HANDCRAFT

IN

WOOD AND

METAL

HANDCRAFT
IN

WOOD AND METAL

JOHN HOOPER.
Autfwr of M>dan CaSmtWor^
<

5^ Handbook of in their practicaC training

VMrfamfa Teachers. Studienis.& Go/ismm.

BY
/oft
.

Securer and{Instructor to die jandon G0wti[ Gnwaf

Joint

& ALFRED J.SHIRLEY

uctor andlgcturer onMtfaC ttbrtD tfic

Jondon County GnmdC

^
Thuwuws andJwmPfwtograpk
es

Objects

MAY

1917

London
ia,

$. ^U. ^atsford, Limited III: ^he Manual Jlrts Tress

:

403K&

TT
5

PREFACE
IN preparing
bilities

this

work the authors have endeavoured

to

show the

possiits

of craftwork as an educational subject, and to briefly indicate

of the prejudices against handcraft or so-called " manual
it

cultural aspects.

One

work

"

has been that

cultural standpoint, with the result that

had more value from a physical than an educational or "handcraft" in schools has too
that lessons based upon the historical phases of

frequently been classed as "carpentry".

The authors think

furniture

craftwork, particularly in the development of types of construction in

and metalwork, and the growth of

tools from prehistoric times,

together with the study of simple applied art as displayed in historic work, will do much to increase the value of handcraft in schools.

Whilst the work has been prepared primarily for the teacher, the

aim has been to render treatment of the subject such as to make the work of value and interest to the craftsman, and a useful guide for the pupil or student. As an aid to class teachers in helping on a technical side
in central schools,

to craft
It

they hope it will find a place among the books pertaining and general education. is hoped further that the work will be regarded as a collection of

suggestions and data, rather than an attempt to produce a series of models.

The authors

believe that

at

least

one aspect of handcraft has been

;

almost entirely neglected in the past, i.e. the artistic side and, whilst not claiming any special merit for the design of the models dealt with, they have endeavoured to embody some artistic merit in the designs, and have

tabooed the meaningless joints and collection of joints which have only a
limited mechanical value.

In the early

stages,

accuracy

whilst being encouraged

should

vi

PREFACE.

proportionately to the

It is a phase which should progress not be too strictly insisted upon. skill of the pupil.

The

" freehand " curves or decoration in

general impression in the past has been that any attempt at models necessarily means neglect of

the mechanical side, but this does not follow according to the authors experience, and they would deplore the acceptance of this idea.

The main
effort

feature of handcraft

work

after the early stages is individual

on the part of the pupil, which adds to the interest and value of
"correlation" in handcraft.
is

the subject as a whole.

Much has been said upon " directed handcraft " correlation
perforce be linked together,

In well-

inevitable.
this
is

and when

Thinking and doing must done in the class or craft-

room

it

must work toward a better general education.

In elementary handcraft the tendency has always been to depart from traditional methods of construction and processes, but in the authors'

opinion even the simplest models can be based upon traditional lines, and whether the object of the teacher be vocation or education, due regard to tradition and right methods is essential.

JOHN HOOPER
A.
J.

SHIRLEY

LONDON,
June, 1913.

NOTE
MANY, of the models and lessons treated in the following pages have been designed and prepared in connection with the authors' duties at the L.C.C. Shoreditch Technical Institute and they desire to express their thanks to the Principal, Mr. S. Hicks, for permission to reproduce these examples.
:

To Mr.

P.

A. Wells they wish to extend

their gratitude for

much

kindly

help and criticism, also to Mr. A.

Rowan

of the Handcraft Teachers' De-

partment

for assistance in the preparation

and

revision of

MSS. and

proofs

for the press.

Messrs. Nurse

& Co.

kindly lent the illustration of a grind-

stone on page 201.

most courteously given permission to

Mr. Balfour of the Oxford University Museum has illustrate some of the prehistoric tools.

Many of the examples of decorative craftwork reproduced in the book are due to the excellent facilities afforded by the authorities of the Victoria
and Albert Museum, South Kensington, the source of these examples In conclusion, the authors desire to place on being noted in the text.
record their appreciation of their publisher's ungrudging help and consideration during the progress of the work,
its

which materially smoothed

path to the press.

CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE, AUTHORS' NOTE, AND PREFACE
I.

..'...

i-vtt

HISTORICAL NOTES ON

WOOD AND METAL

II.

FIRST YEAR MODELS (WOODWORK)

10 19
31

III.

SECOND
THIRD

IV.

V.
VI.

SPECIAL MODELS (WOOD) FOR EVENING STUDENTS AND OTHERS

FIRST YEAR MODELS (METAL WORK)

....... .......
.
.

45
57

VII.

SECOND
THIRD
SPECIAL

'.

.....

72
85

VIII.
IX.

MODELS (METAL) FOR EVENING STUDENTS AND OTHERS

95
109

X.
XI.
XII.

HISTORIC CRAFTWORK AND ITS APPLICATION TO CLASSWORK

MATERIAL USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK

DRAWING, DESIGN, LETTERING, ETC.
.

115
135
. .

XIII.

DECORATIVE PROCESSES IN WOOD AND METAL WORK

TOOLS
:

143

XIV.

THEIR EARLY FORMS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

162
172

XV.
XVI.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROCESSES AND DATA FOR OBJECT LESSONS

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND TOOLS FOR TECHNICAL

AND
187
222
231

HANDCRAFT CENTRES
XVII.

THEORY OF CUTTING ACTIONS OF TOOLS

INDEX TO TEXT AND ILLUSTRATIONS

HANDCRAFT
CHAPTER
I

HISTORICAL NOTES
NOTE.

ON CRAFTWORK

The illustrations are numbered consecutively through each chapter, and the numbering of each chapter is independent of the rest. The pages of collected illustrations have one figure number, the separate diagrams Thus references to being described as number one onwards on each page.
are
as follows (e.g.)

illustrations

Ch. xiv,

f.

12

(8).

Diagrams on the
the

figure

under discussion are simply referred to by

their

own numbers on

illustrations thus (6).

I.

WOOD.

" I do not think that any man but one of the highest genius could do anything in those days without much study of ancient art, and even he would be much

hindered

if

he lacked

it."

WILLIAM MORRIS.
is

THE

to indicate the extreme antiquity of general purpose craftwork, the very beginning of which can fairly be stated to have commenced

of this chapter

when

prehistoric

man

fashioned his primitive

weapons and implements

for

defence, attack,

and sustenance.

museums
as

study of prehistoric examples of craftsmanship in the various national will show their manipulative and artistic skill advanced to a consider-

able degree. Progress in decoration and manipulation proceeded simultaneously, The Palaeolithic or is evident from existing examples of their production. dates back roughly some 7000 years according to authorities Early Stone Age
this subject, although with them the dates of periods can only be conjectured. Following this Age or period are the Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages, so named because of the materials chiefly employed during these periods. Although the general growth of constructive and decorative craftwork did not proceed simul-

on

taneously in

all

countries, authorities agree that stone preceded the use of metal

in practically every part of the world, including all parts of Europe, Egypt, China,

Japan, and America, the growth of prehistoric work in each of those countries having definite national characteristics, and worthy of close study by students of
I

HANDCRAFT.
modern
handcraft.

[CHAP.

Space forbids more than a very rapid survey of

this aspect

of our subject.

The
Fig.
1,

artistic

an engraved bone or

treatment of animal forms during the Early Stone Age is shown in mammoth ivory from Trou des Forges, Bruniquel,
artistic interest.
It

France, of exceptional
in the British

belongs to the Palaeolithic Age and

is

now

Museum.
it

employed, but

and bone appear to have been the chief media should be remembered that the perishable nature of wood has
Flint

naturally acted against the preservation of objects fashioned from this material. During the Neolithic or later Stone Age we find more instances of wood-

some

Actual examples preserved in collections show that wood was used to working. extent for handles of flint knives and axes, generally as a supplementary The Bronze Age marks the introduction of material to the common use of flint.
artistic skill,

a new material and an increased degree of workmanship and

due

in

some measure to the use of a more sympathetic material, having

less limitations

than the

preceding media.

An
the

interesting
is

feature of this age

number

of bronze

celts, which were " hafted " attached or

to

hafts,

wooden handles or and secured by

Ending with thongs. At the end of this

FIG. fine

i.-Examples

of

animal forms

period gold
in prehistoric art.

is

intro-

duced as

ft

material(

Museum.

examples of this work being exhibited in the gold room of the British Canoes and the lake dwellings of the Swiss also point to an extended

The Iron Age is especially rich in artistic examples, especially of metal decorated with highly coloured enamels. The first historical records on which reliance can be safely placed are
use of timber.
of the
Fig.
at

those of Ancient Egypt, and they provide a fertile source of study. One earliest specimens of Egyptian art in wood is that illustrated in
2,

wood

statue of the

so-called
Petrie,

Shekh
his "

el

Beled, found in a

tomb

Sakkara.
says,

Prof.

Flinders

in

Art

and

Crafts

of

Ancient

Egypt,"
detail

"the eyes are excellent

the
eyeball

in form, but

affected by the technical

in a copper frame," thus indicating an amount of technical skill combined with artistic appreciaProf. Flinders tion, though the latter is not in accordance with modern ideas.

of inserting

of

stone

and

crystal

Petrie

also

states

that

the

original

figure

was covered with

coat

of

CHAP.

I.]

HISTORICAL NOTES ON CRAFTWORK.

Of ancient Egyptian 'furniture there are numerous examples in the British Museum, including workmen's stools, vase stands, a folding stool, and a seat of ebony inlaid with ivory. These display remarkable artistic merit, and
coloured stucco.
factor in modern handcraft, viz. fitness Technically also these examples are interesting, showing mortise and tenon joints, evidences of
for a given purpose.

show due appreciation of the important

the use of glue, and turned work, indicating no small degree of manipulative skill in this branch of handcraft. Two

examples

are

illustrated

in

Fig.

3.

Ebony, acacia, cedar, and sycamore woods were all employed, whilst ivory obtained from the hippopotamus and
elephant

was
cases,

utilized

for

inlaying.

Mummy
caskets,

chairs with side arms,

in

and beds were executed

wood and decorated

with inlaying, carving, and painted or stucco decoration. In Greek literature we find consider-

able evidences of craftwork.

41

Homer's
in

"

Odyssey

is

especially rich in refer-

ences,
later

some

of which are quoted

Craftwork parts of this book. was regarded as of importance, as is

evident from the following quotation from Book XXIII of the " Odyssey ".

Odysseus describing the bride bed to " Next I sheared off all the Penelope light wood of the long leaved olive, and
:

rough hewed the trunk upwards from the root, and smoothed it round with
the adze, well and
skilfully,

straight the line thereto

it

and made and so fashioned

I

into the bedpost.

And

bored

it

all

with the auger.

I

headpost,
until I

Beginning at this wrought at the bedstead

it,

had

finished

and made

it

fair

FIG.

2.

One

of the earliest examples of

with inlaid work of gold, and of silver and of ivory." The Bible also affords
<

sculpture in wood.

us numerous evidences of woodworking, the description of the building of King Solomon's temple being noteworthy, as is also the description of his throne.

The ark, according to James Napier in his "Manufacturing Arts in Ancient Times," took twenty-five thousand loads of timber in its construction, and the

4
instructions to

HANDCRAFT.
Noah, "make thee an ark of gopher wood,''
etc.,

[CHAP.

i.

indicates the

In Eastern countries, notably India, craftwork is possessed material employed. also of ancient traditions fine carvings, inlay, and other decoration applied to
;

wood and metal have been

prehistoric

for

centuries produced in abundance.

Omitting

England, and much work produced by the Romans here, craftwork in wood and metal does not appear to have made much headway until the

work

in

sixteenth century, although previous to that date

some noteworthy work

in stone,

had been produced. almost simultaneously, most early pieces of

chiefly ecclesiastical,

Wood and

metalwork developed

British craftwork exhibiting a combination of these materials, characterized by crude craftsmanship and of but little artistic merit. Gothic work is the exception, and following that period the

English Renaissance, beginning in the reign of Henry VII, saw English woodwork developed through the rich periods of Elizabeth, James, and Cromwell to the early Georgian era which began with William and Mary and Queen Anne.
observation

(These and successive periods cannot be better studied than by personal in our museums, or from the numerous excellent treatises de-

Great architects such voted to historic English furniture and decorative objects.) Wren, the Brothers Adam, and designer-craftsmen including Grinling Gibbons, Sheraton, Chippendale, and Heppelwhite each conas Inigo Jones, Sir Christopher
all

tributed to the general development of artistic woodwork in England, and nearly of them have left writings and drawings of their own, which can be studied
in

our national

libraries

and museums.

II.

METALS AND METAL-WORKING.

it

While history has always a sentimental value,

has also an indirect, and at the

same time through

tradition a very direct, bearing

on workshop

practice.

It

is

besides very interesting, and no apology is necessary for its introduction here. The study of the development of metal-working, and of the many apparently

processes

divergent points of view, adds interest to the story of the origin of common to the jeweller and the decorative metal-worker.

many

practical workers in each craft can properly appreciate the wide

Only gap that separates

etc.,

them, but

many

operations are

common

to all branches dealing with metal.

chisels

Filing, drilling, turning,

hammering, the use of

and punches,

are

as essential to the jeweller as to the decorative or architectural metal-worker, to

the watchmaker as to the shipbuilder. student capable of performing these operations efficiently and so possessing that proficiency which places him in the " skilled " labourers class of has the chance of entering any industry in which metal plays a part. The knowledge of metal-working, as the many specimens
in our museums show, dates back to very early historic times according to various authorities probably as far back as 4500 B.C., or even earlier.
;

FIG.

3.

Ancient Egyptian stools, one with hide seat, made of inlaid wood.

FIG.

4.

Early Egyptian chair

and

settle, British

Museum, showing mortise and tenon

joints.

HANDCRAFT.
The front appeared with radiant splendid gay, Bright as the lamp of night or orb of day. The walls were massy brass the cornice high,
;

[CHAP.

I.

Blue metals crowned, in colours of the sky Rich plates of gold the folding doors encase,
;

The

pillars silver,

on a brazen base

Silver the lintels deep projecting o'er, And gold the ringlets that command the door

Two

rows of stately dogs on either hand, In sculptured gold and laboured silver stand

These Vulcan formed with

Immortal guardians

art divine, to

wait

at Alcinous' gate.

The
of

description of the

arms and shield made by Vulcan

for Achilles is full

names of metals and

processes.

Among

the

many

objects of bronze in the British

Museum

are

some

finely

modelled handles with iron cores, a bronze belt-plate inlaid with iron, a bronze handle inlaid with silver, some pale bronze mounts probably from a wooden chest

and of very

thin material

embossed with many kinds of

fantastic animals,

some

simple borderings and bosses mainly worked from the back and in low relief; all these objects are dated about 600 to 400 B.C., and can be seen in the bronze

room.

The remains
ment of the
by
to
pictorial

British

of the bronze gates of Shalmaneser II, which are in the baseMuseum, are quite an object lesson on the teaching of history
in repousse

means carried out

work on bronze, and these date back

824 B.C. There are also some examples of work in wood, bronze, ivory, bone, marble, and alabaster that have been turned in a lathe and are dated about 400-300 B.C.,
all in

the

room of Greek and Roman

life

at the

same museum

some enamelled

bronze ornaments and

process,

many

vases, figures, etc.,

Iron Age.
"
in the

and have never been surpassed for Iron was now gradually coming

which were cast by the lost wax beauty of form or executive ability.
into use, but "
it

did not displace

later

bronze to any extent, so that the early "Iron Age

overlapped the

"

Bronze

and Bronze Ages. Age Iron was used largely during the later period of Greek history for strengthening objects, such as bronze castings, handles of bronze shields, and as cramps in buildings, in the partial construction of ships, chariots, and agricultural implements in fact it was put to much the same uses as at the present day. Iron was also known to have been in use in Assyria about the ninth century B.C. and in India even earlier. The celebrated wootz, a species of iron and the material from which the famous Damascus swords were made, is of very great In these early ages its rarity made iron of great value, and in accounts antiquity.
same way
as with the Stone, Copper,
;

of the battles of the Egyptians, mention

is

made

of

its

being taken as spoils of

war

wedge-shaped pieces with holes through to facilitate transport. Uzziah is spoken of in the Bible (2 Chron. xxvi. 14) as making shields, spears, Also in Genesis (iv. 22) helmets, and habergeons (coats of mail or breastplates).
;

it

was

in long,

CHAP.

i.J

HISTORICAL NOTES ON CRAFTWORK.

in brass

we read of Tubal-cain the son of Lamech and Zillah, who was an instructor and iron " brass was probably bronze of a light brown or yellow colour the metal now called brass was not then known ". Tubal-cain was probably the mythological God known to Homer as Vulcan. There are many references to metals and metal-working in the Old Testament of the Bible, and these portions were written at least as early as 455 B.C. Lead and Zinc. At the beginning of the Christian era lead was used largely by the Romans, and zinc first appears in Roman alloys, but it was also known as calamine to the Greeks who used it in the manufacture of brass by simply fusing
;
;

the calamine with copper. cured in a metallic state by

Steel.
wootz.

was not until about A.D. 1720 that zinc was proHenkle, a German chemist. Steel of some kind was also known and used, being obtained from
It

J.

Gold,

silver,

As it contained a large percentage of carbon it was very difficult to work. and bronze were used largely for decorative purposes, and silver was
In their writings
it

known

to the alchemists as luna.

was represented by the

figure of a crescent

moon.

The Gauls were very skilful in the manipulation of metals, but the industry was only carried on by "Freemen," and when they died the implements of their craft were often buried with them. The skill of the Britons was evidently as
great as that of the Gauls,

and

if

we examine

the objects in the cases Nos. 51-60

Museum, which were made between the years 250 B.C. and the third century A.D., we can realize the degree of excellence craftsmanship had reached. Byzantium, or Constantinople as it is now called,
in the central saloon of the British

was noted have been

for its artistic

metal-work.
is

Enamel.
first

Enamelling on metal
in

practised by the early Egyptians.

Britain, in

of very ancient origin, and is said to Many articles decorated in this

as chariot

manner have been found

burials,

tombs and what are known

with the warrior were often buried his chariot, horse trappings, The work done in Britain at weapons, jewellery, and some vessels of pottery. this period by the Gauls or Kelts, known as Keltic work, may be recognized by
for " graceful flowing curves, rounded surfaces, and interlacing," as well as by a of form scroll believed to have been derived from the palmette of the Greeks.
its

Second and Third Centuries

Romans
in Britain

A.D.

Copper mines were worked by the

during the second and third centuries A.D., when they made water pipes and coffins from lead often richly cast in relief, and used iron grilles or cancelli in their churches to separate the choir from the body of the church.

Fourth Century
ingots of pewter

A.D.

In the British

Museum

there are

some cakes or

symbol of the fourth century, These also many lamps of bronze with the symbols worked into the design. were used for lighting the Catacombs, and there are some finger rings of bronze gilt of the same period.

stamped with the

early Christian

During the reign of Constantine

churches then being
elaborately
built.

altars

were made
of

for

use in the

many

They were made

wood covered

with silver plates

worked

in relief.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

f.

Fifth and Sixth Centuries A.D. Silver spoons inlaid with niello were used during the fifth century, and Byzantine weights of bronze, with their denominations inlaid with silver, were in use during the sixth century. Dagobert
is

King of the Franks possessed a throne of gilt bronze 628-638, a copy of which now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Eighth and Ninth Centuries

characteristic of the eighth

A.D.

and ninth

centuries,

Inlaying of gold with niello was and during the tenth century

cloisonne enamelling on gold reached a high degree of excellence. Tenth and Eleventh Centuries A.D. The tenth and eleventh centuries

were the great age of bronze founding, and many of the doors for various cathewere made about this time in Constantinople, and exported to various countries. Some were inlaid with silver or niello. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterdrals

bury, 925-988, was an English metal-worker of great skill. note that the sculptors were usually their own founders.

