarily
Islamic countries.

161
From the inception of Islam, women have been encouraged to seek knowledge. The
Prophet himself reported that it was Gods intent for all to know His Quran and directed
each person to teach and share what was known with others. Muslims regard the age of the
Prophet as a golden epoch in the history of Islam. Women were visible in the realms of
education and philanthropy (Ahmed, 1992; Amal, 2000; Roded, 1999). Roded (1994) notes
that 41 percent of the endowments in Ottoman Aleppo were documented as having been
established by women, suggesting that Muslim women (particularly affluent ones) were
committed to scholarship. These were not insignificant contributions; Roded (1999)
mentions buildings and highways in several places in the Middle East named for the women
who financed their construction. In contrast, Mazrui (2001, p. 67) notes that British women
however were granted the right to own property independent of their husbands only in
1870. Thus, Muslim women had, and were exercising, their rights to own and distribute
property more than 12 centuries before British women were accorded the same rights.
Both Muslim and even some non-Muslim researchers (Armstrong, 2000; Coulson,
1964; Esposito, 1982; Iqbal, 1996; Spring, 2000) agree that Islamic law (i.e., the Holy
Quran and Prophetic sayings) is broad enough to support modern legal structures
concerning womens equality, and that it meets the needs of modern life, especially in terms
of family law. The Prophet did not teach or consider that women were inferior to or less
entitled than men. El Saadawi (1980) maintains that there are positive aspects in Islamic
culture that must be sought and emphasized, and negative aspects that should be exposed to
bring about further change. She points out that women in the time of the Prophet obtained
rights, which today, are denied in most Arab countries (El Saadawi, p. 212). Because some
Muslim women today are being deprived of opportunities that the Prophet had conferred

162
upon them, a gradual, yet major, shift in attitudes towards womens rights has occurred in
many Muslim countries.
As one example, Al-Dhahabi (1994, Vol. 12, p. 493) was a medieval Islamic thinker
born after Al-Ghazalis era. He describes a book written by Al-Muzani that summarized Al-
Shafiis school of fiqh (law). Al-Dhahabi noted that Al-Muzanis book was readily
accessible in the Middle Ages, and that many families would give their daughters a copy
when they married, so that they would know what they could reasonably expect and be
responsible for in their new lives. These young women would bring this book as part of the
goods their families sent with them for establishing their new households, to refer to and
consult if they had any questions.
If one examined this book, copies of which are still available today, the first thing
one would notice is that it is written in the formal language of the well educated. If women
were not knowledgeable in those days, what would be the point of sending this book along
as a reference if she could not read it? Interestingly, this book (or something comparable) is
seldom included in a young brides belongings today, suggesting that perhaps many Islamic
families today are placing a higher priority on the material value of what they send with
their daughters when they get married, rather than on the ongoing spiritual and moral
support they could offer with such a book.
There have been some Islamic thinkers over the last 14 centuries (e.g., Al-Qabisi,
2000; Al-Qurtubi, 1966) who have espoused positions conflicting with the guidelines
established by the Prophet. They assert that they are protecting women by denying them
literacy and an education, which now requires leaving the home and attending an institution
of learning, thereby exposing them to the outside world. These scholars support their idea,

163
using the hadith reported that the Prophets wife, Aishah, said, do not teach the girls how
to write. But teach them sewing and the Al-Nur chapter (in Al-Mannawi, n.d., Vol. 3, p.
430).
Reviewing hadith literature, however, one can see that this hadith had some
problems. First of all, this hadith is problematic by virtue of its isnad (the chain of authority
at the beginning of a hadith). Unlike Al-Qurtubi, (1966) many scholars (e.g., Al-Abadi, in
Al-Muhaddith, 2000) have confirmed that this hadith has weak isnad due to the fact that Al-
Abadi addressed an entire chapter to the subject of this hadith. In addition, there is a
problem with the matin (the main text of a hadith), as it contradicts other ahadith that
Aishah narrated. Aishah is considered to be one of the utmost authorities on the ahadith.
Students from many countries wrote letters to consult on various spiritual matters, and she
and her female assistant would reply to them.
Al-Bukhari, (1999, pp. 479-480) mentions a hadith narrated by Aishah concerning
her correspondence with other women. It is clear, then, that any hadith discouraging female
literacy contradicts what Aishah, herself, was doing, and is in conflict with other Prophetic
sayings that encourage women to seek education. This false attribution not only opposes
Islamic tradition, but contradicts what we know about Aishahs entire personality and
character. If accepted as truth, however, then Muslims could use this weak hadith to justify
preventing women from seeking an education. This fabrication has far-reaching effects in
modern Islam, in which we can see a division between those who believe that womens
education is a privilege, and others who believe that girls and women have the right to
choose whether or not to pursue higher education.

164
Many times these maverick opinions have been accepted and implemented as if they
were official Islamic law, when in fact they are merely traditions established by humans.
26

Thus, in order to restore the equilibrium present in the Prophets era, researchers are looking
back to the Holy Quran and ahadith to determine what is true and what is innovation, in
order to ascertain the official positions with regard to the rights and responsibilities of
women. In Muslim Women and Higher Education, Ahmad (1983) clearly emphasizes the
Islamic position from the Islamic sacred texts, that both men and women should be
educated. He strongly states his position: Therefore, no sane person can think that men
alone should be the beneficiaries of this knowledge (Ahmad, 1983, p. 54). He emphasizes
that Islam emphasizes that all skills needed to live an Islamic life need to be learned by all
Muslims, not just men. Ahmad asks how a society can say its members are living
Islamically when, in some Islamic countries, women are deprived of the opportunity to
acquire necessary knowledge and skills to function in the family and in society.
Even though women may not understand the meaning of the words in the Quran,
the traditional (cultural) view is that as long as women are able to read the Quran, that is
enough. This cultural view is in direct opposition to the core of Islam, which emphasizes
the necessity of education regardless of gender (Ahmad, 1983, p. 54). Noteworthy is the
fact that, in the very beginnings of Islam, both men and women had access to education.
Only in the last 300 years did tradition somehow shift this position so that women lost their
access to equal education and were restricted in their social interactions.

26
From the Middle Ages, some Muslim men feared that educating women would lead them to
establish correspondence with men and, thus, cause problems in the home. This idea was adopted and
subsequently used to justify denying access to education, even into the 20
th
century (Doumato, 1989).

165
Bewley (1999) tackles these issues in her book, Islam: The Empowering of Women.
She offers historical sources demonstrating that women were indeed active in all areas of
life throughout Islamic history, until 300 years ago. When we consider that Islam has been a
recognized religion and way of life for over 14 centuries and that only in the last 300 years
have womens rights been curtailed, her investigation into how womens roles as scholars,
politicians, and spiritual leaders were lost is very relevant. How and why could Muslim
women lose their rights and respect from men when they had already proven their value in
the home and in the public arena?
Bewley points to colonialism as marking the beginning of the downfall of womens
rights in Islam. She offers examples such as how, at the end of the Mameluk period in the
14
th
century CE, it was hard to find a woman without a teaching license. Even before this
period there were large numbers of such women, such as Fatima Al-Samarqandiyah, who
not only had an ijazah (license) for teaching, but also had the capacity to authorize fatwas
(legal opinions). Fatima read law with her father, and her husband used to consult her
(Roded, 1994). Several pages in Bewleys book mention the names of women who, like
Fatima, taught both the Quran and ahadith, who were muhtasibah (market inspectors), who
exercised faqihat (jurisprudence), and who were also active in politics and civic affairs.
In the preface of her book, Bewley enumerates the factors she believes contributed to
the loss of womens rights earned in early Islamic history, which led to womens
disempowerment and subsequent loss of educational opportunities and public activity. Her
explanations confirm what Barazangi (2000) and Roded (1994) report, and include a re-
assertion of pre-Islamic concepts of patriarchy; converted Muslims maintaining non-Islamic
practices that furthered patriarchy; the influence of Western ideas (which also, until recently,

166
asserted that women were inferior); and the legacy of modern colonialism, which asserted
that Islam was barbaric and that only Western ideas were civilized. This last concept was
further reinforced by the Islamic ruling elite, who inherited this legacy of colonial power and
imposed it on the Muslim world, which de-throned women from their place of importance
in every aspect of Islamic life: education, politics, and religion.
These ideas merit further study, and may be the key to reopening the door for women
in Islam to regain the privileges lost in the last 300 years. Roded (1994) notes that what was
proposed in the ideal and what occurred in reality may have been different, and that there
were social factors which impacted womens freedoms outside the home. Roded also refers
to one complication in determining the exact manner of womens seclusion because it is
possible that historical biographers didnt provide certain details because they may have
been common knowledge at that time. But she notes that women were in fact meeting with
men for business and academic purposes without compromising their modesty, even though
the details of these meetings are no longer available.
Some Muslim social thinkers (e.g., Bashier, 1981; Ghadbian, 1995; Nasr, 2000; and
others) have tried to categorize Muslim thoughts about womens issues into two positions:
Traditionalism, of which there are two sub-typesconservative tradition and modern
traditionand secularism. Rahman (2000) notes that the two trends are, for the most part,
brutally juxtaposed, and produce two types of people who can hardly communicate with
each other (p. 8).
Conservative traditionalists assert that change, if needed, will be gradual. If the
system has worked this way for this long, then they assert that there is little if any need to
change it. Modern traditionalists, on the other hand, have noted inconsistencies between the

167
way things are and the way theyre supposed to be. For example, the Quran advocates that
everyone is entitled to an education, but some Muslim women are being denied that option.
Their recommendation is to return to the official guidelines for the faith and determine what
the original intent was.
Muslims advocate educating males and females separately, and prefer that students
have same-gender teachers. In order for todays young women to be educated in this
context, however, women have to be trained as teachers. There are some conservatives who
are willing to accept that women do need some education, but that a high school education is
sufficient. But who will be teaching in these high schools if the women are not going to
college? This would seem to dictate that women need to be educated without imposing
limits on what they can know, because in order for females to attend schools with well-
trained female teachers, education beyond that offered in the home must be acceptable.
Al-Ghazali asserted that women were primarily mothers and housekeepers, and that
men supported the family (e.g., by being employed in some capacity outside the home) and
taught their wives and children. After all, if everyone worked outside the home, who would
take care of the children? But instead of merely using this opportunity to reinforce the
delegation of responsibilities, he used it to usurp womens authority. This was manifested in
restrictions imposed on womens social and educational freedoms, even though early Islam
had no such restrictions.
Ibn Umar (in Al-Bukhari, 1999, No. 212) reported that the Prophet said:
All of you are shepherds, and all of you are responsible for your flocks. A
trustee is a shepherd, and he is responsible. A man is a shepherd for his

168
family, and he is responsible. A woman is a shepherd over the home, and
she is responsible. Verily, all of you are shepherds.
The Prophet also taught that, Women and men are equal halves (Ahmad & Abu-
Dawud, in Al-Albani, 1986, Vol. 1, p. 399). The first hadith explains that each adult has a
sphere of responsibility that he or she is completely accountable for. The second explains
that men and women come together in marriage to complement each other, and that they
should take these opportunities to consult with each other in the management of their
responsibilities. However, each should maintain the authority in his or her spheres, and if
one party encounters a challenge, then the other person has to assume responsibility for that
challenge.
The conservative traditionalists have not questioned Al-Ghazalis philosophies; they
merely implemented them as is. The modern traditionalist, however, has raised a reasonable
issue for these conservatives: If you limit womens education and restrict them to the realm
of household management, then who will teach our daughters? Furthermore, if women are
not well educated, they will not feel confident about teaching their childrenmale or female
at home, nor will they be able to support their childrens academic performance in school
later in life.
There have also been allegations posted by secular educational theorists, which can
be contrasted dramatically to the traditional positions. In their zeal to critique Al-Ghazalis
philosophies, these secularists note that Al-Ghazalis misogynous writings not only
classify females as secondary sources of power, but also as slaves and/or toys for the
husband (El Saadawi, 1981; Ibn Waraq, 1995, 2001; Mubarak, 1988; Rafiqul-Haqq &