It

is

interesting to

dral in Venice was

Twelfth Century A.D. The Pala d' Ora or made in the above city during

altar front at St. Mark's Cathe-

the twelfth century, and

is

of

gold and silver plate, embossed, enamelled, and encrusted with precious stones. A fine example of English craftsmanship where metal is used to special advantage is the beautiful monument to Queen Eleanor in Westminster Abbey, made by

Thomas
figure,

It consists of a finely modelled bronze of Leighton Buzzard in 1294. with a \\rought-iron cresting above, the cresting being an early example It was during the twelfth century that machines, of decorative punch-work. some of which were worked by water-power, were first used, and there are still in

existence
lathes,

drawings of
jigs,

drilling,

sawing, and

and many

that were

stamping machines, screw -cutting drawn by Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian crafts-

man

of the fifteenth century.

Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries A.D. Cast Iron. twelfth and sixteenth centuries Spain produced some exceedingly
in the

Between the
rich ironwork

form of re/as or screens

but very

little

decorative ironwork was done in

England owing
cast

to the scarcity of skilled smiths.

into use,

About the fourteenth century

in

iron

came

and was smelted with charcoal

Sussex, a large

quantity of cast iron being produced in that county.

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.

Wood becoming

scarce,

owing to being used (in the form of charcoal) for the production of cast iron, an Act of Parliament was passed during the reign of Elizabeth limiting the erection of furnaces and the use of wood above a certain size for this purpose
;

consequently the production decreased until the end of the seventeenth century, when the use of pit, or sea coal as it was called, became more general. Even

then the quantity produced was very small, and it was not until the method of making coke from coal was invented, about the middle of the eighteenth century,

by Abraham Darby, that the commencement of the manufacture of cast iron on The art of tinning iron plate was introduced from Germany a large scale began. by Andrew Yarrenton.

CHAP,

i.]

HISTORICAL NOTES ON CRAFTWORK.

Cast Steel.
steel of

It was during this century that a method of making cast a uniform texture was invented by Mr. Huntsman of Sheffield in 1770,

and the process was soon

of steel for cutting tools.

in use in various parts of

England

for the

manufacture

Previous to this

many

cutting tools were imported

from the Continent.

Lead.

Lead has been

largely in use since the twelfth century for roofs,

spires, statues, fonts, gargoyles, cisterns, etc.,

of lead as a decorative as well as a utilitarian

but to realize the highest possibilities medium many towns in France

utilized to a greater extent than

should be

visited,

where

this material has

been

in other countries.

in

pure

tin,

In some instances lead was decorated by applying a pattern which because of its brilliancy forms an agreeable contrast with the
it is

dull lead,

and

not affected by the weather.

Nineteenth Century. The commencement of the nineteenth century was remarkable for the great number of inventions in connexion with metals, but
that of
iron by

H. Bessemer, afterwards Sir H. Bessemer, for producing means of the converter invented by himself was the most

steel

from cast

notable,

and

at

the present time steel

Aluminium.

made by his process is largely superseding wrought iron. The discovery by Wohler, a German chemist, in 1828 of

aluminium has had far-reaching results, although it is only of late years that this metal has been usefully applied. This is due largely to the improvement in
electric furnaces,

consequent increased production, and lower working

costs.

CHAPTER

II

FIRST YEAR

MODELS (WOOD)
(Fig. 1).

RULER, FLOWER-STICK, AND KEY RACK

Object.

The
1

Models designed chiefly to introduce exercises in planing and sawing. Process. Round Ruler. For class work, one piece of wood

x | in. square should be issued to each student. A finely set jack plane should be used for the planing process. la. Pencil face marks on material 1. Plane up face side and edge. (straight
2

edge to be employed
2.

for testing the

above planing).

3. 4.
5.

Set marking gauge, and gauge the material for width and thickness. Set out octagon on each end, as per diagram (second step).

Plane to octagonal shape (see diagram, second stage).

6.

With smoothing plane complete the planing to circular section. Finish with glass paper and saw off ends to finished length.

Flower Stick. i. Plane to width and thickness one piece yellow deal, in. 15 x | x 2. Set out pointed end, also semicircular top. 3. Saw bottom and corners off top, compare latter by paring. 4. Execute notches by cutting with firmer chisel.

Key Rack.
in.

i. Prepare one piece of American whit ewood, io 26 x 6 x 1-2 cm.

x 2] x \

2.

Plane up

face, side,

and edge.

2a.

Plane and gauge to width and thick-

ness.
3.

Mark

out the semicircular ends.

3a.

Cut same with dovetail saw

(see

Fig. i).
4.

Pare down to lines with firmer

chisel.

4a.

Prepare a specimen of cham-

fering.

Set out and execute chamfering on key rack with file. In the second and third examples dealt with above, chamfering is employed as the simplest kind of ornament, and permits of individual effort in
5.

Note.

designing same.
small chisel.

For

class

pupils encouraged to suggest treatments, limiting

work an extra piece of wood can be issued and the them to the use of a file and

cede their
large keys,

efforts.

demonstration showing one or two different types should preThe hooks can l>e placed vertically as shown or horizontal for
is,

when the rack

of course, also fixed in a horizontal position.

(10)

CHA1'.

II.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS! WOOD.

*T

STflGE

FIG.

i.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

li

A HALF-LAPPED FRAME
Object.

(Figs. 2, 3,

and

4).

a previously constructed joint, i.e. The decoration provides half-lapped joint, to a simple woodworking model.
illustrate the application of

To

an

opportunity

for

tasteful

treatment,

and

can
viz.

be

of

various

kinds,

gouged,

chiselled, inlaid, or stencilled.

The
made
first

Joint should be
as

an exercise, the
is

procedure for which

follows
:

as

Plane up one piece 1. American whitewood, 12^ x

2-2

z\ x I cm.
2.

in.

31-5 x 5-7 x

Mark

face edge, shoot

same,

gauge and plane to width and thickness.

3.

Pencil

cross

centre

line in
FIG.
2.

wood.

Saw

across.

4. Fix one piece in stops, mark width of the other piece at centre square lines across with marking knife. Repeat with second piece. 5. Square lines on edges, and gauge half-thickness on edges (gauge lines

must be made from face

6.

side).

Cut

lines with dovetail saw,

x |

The Frame. i. in. = 31-5 x 4-5 x

2.

and remove waste of each piece. Cut out 4 pieces of American whitewood, 12^ x if
2-2

cm.

Plane up
Fix
all

3.

Gauge and plane up

4.

piece. pieces to width and thickness. pieces in bench stop. Set out lines (A, B, C, D, E, F, Fig. 4) on
all

face, side,

and edge of each

edges with marking knife.

5.

Separate pieces.

Square

lines

on two pieces on

face side.

Square

lines

on two pieces on back

6.
,

side.

7.

Gauge half-thickness on edges for joints from face side. Cut inside line with dovetail saw, remove waste with firmer
Fit together

chisel.

8. 9.

and glue up. When dry level off on both Mark rebate on inside of frame on back, cut same with

sides.
chisel.

Proceed with decorative work (see alternate treatments on opposite page). The Decoration must at such an early stage be easy of execution.
10.

The
is

first

kind shown

is

single

gouge cuts on the edge of the frame

left

this

best executed by holding the gouge in position with the

hand, striking

CHAP.

II.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

FIG.

3.

14
it

HANDCRAFT.
Eight cuts are then

[CHAP .

smartly with the palm of the right hand. corner to form the device shown.

made

in

each

The second
shown
is

treatment

executed

on the
;

edges with gouge and chisel the corners have a simple

recessed device.

The
lustrates

third treatment

il-

a stencilled pattern, which can be executed by

drawing the design on paper,

cutting the required portions away by means of gouge cuts
(for

stencilling refer also to

bottom of this page). The fourth treatment consists of two differently coloured woods arranged four in a square. These should be cut from | in. wood and glued like mosaic
groundwork. Outlines]of the third and fourth examples vary these should be out geometrically and finished by paring with a firmer chisel.
into the

FlG

'

The

set

WATCH STAND
(if

(Fig. 5).
chiselling,

Object. curve of back

model to introduce simple sawing, planing,

and

filing

is

considered undesirable a straight line can be substituted), also

as

an exercise in

stencilling.

Metric. Material. English. in. i 20-3 x 9-1 x piece American whitewood, 8J x 3f x x i 3! x 2| x ^ in. 9-5 x 7 piece The Process. i. Saw out and smooth up material as above. 2. Plane one edge of front, gauge, and plane to width.
3.

cm.

cm.

4.
5.

Mark Mark

out semicircular head of front piece. bevel at bottom, cut same with dovetail saw.

6.

Cut head
Cut

Set out the support as per Fig. 5. to shape, removing corners with saw

pare away to line with

firmer chisel.
7.

straight

back with dovetail saw,

finish

bottom with gouge.

8.

Nail together, holding. back in bench vice.

;

The Decoration, as illustrated, is simple stencilling the design should be executed on stiff cartridge paper, then cut out with a sharp penknife. The paper is then placed upon the front and held perfectly flat whilst the colour is
simple vee tooling could be substituted for the Painting the whole stand would improve the model dark green with white or red stencilling are 'Suitable treatments.

dabbed upon Notes.

it

with a brush.

For

class work,

stencilled design.

CHAP.

II.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

CENTRE

LINE

TRUE SIZES OF FRQNT PIECH

Pep/-pecti\>e

Sketch

of

SCALE THREE FOURTHS

^ktcft Stemd To be 6xecv>1red in OoJc OF otfiep

At-

Fio. 5.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. n.

simple geometrical arrangement of spots

in.

is

also effective, this could

filling

be

done by boring y\
(This process
is

holes about |

in.

deep,

in

with coloured wax.

further described

on pp. 148, 150.)

(Fig. 6).

PIN
Note.
Nos.
i

AND PEN TRAYS

and the perspective sketch on p. 17, illustrate a pen tray, to be executed in American whitewood, and designed in order to introduce No. 3 is the sectional view of a more advanced sawing, planing, and gouging. A cavetto or type, involving the addition of bevelling and a thin moulded base.
and
2,

No. 4 is a further hollow moulding is a suitable alternative detail for this model. development of the above types. Mahogany is suggested for the pen tray proper A mosaic edging should be worked round the top edges, which with ebony feet.
is

further illustrated

colour combination
illustrate

and described on p. 146. Satin wood and ebony is a when mahogany is used for the groundwork. Nos.

suitable
5

and 6

an alternative model
example.

for the first year, introducing processes similar to

the

lines indicated

development of this type could proceed upon the connexion with the pen tray. Material required for the four models (cutting sizes) Nos. i and 2 Metric. English.
first

The
in

further

above

piece American whitewood, io

x 2% x \
x 2^ x f

in.

26*6 x 6-4 x 2-25 cm.

No. 3:
i
i

piece American whitewood, io piece

ii

in. in.

x'2| x \

26-6 x 6-4 x 2-25 cm. 28 x 7-3 x -6 cm.

11-4 x 8-2 x 2-25 cm.

No. 4:
i

piece
5

Nos.
i

American whitewood and 6

:

4^ x 3^ x |

in.

io x 2^ x Cuba mahogany Ebony 4^ x \\ x The Process (for pen tray. Nos. i and 1. Saw out, and plane material to finished
piece
i

in.

piece

in.

26-6 x 6-4 x 2-25 cm. -6 cm. 11-4 x 3-2 x

2).

thickness, length,

and width.

2.

Square across pencil

Prepare a \
in.

lines

corresponding to semicircle centres.

i.

3.

Describe the semicircles as shown in No.

4.
5. 6.

cardboard templet as shown

in

No.

2.

Gouge away

the centre part, testing frequently with templet. Finish inside with glass paper, plane and finish the round edges.
width.

Process (for pin tray. Nos. 5 and 6). 1. Saw out, and plane material to finished thickness, length, and 2. Draw centre lines on face side, mark axes of ellipse.
3.

Prepare a paper trammel and describe

ellipse.

4.

Gouge away

the inside part

and

finish with glass paper.

5. Round edges and finish. The use of glass paper in connexion

with the above models

may

in the first

year be considered undesirable and omitted.

CHAP.

II.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS

WOOD.

i8

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. in.

EACH PIECE NOT LESS

THAN

v5'/a.

INCHES LONG

THREE FOURTHS SCALE

EXERCISE

IN

THROUGH

OR,

"COMMON" DOVETAILING

PINE OR. WHITE WOOD TO BE USED

CHAPTER

III

SECOND YEAR MODELS (WOOD)

KNIFE BOX
NOTE.
(Fig. 1).
in Fig. 1, perspective
2,

The

knife box, detail drawings of

which are shown

sketch in Fig.

should be

made wood
used

of

American whiteIf

or yellow pine.

for spoons, forks, etc.,

mahogany would be a more

suitable material, the inside
FIG.
2.

lined with green baize.

The
It is

through dovetails, are illustrated opposite. recommended that one comer be taken as an exercise before proceeding

Joints

at the corners, viz.

with the complete model. housed joint is used to connect the centre piece with the ends. The procedure for this is as follows
:

6 x

Plane up to thickness and square to x in.

size

two pieces American whitewood,

FIG. 3.

2.

3.

Square two lines across piece A, gauge \ in. deep on edge. Cut away blackened part of diagram \ deep with firmer chisel.

This
the re-

permits the. entrance of a dovetail saw and allows saw cuts to be*

made

quired depth.
4.

Remove

waste, cut shoulder

on piece B, and
(19)

fit

together.

20
Description of Fig.
1

HANDCRAFT.
(continued).
i.

[CHAP. HI.

The
1

Process.

Saw out and plane

English.

to thickness the following material

Metric.
in. in.

2
2
i

Bottom Ends
Sides
Division

ft.

ft.
ft.

7 i^ x 8^- x y^ x 3 x T7 8 i x 3 x T7F o x 4! x T7F

ft

yellow pine 34/5 x 21 '5 x i 2 cm. 21 x 7-5 x 1-2 cm.

-

in.
in.

33-5 x

7-5

1-2

cm.

31-5 x 12

x 1-2 cm.

2.

Shoot face edges of

all pieces,

3.

Gauge
Set out

for dovetailing,

mark and

plane to length and width. cut same.

4.
5.

and cut housed joints in division as per above. Set out division, also hand hole as per Fig. 2 ; and work same.
Glue up model
;

6.
7.

when

dry, level off

Round edges

of bottom

and and screw same

fix in

division.

to box.

A CLOCK CASE
To
viz.

(Fig. 4).

produce a useful model embodying very elementary processes, Object. An American clock is sawing, smoothing, shooting, grooving, and nailing.

utilized for the

movement.

to the sides (see sectional

This must have three small ears or flanges soldered and back view) which provides for the necessary fixing.

The bottom

dispensed with if necessary. Prepare a working drawing of the model upon a \ imperial sheet of cartridge paper, viz. full front elevation and a sectional view. 2. Prepare also a cutting list or timber sheet from the drawing.

curve

may be
i.

The

Process.

3.

Saw out and plane up smooth

the following material

SECOND YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

Pepfpeeti^e Ske^cft of

21

Clock Ga/e Complete.

THE FEET OF H/VR.DWOOD

Fpont

a.CLockCe^eAodel t5b bema.de in

Pedrfted

Gpeen
CASE SHEWING
TION OF

SECTIONAL VIEW OF

MOVEMENT

POSI-

VIEW WITH BACK REMOVED

FIG.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. in.

GLOVE OR HANDKERCHIEF BOX

Object.
year example
is

(Fig. 5).

To embody

elementary processes in a simple model.

The

first

whitewood nailed together with stencil decoration. The second year example shows the application of through dovetailing, and introduces a simple form of decoration, viz. vee tooling with wax inlay.

Joints of the first example are simply nailed or secured with panel small pins or screws are fixed through the ends into the lid, acting as a when the lid is raised the back edge pivot (see also plan of back corner shown) rests against the box, and slopes slightly backwards.
pins
; ;

The

The Processes
1.

for the first year

model.
Metric.

English.

Cut out

2
i i i

Whitewood, 6 Front and Back 13 Bottom ,, 14

Ends

x 4^ x f in. x 3^ x | in. x 6| x fin. x 5f x fin.

15-5 x

n
8

cm. cm.

34

Top

i2-

36-5 x 31-5 x

15-75 cm.

1475 cm.

2. 3.

4.

Smooth up all material on both sides. Square up to width and thickness back, front, top, and bottom. Draw centre line on end, and draw half complete outline, duplicate on
:

other side as follows

(a)
(b]

Trace half outline into a piece of

stiff

tracing paper.

will

Turn tracing paper over and go over the outline with a hard leave a mark on the wood, which should be lined in.
5.

pencil

this

vice, cut with fine

6.
7.

Repeat the outline on other side. bow-saw and finish with

Place both pieces together

file.

in

bench

Round the edges of bottom and front and back edges of the top. Nail up the box as follows Nail the ends on to the front, insert back and fix same. Fix the bottom, finally fit the top, mark centres as per diagram, and screw or pin.
:

The Decoration is based upon a simple natural growth. Pupils should prepare an outline from a specimen, then convert to a suitable stencil this can be cut in ordinary cartridge paper with a sharp-pointed knife, and when placed in
;

on the box, the colour is dabbed on the wood through the cut-out the paper is then removed and the paint allowed to dry. The Second Year Example illustrates a slightly more difficult ornament. This should be drawn on cartridge paper first, then transferred to the box in the manner previously described. A vee tool is used to cut pattern, which can then be coloured or filled with coloured wax (see also p. 148). Other suitable decorative patterns for use with this model are illustrated on
position

portion

pages 15 and 29.

CHAP.

III.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

8^-

Sectioned \7i&& of Glo\)e feox ^o be

in-

m sole

Second

Ghe Vbe
Colored -soc- Fil-

FIG.

5.

24

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. HI.

KNOCKER AND NAME PLATE

Note.

(Fig. 7).

not generally used for door knockers, some excellent specimens have been executed in this material, notably those at Gwydir Castle, Wales. In one a conventional rendering of a lion's head is the outstanding feature,

Though wood

is

button

An iron while another example shows a pleasing application of chiselled work. is fixed below the actual knocker, which strikes against an iron plate

cut into the door.

Name
wood.

The

Plates, such as the example illustrated, can well be executed in lettering can be either recessed, or left in relief by gouging the out-

line (see examples, Fig. 6).

FIG.

6.

Oak is suitable material, left in natural condition with Lime wood is an easier material to use, but should be painted.
is

high parts coloured. Necessary boldness

given to the lettering,

etc.,

Processes.

The Name

by painting with a contrasting colour. Plate. The lettering is best executed by

Good examples in various styles are given in drawing upon cartridge paper. Lewis F. Day's " Alphabets Old and New ". Geometrical constructions are recommended. When a satisfactory design has been prepared, it can be transferred to
the planed surface of the

design and the wood.

wood by the insertion of carbon paper between the hard pencil is used to trace the outline, which leaves
is

corresponding marks on the groundwork.

The

letter

illustrated

cut

round

(as

shown

in

section

in

Fig.

6)

with a sharp gouge; the outside part of the gouge cuts is then pared down, producing the bottom section shown, the letter standing up in relief. The letter illustrated should be gouged -? in. deep, square with groundwork,

then gouged

down
is

as

shown

in section, leaving a

shape.

In

a similar pre-

liminary process " out tool.

effected, then the

back parts are removed with a " grounding-

The letter B is the simplest to execute. Vee cuts are made, the sharp edge of the outside part being removed with a chisel. For The Knocker the following procedure is satisfactory
:

1.

2.

Plane up material to thickness of f in. Draw centre line on wood, freehand strapwork design on one side, com-

CHAP.

III.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

SxecOted-in-OaJc
^..r-

PLaCte ojid K>nockep.

VlEW SHEWING METHOD OF H ANQING THE K.NOCK.ER,.

Sketch
ing-

^ppHcoCtion

of -the

5CALE

FOR,

ELEVATION
.

HALF FULL SIZE

Fio.

7.

26

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. HI.

Description of Fig. 7 (continued}.

draw on cartridge paper and transfer with carbon paper. 3. Outline the inside part of the design with chisels and gouges and cut down
plete the other half with tracing paper, or

back parts as shown in the section. 4. Cut outside of shape with bow-saw and
5.

finish with

file.

Fix hinge, button, and striking plate. Object. To introduce simple carved exercises

involving good training of

hand and eye

as a complete model.

A TABLE BOOK-STAND
To show an

(Figs.

8 and

9).

Object. Also to introduce simple chamfered moulding, shaping, and inlaying. The length of the model can conveniently range from in. overall size (as per example) to

application of lapped dovetailing to a simple model.

ft.

over

all size.

The

Joints.

Mitreing

is

used

for the base

tailing is

moulding; and lapped dovea variation of through or common

dovetailing illustrated on p. 18. The best angle for dovetailing, either

through or lapped,

is

in

the carcase
best
is

The and secret dovetails i in 6. method of obtaining the correct angle draw a line CD in Fig. 8 4^ in.
Then

to

long.
;

to divide it into six equal parts one of these divisions should be drawn at right and a sliding bevel can then be angles to

FIG 8

adjusted.

One-eighth the length of D can be substituted for the divisions if desired.

1,

Procedure.
1.

For the exercise No.

Fig.

2.

3.

Plane up pieces to width and thickness. Square one end of each piece. Decide length of dovetail, rather more than two-thirds thickness of socket

piece,
4.

gauge same on both pieces.

Space out dovetails, marking same with the bevel. Cut dovetails, and then fix the thick piece in the bench chop. The end of the thin piece should then be lined up with the gauge mark of the cap, and held
5.

firmly in position. This can best be effected by placing the end of the dovetailed Press firmly down place saw in cut, and draw piece upon a plane or block. forward. A mark will result in each instance. The guide piece can then be
;

removed, and the socket piece reversed, then cuts are made with dovetail saw, leaving the mark upon the wood. Complete by chiselling out sockets and waste, cut shoulders with dovetail saw.

The

Process.

i.

Plane up to width and length

CHAP.

III.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

To be 6xec\>ted

in

Mscrdx^ood

VIEW SHEWING BOTTOM DOVETAILED INTO SIDES

pecoT'aiteci

InLao/ing.

FIG. 9.

28

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. HI.

Description of Fig, 9 (continued).

English.
2 pieces for
2.

Metric.

Ends

7| x 6
to thickness
:

in.

19-5 x 15-5

cm.

Saw out and plane up i piece for Bottom

Moulding,
i

n
3
ft.

length

x 6^ x 2^

in.
in.

28 x 15-5 cm. 6 cm. 97 x

3.

Shoot bottom to length and width, plane ends to width, and square one
Plane moulding to width and thickness. Dovetail bottom into ends (as per preceding

end.
4.
5. 6.

detail).

Mark

centre lines

on ends, draw shape on

half,

and duplicate with tracing

paper and templet.

Cut and regulate shapes, paper up same. Set out inlaying as per perspective sketch, or carving, tooling, or stencilled decoration (see bottom diagrams).
7.

8.

9.

edges,

Sandpaper up all parts glue together and mitre round the moulding.
;

when dry

level off

bottom and

TEA TRAYS
Object.
viz.

(Fig. 10).
joint,

useful model showing the application of a simple angle

tongueing.

In the case of the alternate

constructive

detail

diminished and housed dovetailing, this is more suitable for year work, when a greater degree of proficiency has been attained.

shown, viz. second and third

The Process

(for

main elevation and sectional

view).

First year model.

:

Prepare and plane up to thickness the following material

English.
1.

Metric.

Bottom
Sides

i
i

ft.

n^
i

in. in. in.

40
39

x 29
x

cm.

2.

ft.

3.

Ends

3^ x ii x

x ^ if x ^

3-2x1
4-5

cm.

26*5 x

cm.

scale of one-fifth full size could be

adopted with advantage

:

in

some

cases

the cutting sizes would then be as follows

1.

Bottom
Sides

ft.

8
5

2.

i i

ft.
ft.

x 13! x ^ x if x

in.
in.

50

3.
1.

Ends

if x

2^ x

in.

48-75 x x 33'i

x 36-25 x 1-25 cm. x 1-25 cm. 4

5-6

x 1-25 cm.

Plane sides to width, place same together in bench vice, mark finished

length on edges, and also the grooves to receive tongue. 2. Place ends in bench vice, set out finished length on edges, also shoulder
line.
3.

Gauge on thickness of tongue, cut same with

fit

dovetail saw.

Cut grooves

on sides and

the frame together. 4. Set out shape of end, as per diagram on this page. 5. Bore holes for handles, finish with keyhole saw and

files.

CHAP.

III.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

of s^ <oea^

One

Gpeo/ -to be -m^de of

-

Deception

DecoT> acted.

JolrTt

5econd
iY>d-y?

Con/fOction

or?

cr?
-JoinT.
FIG. 10.

30
6.

HANDCRAFT.
Cut top curve,
all

[CHAP. in.

finish with

spokeshave, glue together,

and when dry

plane up framing

round.

The Decoration of a first or second year model should be restricted to a For the third year a strap-work simple arrangement of gouge cuts or vee tooling. design is shown which is executed by cutting the groundwork away slightly so
as to leave the design in relief.
Its effect is

enhanced

if

the surface of the strap-

work

is

cut slightly hollow.

in

Simple decoration could also be introduced round framing, as suggested

the perspective sketch.

Alternate Shapes mented indefinitely. For

definite data for the

for the

class

work

ends are illustrated; these could be suppleit is recommended that pupils be given

hand holes, and be allowed to express their own ideas for the outline, subject of course to criticism and guidance. Alternate details are also shown suitable for a moulded bottom.

CHAPTER

IV

THIRD YEAR MODELS (WOOD)

A HANGING LAMP BRACKET
Object.
recessing.
(Fig. 1).

model designed

chiefly to introduce shaping, cutting with

file.

bow

saw, arid working with spokeshave and

Also as an exercise

in

simple
secret

The

Joints introduced are a simple mortise and tenon

in the

joint,

and

screwed fixing described below.

Decoration

example

illustrated is a simple outline vee tooled,

one

side of the cut having the sharp edge

removed

(see section

on

front elevation).

The background can be coloured

harmonizing well with oak.

for effect, certain

shades of blue, green, or red

The
1.

Process.
English.
i

Prepare:
piece for
i i
,,

Metric.

Back
Shelf

14 x 6 9 x 8

in. in. in.

35-5 x 15-25 cm.

Bracket 6

x 2^

23 16

x 20-5 x
6-5

cm.
cm.

2.

3.

Mark a

Plane up each piece to thickness, reduce back only to width. centre line on back, freehand the curve on left side, duplicate

right-hand side with tracing paper. 4. Plane one edge of shelf, set out shape with compasses. 5. Plane one edge of bracket, set out shape with compasses.
6.

Gauge mortise on back (both

Slot screw the bracket

sides)

and tenon on bracket.

Bore f

in.

hole

and

finish mortise
7.

with firmer chisel.

on to the shelf

(see later).

Fix back in bench vice, and saw curves (y1^ in. outside line) with Repeat process with bracket and shelf. 9. Finish each piece with spokeshave, file, and glass-paper.
8.

bow

saw.

10.

11.

Draw design on back, and outline with vee tool. With a small firmer chisel merge one line of the cut on
Clean up
all surfaces,

to the back-

ground.
12.

and screw the model

together.

13.

Paint in background of recessing.

(30

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. iv.

nb Laonp Bracket To be
6xec\Fted in OaJc

THE OVERALL SIZE OF BACK

-|4-X<5 INCHES

TO BE MADE OF OAK WITH BLUE BACKGROUND TO R.EUE.F

FlG.
I.

CHAP.

IV.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

Slot Screwing.

33

i. The bracket piece (A in diagram) should have two f driven in until a projection of in. is obtained.

in.

x 6

in.

screws

FIG.

2.

Alternate decorative treatments for back of lamp bracket

inlaid.

vee tooled, painted and

2.

The

centre of these screws should be

marked on the underside of

in.

shelf,

then holes are bored exactly the size of the screw head

deep.

FIG.
3.

3.

Slots are cut in the shelf (see plan in Fig. 1) coinciding with the thick-

ness of the screw shaft.

4.

See

in diagram.

With a small firmer

chisel bevel the inside of slot to coincide with the

The screw heads can then be entered in the bevel of screw head underneath. bored holes, the bracket pressed down, and tapped along the grooves with a hammer, thus forming a secret screwed joint.
3

34

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

iv.

MIRROR OR PICTURE FRAMES

(Figs. 4-6).

Tooled, Inlayed, and Stencilled. To show applications of a long and short shouldered mortise Object. and tenon joint to a tenoned-up frame. Three shapes are DSteal The illustrated, embodying similar constructive features.
ornament is varied the first type shows an arrangement of simple gouge cuts, the second without shaping shows a
;

simple inlaid treatment, and the third example illustrates the application of stencilled ornament.

The Joint (see diagram) as an exercise is best cut from two pieces of pine or whitewood 8 x 2 x | in. These are planed to width and thickness, and then set out
as illustrated in Fig. 4, below.
1.

2.

Stencilled

3.

Square across lines on stile piece to width of rail AB. Square across rebate line and haunch line CD. Square shoulder lines across on rail piece EF i in.

PsOTern
5. 6.
7.

from end.
4.

Return

on

face side,

F on back

side.

Set gauge to mortise chisel (rd approx.). Mark mortise on stile and tenons on rails (see dotted lines).

Mortise

stile,

cut tenons,

and then
(first

fit

together.
i.

The Process
width and thickness

for
:

Frame

example).

Saw

out,

and plane up

to

English.
2 Stiles
i
i i

Metric.

ft.

in.

2
i i

pieces 3-3 cm.

Top

rail

ft.

Bottom

rail i ft.

4 x 3^ 4 x if

in.

piece
piece

4'!
'4

cm.

in.

cm.

2.

Place

stiles

together in bench vice

and square across sight lines of rails, then haunch and rebate lines, gauge
rebate lines on face, edges, and backs. 3. Mark mortise and tenons, cut

same, then shoulders, work the rebates

with plane (see
4.
p.

194, Fig. 10).

Firmly secure one stile in bench, then reduce tenon to width

;

test

same

in mortise

and
tight,

fit

both shoulders are

in the

same until and rail lies

same plane as the stile. 5. Repeat this process with each

remaining corner of the frame.

6. Glass-paper inside edges and glue frame together. (Iron stops of bench used for one end, with light iron cramp across the other rail.)

FlGt *

CHAP.

IV.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

35

Frame/* of
iffer-

ent -DecoraCtKte

-the of
TJie-Lbr

&-

Short

QQQQQQQPQQQQQQQQPPQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ

lrom<3fric
TrojecSti

^KDoTted -line -IndiceCter "

Fnirbed-teritfth * :r -of

tTo

foe- GxecCfted-tn

\^s^.lncn'.Inl^-of

6bony said 1oox

the-Frajne.

throvgh

Frsun e

Fio.

5.

Frames.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. iv.

When

dry, the

frame

is

planed down level on both

line

sides,

and a centre

drawn on

face side

the curves are then

traced on paper from the full-size drawing and transferred half at a time each side of centre
line.

8.

Frame

is

placed in bench

vice,

shape

cut just outside the line with a bow saw, then filed and regulated, viz. freed from lumps and
irregularities,
9.

papered up. spaced out with dividers and drawn upon the wood, then a scribing gouge is used to tool the surface. Papering concludes
finally

and

Tooling

is

this part,

and the addition of a back from

in.

pine completes the model.

CANDLE BRACKET
Object.
FIG.
6.

(Fig. 7).

bining metal
shaving mirror to hang Executed in whitepainted.

To show the possibility of comand woodworking processes in one

in the

^^HP!

upon a wall.

wood and

The

Joints employed

ing portion are a double mortise and tenon joint, with single ditto and secret screwing to secure bracket to shelf. The candle sconce
to be screwed

woodworkon bracket,
is

intended

down

to the bracket.
i.

The
size.
2.

Process.

The model
to width

to

be drawn on cartridge paper,

:

full

Saw out and plane

and thickness

English.
i
i i

Metric.

piece

Back
Bracket
Shelf

io
6

x 4^ x fin. x \ in. x i
in.

27-5 x 14-5
15-5 x
3-5

x 1-6 cm.

6^ x 3^ x

x 1-3 cm. 8-25 x 1-3 cm.

3.

Draw

centre line on back.

Square across

lines for mortise,

and mark

outline with tracing paper. 4. Set out shoulder and tenons on bracket, cut same, also mortise
in

and tenon

back and
5. 6.

fit

together.
in

Execute the secret screwing

file

bracket and shelf (see

p. 33).
;

Set out true shape of bracket and shelf, cut same, also the back

spoke-

shave,
7.

and glass-paper

to line.
all

together.

Execute inlaying as per below, then clean up Fit sconce and fix.

surfaces

and glue

The Decoration
alternately,

of the example under review is wood inlaying; this can, be entirely omitted, or simple carving, strapwork, stencilling, or

CHAP. IV.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

37

Candle Bracket and

Socket-

GROIJND/ORK OF OF EBONY

(ROSEWOOD E PURPLE WOOD f

FIG.

7.

38
tooling can be substituted.

HANDCfcAFT.

MAP.

iV.

(References to the latter with suitable ideas will be

found on opposite page and on p. 144.) Procedure for Inlaying. It is assumed that the ornament
size

is

drawn

full

on cartridge paper. 1. Trace the pattern on to tracing paper. back in correct position.
;

Gum

or paste this

down

to the

2. Prepare another tracing of the inlay cut up into small pieces, each conGlue taining one unit of the design (or alternately), as described on p. 145. these tracings of units down to veneer, taking care to have the grain running

from heel to point of each leaf. 3. Cut leaves and stems with
4.

Gouge groundwork,
Bore the spot

fret saw or gouge, keeping just outside the line. cutting just inside the line ; remove cores, and glue

units in position.
5. 6.

The

units, and glue in previously prepared square units are cut with \ in. chisel.

sticks.

FINGER PLATES
Object.
eye.

(Fig. 8).

To

introduce various exercises in a complete model, involving

manipulation of gouges and grounding tools as special practice for hand and

the handle

The third, fourth and fifth examples represent those placed beneath and lock of a door, and the length can readily be extended for upper plates. Many alternate arrangements can be effected, such as carving on top of upper plate, and vice versa. When extra length is desired, the ornament is such
Note.

as to

be readily adaptable.

The
range in

Process.

full-size

drawing of a plate should

first

be made on
suitable,

cartridge paper, then the

difficulty of

wood

selected.

The

following

woods are

and

working

in the order given, viz.

Mahogany, walnut, oak,

:

sycamore, boxwood, ebony, and satinwood. First Example. i. Cut out and plane to width and thickness
English. piece hardwood
i

Metric.

Top
2.

plate

Bottom

plate

piece

x 3 x ^ 8 x 3 x \

in.
in.

base

x 7-6 x -6cm. 20-3 x 7-6 x -6 cm.

28

Draw

centre line on each piece.

Trace half the outline on plate and

ornament from drawing. 3. Transfer this on both sides of centre

4.

Clamp wood on bench, and

lines with tracing paper. outline design with carving gouges.

5. With a grounding-out tool remove interior parts to a uniform depth, keeping corners sharp.

face of the ornament to give an interlacing effect. Complete the model by cutting outline, rounding of same on face and sandpaper up the flat surface.
6.
7.

Cut the

side,

CHAP.

IV.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

39

Tooled

etc

FIG.

8.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHA1'. IV.

Fourth Example. i. Prepare material (as per above) and transfer detail from drawing with tracing paper. 2. The stems should be cut from veneer, and cut into the groundwork and
glued.

best made by two gouge groundwork in a similar manner. Two gouge cuts are made the required depth, and a slight turn of the tool usually suffices to remove the core.
3.

The

leaf units are

next

cut.

They

are

cuts in a leaf of veneer,

and may be cut

into the

4.

Units are glued in position, holes are bored for the berries with a small

FRONT

DETAIL

OIN

DRAWER,
THR.EE

DRAWN
SIZE

FOURTHS

foi

Sffaftione^y Care.
FIG. g.

design for a simple carcase model.

stationery case.
is

twist or centre bit,

and a

cylindrical stick, equal in diameter to the berry,

pre-

pared, and can be glued into a hole and cut off level with a dovetail saw. " Decorative Processes". Inlaying is further described in chapter on

The ornament shown

carving tools.

in the

outlining the ellipse with gouges,

second example should be executed by and then bevelling as indicated with

first

flat

BREAD PLATTERS
Object.

(Fig. 10).

To

introduce

bow sawing and

filing exercises.

These models are

specially valuable for are followed, there is

good hand and eye training. Whilst general features ample scope for individual taste on the part of pupils.

CHAP.

IV.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS

WOOD.

FIG. 10.

HANDCRAFT.
Commencing with
the drawing of a plain circle for outline

[CHAP. iv.

and an inner

circle

for the recessing, individual effort

can be encouraged in developing the outline,

chamfering, and ornament of rim.

Material. Sycamore is an excellent wood for this model limewood may be considered the next best it is both softer and easier to work than the
;

former.

liability to cast

American whitewood is least satisfactory for class work owing to its and twist. An average overall size of 12 in. is recommended. The Process (example No. i, Fig. 10). i. Prepare a drawing of the
on cartridge paper.
lines.
2.

platter, full size,

Plane up the material on both sides and strike diagonal

FIG. ii.

3.

ally

flat gouge. (Occasionshould be tested for correct depth with the templet (see diagram). A router is used to finish the recessing to a uniform depth (see sketch above). Glass-paper can be used to finally smooth up.)

4.

Transfer the design on to the material. Execute the recessing this should be done with a
;

it

$. 6.

Cut outline

to shape with bow saw, and finish with file. Execute carving with gouge cuts square to face side the groundwork
;

is

then levelled (see section above),

relief.

leaving

the

strapwork or

leaves,

etc.,

in

7.
file this

Complete the model by spacing and pencilling the chamfer decoration, part, and finish with sandpaper.

CHAP.

IV.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS: WOOD.

43

FIG. 12.

An

adjustable towel rail to be

made

in teak,

sycamore, or American whitewood.

44

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. iv.

Description of Fig. 10 (continued}. Notes. The first example, described above,

is

worked upon a

circular

The second geometrical basis, the decoration is centred upon diagonal lines. specimen has a hexagonal form, the sides being converted into curves with small intervening detail. The main elements of the strapwork decoration are spaced in
leaf decoration

The third example is based upon an octagon, and the intended to be slightly recessed. No. 4 is based upon a circular outline, with simple conventional floral ornament at the ends of the diameters.
between the diagonals.
is

No.

shows an example worked upon a

circle

and diagonal

lines, as

does

also the last specimen, the decoration in this case being in slight relief from the rim or groundwork.

CHAPTER V

SPECIAL MODELS IN
SWING TOILET MIRROR
Object.

WOOD
1).

FOR EVENING PUPILS AND OTHERS

(Fig.

model designed chiefly upon the use of mortise and tenon joints, and to show the application of simple geometrical painted decoration, strapwork carving, or recessing and chamfered ornament.

The

Joints.

All of the joints connecting the various parts are similar,

for

i.e.

mortise and tenon.

The Procedure
Mark and saw out

complete example illustrated

:

is

as follows

the following pieces

English.
i.

Metric.

Standards

46

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. v.

n
H UJ
^Toilet

GxecC'I'ed in

GeomeTpic
pecopection
.

^Yt^^ft^-A^.--^

IfCXDJ.-

>

<

FlG.