169
Newton, 2000). These scholars assert that Al-Ghazali fostered male domination in society,
and conferred inferior domestic status on women. Realistically, men in the Middle Ages
usually worked. It was also common for them to travel extensively for both business and to
continue their education. Consequently, the women remained at home in order to take care
of the children. There also appears to be some concern that it was not safe for women to
travel alone. Thus, if she traveled less, her educational opportunities would have been less
frequent.
The modern traditionalists advocate a return to the fundamental Islamic sources and
their directions concerning equality in education. Al-Hibri (2000) asserts that, we need to
devote a great deal more time and effort to critiquing various elements of our traditional
jurisprudence that are based on domination and suppression. We also need to contribute to
the evaluation of a better Islamic jurisprudence based on Divine logic (p. 71).
Modern Muslim traditionalists have been working to expose those areas where non-
Islamic traditions and customs have infiltrated Islamic culture, noting that some of these
traditions contradict Islamic principles. Consequently, several generations of Islamic
women have been denied their right to an education. Contemporary international media
sources are reporting that there are Muslim women who are successful in all facets of life,
including as scholars and jurists in Islamic law (fiqh), demonstrating that women are
beginning to recapture the rights conferred by their Islamic faith. The trend to modernize
need not mean giving up ones Islamic faith in order to be liberated, as advocated by the
secularists. In fact, only by embracing the true meaning of the original Islamic sacred texts
can one be freeperhaps not according to the Western model, but according to the culture

170
that Muslims have embraced. The Islamic umbrella can and does empower women, if
interpreted correctly (Ezzat, 2000).
Ironically, modern traditionalists believe that Islam does confer rights upon women,
the same rights that secularists believe are denied by Islam. Thus, while both factions
advocate womens education, their paths and motivations are different. Perhaps this
discrepancy has more to do with the fact that Western ideologys concept of emancipation
does not agree in some parts with Islamic ideology, and does not draw its strength from
Islamic law. The secularists would advocate that women study and take jobs outside the
home in order to have economic opportunities equal to men. However, women realize that
work, as it relates to them, is a created need deliberately built into the economic system so as
to push them to it, causing them to work out of deprivation, not to achieve any self-
realization (Arebi, 1991, p. 105).
Knowing what we know today, we can see the effect that Ghazalian educational
traditions have had on modern education and what the ramifications have been. His
teachings have been implemented as curricula in several Islamic educational institutions for
many decades. Is this perpetuating a problem?
From an education perspective, there is no contradiction between possessing
knowledge beyond the religious and domestic realms and a womans ability to assume
successfully the roles of wife, mother, and Muslim, even if she enters the workforce. The
capitalist economic ideal, with its institutional setting of the business environment, has
encouraged a reduction in childbearing in order to liberate the woman from the domestic
arena so that she can participate more fully in the labor force. Modern Islamic traditionalists
do not go this far.

171
Analyzing this from an educational policy perspective, in spite of the Kuwaiti
governments official position that it supports education for all, this really isnt the case,
particularly among women scholars. While all Kuwaiti women are officially encouraged to
pursue higher education, in reality, few of these women are actually able to seek this level of
education. Some of the policies in place that are intended to facilitate her education actually
sabotage the effort. Once her scholarship to attend graduate school has been awarded, these
Kuwaiti women have to make some difficult choices.
For instance, Muslim women are discouraged from traveling abroad alone. But if
her husband chooses to accompany her, he loses his salary if he takes a leave of absence
from his job while she studies. The state of Kuwait also pays families a monthly stipend for
each child in the family. But since this stipend is connected to the fathers income,
27
if the
husband takes an unpaid leave of absence, then the stipend is suspended until the husband
resumes working. The alternative is for her to travel and live abroad alone, which conflicts
with the high priority Islam places on family cohesiveness. Until recently, even if she did
come alone, she would see her family only once every two years, because that was how
often the government would pay for a plane ticket home.
28
Thus, these policies meant that
married women with young children could not pursue graduate-level studies outside their
country without compromising their maternal responsibilities with the family.

27
In Kuwait and other Islamic countries, the father is the parent primarily responsible for the support
of the family. In fact, in many cases, mothers do not work outside of the home. Thus, this stipend is
distributed with the fathers income because, in theory, this money is already being used for the support of the
family.
28
The policy of the government providing travel back to Kuwait for scholars studying abroad was
amended from once every other year to once a year in the spring of 2001. The student has always been able to
travel at the students expense.

172
Thus, if a woman chooses to continue her education abroad, she often has to make a
difficult choice between pursuit of knowledge (a practice respected in Islam and likened to a
form of worship) and maintaining the family as a closely-knit, interdependent unit (which is
perceived to be her highest priority). Furthermore, should a female student be forced by any
circumstance to discontinue her studies once she has begun, she is also liable for repayment
of the scholarships she was offered. Fear of initiating a course of action that could
conceivably create grave financial hardship for her family is a considerable impediment to
her continuing education. It would be realistic at this point to consider a complete overhaul
of the policies supporting education abroad, from the perspective of the affected students
and their families, to determine whether these policies actually benefit the student in the
long run.
Al-Ghazali and other conservative scholars did not advocate that women attend
educational institutions, which made it difficult to establish such institutions for girls in
many Islamic countries for centuries. One example is Al-Azhar University in Egypt, which
was founded in 978 CE. Not until the early 1960s did Al-Azhar University open its doors to
women. In 1988, Al-Azhar University added a limited program to train women as preachers
(Reid, 1995).
Our review of Islamic historical literature confirms that higher education for women
had been fairly common in earlier eras, but that policies excluding Muslim women from
different institutions were instituted over the last few centuries. As an example, the mosque
has played a significant role for Muslims as both a social and an educational institution. It
was not only where the communityboth men and womengathered for prayer and
instruction, but also served as a place for social gatherings. Al-Ghazali maintained that

173
women should be banned from these institutions, justifying his position by stating that
widespread moral deterioration made public spaces unsafe for all but elderly women, and
encouraged women not to leave their homes except out of necessity (Hoffman-Ladd, 1995).
Unfortuantely, Al-Ghazalis ideas on women have persisted for centuries. This influence
can be seen in statistics from UNESCO that more than 50 percent of Muslim women are
illiterate.
In reality, genuine Islamic sources do provide many freedoms for women, such as
access to education, the right to choose her mate, the opportunity to work for pay and have
discretionary income, and the ability to own property and acquire wealth (Al-Manai, 2001;
Husain, 2001). However, at the First World Conference on Muslim Education in 1977, the
following was pronounced: Education should therefore cater to the growth of man
29
in all
its aspects: spiritual, intellectual, imaginative, physical, scientific, linguistic (Haw, 1998, p.
58). Further, Haw notes that denying women access to knowledge is the same as denying
females access to the path of righteousness and implies marginalizing them in this life as
well as the hereafter.
Given that the Islamic faith grants these opportunities to women as their right, does
our review confirm that Islamic educational institutions extend these rights to women, or is
society ignoring these aspects of Islamic education? Are these institutions enabling women
to write about their own issues, since many of these issues, including health and personal
matters, have historically been written by men?

29
The term man in the Quran is interpreted as non-gendered, referring to men as well as women
when used collectively, as it is in this statement.

174
By the same token, why do educational institutions for women lack training in
handicrafts, which have historically been an important part of womens livesnot only from
the creative viewpoint, but also from an economic perspective, since women can contribute
to the family finances by selling their handmade items. This is even more troublesome
because Kuwaiti girls schools teach certain functional domestic skills, such as cooking and
sewing, but are neglecting the traditional crafts, such as weaving rugs and tent
manufacturing. Why not include these creative crafts and skills in the schools? The
secularization of education has resulted in a replacement of traditional crafts and, therefore,
a reduction in the number of women accomplished in these crafts and skills that have been
important to Kuwaiti culture.
Taking this concept to the next level, why not teach crafts that make ecological use
of what is available in Kuwait? For example, glass blowing would be a wonderful skill to
teach boys and girls because sand is readily available in Kuwait. What good is
woodworking training if we have no trees? Education must reflect the needs of each
generation, as well as promote the crafts of prior generations, as a way of maintaining ties
with the past while still learning about the future, which must include equal opportunities for
both genders.

Summary of Al-Ghazalis Views on Womens Education

In general, Al-Ghazalis approach to womens education corresponds primarily with
the conservative tradition, as is evident in the limits he imposed on female education and
socializing outside the home. He did acknowledge that women needed religious instruction,

175
and asserted that no Muslim should remain ignorant of spiritual matters. But beyond that, he
did not encourage further scholarship for women.
Powell and DiMaggio (1991) state:
Institutional theoryis mainly concerned with how the institutional
environment, comprised of socially created beliefs and cognitions, widely
held in society and reinforced by corporate actors, affects
organizations(modern) societies contain institutionalized rules in the
form of rationalized myths, and these beliefs shape organizational forms
(p. 391).
If we consider this contemporary statement in terms of Islamic history, we realize
that Islam provided a discrete set of values affecting womens roles and responsibilities in
society, and that these values were accepted for centuries. Over the last few centuries, some
Islamic thinkers proposed non-Islamic innovations in social values, which were gradually
accepted as norms, and which have since been reinforced by Islamic culture and affected
womens education. These thinkers proposed that women did not need to learn to read or
write, which expressly contradicts the original Islamic principles, then and now. As these
concepts were assimilated into Islam, these rationalized myths caused women to remain
uneducated for centuries, the fallacy being that females were not entitled to the same
education as males. Although these assertions impacted Islamic society for many centuries,
recent Islamic scholars have been challenging these ideas and comparing them to
documented Islamic principles.

176
In her article on Muslim women in modern civilization, Al-Manai (2001) and Lang
(1994, 2000) report that even in the 20
th
century, some Muslim thinkers still advocate
restricting womens education to high school. Others who advocated more extensive
education still limited womens professional options to teaching or nursing. This has no
foundation in Islamic educational history, however, where women are documented as having
been involved in many professions and were visibly active in many aspects of society.
Schimmel (1997, p. 180) notes that much suffering has fallen to the lot of women
because simple [Quranic] precepts have been interpreted more and more narrowly over the
course of time, and she attributes this to male domination. Safi (2001) emphasizes that
historically, some Islamic texts must have been interpreted incorrectly because Islam, as a
religion, has no barriers to womens education. Schimmel (1997) encourages a hermeneutic
re-examination in terms of the original sacred texts, because there ought to exist no
difference between man and woman in the realm of spiritual life (p. 181).
Regarding the three social trends (conservative, modern traditional, and secular), all
three have aspects that we cannot ignore when applying them to the womens education and
to Al-Ghazalis theories concerning womens education. We may not agree with all the
theorists; however, each of the theories contains an element of truth. Acknowledging the
core of Islam conservativism, reviewing the original Islamic texts within modern tradition,
and listening to the critical trend (secular point of view) all bring many important issues to
examine. Each of these trends that have a piece of the truth can affect modern Islamic
institutions for passing on normswhether they be the institutions of marriage, education,
or religionthat surround and influence Muslims daily lives. Instead of ignoring one or
another trend, the modern Muslim family can look at each one closely and decide which of

177
the concepts within each trend conform to the sacred texts. Regarding Al-Ghazali, within
the historical context, he seemed to be forward thinking. He was not against females being
educated; in fact, his ideas of spirituality and religion for the woman are still valid. What is
needed is an expansion of his concepts to include the needs of women today.
The issue of educating Muslim women is a complicated one that cannot be resolved
merely by making education compulsory for all. By returning to the original teachings
offered in the Holy Quran and the ahadith, and by looking at what the Prophet Muhammad
advocated and practiced in his own life, we are finding that women did have a great deal of
educational freedom, but that this opportunity was rescinded in later years (after the first
three generations of Islamic history), creating a society in which women were not
encouraged to seek an education. Educating women does not have to mean the end of her
Muslim faith or her family life. In fact, her choice to continue her education should be a
path that strengthens her faith and her family. Women should be free to choose the extent of
their own education, as well as what they wish to do with that education once it is complete.
In terms of some of the inconsistencies noted in Al-Ghazalis teachings and Islamic
principles, we note that the Prophet directed that both parents are equally responsible for
raising and educating their children. Al-Ghazali, however, asserted that women have less
responsibility and authority than men. Given the social and historical context at that time
(11
th
and 12
th
centuries), and the writing style in use in his day, this was not an extraordinary
concept, although we can see today how much of this information could possibly have been
misinterpreted or misapplied.
While other researchers have evaluated Al-Ghazalis writings and theories, most of
the studies were theologically oriented; it is difficult to find works that comment on Al-

178
Ghazalis thoughts concerning womens education. Nofal (1994), Khawajah (1986), and
Mubarak (1988) briefly note that Al-Ghazali did address education for women, but they
have all documented the fact that Al-Ghazali placed limits on what women were entitled to
learn, and that this is not supported by Islamic principles.

179
Chapter 8
THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF AL-GHAZALIS RECOMMENDATIONS
ON EDUCATIONAL POLICY IN KUWAIT

Earlier chapters have discussed Al-Ghazalis teachings concerning education in
terms of both the curriculum and the relationships, and compared them to the foundations of
Islam. This chapter will propose how some of Al-Ghazalis teachings that are supported by
Islamic principles can be applied to educational development in primarily Islamic countries.
This will be explored in terms of both the formal and informal aspects of educating children
and women.
Al-Ghazalis recommendation that the family is the first educational institution to
make educators and learners of its members is proof that the Parent (Father)-Child
relationship is crucial to the Master-Pupil relationship, once the child enters formal
schooling. Thus, reversing this concept by stating that the Master-Pupil relationship can be
used to design the Parent-Child relationship seems logical. While Al-Ghazali adopted ideas
from other countries that he felt would benefit Islam, he kept his focus on basic Islamic
principles.
Today, global perspectives largely influence education today in every Muslim
country. Worldwide ability to share information on virtually any subject has afforded access
to the latest educational trends and philosophies to everyone. Educational systems seeking
an updated approach are implementing some of these concepts in their schools, particularly
in the case of less developed nations adapting the ideas of the more developed nations. As
an example, education in the United States is held in high esteem by many countries, and

180
policy developments implemented here are frequently incorporated in other nations,
sometimes with questionable results. The key to implementing new ideas and materials into
Islamic education is to Islamize the information and presentation to ensure a successful
integration into the schools. This process is called Islamization, which is the integration of
Islam from another, non-Islamic concept (Ashraf, 1985; Golshani, 2000; Roald, 1994).
To assess how well Islamic education meets the needs of Islamic society, I
recommend a thorough review Al-Ghazalis teachings concerning curricula and methods,
updating them to meet our contemporary needs. Policymakers need to look at the issues as
Al-Ghazali did, examining others ideas in terms of both content and culture and Islamizing
them if necessary, before incorporating them into Islamic educational systems. These
policymakers may have to surrender, if necessary, some of their beliefs about Al-Ghazali,
especially since his views on educating women will not work within the Parent-Child model
that I have described.
While the Master-Pupil relationship is the model for the Parent-Child relationship, it
cannot be superimposed without the re-examination of women in modern Muslim countries.
Barth (2001) has said it quite clearly: The illiterate of the 21
st
century will not be those who
cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn. Policy makers may
need to unlearn and relearn in order to create educational policy that reflects the needs and
responsibilities that women are entitled to based on the original Islamic texts. The teachers
job is to provide a love of learning to their students, because learning is the highest form of
worship and the path to truth. Using this concept within the family, the parents must also
motivate their children, and my contention is that this cannot be done without the full
participation of a mother who herself has had full access to learning.

181
In addition, Al-Ghazalis concept of the father as the main link in the childs
education must also be surrendered. As women become educated, they will be able to help
their children in school, and become just as important in the childrens education as the
father has been. Al-Ghazalis concept of the father as the more important parent in the
childs education will have to be forsaken as Muslim women gain more access to a full
education.
In light of my study, I recognize that the Kuwaiti government is listening to women,
and encouraging them to speak up and speak out about the issues that concern them,
especially those relating to their education. Education is their stepping stone to a more
active role in their families and in their society. My own opinions regarding education
policy for women studying abroad were published in the Kuwait Embassy in the United
States, and I was encouraged by policymakers at the Kuwaiti Embassy in Washington, DC,
to submit more of my ideas (Alkanderi, 2001).
For various cultural and personal reasons, some Muslims choose to limit their
childrens participation in some of the arts. In order to accommodate these childrens needs,
classes in such areas as music and art education could be offered as elective subjects,
available to those who want it, with acceptable alternatives for those who dont. It is
important for policymakers to create a status for these artistic courses such that they are
available to those who elect to take them, but other appropriate options are provided for
those who elect not to take them.
While acknowledging that Western education has a great deal of valuable
information to offer, Kuwait and other Islamic countries are now re-examining the areas
where Western influences have been adopted in their schools to ensure that the course

182
material and presentation do not conflict with Islamic culture and tradition, and adapting
them to ensure conformance. Before Islamization can take place, there is a need to master
the Islamic legacy (Mohamed, 1994). Another important part of the Islamization of
education is the acknowledgment and communication of Islamic contributions to
civilization. What is needed, according to Jameelah (in Esposito & Voll, 2001), is a modern
Al-Ghazali to ensure that Islamization continues.
Another aspect of Islamization is to control the reaction to Western (or Eurocentric)
influences in education. The Islamization of education should also include an examination
of Islamic contributions to civilization (Golshani, 2000; Roald, 1994), and these
contributions need to be acknowledged and communicated. Davutoglu (2000) asserts that
the existing Euro-centric orientation now means that an educated Chinese knows more of
Plato than of Confucius, and an educated Muslim knows more of St. Thomas Aquinas than
of Imam [Al-Ghazali]. Yes, it might be true for some countries; however, many Islamic
countries still maintain their Islamic thoughts in their educational system. As
I mentioned in other chapter, Kuwaiti college students cannot graduate until they take a
course about Islamic thinkers. Although some of these Western influences are considered
the ideological antithesis of Islam, the schools do need to teach secular subjects while
maintaining an Islamic curriculum to maintain the students ties with their faith (Roald,
1994). Therefore, re-examining the classical Islamic literature and going back to the core of
Islam is a necessary part of Islamization within todays culture.
Another type of Islamization is adopting foreign concepts so long as they do not
conflict with Islam. For instance, Al-Ghazali did disagree with virtually all non-Muslim
philosophers, although he did acknowledge that there were components of their teachings

183
that were valuable, such as logic. But it would be unrealistic for policymakers to state that,
Al-Ghazali recommended the following courses of study, and that is all we are going to
teach. While his curricula orientation was valid in the Middle Ages, too much has been
discovered in the last 900 years to ignore more recent developments. One example is the
use of computers and the Internet to promote Islamic knowledge. Software available in
Arabic contains programs explaining the Quran, and there are many Muslim sites on the
Internet. None of this was available in Al-Ghazalis time, but has still been successfully
integrated into Islamic society today.
Although school systems in every country are able to consider input from around the
world, there needs to be a return to the educational roots of each particular country in terms
of its own culture, vocabulary, history, and attitudes. This would include a comprehensive
examination of a variety of key contributors to Islamic education throughout history. To
depend on a single scholar or school of thought as the basis for establishing a foundation for
education is misleading. Other scholars and schools of thought need to be considered.
The current situation in many Islamic countries is that there are many schools of
thought and social trends, which is good. However, because there is little or no
collaboration between these scholars and trends, the process of social and educational
progress is difficult. In Islamic history, there were always many schools of thought. The
difference is that there seemed to be more collaboration and cooperation among those who
followed different paths. For example, one of Al-Ghazalis students critiqued Al-Ghazalis
methods in the philosophers own time; despite their differing opinions, the two still
maintained a strong relationship. We need more of this idea of challenging the concept

184
without destroying the relationship. If we can transfer this concept to the family unit, ideally
each family member can have an opinion without destroying the family unit.
Basic human values eclipse time and remain applicable in every generation. Perhaps
what we need, as Idris (2001) suggests, is media exposure to discuss the interconnectivity
between Al-Ghazalis philosophies and modern education in Muslim countries, to
demonstrate how his concepts are actually can support the contemporary education in Islam.
However, policies for womens education need to be updated to meet the current demands of
modern Kuwait and the role that women can play to bring fulfillment to themselves, their
families, and to the country itself. This updating is necessary, because Al-Ghazali did have
some flaws in his philosophies that, especially as they concern women, should be re-
examined in the light of true Islam.
Some of these traditions do not, in fact, reflect true Islamic thought, yet they have
been implemented for hundreds of years. However, from the social theory point of view
the history of intellectuals in Muslim societies provides an important foundation for activist
reforming intellectuals in the twentieth century (Esposito & Voll, 2001, p. 10). There are a
number of approaches that could advance and reform education of women in Islam. First,
we propose an increase in the publication of Al-Ghazalis works, with hermeneutic re-
examination and updating of his ideas on womens education in terms of genuine Islamic
principles. Next, there is a need to establish organizations to support educating Muslim
women about their rights within Islamic law, and to facilitate the sharing of this knowledge
with others. Third, opportunities should be provided in various media for Muslim women to
express their ideas and communicate with one other about issues that concern them. In this
way, Muslim women can educate one another in a supportive environment. The current

185
environment is that males have significantly better opportunities and media access than
women, and this must be rectified in order for all women to take their place in society.
What is needed is a forum to establish both mothers and fathers feeling comfortable
and confident in teaching their children and interacting with the teachers. Full educational
reciprocity between parents and children is complex, however, because many older women
in Islamic countries are illiterate. Thus, it is important to establish educational policies that
advocate educating both males and females to validate the need for both parents to take an
active role in their childrens education.
Related to this is an encouragement for women to enroll in different educational
institutions in order to be more active in their childrens education, since they are already the
active parent anyway in most Muslim countries. Now they need to be educated in order to
help their children, and they need to have the educational tools to do this. Finally, additional
research on womens social and educational status throughout Islamic history is necessary,
especially the disappearance of their rights about 300 years ago, which Bewley (1999)
asserts coincides with colonial/Western influences.
At the same time that the needs of women in education have to be addressed, there is
another need to bring Kuwaits educational system to the level of other modern countries.
Like most countries, families in Kuwait and other, primarily Islamic countries have the same
desires and motivations to stimulate the development of their children. The Ministry of
Education has a commitment to deliver and provide educational resources from an Islamic
perspective. Because the existing programs in these Islamic countries are newer than those
in the U.S., there are fewer resources available. For example, Kuwait needs more public
libraries and the technology found in the West in these libraries, such as online

186
encyclopedias. These resources are needed to contribute to childrens complete education in
Islamic countries.
In order to make Al-Ghazalis teachings accessible to a wider audience, the body of
his resources could be published in a wide variety of media. One complicating factor in this
research was that even though approximately half of the resources used in this research are
written in Arabic and this researcher is an expert in Arabic language, many of these
resources were written in formal language that has fallen out of regular use, necessitating
frequent consultations with several dictionaries. This process makes comparable research
by the average Muslim very difficult, and for a non-native Arabic speaker, virtually
impossible.
To facilitate a comprehensive examination of these historical resources, it would be
extremely helpful to develop a dictionary of formal and obscure educational terms used in
older Arabic writings, to help future researchers understand the language without being
frustrated by frequent interruptions to search for definitions of terminology. Educational
policymakers would also benefit from improved access to a larger body of research, giving
them a broader base to call upon when developing new policy.