I.

CHAP.

v.J

SPECIAL MODELS IN
Cut

WOOD FOR EVENING

and bore standards.

PUPILS.

47

15.
r

plates in stiles of frame

2,

Fix glass in frame, as in diagram Fig. by glueing blocks i in. long in the position
6.

shown.
section.

Complete by screwing on back

as per

The Decoration
men shown
pattern.
is

of the complete specibased upon a simple geometrical This should be set out as shown in

each

Squares are first drawn, then Semidivided into four parts (see A). circles are then described (see B) and finally a circle in each original square touching the sides
front elevation.
is

(refer to C).

which should be coloured

simple diaper is thus formed, in with various paints

and sable hair brushes.

is

similar procedure

followed for the standards.

Alternate Treatments for the standards

and
cross
first

rail

are also

illustrated

opposite.

The
last

and second examples represent simple

FIG. 2. recessing forming strapwork, whilst the four show variation of outline with ornamented examples easy chamfering.

AN UPHOLSTERED STOOL
Note.

(Fig.

4).

The model

is

based upon stools of the Queen Anne period so

far as

general outline is concerned. The treatment

of the under-railing
is

essentially modern.

Turning
this

for

work
is

of

character

best

studied

from old exthe

first

amples,

and

third examples are ad-

apted from Queen

detail.

Anne The method of

connecting the underrailing is described on

p.

53 in connexion with

occasional

tables.
FIG. 3.
is

Wainscot oak may be used for models of this

type, but Italian walnut

swing

toilet mirror.

turning are illustrated in

Various methods of building up the preferable. the diagram Fig. 5 on p. 49.

48

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. v.

DECIMETRES.

FIG. 4.

An

upholstered stool of Queen

Anne

style.

CHAP, v.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN

WOOD FOR EVENING

to width

PUPILS.

49
follow-

The Process.
ing material
:

Saw out and plane up

English.

and thickness the

Metric.

4 Legs 4 Feet
2 2 2
i

10$

in.

x
x x x

2 in. 2 in.

Ital.

walnut 26 x

3i
Rails
i i

inin.
'

Long
Short

ft.
ft.

in. in.

T
3

n. n.
in.

Under

,,

2ft. 2

3^ x \
\
x

in.

Moulding For Brackets

1.

6
i

ft.

n.
in.

ft.

n.

beech
legs,

Set out tenons on rails

and mortises on
in sectional plan.)

cut same,

tenon
2.

is

employed, see detail

Halve together the

off.

under-rails, glue together

and

level
3.

Execute turning on legs and glue up

Level off top, gauge and execute same.

rails

and

legs.
4.

for rebates (see sectional

view),
5.

rails,

cut same,

Set out with templet the shaping on under and finish with files and glass-paper,

bore for pins.

6.

Glue

feet

through

rail

into legs, clean

up

framing,

and mitre moulding round rebate. 7. Cut and fix the angle brackets. A, Fig. 5. Shows leg turned with groove

to

receive a separate bulb part, foot pinned through under-frame into leg.

B, Fig. 5. Shows an similar constructive detail.

alternate

design

with

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. V.

DoOOaononBoooOOOPODODODOOOaODOQaOOOOO

FOUR.THS) SIZE
Start ionei$

in

Ca/e Oak, and

FIG. 6.

CHAP, v.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN

WOOD FOR EVENING

PUPILS.

Interior.
2 Vertical 2

Divisions

ft.

Central

3
2

Horizontal Divisions

Side

4 Arches i Central Arch

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. v.

CHAP,

v.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN
Decoration.
inlaid level

WOOD FOR EVENING

PUPILS.
is

53
described on

The
p. 146.

Method of inlaying
for the

the mosaic stringing

Veneers are used

outline

and

ornamental device; these should be cut to with the surface of the wood. When dry the leaves are

indicated or outlined with vee tool cuts,

p.

and

filled

with composition (see also

148)

whole

is

the spots are executed with a drill and filled in with composition. then allowed to stand by and is then scraped and sandpapered.
in.

The The

inside of the

fall should be lipped with veneer with morocco leather or skiver.

wide, the

groundwork covered

OCCASIONAL TABLES
The Rim.
The
elevation
;

(Figs.

10 and

11).

and plan shows a suitable treatment for this type of furniture a half-plan shows the method of forking the legs into the rim, When building up a general constructive feature of circular and elliptical work.
the rim, a board of f in. pine should first be planed up true, 'and the true shape of rim set out upon it. This is divided into four parts, one of which is duplicated in in. mahogany and constitutes the templet. The templet is used to mark

out twelve pieces or segments, four for each layer, and each segment can then be spokeshaved exactly to the templet size. Next, one piece is fitted to the board and pinned in position, then the remaining three segments are fitted in and secured with pins, glueing the joints as one proceeds. This completes one
layer,

which

is

then planed true and toothed

the next layer

is

midway between those of the bottom fashion. As these are fitted, they are glued down and pressure applied with
joints fall

layer, usually called

spaced so that the brickwork

handscrews.

When
same

dry this layer

is

also

planed and toothed, and the third layer

fitted in
first

the

relative position as the

(see

diagram below). The Legs should be planed up

perfectly square to size, then

turning.

detail of the foot

is

marked for shown in

Fig. 8, from

which
is

it

will

be seen that

the under-framing

secured by introduc-

ing a pinned foot which glues the under-framing into the legs.

through

The Under-framing

should

be

prepared in the form of an X. One piece is mortised right through to receive two
short rails (see diagram, Fig. 2) tenoned When this is fitted and glued into same.

as

together the design is traced to the wood, or an alternative, a pattern of one-quarter

is

FIG. 9.

Plan and elevation ot rim various mosaic stringings.

and

the shape

cut in cardboard, the remaining three parts being marked from

this.

54

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. v.

The Top

can either be cut from solid material and veneered on both

sides or laminated, viz. five-ply material can

be adopted,
is

in

which case

it

is

only necessary to veneer the top

side.

The veneer
p.

52

of the circular top shown on intended to be of the curl

; eight pieces are used to form the centre part. These should be secured between two thin V-shaped

variety

pieces of wood during the process of cutting; the curved edge is finished

with a fine
planed.

file

and the

shape

is

They may then be separated and glued down to a sheet of damp

stretched paper; the top is completed by fitting round the curved cross banding, glueing

they

are

fitted.

each segment down as The top is then

veneered with this built-up work and the paper is removed with a toothing
Cross plane after the glue has dried. banding on edge of top is best laid

with a hammer.

Square Tables.
ments are shown
FIG. io.

Various treat8 for the tops only different

in Fig.

Sketch of circular table.

rails to

of square tables, the

constructive feature of these types the knee parts of legs. This is dealt with in reference to the table illustrated on p. 55 and described on p. 56.

being the connexion of straight

OCCASIONAL TABLE
Object.

(Fig. 11).

model

to introduce simple general

principles of table con-

struction, the principles being similar to those necessary for hall, draught, chess,

and writing tables, etc. The Joints are all mortises and tenons, the " stubbed " type being utilized for the wide rails and connexion of under rails with the legs. In the case of
the second example, showing two rails near the centre of the side-rails, small through mortises and tenons should be used, or the long rails can be shouldered and lap dovetailed into the short ones from underneath. The latter is very
effective

and prevents the shoulders opening it has also the advantage of not showing the construction under ordinary circumstances. The Process. i. First saw out the wood, either mahogany or walnut, to
;

the following sizes

CHAP, v.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN

WOOD FOR EVENING

PUPILS.

55

GleOext ion-

Gnd -^ie^-

Section-

HMM

FIG. ii.

An

occasional table.

56

HANDCRAFT.
English. 6 ft.
ft.
ft. ft. ft.
ft.

[CHAP. v.

Metric.
in. in. in.

4 pieces legs
2

2
i

if x

i|

in. in.

79-5 x

3-5

x 3-5 cm.

long

rails

10
2

x
x

4f x
| |

2 short
1

top

2^
i^

in.
in. in. in.

4| x x i6 x
x x x | x $ x if x

in.

in.
in. in.

x 12*5 x 2 '2 cm. 36-5 x 12-5 x 2-2 cm. x 42-5 x 1-6 cm. 69

58

2 short
2

bottom

rails

i i

35

2-2x1-3 cm.
2-2 x
1-3
i

long

9^
6

4 tablets
2.

in.

58-5 x 16 x

cm.
cm.

4-4 x

Plane up all material on face, side, and face edge, then to thickness. Gauge and plane legs, top, and bottom rails and tablets to width. 4. Square up top to required size, or cut to shape if curved. 5. Place the four legs together and handscrew same together, then square across all required lines, viz. total length, and top and bottom mortise lines.
3.
6.
7.

Separate the legs and square lines on adjoining inside faces. Place rails together, two top and two bottom rails in each set and set off
lines.

shoulder
8.

front.
9.

Separate the pieces, and return shoulder lines on all wide faces, back and Then mark mortise and tenon lines on all pieces.

Cut out the mortise and saw the tenon

sides together,
10.

and when adjusted

the latter are dry

satisfactorily,
fit

When

in all

and shoulders fit two long clean up all parts and glue up. short rails, clean up the various pieces
lines
;

It should be measured on the diagonals of and glue between the long sides. plan and elevation to ensure the whole being properly square. u. Cut and glue in tablets, then saw off spare wood of legs at top and bottom and plane top side true. Prepare pockets for screwing through rails

into top.
12.

Shape and
rails.

inlay top if required, clean

up and

fix

by pocket screwing

from inside the

The
shown.

Decoration.
first

Various treatments

for the

decoration of the tablet are

The

consists of simple
first

gouge

tooling.

The second shows

a design

for carving,

which would

on

leaves, stem, berries, etc., various woods, and the last an alternate arrangement of slips of mother of pearl, three in top row, two in the second, with a single terminal piece. This decorais fairly simple, and very effective when used in combination with brown American or Italian walnut. Four details of moulded legs are shown. The introduction of either of these would involve more difficult construction generally, the rails would have to be set farther back from the face sides, those below being spaced exactly in the

be cut to outline and grounded out, then modelled The third example shows inlaying in with gouges.

tion

oak,

centre of the moulded side.

The chamfered example should be stopped

just

below the

rail,

as

is

shown

in the elevations.

CHAPTER

VI

FIRST YEAR

MODELS (METAL)
that the holes
lock.

ESCUTCHEONS.
Their Use. Used to protect the keyholes cut in doors so do not get broken away by continually putting the key into the
made

When

with a cover they prevent dust getting into the lock. The Process. i. To be cut out of 14 or 16 I.S.W.G. brass and outline

filed to

shape with bastard and smooth

Drill holes for screws

files.

2.
3.

and keyhole.
pins round

4.

Trim off the burr and file keyhole to shape. Hold the escutcheon on a flat piece of wood by means of
Face up with bastard and smooth files. Chamfer where necessary, then add the decorative
Polish, stain, or lacquer, as required.

the edges.
5.

6.
7.

features.

The

Decoration.
line

The

top line on page 58 shows decoration by means

of an outline of pleasing form.

The bottom
The

shows how chamfering may be used as a decorative

is

feature, additional to the outline.

top line on page 59

where simple

lines, dots,

and curved

chisel

marks

are utilized as decorative motifs.

The bottom line on

with a
rivets
;

fret

the same page gives a more difficult example of piercing the second one shows a simple form applied and fixed by small this form is also shown on page 67 the third one is a covered escutcheon.

saw

pattern would be made of this cover, and a casting obtained, then filed up and riveted together, so that the weight of the cover would allow it to drop into its correct position after the key was removed from the lock.

With regard to setting out the keyhole, a line should be drawn down the centre of the escutcheon, and the centre dots for marking the holes to be drilled
This keyhole could also be punched out, or cut should be placed on this line. out with a fret saw (see page 91 for fret saw and method of using it). The decorative screw heads with one exception are ordinary screws filed to
the shapes suggested. The last one with the row of pearling round the edge would be cast and the pearls chased up by hand.

(57)

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. vi.

CHAP.

VI.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: METAL.

59

O (XXXXXXXXI
KN rvl
LXJ

x-x.
t

d
L>\l

a)

^ j

FXj fvl
,

1
^

g CXXXXXXX^ O -

r
1
0)

6o

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. vi.

IritpodOce
Kao;>dening eofd perlnd Proce/ye/:

1 .<obmTTi

OP le\7ep.

N^.Hblofa/t
N^7. CenfpePOnch.
Fio.3

.Models

for forge practice.

CHAP,

vi.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: METAL.

61

how
to

Special Features. Although the escutcheon is taken as an example of is possible to add difficulty and a new tool operation in successive steps a simple form, there are many other objects which can be treated in a similar
it

manner.

METAL MODELS TOOLS,

:

ETC.

(Fig. 3).

forging.

Object and Uses. A collection of easy models Their various names convey their uses. No. i. Tommy or Lever. This should be made from steel and not cut off until
round tool
is

suitable as exercises in

it

has been drawn down.

in.

steel

about
size.

ft.

in.

long, suitable for holding without the use

Should be left from the hammer and not filed up. Made in the same way as No. i, but for spreading the wide part, a fuller, placed lengthwise down the rod, should be used, f in. square tool steel would be suitable. Draw the round portion down first, then fuller out to width, cut off, and draw down tang. Shape with hammer as much as possible,
of tongs,

a convenient

No.

2.

Screwdriver.

trim up with bastard and smooth temper point to a dark brown.

files,

finish off

on emery bob, then harden and

file

No.

3.

Holdfast.

This

is

a forging exercise, and a

should not be used

on

it.

Have a

slightly up-set the end,

suitable piece of ^ in. x ^ in. iron, heat to a welding heat and then place end on anvil and flatten. Shape up with a set
;

hammer and work up projecting piece (this is the difficult part) draw away and Cut off, and finish, drawing down roughly point, and punch the hole while hot. the point. If preferred the processes could be reversed, that is, the point drawn out first.
No.
the iron.
to length
finish.
;

4.

Tap Wrench.

According to the

Draw down and round up one

round up ends and punch
Should not be touched with a
5.

size of the holes required, so choose end, repeat for other end, then cut off the holes, driving a parallel drift through to
file.

Use f in. square iron. Draw down and round the Cut off end, bend up the eye as shown on page 67, Fig. 7, to the size required. the length required, draw down and round end for hook. Bend up the hook and cool out. Heat in centre and twist as shown on page 74. No. 6. Staple. Cut off to correct length, then draw down the ends and bend to shape. To make this a little more difficult, weld two pieces together and see that the weld comes in the middle of the bend, then draw out the ends and bend to
No.

Cabin Hook.

shape while cold. No. 7. Centre

Punch. This should be made from jt in. square tool steel and drawn down to shape and cut off to the length required. Trim up with This should bastard and smooth files, harden and temper point to a dark brown. not be put in the lathe to make the end circular, it should be done by hand.

62

HANDCRAFT.
The preceding models
involve
all
;

[CHAP. vi.

good practice

in the use of

hammer
show

The

illustrations in Fig. 4

the elementary forging exercises, and give the file should be used as little as possible. the correct position to take when perform-

The position of the feet for instance in (i), (2), (3) being ing various operations. most important, for unless the operator is standing correctly the work cannot be
done
is
it

efficiently.
(1)

Illustrates a piece of square iron being held in the tongs while the end being upset or thickened. This operation frequently occurs in working iron, and should be noticed that the tongs fit and grip the work so that it cannot slip.

The same
(2)

position applies when holding a bar of iron. This shows the position to be taken when bending

iron.

The

fork

fits

into the square hole in the anvil

and the operator

hand and a scroll wrench in his right hand. By obtained, and a large amount of curved work can be done cold. (3) This illustration shows the method of standing, and using a top and bottom swage and a sledge hammer. The operation being performed is " rounding up a tenon on a piece of f in. square iron ". It should be noticed that in using
all

holding a scroll in the left this means plenty of power is

is

kind of top

tools,

hot

setts, etc.,

the top tool should be at right angles to the

of holding a

work.
(4)

Shows the

correct

method

ping out.

The

usual fault in the use of a

hammer and chisel when chophammer is that it is not lifted up high

The reproduction shows the natural position enough to do its proper work. assumed when the hammer is used by a skilled craftsman.

METAL MOUNTINGS FOR A CHEST.

ANGLE AND CORNER
Object and Uses.
an ornamental
feature.

PLATES.

Used

for the strengthening of chests

and

also form

The

Joints.
".

Introducing development of surfaces. When the corner plates are bent up they form what

is

known

as a " close joint

The Process. As a number of plates would be necessary to furnish a This could be made from some thin sheet chest a template would be required. metal, and should be arranged so that the bending lines could be scribed through.
1.

These should be made from

Cut out

6 or 14 I.S.W.G. metal.
it

Lay the templet

on and hold with a hand vice and mark round

2.

with a scriber.

to shape, either chisel or

drill

saw

pierce.

3.

holes for screws and punch or engrave ornament. 4. Anneal so that material is soft, and dress up.

Punch or

to shape and test with a set square. and lacquer if necessary. The Decoration is either by punched holes, raised ornaments of simple form, piercing, and engraved lines which can be done with a chisel, a graver, or
5.
6.

Bend up

Polish

a tracer.

(i)

Upsetting.

(2)

Bending.

(3)

Swaging.
Fio. 4.

(4)

Chopping out

CHAP.

VI.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: METAL.

64

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

vi.

Special Features. A very simple model which gives good practice in If only one was being made, simple setting out and development of surfaces. a templet would not be necessary, but the whole thing could be set right out on
to the metal.

This model admits of many variations.

A SCHEME OF WORK: METAL APPLIANCES. Object and Uses. A course of graduated models introducing many
;

processes and arranged in order of difficulty. The Joints. The methods of joining metals involved in the various models
are as follows
joints;
joints;
:

No. 10 brazed lap joint; No. No. 12 butt and clipped joint.

Nos. 3 and 4 riveted joints No. 8 plain lap and solt-soldered tenoned and riveted, halved and riveted
;

The
and 80
It

Processes.

No.

i.

A Grinding Gauge.
60
for chisels

Is

used for testing the

angles of tools, 110 and 60

for turning tools.

for drills,

and centre punches, 70

should be made as follows

Use No.

I.S.W.G. iron

mark out with a

file

brass scriber, cut out with a chisel, leaving the lines just showing,
lines,

down

to the

using bastard

files.

Test with

try square, protractor,

and

bevel, or with a

bevel protractor. Face up on both sides with bastard and smooth files. Centre punch and drill hole, fine finish face and edges with emery cloth held or glued on a flat piece of wood. Lay gauge on a polished iron surface and punch figures
to indicate size of angle with figure punches.

No.
stone.

2.

A Diamond-pointed
and temper

Drill.

Draw
;

out, cut off to length, file

up

to

shape, harden

to a dark

brown

grind cutting edges up on grind-

No.
1
.

3.

Outside Calipers.
the size required.
transfer to a piece of thin metal for a

2.

Make a drawing of the calipers to Make a tracing of one leg and

templet by means of carbon paper, or chalking the back of the tracing, laying on the metal, and going over the lines with a bone point. 3. Go over the lines on the metal with a scriber.
4. Centre punch the centre of joint and describe the circle with compasses, then cut out the templet, working to the drawing as accurately as possible. 5. Mark out with a brass scriber on No. 12 I.S.W.G. iron the two legs,

using the templet just made. 6. Cut out with a chisel, leaving the line in. 7. Drill a small hole in the centre of each joint of the legs and slip them on a pin.
8.
9.
files.

File

up both

legs while they are together

on the

pin.

Flatten the legs

and

face

them up both

sides with bastard

and smooth
the

10.

If right sized washers cannot be obtained

make them from

same

material as that used for the legs.

CHAP.

VI.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: METAL.

S9
fe*
"?

.3:
T3

00 Io !*

b.<

^0^5

^8

66
Fig. 6,
11.

HANDCRAFT.
No. 3
(continued],

[CHAP.

vi.