Summary and Recommendations

This study investigated the social dimensions of education in Islam by exploring Al-
Ghazalis concept of the Master-Pupil relationship as a model for education within the
Islamic family. The research examined Al-Ghazalis and others thoughts on the Master-
Pupil relationship and proposed curriculum for Islamic education, the application of the

187
Master-Pupil model to education within the family, and the application of that model to
include education for women in order for her to be a part of the Master-Pupil relationship
with her husband.
The intent of this research is to promote Al-Ghazalis Master-Pupil relationship as a
model for the Parent-Child relationship within the Islamic faith and lifestyle. There needs to
be a monumental shift in educational attitudes towards women for this to occur. The
essential element in the education process is the family unit. If both parents now teach their
children, this takes the knowledge to the next generation. This process will repeat itself.
Al-Ghazalis primary role model for establishing the characteristics of the Master-
Pupil relationship was Prophet Muhammad. Al-Ghazali incorporated most of the values and
methods the Prophet used in instructing his companions about his model for this
relationship. By maintaining a strict adherence to original Islamic teachings, which includes
full education for women, the educational system in Islamic schools can be assured of
compliance with the spiritual goals from the sacred texts.
The application of many of Al-Ghazalis ideals concerning the Master-Pupil
relationship and his curricula to Muslim contemporary environment are still valued, such as
the rights and responsibilities of both Master and Pupil. However, there are some ideas that
need to be re-examined to meet the needs of modern Islamic countries. In English, Al-
Ghazalis foremost work, Ihya Ulum al-Din, translates to mean the Revival of the Religious
Sciences. The concept of re-examining existing processes to ensure relevance to future
needs is not a new discovery. This consideration of Islamic referencesAl-Ghazalis
writings, the sacred texts, and other Islamic scholars worksto inspire continuing growth
within the contemporary family is a process that has been in use since the inception of Islam.

188
By reexamining Al-Ghazali in light of modern education, we are reviving his work in the
same way he revived works of his time.
Muslims can use Al-Ghazalis Ihya as a manual or handbook for human behavior,
beginning with the outer action of the persons worship and social relations, and culminating
in the inner behavior of the mind or heart. Therefore, as Al-Ghazali explains, this is a life
journey that requires knowledge of the outer and inner aspects of the Science of Right
Practice (Gianotti, 2000). In general, Al-Ghazali proposals concerning family education
reinforce the values of religious and spiritual formation, which form the infrastructure of
Muslim families. Specifically, his ideas about womens education need to conform to
original Islamic texts, which will provide modern Muslim women the educational tools they
need to actively participate in Muslim society. The practical aim of family education is to
motivate and assist believers in living the Islamic way of life, both externally and internally
(Gianotti, 1998, p. 23). Al-Ghazali (1997a) emphasized that he was systemizing Islamic
education, rather than introducing new philosophies. He explained that his intent was
merely to gather and then to explain the various teachings from Islam, so that they would be
convenient to review and consider as a cohesive group. An ethnographic content analysis
reveals that, yes, the majority of Al-Ghazalis teachings are based on original Islamic
sources, including the Holy Quran. He has done a great service by gathering these
individual ideas and assembling them for use by Muslims everywhere.
The pursuit of knowledge was Al-Ghazalis highest priority, as one of the highest
forms of worship. He asserted that people needed knowledge to protect themselves, noting
that only its pursuit can serve that purpose. His theories of knowledge include its definition,
its merits and excellence, the role of the intellect, the way of knowing, the learning process

189
itself, and the obstacles to the learning process. In other words, Al-Ghazali proposed an
extensive curriculum for students for gaining knowledge in a systematic and orderly fashion.
In this way, students would ultimately attain all of the knowledge they needed in the manner
best suited to a comprehensive understanding of the concepts. In the context of his era, his
concepts have been proven to be effective over the years because these classifications are
still influencing basic curriculum development and educational methods today, used in home
and in school, for both males and females. This would necessarily include incorporating Al-
Ghazalis observations that any educational system must provide practical, educational
solutions on how to produce employable graduates in such a way as to meet societys
professional and trade needs. In Al-Ghazalis time the king was the policymaker. Today
there are professional policymakers who decide which courses children should be taught,
and the teachers are to follow these recommendations. Thus, the educational policymakers
have the responsibility of making sure that the children are taught by the their teachers in
such ways that the studnts can participate fully in society.
A brief examination of the college courses available to education students in Kuwait
at the Basic College of Education revealed that while courses are available in child
development from a biological standpoint, only a few courses are integrating this knowledge
with Islam. One of the goals of this research is to facilitate the development of a more
comprehensive course in child development, incorporating the teachings of the religious
texts and Islamic thinkers throughout history. Policymakers might benefit from reading this
thesis in order to remind them of the importance of incorporating more of the works of
Islamic thinkers.

190
Concerning the education of females, many Muslim women are living with
inaccurate information about their rights and entitlements according to Islamic law. Some
of this incorrect information (reported by various classical Islamic philosophers) contradicts
the instructions in the Islamic sacred texts; consequently, many women are being denied
access to an education. Thus, these features need to be reviewed and reconsidered in light of
the foundations of Islam so that organizations can be formed to facilitate educating Muslim
women about their rights within Islamic law. The basic curriculum and theories of
knowledge first compiled by Al-Ghazali must now be applied to equal education for both
genders. In addition, more research needs to be done and published regarding contemporary
issues of concern to Muslim women.
My recommendations also include a course to be taught that would explore womens
education in Islam from its historical roots to the present time. It would involve critical
thinking skills in order to know the source of our problems concerning the education of
women, and sources that support female education in all areas of life from the earliest times.
Educating females needs to begin in the home, in childhood. The ability to make rational,
informed decisions is learned by making choices and accepting the consequences of those
choices. If women are denied access to this trial and error learning process, and cannot
develop the leadership and resourcefulness skills they need as parents, they will arrive at
adulthood ill-equipped to guide or lead their children. The unfortunate fact is that the
United Nations reported that adult female (i.e., age 15 and over) illiteracy in 1999 in the
Arab States was 51 percent (UNESCO, 2000, p. II-8). Worldwide, female illiteracy for the
same year was about half of that (26.4%) (UNESCO, p. II-7). Even if one considers the
percentage of female illiteracy in all developing nations, the rate for that population is only

191
34.2 percent (UNESCO, p. II-7). Comparable rates for male illiteracy are 27.1 percent
(Arab States), 14.7 percent (worldwide), and 18.6 percent (developing countries) (UNESCO,
pp. II-7, II-8). While UNESCO reports noticeable improvement in literacy overall, both
male and female, there is clearly a problem where such a sizeable portion of the population
cannot read in nations that value education. Islam prizes knowledge, and familiarity with
and understanding of the sacred texts is highly valued. Until all Muslims who are
functionally able to read are given the opportunity to choose for themselves whether to
learn, educational policymakers in primarily Islamic countries cannot state that they are
achieving their goals.
The overwhelming majority of experts in Islamic jurisprudence are male. Women
need to be encouraged to pursue this field so that Muslim women can learn about their rights
in Islam from a womans perspective so they can teach other women in Islamic society.
Once women have equal access to career opportunities, they will provide good role models
for young children, especially girls. While some researchers acknowledge that Islam
advocates equal access to education, in reality, these concepts are not put into practice.
Regarding my research, one could conclude that there is no elaborate or independent
treatise concerning family education from Al-Ghazalis standpoint. In addition, gender
issues such as womens education have only been briefly addressed in a few studies of Al-
Ghazalis work. It is not that Al-Ghazali never spoke of these concerns; in fact, he devoted
a chapter to family education that focused on womens rights, education, and conduct. But
given the fact that he wrote more than 400 books on the Islamic way of life, why did he
devote only one chapter concerning womens education? Unfortunately, there has been very
little examination of his lack of writings on family education that included the womans

192
right to be educated the same as a man. Some contemporary writers (e.g., Khawajah, 1986;
Nofal, 1994; and others) are beginning to look critically at Al-Ghazalis restrictive views
and directions concerning the education and social lives of women. There is still a need for
deeper investigation of Al-Ghazalis views regarding womens status to determine how they
relate to contemporary Muslim life.
In light of the findings in this study, there is further opportunity to evaluate and
extend Al-Ghazalis theories about family education in order to address the contemporary
social and educational environments. It is unrealistic to accept the assertions of scholars
such as Khan, who believe that the Muslims salvation today can be restored by simply
implementing Al-Ghazalis thoughts into Islamic education (Ali, 1995, p. 4; Benomran,
1983, p. 2). This is not appropriate because some of Al-Ghazalis ideas concerning gender
issues contradict womens educational rights, as guaranteed in Islam.
While prior investigations have covered many of the topics he developedincluding
education and social conventionthere has been very little examination of his ideas
concerning family life and interpersonal relationships within the family (e.g., husband-wife,
parent-child, and child-child). This, too, leaves a wide variety of topics still to be explored
that can have an impact on educational theory and policy and the impact of womens access
to education, to ensure that both parents are active participants in the Parent-Child
relationship.
Perhaps I can use the analogy of the bird, as Al-Ghazali did when he talked about the
two wings being fear and hope. However, in my analogy the two wings are the two parents,
and both wings are needed for a bird to fly. If one wing is not working (that is, the mother
cannot participate in her childs education because she herself is uneducated), then the bird

193
will not fly. This means that both the mother and father must be able to help their children,
and to do so they need to be educated as well. Thus, Al-Ghazalis ideas of education for
women need to be revised so that both parents can be active participants in their childrens
education. Islamic law commands it, and only through equal education for both men and
women will Muslim society realize the full, future potential of their children.

194
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abadi, F. (2000). Al-qamus al-muhit [Arabic dictionary]. Retrieved in May 2000
from http://www.muhaddith.com/.
Abbott, N. C. (1967). Studies in Arabic literary papyri, Volume II (Quranic
commentary and tradition). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Abd Al-Ghafir, A. (1980). Abd Al-Ghafirs life of Al-Ghazali. In Al-Ghazalis
Deliverance from error (R. McCarthy, Trans.) (pp. 14-18). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University.
Abdul-dayim, A. (1997). Al-tarbiyyah abra al-tarihk [Education in history].
Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al-Ilm lilmalayin.
Aboo Zayd, B. (2000). The etiquette of seeking knowledge. Birmingham, England:
Al-Hidaayah.
Abrahamov, B. (1993). Al-Ghazalis supreme way to know God. In Studia
Islamica (pp. 141-168). Paris, France: Maisonneuve et LaRose.
Abu-Dawud, S. (2001). Sunan Abu-Dawud [Abu-Dawuds collections of ahadith].
Retrieved in December 1999 from http://www.muhaddith.com.
Abu Shuqqah, A. M. (1995). Tahrir al-marah fi asr al-risalah [Liberation of
women from early Islam] (4
th
ed.). Kuwait: Dar al-Qalam linashr wa tawzi.
Abul Quasem, M. (1978). The ethics of Al-Ghazali. New York, NY: Caravan
Books Delmar.

195
Ahmad, A. (1983). Muslim women and higher education: A case for separate
institutions: A work plan for womens university. Beirut, Lebanon: The Holy Koran
Publishing House.
Ahmad bin Hambal. (1983). Al-zuhd [Asceticism]. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al-Kutub
Al-ilmiyyayh.
Ahmad bin Hambal. (2000). Musnad Al-Imam Ahmad. Retrieved in May 2000
from http://www.muhaddith.com.
Ahmed, L. (1992). Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern
debate. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Ahmed, Y. A. R. (1988). Islam and Modernization: Convergence, Divergence, and
Compatibility. Unpublished doctoral thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University
Park.
Al-Abdilajader, F. (1999). 1995 TIMSS results. Retrieved in December 1999 from
http://www.moc.kw/alqabas/.
Al-Albani, M. (1986). Sahih al-jamia al-Saghir. (2
nd
ed.). Beirut, Lebanon: Al-
Maktab al-Islami.
Al-Asqalani. (2000). Fath Al-bari fi Sahih Al-Bukhari. Retrieved in May 2000
from http://www.muhaddith.com.
Al-Attas, S. M. (1979). Aims and objectives of Islamic education. Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia: King Abdulaziz University.
Al-Azami, M. (1982, January-March). The authenticity of the sunnah. Al-Ittihad,
19 (1), 15-24.

196
Al-Banna, H. (2000). The message of the teaching. Retrieved in May 2000 from
http://www.youngmuslim.ca/online_library/online_library.htm.
Al-Barjis, A. M. (1983). Altawjeh alislami linash fi falsafat Al-Ghazali [Al-
Ghazalis thoughts on Islamic education for youth]. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Andalus.
Al-Bukhari, M. (1999). Imam Bukharis book of Muslim morals and manners (Y. T.
DeLorenzo, Trans.). Alexandria, VA: Al-Saadawi Publ.
Al-Bukhari, M. (2001). Sahih Al-Bukhari. Retrieved in June 2001 from
http://www.iiu.edu.my/deed/hadith/bukhari/023_sbt.html.
Al-Dhahabi, Y. (1994). Siyar Alam al-nubala [Lives of some noble intellectual
people] (Volumes 1-24). Cairo, Egypt: Mussat Al-Risalah.
Al-Dhahabi, Sh. (2001). Tarikh Al-Islam [Islamic history]. Retrieved in June 2001
from http://www.alwaraq.com/.
Aldridge, D. P. (1998). The social, economic, and political thoughts of W. E. B.
DuBois during the 1930s: Implications for contemporary African-American education.
Unpublished doctoral thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
Al Faruqi, L. L. (1982). Al-Ghazali on Sama. In I. R. Al Faruqi (Ed.), Islamic
thought and culture. Beltsville, MD: International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1913). Maqasid al-falasifah [The intentions of the philosophers].
Cairo, Egypt: Matbaat Al-Saad.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1951). O disciple (G. H. Scherer, Trans.). Beirut, Lebanon:
UNESCO.


197
Al-Ghazali, M. (1964). Fadaih al-batiniya wa-fadail al-mustazhiriya [The
infamies of the esotericists and the virtues of the exotericists]. Hawali, Kuwait: Maktabat
al-Thaqafah.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1980). Kitab sharhajaib al-qalb [Discipline of the soul]. In Al-
Ghazalis deliverance from error: Five key texts including his spiritual autobiography, Al-
munqidh min al-Dalal (R. McCarthy, Trans). Washington, DC: Library of Congress.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1987). At-tibr al-masbuk fi nasihat al-muluk [Ingots of gold for the
advice of kings]. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Ibn Zaudun.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1989). Mizan al-amal [The criterion of action]. Beirut, Lebanon:
Dar Al-Kutub Al-ilmiyah.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1993). Al-iqtisad fi al-itiqad [The golden mean in belief] (I. Aka &
H. Atay, Eds./Trans.). Ankara, Turkey: Jamiat Anqarah.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1997a). Ihya Ulum al-Din [The Revival of the Religious
Sciences] (with commentary by Al-Imam al-Zabidi) (Vols. 1-6) (4
th
ed.). Beirut, Lebanon:
Dar Al-Khayr.
Al-Ghazali. M. (1997b). The incoherence of the philosophers (M. E. Marmura,
Trans.). Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press.
Al-Ghazali, M. (1998). The proper conduct of marriage in Islam [Adab an-Nikah].
In Ihya Ulum al-Din (M. Holland, Trans.). Hollywood, CA: Al-Baz.
Al-Ghazali, M. (2000). Almustasfa fiilm al-usul [The pure teaching on the science
of fundamentals]. Retrieved in May 2000 from http://feqh.al-islam.com/default.htm.

198
Al-Ghazali, M. (1990). Qadaya al-marah bayna al-taqalid al-rakidah wa-al-
wafidah [Womens issues between the origin and other traditions]. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar
Al-Shuruq. (This is the book by the contemporary M. Al-Ghazali.)
Al-Hakim. (2000). Mustadrak Al-Hakim. Retrieved in May 2000 from
http://www.muhaddith.com.
Al-Hibri, A. Y. (2000). An introduction to Muslim womens rights. In G. Webb
(Ed.), Windows of faith: Muslim women scholar-activists in North America (pp. 51-71).
Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Al-Hindi, M. (2000). Kanz al-ummal. Retrieved in May 2000 from
http://www.muhaddith.com.
Al-Houli, A. (1999). Teachers perceptions of parental involvement in elementary
schools of Kuwait. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
PA.
Ali, A. Y. (1995). The meaning of the Holy Quran. Beltsville, MD: Amana Publ.
Ali, M. S. A. (1995). Al-Ghazali: A critical synthesis of his philosophy of education
compiled from his writings and as represented in his works. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus.
Al-Ibrahim, H. A. (1996). Al-Kuwait wa al-mustaqbal [Kuwait and the future].
Cairo, Egypt: Maktabat al-Dar Al-arabiyah lil kitab.
Alkanderi, L. (2001). Reflections of a graduate student. In Alhiwar Althaqafi
Newsletter, 7 (2). Retrieved in Jun 2001 from http://www.htq8.com/page3.html.

199
Al-Kaylani, M. I. (1981). Ibn Taymiya on education: An analytic study of
Taymiyas views on education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, PA.
All Nadwi, A. A. (1971). Saviours of Islamic spirit. Vol. 1. (M. Ahmad, Trans.).
Islamic Research and Publication.
Al-Madkhalee, M. R. H. (1995). The reality of Sufism in light of the Quran and
Sunnah. Birmingham, England: Al-Hidaayh.
Al-Makki, Abu Talib, (1892). Qut al-qulub fi mu`amalat al-mahbub wa wasf tariq
al-murid ila maqam al-tawhid (The nourishment of hearts in dealing with the Beloved and
the description of the seeker's way to the station of declaring oneness). Cairo, Egypt. Dar
Al-Rayan liturath.
Al-Manai, A. (2001). Al-marah al-muslimah wa al-nuhudh al-hadhari [Muslim
women and modern civilization]. Retrieved in June 2001 from http://www.islamweb.net/
doha2000/15_aesha.htm.
Al-Manawi, M. (2001). Faydh al-qadir sharh jami al-Saghir [Commentary on
Sahih Al-Bukhari]. Retrieved in June 2001 from http://www.muhaddith.com/.
Al-Mansur biallah, M. (2001). Adab Al-Mualimin wa lmutaalimin [The manners
of teachers and students]. Retrieved in June 2001 from http://www.alwaraq.com/.
Al-Mawdudi, A. (2001). Suras Information. Retrieved in June 2001 from
http://muhaddith.com/cgi-bin/dspl_cgi.exe/form
Al-Mawirdi, A. (1979). Adab al-dunya wa din [Education for life and religion]
(Vols. 1 and 2). Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Shab.

200
Al-Mulk, N. (1978). The siyar al-Muluk or siyasa-nama [The book of government
or rules for kings] (H. Darke, Trans.). Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan.
Al-Nadwi, H. (1978). Islam and the world. Beirut, Lebanon: The Holy Quran
Publishing House.
Al-Nashmi, A. (1995). Al-infisam bain al-nadhriyah wa al-tatbiq wa dawr al-fikr
al-gharbi [The schism between theory and practice in Arabic thought]. Kuwait: Amiri
Diwan on the Implementation of the Provisions of Muslim Shariah Law.
Al-Nashmi, A. (2000, August). Questions and answers on Islamic law. Al-
Mujtama [The Community]. Retrieved in May 2000 from http://www.almujta.com.
Al-Nassar, S. M. & Ahmad, J. A. (1998). Madkhal iltatawur alfikir alttrbawi
[Developing educational thought]. Kuwait: Dar al-ssalasil.
Al-Nawawi, Y. (1982). An-Nawawis forty hadith. Kuwait: Salimiah International
Islamic Federation of Student Organizations.
Al-Nawawi, Y. (1988). Al-adhkar [Remembering]. Cairo, Egypt: Dar Al-Rayan
liturath.
Al-Nawawi, Y. (1991). Riyaz Al-Salihin [The gardens of the godly people]. Beirut,
Lebanon: Dar Al-Thaqafah Al-arabiyah.
Al-Nawawi, Y. (2000). Sharh Al-Muhazab [Commentary on Al-Muhazab].
Retrieved in May 2000 from http://www.feqh.al-islam.com/TextDisplay.asp?Document=44
&Paragraph=2.
Al-Nawawi, Y. (2001). Al-majmu [The collection]. Retrieved in June 2001 from
http://www.alwaraq.com/.

201
Al-Nifir, A. (1989). Tthir Al-Ghazali Al-Siyasy fi Al-Maghrib Al-Muwahhdy [Al-
Ghazalis political influences on the Arabic West]. Al-Muslim Al-Muasir, 54 (14), 77-100.
Al-Otaibi, M. M. & Rashid, H. M. (1997, Winter). The role of schools in Islamic
society: Historical and contemporary perspectives. The American Journal of Islamic Social
Sciences, 4 (14), 1-49.
Al-Qabisi, A. (1983). Al-risalah al-mufasalah liahwal al-mualimin wa
lmutaalimin [A message to teachers and students]. In A. F. Al-Ahwani (Ed.), Al-tarbiyah fi
al-Islam [Education in Islam] (pp. 267-315). Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-maarif.
Al-Qahtaani, S. A. (1996). Fortification of Muslim thought: Remembrance and
supplication from the Quran and sunnah. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Matbaat Safir.
Al-Qaradawi, Y. (1960). The lawful and the prohibited in Islam. Indianapolis, IN:
American Trust Publications.
Al-Qaradawi, Y. (1998). Al-sunnah masdarn lilmarifah walhadarah [The sunnah:
A source of knowledge and civilization] (2
nd
ed). Cairo, Egypt: Dar alshuruq.
Al-Qaradawi, Y (2000). Al-Ghazali bayna madihih wa qadhih [Al-Ghazalis
critics and supporters]. Beirut, Lebanon: Muasssat Al-risalah.
Al-Qurtubi, A. M. A. (1966). Al-jami lhkam al-Quran [Quranic exegesis] (Vols.
1-16). Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Ihya alturath.
Al-Qushayri, A. (1992). Principles of Sufism (B. R. Von Schlegell, Trans.).
Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press.
Al-Rabe, A. A. (1984). Muslim philosophers classifications of the sciences: Al-
Kindi, Al-Farabi, Al-Ghazali, Ibn Khaldun (Middle East). Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

202
Al-Salehi, M. (1998). Attitudes of students at a basic college of education in Kuwait
toward gender roles in Kuwait. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, PA.
Al-Sarraf, M. (2001, March). Al-Bahth an al-Hal [Seeking the solution]. In Al-
Hiwar al-Thaqafi [Educational Dialogue] (6), 2.
Al-Sawi, M. W. (1999). Dirasat fi alfikir al-tarbawi al-Islami [Studies in Islamic
Education]. Kuwait: Maktabat Alflah.
Al-Shami, S. A. (1993). Al-imam Al-Ghazali [Al-Ghazali]. Damascus, Syria: Dar
Al-qalam.
Al-Shatibi (2000). Al-muwafaqat. Retrieved in December 1999 from http://feqh.al-
islam.com/default.htm.
Al-Sibyh, N. (2001). Interview. The Public Authority for Applied Education and
Training News, 4, 62-70.
Al-Subki, T. A. (1976). Tabaqat al-shafiiyyah [The people who pursue the
shafiiyyah school] (Vols. 1-10). Cairo, Egypt: Dar Ihya al-kutub al-arabiyyah.
Al-Subki, T. A. (1983). Kitab muid an-noam wa-mubid-niqam [The restorer of
favors and the restrainer of chastisements]. London, England: Luzac & Co.
Al-Suhrawardi, S. (1991). The Awarif-Ul-maarif . (L. H. Clarke, Trans.). Lahore,
Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf.
Al-Tabari, M. (1994). Tarikh al-rusul wal-muluk [The history of Al-Tabari]: The
conquest of Iran (Vol. 16.) (G. R. Smith, Trans.). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Altheide, D. L. (1996). Qualitative media analysis. Qualitative Research Methods
Series, No. 38. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