Cut

off

a piece of f

in.

round iron

for the rivet,

square the ends and

anneal

it.

12. Drill the holes in the legs,

and the washers

to

fit

the rivet, and counter-

sink the holes on the sides that will be outwards.

13.
filling

Put rivet

in position

and burr over with a

and

light

hammer completely
emery
cloth.

the countersinking. 14. Face off the outside of rivets

4.

fine finish the calipers with

No.
out
1.

Picture Suspender.

and the rose from 1 8 or

left
if

The back should be made from 16 I.S.W.G. 20 I.S.W.G. metal. The fluting of the rose could be

necessary.

2.

Make Mark
Mark

templets for back and rose. out the back, using templet.

3. 4.

Cut out and

back and
5.

file up to shape. rose out on metal, place on the pitch, front with punches.

and work

it

up from the

6.
7.

Cut rose out and drill holes in back and rose, and anneal the rivet. Polish, stain, and lacquer as required, including the rivet. Rivet together by placing rivet in a hollow tool which is held in the vice.
No.
i.

Fig. 7,
steel.
1.

Cold

Hand

Chisel.

Should be made from hexagonal

tool

Take a convenient length

Cut off to length. Trim up the end, and
file

of steel and draw out the point.

cutting edge to correct angle, using the grind-

2.

3.

ing gauge.
4. 5.

Harden and temper

2.

cutting end to a dark brown. Finish off on emery bob.

No.
1.

Finger Plate.

Could be made from

12, 14, or 16

I.S.W.G. material.

Cut

off the material to the correct size.

2.

3.

Engrave the line, face up, then go over line again. Set out the ornamental top, raise it on a lead block, cut
Fit ornamental top to the plate

it

out, drill the

holes.
4.

mark

off the holes

and

drill

the plate,

slightly countersinking the holes at the back, drill fixing holes.

5.

Polish, colour, or lacquer as required.

6.

Put top on to plate

put rivets

in,

one

at a time,

holding rivets in cup tool

and

lightly burring over at the back.

No.
1.

3.

Cut

off material

Steel Scriber. Should be made from \ in. square tool steel. and draw down both ends as shown in Fig. 2.
off to correct length.

2. 3.

Cut

Bend one end

at right angles (Fig. 3).

Make

eye, Figs. 4

and

5.

4.

Twist centre as shown

in P'ig. 2, p. 74.

CHAP.

VI.]

FIRST

YEAR MODELS: METAL.

68
5.

HANDCRAFT.
Clean up, harden and temper point to a dark brown,
if for

[CHAP. vi.

use on soft

metals to a light brown.

Fig. 8,

No.

i.

Rectangular Box.
this.

No. 22, 24, 26, 28 I.S.W.G. sheet

metal should be used for

1.

2.

Set out the development of the body and the lid on the metal. Cut them out clean with the shears.

3.

Bend up
Tack
it

to shape, using a folding machine, bending

clamp

or a hatchet

stake.

examine

the bottom part in a few places with solder and soldering iron then solder the seams neatly together. 5. See the lid fits true, then solder the seams neatly. 6. Wash well in potash and hot water and dry out in sawdust.
4.

for squareness, etc.,

7.

Polish
2.
;

if

required.

No.

Pin Cutter.

Size of material to be used

depends on the

size of

the cutter
1.

the one illustrated could be

made from

f in. square tool steel.

Spread end

for cutter with top fuller.

2.

3.

Round the shank and cut off Draw down the taper square.

to length.

4.
5.
6.

File the cutting end to the correct shape. Harden and temper the cutting end to a dark brown. Finish cutting end on grindstone and gloss up on emery bob.

Fig. 9,
for this.
1.

No.

i.

A Corner Clamp.

No. 18 I.S.W.G. metal would be

suitable

2.

Set out development on metal. Punch the holes.

3.

Cut out

to shape.

4.

Bend

to correct angles,

and see the corners where they overlap

off with

lie

close

together.
5. 6.

Braze the corner and clean

Finish as required.

file.

No.
1.

2.

3.

Iron Grille. Used for protecting windows. a drawing to the size required. Cut off all the material a little longer than is actually required. Make the frame by setting out all the necessary holes and drilling them.
2.

An

Make

4.

them

tightly to the holes, seeing that the shoulders

5. 6.
7.

on the various bars by sawing down and filing, and fit come up square. Check sizes. Twist the centre bars. Note, two right handed and one left handed. Mark off and make the halved joints see they fit together neatly.
the tenons
;

Make

Drill the holes in the halved joints for the rivets, anneal them,

and

rivet

all

centre part together. 8. Put on the frame, riveting corners upi first. 9. Rivet up other tenons, and trim off excess metal.

CHAP.

VI.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: METAL.

69

Ll

?O
Pig. 9,
10.

HANDCRAFT.
No.
2 (continued).
oil

[CHAP. vl.

Coat with boiled

which should be applied boiling hot.

u.
No.
1.

Paint the colour desired.

3.

Ring Drop Handle.

a drawing to the required shape and templet of back-plate.
in.

2.

Make Make

size.

3.

For the handle shown \

round

for the ring

and No. 14 I.S.W.G.

for

the back-plate would be suitable. 4. Raise centre of back-plate, shape, marking this off the templet.

punch

slot

hole for the

clip,

then cut out to

ring, file the pin, and make the clip as illustrated on p. 74. and ring to slot-hole, and see that it hangs square and at an equal distance from the back-plate. 7. Drill screw holes, in back-plate and smooth it up if necessary. 8. Chamfer back-plate.
5.

Bend up
Fit clip

6.

9.

Polish, colour,

and lacquer back-plate and

ring.

10.

Put together, and tightly bend over the

clip.

CHAP.

VI.]

FIRST YEAR MODELS: METAL.

CHAPTER

VII

SECOND YEAR MODELS

Drawer Handles.
finished
Fig.
1.

(METAL)
if

These are most suitable

made

in iron

and

armour

bright.

The Process. The back-plate should now be made first from 14 or 16 I.S.W.G. metal, and the rectangular hole punched for the reception of the clip. The ring made next by the methods illustrated in Fig. 2. The ring should now be cut and sprung together, and the pin filed ready for
the
clip.

The handle could now be

marked and
drilled.

laid

on the back-plate and the holes

for screws

The
in Fig. 2,

clip

should

now be made from 16

pin.

or 18 I.S.W.G. metal, as illustrated

and bent round the

The handle and back -plate

together and the clip clinched. Note. The screws should

should

now be

polished and lacquered, then put

the handle
is

come underneath

when

it is

hanging

down, but of course the position of screw holes place where the handle is to be fixed.

frequently governed by the

The

Decoration.

There

is

practically

no

limit to the

methods

that could

be adopted for the decoration of the handle and plate, but the designs shown are easily executed and are very effective, though they are obtained by the use of
quite elementary tools.

with a

hammer

Special

The back-plate could be, if preferred, marked all over or punch, so obtaining a kind of texture. Features. These are the bending and twisting of metals, either
and a small amount of
fitting.

in the hot or cold state,

IRON GRILLES
Uses.
in

(Fig. 3).

For protecting small windows.

riveting.

These provide excellent practice

bending and
Joints.

Halved, tenoned, and riveted.

consist of making a full-size drawing on strong paper, for the work to be laid on while working it into shape the frame must be made first of all in the manner illustrated in Fig. 3, but not riveted together. The interior
;

The Processes

work

is

then bent to shape

this

than necessary.
filed to
fit

The
work

corners should be heated to

neatly together.
laid

can be done cold, leaving the ends an inch longer bend them, and the cross-overs The frame should now be put together temporarily,

and the

interior

on the frame, and the tenons marked.

(72)

The tenons

CHAP, vn.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS: METAL.

73

GreaCtmerit/- -for- Rin.

Rind turned Op
TeeSdy -for- OOTKrig.

j^ternafte OheeChnerife
"for-

Back

PleCte

length of

6 /ie

SqOsue Iron

6nd/-- Drau&n dovi&n soad

RoOnded

Scavle
FIG.

i.

Suggestions

for

handles and their development.

74
should

IIANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. vn.

now be made,
Fig. 2

the whole thing put together, and the corners of the frame

riveted together, then the other parts riveted to the frame.

The

grille

could

now
iron,

be painted.
cold or hot.

on plate facing page 63 shows the method

This consists of straight
lines,

for

bending

The

Decoration.

curved
is

designs, etc., according to the skill of the craftsman

who

lines, geometrical going to make it.

*'

trench-in-

Poftin -"for

Development of Ring-

N<?5
N<? ^.Development of- Clip N?3.5ideN^.Pla.n-0-f -Clip -in-Po/i- \7te\fr-of-CLip t Ion Ready -for Fixing Benf-roOnd Handle. of -Clip Ftxed-in-Po/frion.
.
.

Hole -POnclied

N? 5. Sect

FIG.

Processes in making a handle.

all

Also twisting the metal, using metal of different thicknesses and sections,
to the variety.

adds

Special Features of these grilles are the bending and good practice for simple designing and drawing of easy forms. of bending see Fig. 2 on plate facing page 63.

fitting.

It is also

For one method

CHAP.

VII. j

SECOND YEAR MODELS: METAL.

75

*&*' 9

Iron -Grilles.

riveting.

Fio.

3.

Suggestions

lor grilles.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. vn.

DESIGNS BASED UPON THE CIRCLE

/<-^

'

)OOOOC

O
c

.>oof

$8

POOoooOOOo;

^^Q^POOD^

^ Fm&ep PleCte
Wodel 6xec01ed
in

DESIGNS BASED UPON

THE.

SQUAR.E

Hammered
.

Ipon

Jntfol-

K1OOOOOODC

FIG.

4.

Some

suggestions for finger plates.

CHAP,

vii.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS

METAL.

77

FINGER PLATES
Object and Use.

(Fig. 4).

Finger plates are used for fixing on doors so that the paint is not disfigured by handling, also to form decorative features. The Process. These should be made from 18 or 16 I.S.W.G. metal,
leaving
1.

in.

of metal extra

all

round.

The

2.

design should be drawn on the metal. Raise with punches on a lead block, or a shaped

hammer.

They could

also be stuck

on a block of pitch and raised with chasing punches, working from the back and dressing down on the front. 3. Put line in by tracing, or with a chisel, and where required hammerpane of a hammer or a punch. Cut out the plate to the shape drawn by means of a various shaped chisels. 5. Trim up the edges with a file and nicely flatten.

mark

either with the ball

4.

fret

saw or with

6.

Drill the holes for fixing.

Know
if

the size of the screw before drilling

the hole.
7.

Polish and lacquer, or bronze

is

required.

The Decoration
Finger Plates.
vanced students

obtained by very simple means, namely, shaped outline,

raised surfaces of simple forms,

and engraved or

chiselled lines.

Based on
are
all

historical styles

and

suitable for

more ad-

(Fig. 5, overleaf).

The Processes
examples
1.
:

similar for the Tudor,

German,

Celtic,

and modern

2.

3.

The design is first drawn on to the metal and scribed in. The metal is stuck on the pitch block. The ornament is raised from the back, the plate removed from
and stuck on the pitch
again, face uppermost.

the pitch,

cleaned,

4. The modelling is now dressed down from the front, care being taken not to use sharp tools or to leave rough tool marks. to the correct size 5. The plate should now be nicely flattened, cut out

and shape, and the holes drilled. 6. Final dressing up and flattening. 7. Clean up, polish, colour, and lacquer. The Tudor plate should be made from No. 22 I.S.W.G. The German plates should be made from No. 18 or 16 LS.VV.G. The modern plate from No. 18, 20, or 22 I.S.W.G. The Celtic plate from No. 22 I.S.W.G.

The The The

Oriental plate from No. 14 or 1 6 I.S.W.G. Elizabethan plate from No. 14 or 12 I.S.W.G. Oriental and Elizabethan plates are cut out with a chisel and then

filed up. After having been filed up the Elizabethan plate should have the face and chamfers finished by hammering, but do not put a number of honeycomb marks like pits in it, as this spoils the effect. Examine the effect as shown in this is obtained by judicious hammering. Fig. 9, No. i Ch. xn
,

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

vii.

Finjep
fi

PlsCte

RejDoO^ry opdtfion Gxe-

cOted in Coppep.

fpom
Peco-

ments to be Conf ideped

Model/:

Ki/topic
6

FIG. 5.

Finger plates based on historical styles.

CHAP,

vii.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS: METAL.

79

TURNED WORK.
Object and Uses.
for

In Fig. 6 there are drawn a number of objects suitable

They comprise a elementary exercises in turning and allied operations. or Master Chuck, for fitting to the nose-piece of a lathe headstock an
;

Main Aux-

iliary Chuck, for screwing on to the master chuck. There are usually a number of these small chucks, which are all fitted to the master chuck, ready to be fitted
to

any job that comes along.

steel,
is

The

next drawing shows a

Loose Centre, which

chuck;
is

is fitted

into the sliding barrel of the tailstock, or in a carrier

this

should

be made of

hardened and tempered.

The

next drawing
is

of a Drilling

Plug which

also fitted to the tailstock.

This
drilled,

used

for holding circular

and it is an excellent model, The next introducing taper turning, taper fitting, sawing, and accurate filing. is a Hammer Head, which is a more difficult exercise, and involves turning by hand as well as with the aid of a slide rest, difficult drilling, filing, and hardening and tempering. The next is a Balanced Handle or Swape. This involves turning as above, drilling and tapping a stopped hole, screwing and fitting, and making a true square hole. There are also the patterns to be made, and these should be of boxwood. This is more simple turning and patternmaking, but the easiest pattern to turn
objects while they are being

worked on or

is

the auxiliary chuck.

The Joints. The two projecting lugs on the wood pattern of the master chuck are simple dowelled joints all the chucks are screwed joints, and the loose centre and the drilling plug are taper fitting or friction joints.
;

The Processes
Turn the glue them in.
1.

for the

main or master chuck

pattern from a piece of

hardwood

turn

and

fit

the studs,

and

2.

3. 4.

Cast the chucks in brass or gunmetal. Pickle it to loosen the sand.

Turn

it

out to size for the female thread

face

it,

screw

it,

and cut away

thread as shown by dotted line. Take care that it fits the nose-piece of lathe without any shake, and that it does not wobble when being screwed on. 5. Fit the chuck on to the headstock of lathe, turn the nose-piece, face it,
the
first

and screw
is

it

with outside

comb

chaser

Ch. xvi, Fig. 18 (13)

to the size that

convenient for the auxiliary chucks. The two studs are cast on, so that they can be tapped lightly with a hammer If the stud farthest to tighten the chuck on to the spindle, and also to loosen it.

from the headstock

is

not wanted
i.

it

could be sawn
in

off.

Auxiliary Chuck.
2.

Turn pattern

wood.

Obtain casting.

Hold in a chuck, bore out, and screw to fit without any shake on to A number of these should be fitted and then left nose-piece of master chuck. so that they could be fitted to any work that comes along.
3.

8o

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. vii.

CHAP,

vii.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS

Centre.
i.

METAL.
i

8
in.

A Loose
finished length.
2.

Cut

off

a piece of steel

longer

than the

Anneal, square the ends, centre them.

in. or in. holes f in. deep in both .ends. Countersink both ends, angle of countersink to be the same as that of

3.

Drill

4.

the centres being used. 5. Fix a lathe dog on one end, and screw a carrier chuck on the nose-piece of lathe headstock and hold it between the centre, seeing that it runs freely with-

out shake

oil centre and tighten up bolts and set screws on lathe so that the work cannot jump out while being turned. 6. Turn to correct size and shape, using the slide rest, and note that the
;

cutting edge of tool

is

at the centre of the work.

i.

or Drilling Plug. in. longer than the length of the plug.

Vee Block

Cut off a piece of i x i^ in. iron This could be turned from the square

stock, or the taper

2.

Anneal
Drill

it,

3.

in.

end could be brought to a welding heat and swaged down. square the ends, centre them. or in. holes f in. deep in both ends.

4.

Countersink both ends, angle of countersink to be the same as that of

the centres being used. 5. Fix a lathe dog on one end,

it

and run between the

lathe centres so that

turns freely but does not shake.

6.

Turn accurately

to shape, taking a light cut only over the corners of the

square.
7.

8.

Cut out vee piece with a hack saw. File up accurately, and see that the centre of the angle

is

in the centre

of the plug. 9. Finish off with a piece of fine emery cloth wrapped once round a file, taking care not to rock the file.

flat

Hammer
of

Head.

i.

Cut a templet out of thin metal

in

to exact

shape

hammer
6.

head.

Proceed as instructed

Nos.

2, 3, 4,

of a loose centre.

Turn

to exact size

and shape, using hand

tools for the curved portions.

steel, see Fig. 8, p. 83.

For method of holding hand tools when turning iron or 7. File the two flat surfaces as shown on plan.
8. 9.

Mark

centres

on both

sides of

hammer head

for

two

in. holes.

Chip a small
off.

level surface

on

sides of centre

marks so that

drill

can

start

without running
10.

Drill \ in. or

Ty

in.

holes right

through by drilling from each side

alternately.

n.
1

Drill the T7ff in. holes, plugging the first hole drilled with a piece of iron

or brass before
2.

commencing
file

to drill the

second hole.
size,

Clip and from each side.

out the oval hole to the correct

tapering

it

slightly

82
13. 14.
paraffin.

HANDCRAFT.
Finish off

[CHAP. vn.

Bring

hammer head with smooth files and emery cloth. hammer head slowly to a red heat and quench out

in

oil

or

end of a piece of iron about 2 ft. long to the hole for the shaft and polish up the hammer head ready for tempering. 1 6. Heat the end of the piece of iron which has been fitted to the eye in the hammer head to a white heat and place quickly in the hole keep reversing the hammer head, this draws the temper of the centre portion, and as the face
15.

Fit the

which

is

called the eye

or pane are tempered to the correct hardness quench out in oil. 17. Fit with a hickory or ash shaft and a wrought-iron wedge. Balanced Handle or Swape. i. Cut off a piece of if in. round iron
i

in.

2.

longer than the finished length, also a piece for the handle proper. Anneal them, square the ends, centre them.
Drill

3.

the

holes

and

countersink

them

as

described

in

previous

paragraphs.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Hold them
Drill

as previously described

and turn

to the correct sizes.

a f in. hole in centre of cross bar, Drive a -^ in. parallel drift through.

file it

square with a square

file.

Drill

and tap the smaller end of

cross bar, but the hole

must not go
fit

right through.
8.

Screw with the adjustable stocks and dies the small handle and

into

cross bar.

Finish off with fine emery cloth and oil. As all these objects involve various kinds of turning and in different materials, the methods of holding the turning tools shown in
9.

Notes on Turning.
and 8
will

the turning tool

useful, and the very different methods of holding turning iron or steel, and when turning brass or similar When turning iron, or steel, owing to its tenacity metals, should be noticed. and the danger of the tool " running in," it is necessary that the tool should be held with the utmost solidity; hence a large handle, giving a good firm

Figs. 7

no doubt be

when

grip,

necessary.

which enables the user to govern the pressure on the work being turned, is The illustration (Fig. 8) shows the turning down of a mandrel with

a graver.
iron

graver
to
It

is

an angle of 35

40, hardened and tempered

will

a piece of square steel ground off diagonally at about to a straw colour for turning

and

steel.

be noticed that the tool

rest

is

as close as possible

to the work, in order to provide the fulcrum for the opposite corners of the
graver.

83) the rest should be placed so enabling the turner to feel the cut, and also sufficient space for working around the curves, shoulders, etc. Ch. xvn, Fig. 22, Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, illustrate the shapes of tools for turning

When

turning brass (see Fig.

7,

p.

that the turning tool has free play, thus

brass

and similar metals. Another point when turning is that the rest should be arranged so that the cutting edge of the tool will be at the centre line

CHAP.