203
Al-Turabi, H. (1997). On the position of women in Islam and in Islamic society.
Retrieved in December 1999 from
http://www.muslimemail.com/bicnews/BICNews/Personal/ personal11.
Alwani, T. (2000). Spirituality. Retrieved in May 2000 from
http://www.islamonline.org/ completsearch/Arabic/FatawaDisplay.asp?hFatawaID/.
Al-Zabidi, M. (n.d.). Ithaf Al-Sadah Al-Mutaqin fi sharh asrar Ulum al-Din
[Masterpiece of the pious masters in the revival of religious sciences]. Beirut, Lebanon:
Dar al-kutub Al-ilmiyyah.
Al-Zarnuji, B. (1947). Talim al-mutaallim-tariq at-taallum [Instruction for the
student: The method of learning] (G. E. Von Grunebaum & M. A. Theodora, Trans.). New
York, NY: Kings Crown.
Al Zeera, Z. (2001a, Spring). Transformative inquiry and production of Islamic
knowledge. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 2 (18), 2-32.
Al Zeera, Z. (2001b). Wholeness and holiness in education: An Islamic perspective.
Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Amal, F. (2001). Dawr al-marah fi khidmat al-hadith fi al-quruun al-thlathah al-
ulah. [Womens contributions to hadith science in the first three centuries]. Retrieved in
June 2001 from http://www.islam.gov.qa/umaa/uma_series2.htm.
Andersen, K. (2000). Functionalism. In A. Andersen & L. B. Kaspersen (Eds.),
Classical and modern social theory. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
Andrn, G. (1981). Reliability and content analysis. In K. E. Rosengren (Ed.),
Advances in content analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.

204
Arebi, S. (1991). Gender anthropology in the Middle East. The American Journal
of Islamic Social Sciences, 2 (8), 99-107.
Armstrong, K. (1992). Muhammad: A biography of the Prophet. San Francisco,
CA: Harper Collins.
Armstrong, K. (2000). Islam: A short history. New York. NY: Modern Library
Chronicles.
Asari, H. (1993). The educational thoughts of Al-Ghazali: Theory and practice.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Ashraf, S. A. (1985). New horizons in Muslim education. Stoughton, England: The
Islamic Press.
Auzturk, A. (1972). The conflict between Western civilization and Turkey. In
Islam and civilization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Al-Nadwa Al-alamiyah lishbab Al-Islami.
Azami, M. M. (1992a). Studies in early hadith literature. Indianapolis, IN:
American Trust Publications.
Azami, M. M. (1992b). Studies in hadith methodology and literature. Indianapolis,
IN: American Trust Publications.
Badran, M. (1995). Feminism. In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of the
modern Islamic world (pp. 19-23). New York, NY: Oxford Univ.
Banks, C. M. (2000). Gender and race as factors in educational leadership and
administration. In M. Fullan (Ed.), The Jossey-Bass reader on educational leadership. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

205
Barazangi, N. H. (1995). Religious education. In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford
encyclopedia of the modern Islamic world (pp. 406-411). New York, NY: Oxford Univ.
Press.
Barazangi, N. H. (2000). Muslim womens Islamic higher learning as a human
rights. In G. Webb (Ed.), Windows of faith: Muslim women scholar-activists in North
America (pp. 22-47). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Barth, R. S. (2001). Learning by heart. New York, NY: Jossey-Bass.
Bashier, Z. (1981). Muslim women in the midst of change. Leicester, England:
Islamic Fndtn.
Basyl, V. S. (nd). Manhaj al-bath an al-marifah ind Al-Ghazali [Al-Ghazalis
method of seeking epistemology]. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Kitab al-libnani.
Bazzun, H. (1997). Al-marifah aind Al-Ghazali [Al-Ghazalis epistemology].
Beirut, Lebanon: Muassasat Al-intishar.
Benomran, M. M. (1983). Al-Ghazalis epistemology and cognitive educational
objectives. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University.
Bennett, K. P. & Demarrais, M. D. (1990). The way school works: A sociological
analysis of education. New York, NY: Longman.
Bennett, W. (1988). Our children and our country. New York, NY: Simon &
Schuster.
Berkey, J. (1991). Women and Islamic education in the Mamluk period. In N. R.
Keddie & B. Baron (Eds.), Women in Middle Eastern history: Shifting boundaries in sex and
gender (pp. 143-157). New Haven, CT: Yale Univ.
Berry, W. (1992). What are people for? New York, NY: North Point Press.

206
Beshir, E. & Beshir, M. R. (1998). Meeting the challenge of parenting in the west:
An Islamic perspective. Beltsville, MD: Amana.
Bewley, A. (1999). Islam: The empowering of women. London, England: Ta-Ha.
Bhat, A. (1992). The political theory of Al-Ghazali. Islam and the Modern Age, 66-
70.
Bick, W. et al. (1977). Quantitative historische forschung [Quantitative history
documentation]. Stuttgart, Germany.
Bilgrami, H. H., & Ashraf, S. A. (1985). The concept of an Islamic university. Great
Britain: The Islamic Academy.
Bloom, J. & Blair, S. (2000). Islam: A thousand years of faith and power. New
York, NY: TV Books.
Boydston, J. (Ed.). (1997). Past masters: The collected works of John Dewey, 1882-
1953. CD-ROM. Charlottesville, VA: InteLex.
Brittanica.com. (2001). Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS. Retrieved in
June 2001 from http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=16954&tocid=0.
Buhler, C. (1974). Parent as a teacher inventory: Factor analysis for fathers,
mothers, and teachers. Education, 1 (95), 689-694.
Clubb, J. M. & Scheuch, E. K. (1979). Historical social research: The use of
historical and process-produced data. Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta.
Cohen, W. A. (2000). The new art of the leader. Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Coulson, N. J. (1964). A history of Islamic law. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh
Univ. Press.

207
Covey, S. (1997). The 7 habits of highly effective families. New York, NY: Golden
Books.
Covey, S. (1990). Principle-centered leadership. New York, NY: Fireside Books.
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among
five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Dahl, T. S. (1997). The Muslim family: A study of womens rights in Islam (R.
Walford, Trans.). Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian Univ. Press.
Dakhil Allah, A. (1996). Al-tarbiyah al-Islamiyyah inda al-imam Al-Ghazali
[Islamic education from Al-Ghazalis thoughts]. Beirut, Lebanon: Al-Maktabah Al-
Asriyyah.
Damj, M. (1996). Al-Ghazalis book at-tibr al-masbuk fi nasihat al-muluk [Ingots
of gold for the advice of kings]. Beirut, Lebanon: Muassasat iz al-Din.
Davutoglu, A. (2000). Philosophical and institutional dimensions of secularization.
In A. Tamimi & J. Esposito (Eds.), Islam and secularism in the Middle East (pp. 170- 208).
New York, NY: NYU Press.
DeMarrais, K. & LeCompte, M. (1999). The way schools work. New York, NY:
Longman.
Dennison, G. M. (1992, Spring). Developing ecological literacy for citizen action.
Educational Record, 1 (2), 37-39.
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive biography. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Devore, B. (1935). El-Ghazali on the theory and practice of policy. Islamic
Culture, 17 (11), 450-470.

208
Dimishkiyah, A. M. (1988). Al-Ghazali wa attasawuf (Al-Ghazali and Sufism).
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar Tibah linasher wa tawzia.
Dodge, B. (1962). Muslim education in medieval times. Washington, DC: The
Middle East Institute.
Doumato, E. A. (1989). Arabian women: Religion, work, and cultural ideology in
the Arabian peninsula from the nineteenth century through the age of Abd Al-Aziz (Bahrain,
Kuwait, Saudi Arabia). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York.
Durant, W. (1950). The story of civilization: The age of faith: A history of medieval
civilization - Christian, Islamic, and Judaic, from Constantine to Dante. New York, NY:
Simon & Schuster.
Duval, S. (1998). Groups in Egypt. In K. Ask & M. Tijomsland (Eds.), Women and
Islamization: Contemporary dimensions of discourse on gender relations. New York, NY:
Berg.
Eitzen, D. S. (1985). In conflict and order: Understanding society. Boston, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Eitzen, D. S. & Zinn, M. B. (1993). In conflict and order: Understanding society
(6
th
ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Encyclopdia Britannica online, (2001). Neyshabur. Retrieved in June 2001 from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=57024&tocid=0&query=neyshabur.
Elkadi, A. (1982, January-March). Muhammad as a family man. Al-Ittihad, 19 (1),
49-61.
El Saadawi, N. (1980). The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world. London,
England: Zed Books.

209
El-Sayed, A. A. (1993). Lessons on Islam. Kuwait: Dar-al-Qalam.
Erfan, N. & Valie, Z. (1995). Recommendations of the four world conferences on
Islamic education: Education and the Muslim world. Islamabad, Pakistan: Institution of
Public Studies/The Islamic Foundation.
Erickson, F. (1992). Ethnographic microanalysis of interaction. In M. D.
LeCompte, W. L. Millroy, & J. Preissle (Eds.), The handbook of qualitative research in
education. San Diego, CA: Academic Press/Harcourt Brace.
Esposito, J. L. (1982). Women in Muslim family law. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse
Univ.
Esposito, J. L. & Voll, J. D. (2001). Makers of contemporary Islam. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
Esteva, G. & Prakash, M. S. (1998). Grassroots post-modernism: Remarking the
soil of culture. London, England: Zed Books.
Ezzat, R. (2000). Secularism, the state and the social bond in Islam and secularism
in the Middle East. In A. Tamimi & J. Esposito (Eds.), Islam and secularism in the Middle
East (pp. 124-138). New York, NY: NYU Press.
Farah, M. (1984). Marriage and sexuality in Islam: A translation of Al-Ghazalis
book on the etiquette of marriage, from the Ihya. Salt Lake City, UT: Univ. of UT.
Faris, N. A. (1991). The book of knowledge, being a translation with notes of the
kitab al-ilm of Al-Ghazalis Ihya Ulum al-Din. Beirut, Lebanon: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf.
Freeman, C. (1998). The teachers book of wisdom. Nashville, TN: Walnut Grove
Press.

210
Fullan, M. (2000). The Jossey-Bass reader on educational leadership. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Gajardo, M. (1993). Ivan Illich. Thinkers of education (Vols. 1-3) (pp. 711-720).
New York, NY: UNESCO.
Galal, A. F. (1994). Taha Hussein. Thinkers of education (Vols. 1-3) (pp. 687-709).
New York, NY: UNESCO.
Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An
introduction (6
th
ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman Publ.
Gardener, W. R. (1916). Al-Ghazali as Sufi. The Moslem World (VI), 131-143.
Gardner, J. W. (2000). The nature of leadership. In B. A. Jones (Ed.), Educational
leadership. Stamford, CT: Ablex Publ.
Geertz, C. C. (1960). The religion of Java. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press of Glencoe.
Ghadbian, N. (1995). Islamists and women in the Arab world: From reaction to
reform. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 1 (12), 19-27.
Gianotti, T. J. (1998). The secrets of the soul, death and the afterlife in Al-Ghazalis
Ihya Ulum al-Din. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada.
Gianotti, T. J. (2000). Imam Abu hamid Al-Ghazalis (Reviving the religious
sciences: A working translation). Unpublished manuscript, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park.
Gibb, H. A. R. & Kramers, J. H. (Eds.). (1953). Shorter encyclopedia of Islam.
Leiden, Holland: E. J. Brill.
Giladi, A. (1952, January). Child psychology in Islam. Islamic Culture, 26, 1-22.