VII.]

SECOND YEAR MODELS: METAL.

This also applies when screw cutting by hand.

of the work.

When

roughing

down

iron or steel

and

using the slide rest the tool No. 6 on p. 216

should be used.
8
is

No.

for

shoulders or

angles,

and

No.

19

for finishing off.

This

Lubrication. is a most imporoperations,

tant factor in all cutting

it

and

varies

under
ditions.

considerably different con-

The following
be found
useful,

FI G.

7-

Turning brass with a

.

ripper,

table will

as

it

gives the
to

various

metals

and

the

lubricant

use

mixture while they are being worked. of water 100 parts, soft soap 2 parts, soda 7 parts, and oil 30 parts, forms a good
lubricant for general purposes.
carries

The

water
the

away the
from

heat,

and

prevents

and soap the work and the prevent machine, and the soap and oil lubricates
work
warping, of rusting
the

soda

the

cutting edge.

This should be boiled

for three
oil

hours thoroughly before use. The referred to here is commonly known as

oil.

machine

FIG.

8.

Turning

iron with a graver.

Material.

Lubricant.

Tool

steel

The

mixture as above, or
>i

oil.

Soft steel

Wrought
Cast iron
Brass

iron

>

Dry, no lubricant at

all.

Gunmetal
Bronze,
etc.
7'
VI

Copper Aluminium

The mixture
,

or

oil.

Paraffin or turpentine.

Lead

Candle wax.

84

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

vm.

METHODS or
DECOLLATION
FOR.

ALTERNATIVE

ENLARGED SECTION AT A

PIECE OF BOX WOOD FILED TO SECTION

FIG.
i.

HAMMERED
raised work.

AFTER BEING INTO GROOVE

Examples of simple

CHAPTER

VIII

THIRD YEAR MODELS (METAL)

HAMMERED
trays,

DISHES OR PATERA AND BOWLS

for a variety of purposes,
;

(Fig. 1).

THESE models can be used

make
pice sugar bowls, etc.
silver,

the

flat

dishes for card

standing glasses on, etc. or

They could be made

silver.

the simple bowls if tinned or silvered inside of brass, gilding metal, copper,

aluminium, German

The
joints, as

Joints.

-In the plain

hammered

plates

and bowls there are not any

they are worked up from the flat material, but those with a foot have the joints silver soldered, or fixed with very small rivets.

The Method
i,

of Procedure

for

making the dishes or

plates (Fig.

1,

Nos.

2)

:1.

Make

2.

Cut a metal templet Cut the metal

a full-sized drawing. to exact shape of raising, depth, and width of

rim.
3.
i,

out, allowing

about

in.

over

all

extra for Fig.

1,

Nos.

2,

3, 4.

Cut out a piece of wood like that shown in Fig. 2 and fix to the bench. Fig. 1, Nos. i, 2, would be raised or hammered up with a double ballended hammer on the wood, as shown in Fig. 2. The nails shown act as guides so that if the edge is
4.
5.

cut true, the

hammered

part

must be raised true

little at

and

circular, as

you drive the metal down against

the edge of the piece of

6.

wood a

a time.

After taking one or two courses round the dish you flatten it with a mallet on a flat surface
of

wood
7.

or metal, and anneal

it.

Repeat operation No.

5 until the plate

is

of the required depth.

8.

Now
f.

planish

it

smooth and true on a

FIG.

2.

Raising a dish on

wood mould.

round stake with a

Ch. xvi,
9.

flat-faced planishing

hammer,
up,

21

(8).
is

The rim

now made

flat

and the edge trued

(85)

and the plate annealed

again.

86

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

vill.

10. Make up a bed of pitch, consisting of a thick wood base about 2 or 3 in. larger all round than the plate, and mix some common plaster of Paris and The plaster is to harden and toughen, the tallow is to tallow with the pitch. make it flow and soften it. Lay on the board a bed of this about 2 in. thick.

Wait until it sets, then prepare some more pitch, pour some on the pitch block, grease the plate, pour some pitch on it, then put it on the block and weight it down, so that the warm pitch is pressed out from underneath the plate this pre;

vents the formation of air bubbles underneath the metal.

11.

Clean the plate on the pitch when cold, and mark out the design.

12.
1

Now

trace in the design with the tracers (Ch. xvi,

xvi,
f.

f.

21, Nos. 10

and

1)

and the hammer (Ch.

21,

No.

9),

holding them in the manner shown in

Plate No.
i,

Fig. 3.

Fig.

1,

would only

be worked on back, but plates Nos. 2, 3, 4, Fig. 1, would have to be worked up on

both
sides.
13.
2,

Fig.

1,

After the embossing of plate No. the edge would be trued up and
i

wired as shown at the bottom of the page, but Nos.

and

4, Fig. 1,

would, when the

centre part was finished, have the edges wired and the designs on the rims em-

bossed
FIG. 3.

last.

These would now be cleaned up an d polished and lacquered if required. Fig. I, No. 3. i. This would be raised up by beating it into a hollow, carved out of a solid piece of wood, usually a piece of a tree trunk, with a ball-headed hammer, then smoothed up and planished on a round stake. 2. Now place it, bottom upwards, on the pitch, clean it, draw the design,
14.

Method

oi holding a chasing tool.

and

line
3.

it in,

as described for plates Nos.

it

i,

2,

Fig.
it

1.

Take

off the pitch, clean

it,

and bed
it off.

in the pitch again, the hollow

side upwards.
4.
5.
file.

Work

it

up to shape and
it,

finish

Flatten

cut out the edge

and smooth
it if

it

up with a half-round smooth

6.

Clean
I,

it

up and
4.

polish, lacquer

desired.

Fig.

No.

This would be made

in a different

way

to the others

owing

to the design.
1. Draw the design on the metal by cleaning the metal with emery cloth and placing a piece of blue transfer paper between the drawing and the metal, then go over the design with an ivory scriber. 2. Scratch the design on the metal with a steel scriber, working carefully

over the existing lines. 3. Lay the metal on a sand bag and work the design up with the punches

CHAP,

viii.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS

21, Nos. 10,

METAL.

87
sides of the metal until

(Ch. xvi,
it is

f.

u,

12, 13, 14),

working on both

roughly beaten into shape, then anneal it, and repeat. 4. Now place on the pitch, hollow side up, as previously described, and work the bottom down with boxwood punches. The pitch must be slightly

warmed
5.

for this latter operation.

Now

take

it

off the pitch, anneal

it,

put

it

on the pitch again, the

bottom side up. 6. Work on

7.

it

with boxwood punches and finally with steel punches.

it,

Take

it

off the pitch, reverse

and put
it
it,

it

on again, always greasing the

side that goes

8.
9.

on the

pitch.

Take

Finish off with steel punches making it off the pitch, clean it, flatten

as

smooth as possible. and square up the rim.

10.
file

Wire the edge

as shown, that

is,

trim the edge of the plate true, then

a piece of boxwood to the size required, as drawn, and hammer the metal into the groove with a peining or grooving hammer, then lay the wire in the groove,

and hatnmer the edge down and over (Ch. xvi, f. 21, No. 28).
11.
12.

it

while the bead rests in the grooving tool

Flatten the rim.

Lay the

plate on a cake of lead

and punch the small bosses up with a

round punch of the correct size (see Ch. xvi, f. 21, No. 16). It could be lacquered if desired. 13. Clean up and polish.

Fig.
still

I,

Bowl No.

5.

This

is

little

more

difficult

than the plates, but

comparatively simple. 1. Set out a full-size elevation of the bowl and

to the centre, so that
is

and along the bottom

vation the edge of the templet

to the centre of the bottom.

make a templet of one side the templet is laid on the eleon the outside of the line from the top edge
when

This must be an outside templet, similar to that

on

p. 80.
2.

To

obtain the size of the blank required to

make

this bowl,

and

as the

part of a sphere, draw a straight line from the extreme outer edge to a point that would be the centre of the half ball if the curved sides were carried
is

bowl

round.
6
in. in
flat

This would be the radius required.

diameter and 2\
it

bottom,

For example, as the bowl drawn is deep, and we made it into a half circle instead of would measure 6 in. in diameter and 3 in. deep, and a line
in.

drawn from the centre

to the

edge would measure 4^

in.,

so that the diameter of

the blank required would be 8 in. This is the method often adopted for finding the diameters of the blanks required for bowls or segments of circles, but

there are
3.

many other methods. The blank should now be hollowed up

keep any wrinkles out.
it

as described for the plate

No.

3,

Fig. 1, taking care to

4.
5.

Anneal

it

and hollow

up a

bit deeper.

f. 21, No. 26) in the vice, or in a square hole in the hollowing block, and holding the bowl on the stake as shown in Fig. 4,

Now

put a round stake (Ch. xvi,

88
take a course round
it,

tiANDCRAFT.
driving the metal

(CHAP. vnt.

away from you and in a downward boxwood mallet as illustrated. These courses must be done evenly, gradually working round and round towards the edge, and The blows the same weight of blow being given. must slightly overlap one another, and two should not be given in the same place.
direction, using a

of the bowl should now be on a polished stake (Ch. xvi, f. 21, No. 22) and the edge trimmed off smooth, then annealed, pickled, and dipped up bright. 7. It should now be planished all over on a
6.

The bottom

flattened

FIG. 4.

Raising a bowl on a
stake,

suitable stake, with the planishing

xvi,
f.

21,

No.

8) seeing the

hammer (Ch. hammer and stake are

both well polished, and keep the hammer marks very even and do not let the edge of the hammer mark the bowl, as these marks are very difficult to remove. 8. Grease the interior of the bowl, and fill with pitch.
9. When the pitch is set, rest it on a sand bag and draw on the design for Then the banding, and line it in with a thin tracer (Ch. xvi, f. 21, No. 10). warm and remove pitch, and clean with paraffin and sawdust.

10.
1 1
.

Polish

it

with rouge.

If required to

cloth, paint over the parts that are not

be tinned, scour the inside with sand and water or emery wanted to be tinned with whiting, heat
tin,

the bowl, rub

it

over with sal ammoniac, pour in some melted

swish

it

round, pour

it

out again, heat the bowl, and wipe the surplus tin off with some

tow dipped
No.

in silver

sand and powdered

6,

sal
I.

ammoniac.

Bowl with Foot, No.

5, Fig. 1,
1.

2.

This is a little more difficult than and involves silver soldering and brazing. Raise the bowl and the foot as described previously for No. 5, Fig. 1. Fill the bowl with pitch, and when cold draw on the design to be raised.

Fig.

3.

Trace the design

in as described for the

bowl No.

5, Fig. 1.
5,

4.
Fig.
1.

Remove

the pitch, and clean the bowl as described for the bowl No.

5.

inside with the

6.

Rest the bowl on the sand bag and slightly raise the ornament from the embossing tools (Ch. xvi, f. 21, Nos. 13, 16).

If not,
flat

Obtain some half-round material, the same that the bowl is made of. make some from round wire by filing one side flat, or hammering one side
is

while the wire

7.

in

Bend

it

up

into a circle

a grooving tool (Ch. xvi, f. 21, No. 28). and braze the ends together so that

it fits

on

to

the bowl tight.

8. 9.

Repeat

this for the foot.

File the notches in the rings as illustrated.

10.

Place the rings in their correct position and silver solder them on.

Is

en

32

CHAP,

viii.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS

METAL.

89

and clean the bowl up all over. and tin or silver the inside as required. The Decoration. This is all on simple lines, and involves only simple The decoration on plate No. i, Fig. 1, could be omitted, thus simprocesses. plifying it, and the number of flutes in plate No. 2, Fig. 1, could be reduced, and the ornamental band on plate No. 5, Fig. 1, could be left out without affecting them to any great extent.
11. Pickle, dip,
12.

Polish with rouge,

Special Features. They are the introduction of simple raising, the combination of raising and embossing, and methods of stiffening the edges of
paterae, bowls, etc.
in Fig. 5 are from objects in the Victoria and Albert shown as examples of more advanced work but of the same kind as the plates and bowls shown in Fig. 1. The Jug (i), which is of silver, is of very simple construction and involves One could be designed on similar lines, and made as only simple processes. follows The body made in two halves and silver soldered together, the junction

The Museum.

illustrations

They

are

being hidden by a piece of beading, the neck piece being decorated while in the the foot hammered up and decorated flat, then bent up and joined together
;
;

and cast in plaster and then in metal. Repeat this process for the thumb piece and hinge, which appear as if in one Hammer up the lid. Now join the neck piece on to the body, load with piece. Unload the pitch, clean up pitch and touch up or finish the ornamental details. Nand fix the foot. Fit up the lid and handle together, then take apart, and fix the
the handle modelled on an iron core,

handle to the body.

Now

finish

off,

clean up,

and

polish.

Lastly

fix

the

lid

on,

and give

it

a final polish.

The Silver Plate, Fig. 5 (2), needs no comment. It is of English workmanship of the date 1650, and is an example of punch decoration. The Silver Cup, Fig. 5 (3), is a prize cup of the second half of the fourteenth century, and was lent to the Museum by J. C. Robinson, Esq. It is very graceful in form, and the style of decoration very simple and pleasing.
TRIPODS.
Subject and Uses. The footman or tripod illustrated in Fig. 6 is a most useful article for standing on the hearth, as kettles, plates, etc., can thus be kept warm. The top lends itself to a great variety of geometrical designs,
and could be
cast or pierced.

The

Joints.

These are riveted

joints of three kinds, namely,

tenoned and

riveted, flush or secret riveting, simple riveting.

The

Processes.

Make a drawing

full size

of the stand, from this

make

separate drawings on strong paper of the side view of leg as shown in Fig. 6, also plan of the top ring A, plan of the supporting ring B, and a tracing of the top. If a number of the same pattern are being made, a quarter templet of thin sheet

metal would be advisable.

The

next step would be to

make

the legs

only the

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. vin.

c7<l

Fbdtman to be Sxectfted

Igged

$
csf

A
FIG. 6.

Sketch
A

Footman.
for

footman or tripod with alternate suggestions

the top.

CHAP,

viii.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS: METAL.

91

would require to be forged, the bending could be done cold, and the tenon cut down between two cutters in the lathe, or cut down with a hack saw and filed. The top ring should now be bent into shape while hot over the beak
foot
at

of the anvil or on a sugar-loaf mandril, then fitted and riveted together as illusThe ring B should be trated, then the legs fitted to the top ring but not fixed.

bent up cold round a former,

fitted

would be

to drill the holes in the legs

and riveted together as shown. The next step and in the ring B. Now rivet the legs to

the ring at A, then rivet them to the ring B.

The

tracing of the top should

now

be transferred by means of carbon transfer paper to the sheet brass, or the tracing might be gummed on direct. Small holes should be drilled now where necessary
for the insertion of the

saw blade, and then,

holding the fret saw as illustrated in Fig. 7 cut out the design. The ornament should be

trimmed up with small

files,

mark and

drill

the holes for riveting to ring and anneal the rivets. The ironwork of the stand should

now be cleaned up

or painted, and the top

plate polished ; the top plate can now be riveted to the stand and given a final polish.
It

FlG 7- Saw P ierci "g in raetal mainly in the top plate, but a great variation could be made by putting a pierced band where ring B is, or the legs could be shaped, twisted, or even turned, but it all adds to the

should not be lacquered.

Decoration.-This

"

is

amount of work. The brass top plate could be without piercing if preferred, and a design could be engraved very strongly or even other metals might be inlaid. Special Feature. This is the top, as it gives such a fine opportunity
for the introduction of

an original geometrical design.

AN OIL-CAN.
Subject.

An

oil-can, a

shop, and in making this

most necessary and useful object in a metal worka large variety of processes have to be gone through.
are lap, folded, cramped, riveted, soft soldered, and
full-size elevation

The
screwed.

Joints.

They

The

Processes.

The

should be

set out,

and from

this

the development of the body and the handle.

the two allowing for shrinkage and turning, patterns could be turned out of boxwood, working accurately to the drawings. These patterns should be sent to the foundry to be cast in brass or gunmetal, while the other parts are being proceeded with. The next step is to cut out the

The drawings of the two should be made full size. Then

patterns,

development of the body and use it as a templet, or develop the body on to the metal being used, which should be 26 or 24 I.S.W.G., and cut it out with the the burr should be rubbed off with a file, and the body bent up to shape snips
;

on the funnel stake (Ch.

xvi,

f.

21,

No.

24).

If the joint in this

is

going to be the

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. VIH.

~5ec"Tror2al
Hauctle.

SVracol BCKUODC![Jooifrera

C^^B
'

Oil-Caia

sho&in^- methods
07*.

FIG.

8.

An

oil-can,

showing methods of construction.

CHAP,

viii.]

THIRD YEAR MODELS

METAL.

93

folded joint B or the cramped joint C, the edges should be prepared before bending the body into shape. When the body has been bent to shape the seam should

be

set down, so obtaining a neat and close joint, and the body measured and comThe circle for the bottom could now be cut out with pared with the drawing. the straight snips and trimmed up, a line drawn on it to correspond with the

should

The handle outside diameter of body, and the edge turned up as illustrated. now be cut out, the holes punched, and worked up to the shape required,

and the spout and collar turned and screwed. The screwing could either be done with the taps and dies, or on the lathe with the inside and outside chasers as shown on p. 206. For method of holding turning tool for brass or gunmetal see The handle should now be fitted to the body and riveted on, Fig. 7, Ch. vii. and the collar soft soldered in position from the inside, also the inside ends of the
rivets to prevent leakage. The bottom should now be fitted to the body and popple^, that is, it should be placed on a polished stake and struck a few blows with a light planishing hammer, thus making it springy. This allows the oil to

be squirted out by pressing the bottom in. The edge, or lag as it is sometimes called, should be worked down on to the sides of the body and soft soldered, only
a very small amount of solder to be used. polished with dry rouge.
Note.
It

could
,

now be washed
:

clean,

and

Method of dividing a line into any number of parts at a the line you want to divide, say AB, and then another line suitable angle. Open the compasses a suitable distance and step off on the line

Draw

AG

AG

the

number of
line

parts

you want

to divide the line

AB

into.

end of the
side,

with the

last division

marked on
parallel,

line at G, then repeat

Connect the on other

keeping both lines

AG

and

FB

lines

and where the

lines cut the line

AB,

that

is

then connect the points on both the correct division or number

line

of divisions.
angle, say

This can also be accomplished by only taking one

after stepping off the necessary

up

at

an

AG, and

number of

divisions, connect

the

last

edge on the
square,

point with the end of the line AB, then put a set square with its one line, GB, and place a straight edge to the other side of the set
slide

now

the set square along the straight edge, and

mark

off

the

divisions.

94

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

ix.

SECTIONAL VIEW I

OF SAVE -ALL

BOTH SCALES ARE FOR. THE SECTIONAL VIEWS ONLY

PATTERN OF Nozzue-

e/-ign

for

a.

Cd.ndle/"1:iclc

to
in

be executed

PATTER.M OF STEM HNG CORE PR.INT

SHOW

FIG.

i.

candlestick in turned brass.

Shaded

section

shows method of

construction, thick black lines being sections of castings.

CHAPTER

IX

SPECIAL MODELS IN METAL

FOR EVENING PUPILS AND OTHERS

TURNED BRASS CANDLESTICK

(Fig. 1).
;

Object. Useful model suitable for a second or third-year student application of pattern and core box making, turning in wood and
screwing and drilling.

shows
metal,

Material Required Boxwood

:

for patterns.

Sheet iron or zinc for templets. Fine plaster of Paris for core box.
Iron rod for strengthening core box.

Method
ample see
2.
3.

Fig.

of Procedure. 6, Ch. vn.

i.

Make
1

templet of

pillar, Fig. 1

(i), for

ex-

Make templet
Turn

for base, Fig.

1

(5),
(i),

and

nozzle, Fig.

(3).

pattern of pillar, Fig.

including projections shown by dotted

lines.
4.

Turn core

print to inside line, Fig.

(i),

including projections shown

by dotted lines. 5. See that pattern and core print are both the same length and that the projections shown by dotted lines are the same size on pattern and core
print.

level with the centre,

is

Lay pattern on some moulding sand, and pack sand all round it and and see that surface of sand is flat so that when the pattern removed a sharp outline is seen.
6.
7.

Remove
for the

pattern

and

lay core print in,

and see

if

there

is

sufficient space

all

round
8.

metal to run.

If not, correct it

and

test again.

Turn the nozzle, Fig. 1 (3), to the outside line, including the dotted line. Turn the base, Fig. 1 (5), inside first, then the outside and cut off. 10. Turn pan, Fig. 1 (4), and save-all, Fig. 1 (2). n. Make core box in plaster with iron stays as shown on p. 96; where the method of making this is also described.
9.

(95)

96
12.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

ix.

13.

Get castings of these parts in brass or bronze as required. Trim the rough lumps off the castings and immerse in weak pickle

for

about two hours.

14.

Turn them
together.
tools

to the correct shape,

and screw the various

parts so that
7,

they

fit

For turning
15.

For method of holding turning tools see Fig. suitable for this work see Figs. 22 (14-17), Ch. xvi.
to whatever shade of colour
is

Ch. vn.

Polish

and colour down

desired.

FIG.
1 6.

2.

core box.

Coat with lacquer and put together.

This
article
is

Decoration.
or
gilt if

decorative in

itself,

but

it

could be bronzed

required.
is all

If this candlestick was

made

of brass, then well polished

and

lacquered, this

would be necessary. Method of Making Plaster Core Box. 1 Have a box of moulding sand and level off the
that
.

top.
little

2.

Bury core print

in to a

depth of one-third or a

more, but not

half.

CHAP,

ix.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN METAL FOR EVENING PUPILS.

flat

97
3 in.

3.

Cut some pieces of

thin metal the length, breadth,

and about

deeper than you require.

4.
5.

Stick these in the sand, forming a box round the core print. Take core print out of sand, well grease, and replace.

6. Mix up plaster of Paris with water to the consistency of cream and pour over core print to a depth of about i in. or a little more let it set a bit, then put in iron wire stays and fill up with plaster. off the sand and cut face down so that core print is 7. When set, take
;

embedded
8.

in the plaster exactly half-way

cut hollows for guides.

Do

not take core print out of plaster but well grease core print, and

face of plaster.
9.

Place this half of core box on the sand, face uppermost

sides as before,
set take off

put pieces of
to

tin

round the
10.

When
Wait

mix and pour plaster on this as before. sand and trim off rough edges and square up
is

shape.
11.
it

until the

whole box

will

come

apart in two halves, then

thoroughly hard, then give a gentle tap and remove core print.

WROUGHT-IRON CANDLESTICK
Object.

(Fig. 3).

To embody

various processes in a simple model, suitable for a

second-year student.

bending, brazing, screwing,

of

Shows the application of chopping out, filing, fitting, and riveting.

drilling, turning,

embossing,

Materials Required.
7 in.
i
1

in.

round iron

for pillar.

in.

of

in.

round iron

for feet.

5i x 4
14
in.
in.

in.

of No. 12 I.S.W.G. iron for base.

in.

of ^

square steel for spear.

shield.
for clip.

i^
2-

of
in.

6 x 6
in.

x f in. for base of spear. of No. 22 I.S.W.G. iron for

in.

off

2^

in.

2 in.

of f in. x of
in.

x No. 14 I.S.W.G. iron x No. 14 I.S.W.G. steel

in.

for spring.

iron for filling.

3 x
1

4^
of

of No. 22 I.S.W.G. for save-all.

in.

in.

wire (iron or steel) for taper pin.

2
i

No. 4 B.A. iron round-headed screws. iron washer T7ff in. hole.

Method
1.

of Procedure.
thin

Make
f.

metal
:

templet of

pillar,

as

shown

in

Fig.

of

Hammer

Head,
2.

Ch. VH, p. 80 also half templet of base and shield. Dress up ends of iron for pillar, centre, drill small hole and countersink
6,

to

fit

centres of lathe.

98

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

ix.

VIEWS OF THE
SPR.ING CLIP FIX-

ED TO THE SHIELD

FIG. 3.

candlestick with adjustable shield reflector.

CHAP,

ix.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN METAL FOR EVENING PUPILS.

one end
to the

99

3.

Drill a hole as a guide in

depth required

for the socket,

then

drill

fit the For method of 4. templet. For turning tools, see Ch. xvi, f. 22. turning iron by hand, see Ch. VH, f. 8. iron for the feet. Centre, drill small hole, and 5. Dress up ends of round

a hole f in. diameter. Put the iron in the lathe and turn to

countersink as before.
6.

cutting
7.

Turn them

feet to templet,

cutting

them nearly

off

but not quite, then finish

off with

hack saw.
12 I.S.W.G., using templet.

Mark out base on No.

Cut

out,

file

up,

and

chamfer.
8.
9.

Upset and spread end of

in.

File base of spear out of the piece of

square steel for spear head and file to shape. i x f in. and fit spear to same, then

braze together.

Emboss centre 10. Cut shield out of No. 22 I.S.W.G. and trim up edges. and bend up the scrolls. x in. and fit to hollow of shield, and braze in 11. Take the 2 in. of
position.
12.
13.

Make

spring

and

clip for pinching spear to shield

and

fit

them.

Drill clip with holes to

clear screws, drill tapping holes in filling of

shield

and tap with No. 4 B.A.

Taper and plug

tap,

trying the screws

when

finished.
14.

Make

a piece of tube or iron rod to and braze together.

socket of save-all by rolling piece of No. 22 I.S.W.G. iron round fit the socket in pillar, and make simple lap joint

Cut out hole to fit socket just made and roll 15. Emboss pan of save-all. edge of socket over on to pan and braze from the underside. 1 6. Mark holes on base plate for feet, spear, and pillar, using templet, filing
hole for spear rectangular with a square file. 1 7. Fit pillar to base plate and washer underneath, then mark hole for pin

and

drill.
1

8.

Fit feet

and

rivet

them on

to base plate, leaving

if it

heads semicircular.

19.

Put the whole thing together, and see

20.

less lacquer,

Take apart, clean up thoroughly, '.dull and put together.

looks square and upright. polish, and lacquer with a colour-

Decoration. The decoration is obtained by forming the outlines of pleasand simple curves, also by using the construction such as the raised rivet heads on the base to form a decorative feature. The chamfering is also a simple
ing

form of decoration as well as the

ample and

is

shield, which is based on an Elizabethan exornamented by the scrolled ears and raised centre which was char-

acteristic of that period.

HINGES
The

(Figs. 4

and

5).

Subject. hinges which are illustrated character, but the large one is distinctly Dutch.

in Fig.

4 are Elizabethan in

100

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

ix.

CHAP,

ix.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN METAL FOR EVENING PUPILS.

IOI

82

'

IO2 Those
illustrated in Fig.

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. ix.

5 are modern, and any of these could be modi-

fied to suit existing conditions.

The
2.

Processes.

Make

i. Make a full-size drawing of the hinge selected. a tracing of the ornamental side, and transfer or gum on to thin

sheet metal.
3.

4.

Cut the templet out, allowing it to butt up against the outside of knuckle. Cut out the metal roughly to shape for the hinge and the flap, allowing
Roll up the metal for the knuckles using the steel mandril, as
i,

for the knuckle.

5.

illus-

trated in Fig. 5, Nos.

6.

2, 3, 4, 5.

Set out the knuckles for cutting, and notice should be taken that in a

three-knuckle hinge the centre ones equal the other two, in a five-jointed one the two equal the three.
7.

8.
9.

Cut the knuckles, file and fit them together neatly. Lay the templet on the hinge and mark it out. Raise or cut it out to the shape, and trim it up with and
file

files.

10. Drill the fixing holes,

off the burrs.

11. Cut and fit the pin for the knuckle; if knobs are going to be used, the For shapes pin should be screwed, and the knobs drilled, tapped, and turned. of turning tools for brass set see Ch. xvi, f. 22, and for method of holding

them see Ch. vn,

12.

f.

7.

now be polished, coloured, and lacquered. together, taking care not to scratch it; re-lacquer if necessary. See that the knobs do not bear on to the knuckle, they must screw down tight on

The
Put

parts should

13.

it

to the pin.

The Decoration. This is obtained by embossing, piercing, shaping of the outline and chamfering, while the iron hinges should be hammered all over the face and chamfers with a polished face hammer, which gives them a kind of
texture, like those

shown

in

Ch. xn,

f.

9,

but

it

must be done

carefully

and

with judgment or a pitted appearance will be the result. Note. These models introduce knuckling and consequently careful

fitting.

As hinges

are

made

in

many

different forms, to suit varied conditions,

these
suit

could be modified, so giving an opportunity for adapting, or designing to the particular purpose for which they are required.

HANDLES

(Fig. 3).

Subject and Uses. In Fig. 6 are illustrated a number various types, involving many processes, and the use of many
very
little

of handles of
metals.

With
fire

alteration they could be used for

many

other purposes besides

im-

plements.

are suggestions showing what is really practical, and they are No. i is the easiest to make, while No. 1 2 placed in their order of difficulty.

They

is

the most difficult.

Before making any of these a working drawing must be

made

giving the various sections

through the different parts.

The drawings

should be finished in ink.

CHAP,

ix.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN METAL FOR EVENING PUPILS.

1O3

fipe-imple-

mrfi- handles

-involving
-pro-

cesses.

11
i

1/t.
i

cbood dvod

/pned a ibood and

capvecl,

Model led

IFoctt.

FIG.

6.

Suggestions for handles

in

various metals.

IO4

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

ix.

The
1.

2.

Processes. No. i. This is made of iron. Draw down a piece of -^ in. or f in. round to the required length. Bend it as illustrated in Fig. 7 (3), Ch. v, and twist it round the
at a red heat.
it

stem.

This would have to be done while

3.

Clean
2.

up and
is

finish

it

armour

bright.

No.

This

made

of iron.

7 in. round iron and tie a knot as you would 1. Heat a piece of T y in. or with a piece of cord (experiment with the cord first), and only the hammer and

anvil

is 2.

necessary.

On

3.

the piece that projects shut a collar as illustrated in Fig. 7, No. 3. After the collar has been shut on raise to a welding heat and shape

it

with a hammer.
4.

Clean up with
3.

files

and emery

cloth,

and

finish

it

armour

bright.

No.
1.

This

is

also

made

of iron.

Practise with a piece of cord before commencing this. Draw out a piece of in. or in. round until you have the required length, then roll up the end tightly and weld together to form the flat solid scroll end.
2.

3.

Bend up

to shape.

Clean up and finish armour bright. No. 4. This is also made of iron.
4.
i

Experiment with piece of cord

first.

2.

3. 4.

Draw out a piece Bend to shape.

of

in.

or T7F

in.

round to the required length.

No.
1.

Clean up and finish off. This is also made of 5.

iron.

Measure the exact

size of

loop and mark

it

off,

then allow sufficient for

drawing down and welding together.

2.

Flatten the four corners slightly of the length

marked

off for the loop,

and

just past the marks.

3.

4.
5. 6.

a deep chisel cut down the centre of the flat on each Draw down each end from the square to the round.

Put

corner.

Now

heat and twist this centre portion.

of

round iron and bring ends together. and weld on to a piece of in. T7^- in. rod. 8. Heat between loop and end, cool and hold end in the vice, place a piece of round iron in the loop and twist.
7.

Bend round a piece Weld ends together,

scarf,

9.

Weld
collar

on the
collar

it

a collar on as illustrated in Fig. 7, No. 3. Before actually welding would be better to thicken the stem by upsetting it, just where the

is

going to be.

This prevents the stem wasting just where the collar

is.

filed

Shape the collar with a top and bottom tool or with a file. 11. Clean up and finish armour bright. No. 6. This could be madeiof iron, or a wood pattern could be turned and up, then a casting could be made in brass or bronze, and this could be
10.

CHAP,

ix.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN METAL FOR EVENING PUPILS.

filed up.

05

brazed to a rein of similar metal, and then used as an exercise in forging it would be
1.

If

it

was made of iron and

:

made

as follows

Have
Draw

a convenient length of ^

in.

round and upset

it

where the thickest

part

is.

the lower part away with top and bottom fullers until nearly to size. in with top and bottom collar tools or with thin top and bottom fullers and shape up the knob with the hammer only.
2.

3.

Put neck

4.

Cut

off excess material at

bottom and scarf and weld on to the proper

size rein.
5.

Finish shaping up the

flats

on the handle and work the

flats

into the

round gradually. 6. True the

7.

flat

surfaces

up with a

file.

Finish off and polish. No. 7. This is made of iron with a strip of copper inlaid. that will stand forging could also be used.
1.

Yellow metal
a

Get two pieces of f

in.

square iron and

sides together

make them half-round with

and weld them
at the top

in.

top swage. 2. Place them with the

flat

and

bottom.
3.

Weld a
No.
3.

collar

on

at the

top end to form the knob as illustrated in

Fig. 7,
4.
5.
it

Scarf the bottom end and weld on the rein.

Get the piece of metal you wish to inlay

thin the ends

down and

leave

little

6.

chisel

wider than the half-round pieces. Heat the handle and separate the two pieces of half-round with a thin insert the metal strip and close it all up tight.

Now heat it carefully all over; place one end in the vice, and holding the other end with the tongs or pliers twist it. 8. If the handle has got a little out of shape straighten it while hot with a
7.

wooden
9.

mallet.

Finish off and polish. No. 8. The method of making this

08.
9.

is

shown
is

in

Fig. 7,

and explained

on

p. 1

No.

This should be made of iron and

is

The shaping
pattern for

done with the hammer. When casting from, by cutting one side

a more difficult piece of forging. finished it could be used as a

just

bending

it

clear of the other side, so leaving

it.

If they are cast

where they cross over, and from this in

copper, bronze, or brass, after they have been annealed and filed up it can be bent back again to its original shape and brazed together. If neatly done the
joint hardly shows.
1.

If made of iron the method of procedure is as follows Take a piece of ^ x ^ in., roughly mark off the length required and draw down the ends and round them, working away from the centre. 2. Shape and bend the ring at top simultaneously.
:

106
3.

HANDCRAFT.
Finish bending and working
it

[CHAP.

ix.

to shape, trim off the

ends to the

right

length, close

them together and

scarf them.

4. Take the piece of iron for the rein, upset the end and shut a collar on as illustrated in Fig. 7, No. 3, leaving a piece projecting through. 5. Shape up the collar and scarf the piece projecting at end.
6.
7.

Weld

the handle on to the piece projecting beyond the collar.

Clean up and polish. No. 10. This would be most suitable

be made in any similar metal, and
1
.

if

made

in bronze,

but

it

could also

2.

a pattern suitable for casting. Turn exactly to the outline in some hard wood, such as boxwood. Carve the ornament.
it is

3.

Cast in bronze.
Pickle
it

4.
5. 6.
7.

to

remove the sand.

the plain parts in the lathe. Chisel, riffle, and chase up the carved portions. Polish with sand and crocus in the lathe.
all

Turn

brown as explained on p. 154. Lacquer with transparent lacquer as described on p. 177. No. ii. This one could be made exactly as described for No. 10, but as an alternative it could be modelled on a core, say an iron rod, in some plastic
8.

Stain a dark

9.

material, then cast in three parts in plaster

this

would be the mould

this

should

be well greased, or soft soaped, then the pattern could be cast in this, but it should be strengthened with an iron core. The finish would be the same as No. 10 or varied according to taste. No. 12. This would also look well
modelling in the round.
in bronze, but
10.
it

would have to be

modelled as described above, and finished as No.

An

excellent exercise in

THE COMPLETE POKER.

This would be most suitable
if all

in iron,
bit
;

and

it

would be made

in three
all

pieces, namely, the handle, the rein,

and the

these

when

finished

would

be welded together.

The Handle.
scarf the

i.

Make

the loop from f x

in.

shape and bend

it,

and

two ends together.

2. Shape the grip part of the handle from a piece of f in. square, thicken up where the collar is and work up the collar, and draw away for the rein. 3. Scarf the end of the grip, and weld on the loop piece. 4. Draw down the two tail pieces from f in. round iron, cut them off, and scarf the bottom ends where they are thickest. 5. Weld the two tail pieces on to the handle. 6. Dress up the handle, and put the grooves in with top and bottom fullers. 7. Curl the tails round the loop of the handle and see they set nicely. 8. Cut handle off where it has been drawn away for the rein, and scarf it just below the collar.
it

CHAP,

ix.]

SPECIAL MODELS IN METAL FOR EVENING PUPILS.

07

Etevsi

Stchon

Q
-lopihvt on.

Secti

V/iPCS.

Ptea.

O
4 las.

Fio.

7.

Processes in making a cage handle.

IO8

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

ix.

The Rein. i. Get a piece of f in. square, draw away each end, round up with top and bottom swages. 2. Shape up the centre boss and groove with top and bottom fullers.
3.
little

Scarf each end.

The ends

of the centre rein should have been

left

thicker ready for scarfing. The Bit. i. Get a piece of f

in.

square,

work the

bit

roughly to shape,

draw down the end and scarf ready for welding on 2. Weld the rein on to the bit.
3.

to the rein.

4.
5.

Cut the surplus material off. Hold it by the rein and work the

bit into

shape and

finish off.

Weld
is

the handle on to the other end of the rein seeing that the overall
over, clean

length
6.

correct.
it all

Examine

it

up and

finish off

armour

bright.

METHOD OF MAKING A CAGE HANDLE.

Subject and Uses. The drawings in Fig. 7 illustrate the method of making a cage handle, which is very suitable for fire implements. This is excellent practice in light smithing.

Process. i. Cut off six pieces of rod the length required, also two short pieces, and tie together with iron binding wire as shown in No. i. 2. Weld the ends together at the top and bottom as No. 2, holding them
in the hollow bit tongs.
in. round, scarf one end of the handle and 3. Upset and scarf a piece of weld together. This gives you something to hold it by. 4. Shut a collar on top and bottom as drawn in No. 3.
5.

The The

Joints.

These are

all

welded

joints.

Heat the end Heat evenly

is

to a welding heat
collar.

and form the knob as

in

No.

4,

then

slightly
6.

round up bottom

The

heating
7.

in the required place (see No. 5) and carefully twist it. important, or it will not twist evenly. Carefully heat and unwind slowly, slightly tapping the knob, thus

shortening the handle a little. 8. Regulate the cage so formed with

9.
i

flat

and round-nosed

pliers.

Shape bottom
Clean up with

collar with half-round

files.

files and emery cloth, seeing that the wires are kept circular. Decoration. The handle itself is decorative, but it could be enriched by shaping the knob or engraving it. The handle need not be made from round wire, but it could be made from T\ in. square that has been twisted in o.

The

opposite directions, so that as there are six wires you could have one twisted to the right and the next to the left and so on. When finished three wires would

have a very gradual or slow

twist.
;

Special Features. This is the welding and the ball knob should be done with a hammer, not filed. It is a good test for the appreciation of line and form, as a templet or guide is not used.

CHAPTER X

HISTORIC CRAFTWORK AND ITS APPLICATION TO CLASSWORK

manual training should as has been previously indicated not be mere hand training or dexterity, but should aim in the widest sense at a general understanding and appreciation of handwork, in fine pieces of craftwork and buildings. Whilst many pupils of handcraft classes must inevitably enter
or
restricted to
trades,

HANDCRAFT

vocational.

does not necessarily follow that the instruction should be in any sense The authors favour traditional methods because of their proved value and of their educational possibilities, but in the early years of handcraft
it

training, the training is necessarily educational

it

and

cultural.