211
Giladi, A. (1983). The educational thoughts of Al-Ghazali. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation. Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
Giladi, A. (1992). Children of Islam: Concepts of childhood in medieval Muslim
society. New York, NY: St. Martins.
Golshani, M. (2000, Fall). How to make sense of Islamic science. American
Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 3 (17), 1-21.
Gray, J. (1999). Children are from heaven. New York, NY: Quill.
Guneriussen, W. (2000). Emile Durkheim. In A. Andersen & B. Kaspersen (Eds.),
Classical and modern social theory. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
Guralnick, D. B. (Ed.). (1980). Websters New World Dictionary of the American
Language, 2
nd
College Edition. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Gwarzo, H. (1965). The life and teaching of Al-Ghazali. Kano Studies, 1, 13-17.
Haddad, Y. Y. & Esposito, J. L. (1998). Women in Islam and muslim societies. In
Y. Y. Haddad & J. L. Esposito. Islam, gender, & social change. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Hamby, J. V. (1992). The school-family link: A key to dropout prevention. In L.
Kaplan (Ed.), Education and the family. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Hamidullah, M. (1939). Educational systems in the time of the Prophet. Islamic
Culture, 13, 48-59.
Hasan, S. (1995). An introduction to the science of hadith. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:
Darussalam.
Haw, K. (1998). Gender, Islam and single-sex schooling. In Educating Muslim
girls. Buckingham, England: Open Univ. Press.

212
Hermansen, M. K. (1995). Khaniqah. In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford
encyclopedia of the modern Islamic World (pp. 415-417). New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Hill, D. R. (1994). Arabic fine technology and its influence on European
mechanical engineering. In D. A. Agius & R. Hitchcock (Eds.), The Arab influence in
medieval Europe: Folia scholastica mediterranea. Beirut, Lebanon: Ithaca Press.
Hoffman, M. W. (1996, Summer). Dreams of trespass: Tales of a harem girlhood.
In Fatima Mernissi (Ed.), The Muslim World Book Review, Vol. 16. Leicester, England: The
Islamic Foundation/ International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Hoffman, M. W. (1998). Journy to Makkah. Beltsville, Maryland: Amana
Publications.
Hoffman-Ladd, V. J. (1995). Women and Islam: Womens religious observances.
In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of the modern Islamic world (pp. 327-331).
New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press.
Holland, M. (Trans.). (1980). The Duties of Brotherhood in Islam. Translated from
the Ihya of Imam Al-Ghazali. London, England: Islamic Fndtn.
Hoodbhoy, P. (1995). Science. In J. L. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of
the modern Islamic world (pp. 13-19). New York. NY: Oxford University Press.
Horton, J. (1973). Order and conflict theories of social problems as competing
ideologies. In Sociological Perspectives. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
Husain, M. I. (2001). Islam supports gender equality. In J. A. Hurley (Ed.), Islam:
Opposing viewpoints. San Diego, CA: David L. Bender.

213
Hyman, A. & Walsh, J. (1983). Philosophy in the middle ages: The Christian,
Islamic, and Jewish traditions (2
nd
ed). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
Ibn Al-Jawzi, A. (n.d.). The devils deception. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al-waI Al-
arabi.
Ibn Al-Jawzi, A. (n.d.). Ahkam al-nisa [Womens roles]. Cairo, Egypt: Maktabat
al-Turath Al-Islami.
Ibn Al-Nadim, S. (2001). Al-Fishis [The index]. Retrieved in June 2001 from
http://www.alwaraq.com/.
Ibn Jurayj. (1992). Ibn Jurayj riwaut Shadhan rahimahu Allah [Juza Ibn Jurayj].
Published by A. B. al-Rashid (1
st
ed.). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat al-Kawthar.
Ibn Kathir. (2000). Ata Ibn Rabah. Retrieved in May 2000 from
http://www.muhaddith.com.
Ibn Khaldun, A. (1967). The muqaddimah: An introduction to history. New York,
NY: Princeton Univ. Press.
Ibn Manzur. (2000). Lisan al-Arab [Arabic Language Dictionary]. Retrieved in
May 2000 from http://www.muhaddith.com/cgi-bin/srch_cgi.exe/form.
Ibn Sida, A. (2001). Ulum Al-Lughah [Language sciences]. Retrieved in June
2001 from http://www.alwaraq.com/.
Ibn Taymiyyah, A. (1994). Tazkiyt Al-Nafs [Purifying the soul]. M. Al-Qahtani
(Ed.). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar Al-Muslim.
Ibn Taymiyyah, A. (1999). Majmu fatawa Ibn Taymiyyah. [The collections of Ibn
Taymiyyahs formal legal opinions]. Cairo. Fgypt: Harf.
Ibn Waraq. (1995). Why I am not a Muslim? New York, NY: Prometheus.

214
Ibn Waraq. (2001). Islam has always considered women as creatures inferior in
every way: Physically, intellectually, and morally. In J. A. Hurley (Ed.), Islam: Opposing
viewpoints. San Diego, CA: David L. Bender.
Illich, I. (1992). Need. In W. Sachs (Ed.), The development dictionary: A guide to
knowledge as power. London, England: Zed Books.
Illich, I. (1998). In lieu of education. In M. S. Prakash & G. Esteva (Eds), Escaping
education: Living as learning within grassroots cultures. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Iqbal, S. (1989). Women and Islamic law (1
st
ed.). Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publ.
Islamic dictionary. (2001). Jurjan. Retrieved in May 2000 from http://dictionary.al-
islam.com/ENG/Dicts/SelDict.asp?ApplicationChoices=1&TL=&IF=&Theme=77&DI=0&
lang=Eng&ReqWord=jurjan&Image.x=18&Image.y=7#FirstMatchItem.
Jones, M.C. (1983). Novelist as biographer: A focus on traditions. Educational
Researcher, 17, 16-24.
Kahf, M. (2000). Braiding the stories. Womens eloquence in the early Islamic era.
In In G. Webb (Ed.), Windows of faith: Muslim women scholar-activists in North America
(pp. 51-71). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Karam, A. M. (1998). Women, Islamism and the state. New York, NY: St. Martins
Press.
Khalaf, A. (1998). Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Mohammed Ahmad (1058-1111). In
The international encyclopedia of public policy and administration (p. 100). Boulder, CO:
Westview Press.
Khan, S. (1976). Al-Ghazalis philosophy of education. Hyderabad, Pakistan:
Markez-I-Shaoor-O-Abad.

215
Khawajah, A. (1986). Al-adab al-ta amuliyyah fi fikr al-imam Al-Ghazali [Al-
Ghazalis thoughts on human interaction]. Beirut, Lebanon: Al-Mussah Al-Jamiiyyah
lidrasat wa al-nashr.wa al-tawzi.
Kneller, G. F. (1984). Movements of thought in modern education. New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons.
Knysh, A. (2000). Islamic mysticsm: A short history. Boston, MA: Brill.
Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology.
Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
Kuwait Ministry of Planning. (2000). Annual Statistical Abstract, 1999 (36
th

Edition). Kuwait: Statistics and Information Sector.
Kuwait National Commission for Education, Science, & Culture. (1996). National
Report on the Development of Education, State of Kuwait, 1994-95/1995-96. Report
presented at the International Conference on Education 45
th
Session, Geneva, Switzerland,
1996. Kuwait: Kuwait Ministry of Education.
Kypros, B. (1992). The education of new parents. In L. Kaplan (Ed.), Education
and the family. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Lang, J. (1994). Struggling to surrender: Some impression of an American convert
to Islam, (1st ed.). Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications.
Lang, J. (2000). Even angels ask: A journey to Islam in America. Beltsville, MD:
Amana.
Lansberg, B. (1995). The federal government and the promise of Brown. Teachers
College Record, 96 (1), 627-636.

216
Lareau, A. (2000). Home advantage: Social class and parental intervention in
elementary education (2
nd
ed.). New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
Law, S., & Glover, D. (2000). Educational leadership and learning: Practice,
policy and research. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
Lee, B. (1997). The power principle: Influence with honor. New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago, IL: University
of Chicago Press.
MacDonald, D. B. (1953). Al-Ghazali. In H. A. R. Gibb & J. H. Kramers (Eds.),
Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden, Holland: E. J. Brill.
MacDonald, D. B. (1965). Development of Muslim theology, jurisprudence and
constitutional theory. New York: Russell & Russell.
Makdisi, G. (1981). The rise of colleges: Institutions of learning in Islam and the
West. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University.
Malek, B. (1997). Interpreting stories ascribed to Prophet Muhammad for teaching
morality. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.
Malek, B. M. (1999). Mafaheem asasiyyah fi usul alttarbuyyah [Basic concepts of
the foundation of education]. Kuwait: Muktabat Al-falah.
Marshall, C. & Rossman, G. B. (1989). Designing qualitative research. Newbury
Park, CA: SAGE.
Marshall, C. & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3
rd
ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

217
Mazrui, A. A. (2001). Claims that Islam suppresses freedom of speech are
hypocritical. In J. A. Hurley (Ed.), Islam: Opposing viewpoints. San Diego, CA: David L.
Bender.
McLaughlin, M. W. & Talbert, J. E. (1993). How the world of students and teachers
challenges policy coherence. In Designing coherent education policy. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
McNergney, R. F. & Herbert, J. M. (1998). Foundation of education: The challenge
of professional practice. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
McNergney R. F. & Herbert, J. M. (2001). Foundation of education (Rev. ed.).
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Michrina, B. P. & Richards, C. (1996). Person to person: Fieldwork, dialogue, and
the hermeneutic method. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Mir, M. (1995). Ghazali, Abu Hamid. In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford
encyclopedia of the modern Islamic world. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Mohamed, Y. (1994). Islamization of knowledge: A critique. The American
Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 2 (11), 282-294.
Mubarak, Z. (1988). Al-Akhlaq ind Al-Ghazali. [Al-Ghazalis moral education].
Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al-Jil.
Muessig, H. & Allen, D. (1962). The Islamic contribution to American education.
In R. E. Gross (Ed.), Heritage of American education (pp. 133-162). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
Muhammad, A. (2000). Imam Al-Ghazali. Aljumuah, 11 (3), 20.

218
Mller, W. (1980). The analysis of life histories: Illustrations of the use of life
history plots. In J. M. Clubb & E. K. Scheuch (Eds.), Historical social research: The use of
historical and process-produced data (Vol. 6). Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta.
Myers, E. (1964). Arabic thought and the Western world: In the golden age of
Islam. New York, NY: Frederick Ungar.
Nadvi, M. Z. (1987). Modesty and chastity in Islam (2nd ed.) (S. A. Khan, Trans.).
Safat, Kuwait: Islamic Book Publishers.
Nakosteen, M. (1964). History of Islamiic origins of Western education A.D. 800-
1350, with an introduction to medieval Muslim education. Boulder, CO: University of
Colorado Press.
Nasr, S. H. (1976). Islamic science: An illustrated study. Edenbridge, England:
Westerham Press.
Nasr, S. H. (Ed.). (1991). Sufism. In Islamic spirituality: Manifestations. New
York, NY: Crossroads.
Netton, A. R. (1992). A popular dictionary of Islam. Chicago, IL: NTC.
Nofal, N. (1994). Al-Ghazali. Thinkers of education (Vols. 1-3), 519-549. New
York, NY: UNESCO.
Oakes, J. (1995, Summer). Two cities tracking and within-school segregation.
Teachers College Record, 99 (1), 627-636.
Orr, D. W. (1992). Ecological literacy: Education and transition to a postmodern
world. New York, NY: SUNY Press.
Pagels, E. (1979). The Gnostic gospels. New York, NY: Random House.

219
Paisley, W. J. (1969). Studying style as deviation from encoding norms. In G.
Gerbner, O. R. Holsti, K. Krippendorf, W. J. Paisley, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The analysis of
communication content: Developments in scientific theories and computer techniques. New
York, NY: Wiley & Sons.
Pedersen. J. (1929). Some aspects of the history of the madrasah. In Islamic
Culture, 1, 521-537.
Pettapiece, S. (1992). Parent-teacher conferences: A parents perspective. In L.
Kaplan (Ed.), Education and the family. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Posner, G. J. (1992). Analyzing the curriculum. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Powell, W. W & Dimaggio, P. J. (1991). The new institutionalism in organizational
analysis. Chicago, IL: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Prakash, M. S. (1993). Gandhis postmodern education ecology, peace, and
multiculturalism relinked. In Holistic education review, 8-17.
Qarib Allah, H. (1978). Dawr Al-Ghazali fi Al-Fikir [Al-Ghazalis contribution to
educational thought]. Cairo, Egypt: Matbaat Al-Amanah.
Rabah, A. & Al-Daqaq, A. Y. (1991). Foreword. In M. Al-Dhahabi, Riyadh al-
Salihin [The garden of the godly people]. Cairo, Egypt: Mussat Al-Risalah.
Rafiqul-Haqq, M. & Newton, P. (1996). The place of women in pure Islam.
Retrieved in 2000 from http://www.debate.domini.org/newton/womeng.html#printed.
Rahman, F. (1982). Islam and modernity. Chicago, IL: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Rahman, F. (2000). Revival and reform in Islam: A study of Islamic foundations.
Oxford, England: One World.

220
Reagan, T. (1995). Non-Western educational traditions: Alternative approaches to
educational thought and practice. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
Reid, D. M. (1995). Al-Azhar. In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of the
modern Islamic world (pp. 420-425). New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press.
Riordan, C. (1997). Equality and achievement: An introduction to the sociology of
education. New York, NY: Longman.
Rippin, A. (2000). Muhammad in the Quran: Reading scripture in the 21
st
century.
In H. Motzki (Ed.), The biography of Muhammad: The issue of the source. Boston, MA:
Brill.
Roald, A. S. (1994). Tarbiya: Education and politics in the Islamic movement in
Jordan and Malaysia. Lunds, Sweden: Lunds University.
Roded, R. (1994). Women in Islamic biographical collections. Boulder, CO: Lynne
Rienner.
Roded, R. (1999). Women in Islam and the Middle East: A reader. New York, NY:
Tauris.
Rorty, A. O. (1998). The ruling history of education. Philosophers on education:
Historical prespectives. New York: Routledge.
Rosengren, K. E. (Ed.). (1981). Advances in content analysis. Beverly Hills, CA:
SAGE.
Rosenthal, F. (1952). Child psychology in Islam. Islamic Culture, 26 (17), 1-22.
Rosenthal, F. (1970). Knowledge triumphant: The concept of knowledge in
medieval Islam. Leiden, Holland: Brill.

221
Rosenthal, F. (1975). Classical heritage in Islam (E. Marmorstein & J.
Marmorstein, Trans.). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Sabiq, S. (1996). Fiqh-us-Sunnah. In Alim, version 4.5 (CD-ROM). ISL Software
Corporation.
Sadeq, A. M. & Islam, N. (1999). Contributions to Islamic knowledge. New Delhi,
India: Vikas Publ.
Saifi, K. (1990). A study on gender differences in Kuwait. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Southampton, Southampton, England.
Salahi, A. (2001). The Fuquha: Imam Abu Haneefah. Impact, 2 (31), 49-50.
Schimmel, A. (1992). Islam an introduction. New York, NY: State University of
New York Press.
Schimmel, A. (1997). My soul is a woman: The feminine in Islam (S. H. Ray,
Trans.). New York, NY: Continuum.
Scholer, D. M. (Ed.). (1993). Women in early Christianity. New York, NY:
Garland Publ.
Scholer, D. M. (1997). Nag Hammadi bibliography, 1970-1994. New York, NY:
Brill.
Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, paradigm, and possibility. New
York, NY: Macmillan.
Semaan, K. (1966). Education in Islam: From the Jahiliyyah to Ibn Khaldun.
Islamic Culture, 56, 188-198.
Shafshaq, M. A. (1980). Al-ausul alfalsafiyyah littrbiyah [The foundation and
philosophy of education]. Kuwait: Dar albuhuth alttrbawiyyah.

222
Shalabi, A. (1954). A history of Muslim education. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-
Kashshaf.
Shalabi, A. (1978). History of Islam syllabus: The Islamic syllabus in early times,
deconstruction of the syllabus during the Dark Ages, reconstruction of the syllabus. Cairo,
Egypt: Renaissance Bookshop.
Shams Al-Din, A. (1990). Al-fikr al-trabawi Inda Al-Ghazali [Al-Ghazalis
educational thoughts]. Beirut, Lebanon: Al-Sharikah Al-Almiyyah Lilktab
Sherif, M. A. (1975). Ghazalis theory of virtue. New York, NY: SUNY Press.
Sherwani, S. K. (1935). El-Ghazali on the theory and practice of politics. Islamic
Culture, 17 (16), 450-475.
Sibai, A. (1984). Some glittering aspects of Islamic civilization. Beirut, Lebanon:
The Holy Koran Publishing House.
Simmons, G. Z. (2000). Striving for Muslim womens human rights Before and
beyond Beijing: An African American perspective. In G. Webb (Ed.), Windows of faith:
Muslim women scholar-activists in North America. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press.
Smith, F. (2000). Field observations: An interview with Wendell Berry. Retrieved
in May 2000 from http://www.arts.envirolink.org/interviews_and_conversations/
wendellberry.html.
Smith, L. M. (1994). Biographical method. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln
(Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Smith, M. (1989). Al-Ghazali, the mystic. Lahore, Pakistan: Kazi Publ.
Soraty, Y. I. (1985). Ibn Khalduns view on man, society, and education.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.

223
Spellaberg, S, A. (1991). Early Islam and the position of women: The problem of
interpretation. In N. R. Keddie & B. Baron (Eds.), Women in Middle Eastern history:
Shifting boundaries in sex and gender. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
Spring, J. (2000). The universal right to education: Justification, definition, and
guidelines. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
Steinberg, L., Brown, B., & Dornbusch, S. (1996). Beyond the classroom: Why
school reform has failed and what parents need to do. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Stigler, J. & Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Strandbakken, P. (2000). Conflict theory: An alternative to foundation in classical
and modern social theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Strom, R. (1973). Values and human development. Columbus, OH: Charles E.
Merrill.
Strom, R. (1978, Summer). Measurement of childrearing expectations using the
parent as a teacher inventory. The Journal of Experimental Education, 4 (46), 44-53.
Strom, R. (1982). Educational psychology. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Strom, R. (1989, September). The parent as a teacher. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 1 (3), 40-43.
Suwayyid, M. (1988). Manhaj al-tarbiyyah al-nabawiyyah litifil [Prophetic
methods for educating a child]. Kuwait: Maktabat Al-Manar.
Szyliowicz, J. (1995). Educational reform. In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford
encyclopedia of the modern Islamic world (pp. 420-425). New York, NY: Oxford Univ.
Press.

224
Tabari, A. A. (1988). The other side of Sufism. Kuwait: Revival of Islamic Heritage
Society.
Tarazi, N. (1995). The child in Islam. Indianapolis, IN: American Trust Publ.
Tessler, M. & Jesse, J. (1996, April). Gender and support for Islamist movements.
The Muslim World, 2, 200-217.
Tetreault, M. A. (2000, January). Womens rights in Kuwait: Bringing in the last of
the Bedouins. Current history: A Journal of contemporary world affairs, 28-29.
Thomas, W. J. & Znaniecki, F. (1984). The Polish peasant in Europe and America
(E. Zaretsky, Ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Thornburg, K., Ispan, J., Gray, M., & Ponder, H. (1983, September). Parent as a
teacher inventory: A statistical factor analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 4
(51), 200-201.
Tibawi, A. L. (1972). Islamic education: Its tradition and modernization into the
Arab national systems. London, England: Luzac & Co.
Totah, K. A. (1926). The contributions of the Arabs to education. New York, NY:
Harper.
Tritton, A. S. (1957). Materials on Muslim education in the middle ages. London,
England: Luzac & Co.
Tyler, R. W. (1959). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction: Syllabus for
Education 305. Chicago, IL: Univ. of Chicago Press.
Ul-Karim, F. (Trans.). (1978). Preface. In M. Al-Ghazali, Ihya Ulum al-din [The
Revival of the Religious Sciences] (Vols. 1-4). Lahore, Pakistan: Sind Sagar Academy.

225
Umaruddin, M. (1970). The ethical philosophy of Al-Ghazali. Lahore, Pakistan: Sh.
Muhammad Ashraf.
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. (2000). 1999
statistical yearbook. New York, NY: UNESCO/Bernan Press.
United States Department of Education. (1999). The educational system in
Germany: Case study findings. Washington, DC: US Department of Education.
United States Department of Education. (2000). How the arts can enhance after-
school programs. Washington, DC: US Department of Education.
United States Department of Education. (2001). A call to commitment: Fathers
involvement in childrens learning. Washington, DC: US Department of Education.
Upper, C. R. (1952). Al-Ghazalis thoughts concerning the nature of man and union
with God. Muslim World, 24, 23-32.
Vaughan-Lee, L. (1995). Sufism: The transformation of the heart. Inverness, CA:
Golden Sufi Center.
Von Denffer, A. (1996). Research in Islam: Basics, principles, and practical
suggestions. Leicester, England: Islamic Fndtn.
Waddy, C. (1980). Women in Muslim history. New York, NY: Longman.
Wadud, A. (2000). Alternative Quranic interpretation and status of Muslim
women. In G. Webb (Ed.), Windows of faith: Muslim women scholar-activists in North
America (pp. 3-21). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Watt, W. M. (1952). The authenticity of the works attributed to Al-Ghazali.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 24-39.

226
Watt, W. M. (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and statesman. New York, NY: Oxford
Univ. Press.
Watt, W. M. (1988). Muhammads Mecca: History in the Quran. Edinburgh,
Scotland: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
Watt, W. M. (1994). A forgery in Al-Ghazalis Mishkat? Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society. London, England, 5-22.
Watt, W. M. (1996). The faith and practice of Al-Ghazali. New Delhi, India: Kitab
Bhavan.
Weber, R. P. (1990). Basic content analysis (2
nd
ed.). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Weiss, W. M. (2000). Islam an illustrated historical overview. New York, NY:
Barrons.
Wensinck, A. J. (1941). Al-Ghazalis Mishkat al-Anwar [Niche of lights].
Semilisch studien. Leiden, Holland, 212.
West, C. (1993). Nihilism in America. In Race matters. Boston, MA: Beacon
Press.
Wilson, E. (1849). Scriptural view of womens rights and duties in all the important
relations of life. Philadelphia, PA: Wm. S. Young.
Winter, T. J. (1997). Al-Ghazali on disciplining the soul and breaking the two
desires. Suffolk, England: Islamic Texts Society.
Woods, P. (1985). Conversations with teachers: Some aspects of the life-history
method. British Educational Research Journal, 11 (1), 13-26.
Young, M. J. L., Latham, D. D., & Serjeant, R. B. (1990). Religion, learning and
science in the Abassid period. New York, NY: Cambridge Univ. Press.

227
Zarabozo, J. A. M. (1999). Commentary on the forty hadith of Al-Nawawi (Vols. 1-
3). Boulder, CO: Al-Basheer.
Zarabozo, J. A. M. (2000). The authority and importance of the Sunnah. Denver,
CO: Al-Basheer.
Ziadeh, F. (1995). Sunni school of law. In In J. Esposito (Ed.), The Oxford
encyclopedia of the modern Islamic World (pp. 456-462). New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Zolondek, L. (1963). Book XX of Al-Ghazalis Ihya Ulum al-Din. Leiden,
Holland: Brill.