The

writers think

be granted that those pupils who are later to enter the various artistic and mechanical trades, and who take up a regular course of technical work would,
will

after a

good handcraft course, be sure to profit by the more advanced training, and would also be able to proceed directly to technical courses. The United Kingdom teems with fine entrances and doorways belonging to
bygone periods, churches, cathedrals, castles, public buildings, colleges, and town and country houses presenting many splendid features. Fig. 1 illustrates

a typical London example attributed to the brothers R. and J. Adam, who during their time designed many of this type. "Adam " doorways are always classic in
character,

and may be recognized by

their proportion

and decoration.
it

With

reference to the general character of the

that the

doorway under review,

should be noted
"

Adam
is

Portico
(a gate),

brothers frequently designed these with a " portico as illustrated. an interesting architectural term derived from the Latin word "porta" and this root can also be traced in other interesting terms such as porch,

portiere,

and

portcullis.

Portico means,

literally,
is set

a range of columns or colonin the

nade

in front of a building.

The entrance

back from the columns as

case of the

West Front of

St. Paul's

The

front of the portico

is

Cathedral, and the Royal Exchange, London. characterized by two fluted columns, classic in char-

acter but not copies of any of the

column

itself

treated this

columns belonging to the classic orders. The would provide ample material for one object lesson, if an instructor from earliest times and dealt briefly with the general growth and
(109)

HO
gists,

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. x.

development to the time of the famous Greek buildings. The German archaeoloVon Reber and Winkelstein, in their various works deal at great length with Von Reber gives an interesting account of the primitive square early columns.
pier in the

rock-hewn chambers along the

Nile.

These were carved from

solid

was provided by leaving a square pier at intervals. To facilitate moving about these chambers, he considers that the corners were chamfered away, thus forming an eight-sided or octagonal
rock,

and the necessary support

for the roof or ceiling

column.

The second
all

in sectional plan,

and the

stage appears to have been similar to an irregular octagon third indicated above was an improvement on the

octagon, for

column by the simple The last development would naturally lead to a column process of doubling. almost circular in sectional plan, for Von Reber thinks that the Egyptians re-

upon

this type

is

the sides were equal in size or regular. believed to have led to the sixteen-sided

desire to improve

jected the sleek rotundity of a circular column, in favour of one displaying greater preponderance of vertical line, which suggests greater strength and rigidity.

desire for

ornament appears

to

have suggested channelling each

side,

and

this

would also accentuate the

last

vertical line effect. Some authorities consider that the " " stage represents the proto-Greek form which was later to develop into the

parts of a

columns of the Ionic, Corinthian, Doric, Tuscan, and Composite column are variously named shaft, neck, capping, base,
ing, flutes, fillets, scrolls.

orders.
frieze

The

mould-

The terms

"

entasis

"

and " module " are

also intro-

parts of the order are dealt with, then the following terms would also be dealt with, viz. cornice or entablature, cornice

duced.

If the

column with corresponding

moulding,
plinth,

frieze, frieze

and abacus.

It

moulding, modillion, guttse, dentil, pedestal, base, surbase, would be difficult to find a building which did not have

parts corresponding to those mentioned above,

and as each term has a distinct and separate evolutionary interest, and many are derived from the same roots as more commonplace words, it will be seen that a unique opportunity is afforded
for linking

portico

Above the columns of the up learning or culture with real things. the cornice, adaptations of which are seen in commonplace things in every home. Thus the " frieze " of the cornice applies also to the cornice of a wardrobe or bookcase, whilst the moulding of the portico cornice has
is

its

It could be parallels in a plaster ceiling cornice, sideboard, cupboard, etc. pointed out in another lesson that all mouldings are made up of various elements found in the classic orders of architecture, such as " cyma recta " or right ogee,

" trochilus or scotia, cyma reversa or reversed ogee, "corona" or drip, " " cavetto " or " ovolo and fillet, " astragal " or bead, " fillet " or square, hollow, " torus " and " Some of these elements occur in the cornice illustrated, fagia ".

"

"

"

whilst the frieze part introduces such terms as

"swag," "husk," and "patera

".

To

further illustrate the application of architectural terms to domestic features, one has only to quote "skirting," the moulded board round a room, or " plinth," a moulded base to a piece of furniture, the " architrave " of a door, and the " frieze or of a room. room doors have "
picture-rail

Ordinary

stiles,"

muntings,"

FIG.

i.

Portico and railings at

By

Chandos House, Queen Anne R. and J. Adam.

Street,

London.

CHAP,

x.]

CRAFTWORK AND
;

ITS APPLICATION

TO CLASSWORK.

Ill

rails,

and panels

Gothic windows have tracery, quatrefoils,

trefoils, cinquefoils,

lancet shapes, etc. An analysis of the terms is valuable, as indicating a common It will be seen upon reference root origin with other common terms or words. " to the photograph that the back of the portico has two supporting pilasters ".

The

parts of these are

named
"

connexion between "

pilon,
for the discussion

pilaster

very similarly to the parts of the column, and the and the Latin word " pila," a column, pillar, and
itself in Fig.
1

should be noted.

The door

gives another fine opportunity

and comparison of terms, and the fanlight above the door is a Whilst upon the subject of doorways, mention should be feature of the period. made of others than the one directly dealt with, such as those with semicircular arched tops, a feature of Roman construction, and usually made with tiles. Norman doorways in churches and monastic buildings are also semicircular, and
Gothic doorways usually have massively built of stone with carved decoration. the pointed arch as a distinguishing feature, whilst those built during Tudor times have a characteristic Tudor arch, like a flat lancet shape. Below are given a
few notes and suggestions in connexion with object lessons based upon the fore-

going matter.

OBJECT LESSONS ON DOORWAY.

It is suggested that the class has visited a doorway, similar to the example shown, or has a large charcoal drawing of one displayed upon the wall.

Apparatus.
(a]
(b]
(c]

Large charcoal sketch of doorway about 4

Blackboard,
etc., for

feet to 5 feet high.

sketches, diagrams,

Plaster cast of a typical

and notes. piece of ornament (such as

for

example part of

the frieze

shown

in

photograph).

First Lesson.
1.

The

teacher to deal with the earliest

known doorways,

giving as an ex-

ample a simple hole with stone or block rolled in position for security. 2. Evidences of ancient doorways and gates, as shown by Biblical and
classical quotations.
3.

Examples of ancient doorways, photographs

'or

diagrams of ancient

Egyptian remains, and

4.

museum

specimens.

Identity of doorways.

Teacher to deal with

historical examples.

Second Lesson.
(a)

principle of the

Roman. With semicircular head. Noting characteristics such as the Roman arch, which superseded the post and lintel construction

used by the Greeks. Teacher to indicate by means of photos, diagrams, or slides, existing remains of Roman work showing these features.

With semicircular head, but built up with sections of stone. (b] Norman. Note the decoration of these types and deal with examples in old churches, etc. " Deal also with term " Norman and historic matter.

I 1

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. x.

Third Lesson.
(c)

Gothic.
;

semicircular

with brief historical notes of the time.

-Pointed arch construction, class to note development from Illustrate by means of

large diagrams the difference

(d)

Tudor.

between Norman and Gothic moulded doorways. With flat-pointed arch construction. The open fireplace of
to doorways.

Tudor times with arch corresponding Fourth Lesson.

A
1.

Georgian Doorway as per photograph (Fig.

1).

(a) Characteristics of the

Georgian doorway.

Entrance door with fanlight above.

Portico with cornice supported by classical columns. Without portico, but with pilasters and consoles supporting pediment. Names and outstanding work of some eighteenth-century architects.

2. 3.

4.

5.

Customs of the Georgian

period,

and use of

link extinguishers attached

to doorways, etc.
6.

Description of terms applied to the various parts of the Georgian door-

way, column, pilaster, etc. 7. Indicate application of terms to domestic objects.

Fifth Lesson.
(a)

Simple outline diagrams to be drawn of the Roman, Norman, or Gothic

and Tudor arched doorways.

or
(b)

Simple outline diagram of the Georgian doorway with names of parts

indicated, such as

pediment
capping

cornice
frieze

column
pilaster

It will be seen from the above that quite a number of object lessons can be devised with the doorway as a basis. There is quite as much interest and scope when dealing with the fireplace and the window, whilst working backwards from

a piece of furniture, with a discussion of the technical terms applied, will afford

From the opportunities for introducing craft history as well as political history. ironwork side there is the gate, railings, and lighting structures, all of which have
passed through definite developments and cannot properly be separated from the
literary side of history.

OBJECT LESSON (METAL)

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GATES.

The photograph reproduced in Fig. 2 of eighteenth-century ironwork is typical of the period, and like much more of our older work is fully understood Indeed such pieces of only when we know something of the life of the time. work can be used to illustrate and to help us to understand a phase of London life now past. Life and property are now more secure, and the consequent feeling of comThe doors of our parative safety is reflected in the way our houses are built.

FIG. 2.

Ironwork at No. 44 Great Ormond Street, Bloomsbury (1708).

CHAP,

x.]

CRAFTWORK AND

ITS

APPLICATION TO CLASSWORK.
iron bindings

1 1

modern houses and mansions do not require the

castle doors.

we

find

on the

Very frequently these bindings were elaborations of the hinges on which the door was hung. Elaborations of the hinges are to-day put on church When the moats with the drawbridges doors, but the only aim is adornment.

and

portcullises disappeared large

in the walls of the castles.

made

These gates often had,

panels, a small wicket-gate large

and very strong entrance gates of iron were in one of the leaves or enough to admit only one person at a time.

Round the smaller but higher houses which became necessary because of the increased population, the walls were replaced by railings nearer the house, and That the these shut in the house and its forecourt as shown in the illustration.
necessities

and

social conditions of the times account for the differences

its

between

moat, and drawbridge and the house shown is obvious, and whenever possible such connexions between historical facts and practical work should be pointed out.
the castle with
walls,

Though around houses

iron railings followed walls,

that their origin was merely replacing stone walls.

it must not be supposed Between the chancel and the

;

body of Early Christian churches were iron

lattice screens

inside the entrance

gates of castles were strong lattice-work gates ; and these with the rows of serried Defensive railpikes in the hands of soldiers probably suggested iron railings.
ings of plain lattice

work were used by the Romans.

Originally outside railings

being for defence would be high, strong, and plain ; inside ironwork, e.g. that in the Rejas or screens of the Spanish cathedrals made in the reign of Charles V., a noble and generous patron of the arts, was When railings highly decorated.

were no longer merely defensive the inside decorations might have suggested
decorations for outside
smiths' work,

ironwork.

The

actual

and

is

an advance on that of the

woodworkers.

earlier years

work shown (Fig. 2) is good where the smiths in

their construction often copied

Instead of punching holes in the

horizontal bars which held the uprights, thus swelling the bar and in no way weakening it, they fastened the uprights with flat horizontal straps riveted through.

punching was done when the iron was hot. Modern away the piece and leaves the bar weaker. The large gate was lighted with oil lamps held by the rings shown on top of the lamp holders or lamp-irons, and these in turn were fixed to the lamp standards which are the tall panels on each side of the The hook shown in front gate. of the lamp-irons was for the ladder of the Such lamp-irons, lamplighter.
It

may be remarked

that this

punching

in the cold usually carries

though now common only on the houses of doctors showing their red lanterns, were then a feature of all houses of any size. A law was passed by the Mayor
of

London commanding

all

whose houses fronted any

street,

lane, or public

passage, to hang out a lamp or lantern during the winter evenings from Hallowtide to Candlemasse (October to Sufficient cotton wick had to be February).

provided for a light lasting from

six to

eleven o'clock.

Public lamps were sup-

plied where absence of these privately

were provided

for

by

fines

owned lamps rendered them necessary, and of one shilling a head levied on those who failed to
8

114
hang out a

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. x.

The work of the municipal authorities, the organization of lantern. the police, and education, have provided lamps, lessened dangers to citizens, and diminished brutal crimes but on some old houses are still to be seen interesting
;

examples of the old lamp standards.

Another interesting feature on some old houses reminiscent of dark unlighted thoroughfares are the link extinguishers, which can be seen one on each side of the lamp standards. These curious looking horns or trumpets, into which the link-boy thrust his torch to extinguish it, are made of sheet iron. Some of them had lids. Actual examples still remain on the fine lamp standards in Berkeley and Grosvenor Squares, the mansions in which date from 1700. The links or torches of tow and resin or of pitch-pine were kept in rings driven into the walls inside the entrance. In Florence cemented into the walls of the Strozzi Palace
link holders. These are of wrought and chiselled winged dragon with a human face. The mouth holds a pin with a chiselled ring into which the torch fits, and on a bracket supporting the body is a carved and studded ring for the reins of the horses of visitors. There

are

some magnificent torch or

iron in the form of a

are many specimens of these torch brackets in the Albert and Victoria Museum. The man who loves his craft must now and again mourn the fact that gas and electricity, with their often ugly cast-iron standards, have made such fine examples

of good work unnecessary. The small spikes in the bottom bar of the centre gate are known as dogbars. Necessary as such bars might be to-day in some of our London suburbs, they were
still

more necessary in the city where, before the days of the dustmen and bins, the offal thrown into the streets provided rich repasts for hundreds of stray dogs.
are reminders of the less pleasant

They

and

less heroic things of old days.

Dropping now the historical aspect we shall remark on some features of the photograph that may be interesting to craftsmen. The pilasters which follow the ramps are of good proportion and are of the form usually known as the lyre form.
This
is

obvious.

The C

scrolls in

made
off
is

in

two pieces and riveted through.

the centre are held in position by a collar The tops of the pilasters are finished

with cast-iron knobs. The tops of the palings (usually called railings a rail a horizontal bar, not a vertical one) have been forged separately and screwed on to the tenons forged on the uprights. The lower ends of these uprights have

been

left

rough and leaded into the stone base.

The appearance

of the work

is

greatly
tops.

improved by moulded spikes and leafy arrows alternately placed along the As J. de Wolf Addison says " Craft may be practised without art and still
:

serve

its

purpose, but an alliance of the two

is

well as serving utility". statement.

The photograph shown

a means of giving pleasure as proves the truth of Addison 's

CHAPTER

XI

MATERIALS USEDIIN
Timbers-

HANDCRAFIWORK
Japanese Pearl
it

CLASSIFICATION, DISTRIBUTION, DESCRIPTION.

Mother of Pearl
Blue Pearl
Ivory
Tortoise-shell.
for the arts to

"After

all

the trees have been cut down,

cease."

will

be necessary

PALISSY (i6th cent.).

TIMBER.
"exogenous" (outward growing) trees, as distinct product from the " endogenous " varieties (in which are included palms), growing or forming wood of inward growth. Practically the only exception to the general use of
is

TIMBER

the

of

exogenous timber in woodworking is the use of palm, known more commonly as Exogenous trees are again partridge and lacewood from its peculiar markings.
divided into two classes, hardwood and softwood trees respectively, broad and needle-leaved trees. This classification is botanical rather than commercial, for

some woods of a hard texture, such as the yew, belong to the needle-leaved class. On the other hand, whitewood and poplar are soft in texture though belonging to the hardwood class botanically. Chart I on the next page indicates the commercial and botanical classification of some timbers, which are, with the exception of yew, beech, and poplar,
used in handcraft work.

Reference to Chart

and

this list

I will show the rather misleading classification of timbers, could of course be extended indefinitely. Effect of Climatic Conditions. One of the most important factors in
is

the growth of timber

climate.
firs,

This accounts

for the

wide distribution of many

distributed,

types, for instance, pines,

it

and spruces are almost universally

and

will

be found upon examination of general conditions that differences in zones

in

are compensated by altitude.

belonging to North Europe

above sea-level and 6500

feature of timber growth
is

ft.

Thus the northern pine is generally regarded as Northern Norway it grows at a height of 700 ft. on the Sierra Nevada of Southern Spain. This

further dealt with in Chart II.

n6
CHART
I

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xi.

SHOWING BOTANICAL AND COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOME TIMBERS.

Botanical Order.

CHAP,

xi.]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

will

I 1

Reference to the above chart

of

some

timbers,

and

illustrate the fact that

show graphically the general distribution most timbers are largely affected by
is

particular climatic conditions.

The

quality of the soil

another important factor,

the rich soils and

humid atmosphere of tropical countries producing very hard, whilst the temperate climates are slow-growing, and well-figured and marked woods,
favourable to the growth of moderately rapid-growing timber trees, which are, hownor so hard in texture with the exception of the oak ever, not so richly marked
as the former.

The

situation of timber trees

is

another important factor affecting

the quality of the wood,

rich soils,

swampy land

generally producing softer material, whilst

and

especially those of tropical

and

sub-tropical countries, produce

is

hard, close grained

and

richly grained woods.

This general principle

especially

for instance, applicable to trees belonging to the same order, as, hard material. any, which ranges from very soft to moderately

Honduras mahog-

The

tall,

slender,

and straight growth of trees in closely wooded land is a familiar feature, favouring an upward growth, and acting against a proper development of the branches.
Those grown
in

open

situations display the full characteristics of the tree to best

The quality of timber and its advantage, as seen in our oaks, ashes, and elms. If value from a commercial standpoint is also directly affected by its situation. is characteristic, and the wood exhibits erratic winds an to growth high exposed
or compression.

considerably twisted grain, affecting its strength when submitted to tensile strain For this reason also branch-wood is not favourably regarded

from a woodworker's standpoint.

relative to the effect of situation

Australian timbers afford an interesting study

upon quality and growth. The sub-tropical jungle forests with heavy undergrowth and humid atmosphere favour the growth of numerous grasses and palms in addition to trees of exceptional hardness, richness of colouring, and beauty of grain, including silky oak and Australian tulipwood whilst the ironstone ridge belts in Western Australia favour the growth
;

The more temperate of a remarkably strong, though coarse timber, i.e. jarrah. climate of New Zealand conduces to the growth of moderately hard timber, such
as

New

Zealand or kauri pine.

Identification of
tion.

Hard and

Soft

Woods

(i)

By Transverse

Sec-

Coniferous timbers, such as the pines, exhibit clearly defined annual rings, the autumn growth being darker in colour than the inner ring or spring growth. There are no visible pores on a transverse section of the wood, but pith rays can

be discerned under a good glass, very fine and numerous. Hard woods have distinct pores visible to the naked eye. When examined on transverse section, viewed
under a microscope, these pores show definite groupings and geometrical arrangements in various timbers, the spring group showing best. Oak and beech afford interesting studies of this feature and of the pith and medullary rays which show as lines radiating from the medulla or pith. This is a general characteristic

many hard woods, and when cut, they constitute the silver grain, or figure, so valued in oak, and apparent in beech, although less conspicuous. Generally, botanical soft woods have no pronounced figure or markings, but there are excepof

1 1

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xi.

For further study of this tions, such as the yew, especially the burrs of this tree. absorbing subject, the reader is recommended to various standard works on timber and trees given in the Bibliography at the end of the book. Soft woods, such as the pines, firs, spruces, larches, and (2) By Leaves.
cedars, have needle-pointed leaves growing in small
cally also all coniferous trees are classed as soft

bunches or groups.

Botani-

woods, the cones being the

medium of reproduction. The leaf of the elm

a hardwood tree

^-has

the edge serrated, and the leaves

The ash has a more pointed leaf, growing thirteen are arranged five upon a stem. upon a stem, whilst the lime, alder, sycamore, beech, oak, cherry, etc., have
each distinctive leaves, varying
in

shape and

in their

growth from a stem or twig.

Some

are spaced exactly opposite each other on the stem with a terminal leaflet as in the ash, whilst the birch, for example, exhibits an alternate spacing of the leaves on the stem at equal distances one from the other.

The
and

study of flowers and seeds

is

also a fascinating pursuit.

Flowers, male

female, fruit

and

seeds, ranging from the complicated reproductive process

an edible

of coniferous trees to the simpler process of germination from seeds contained in fruit, such as the apple, cherry, almond, etc., and the seeds contained in

husks and

shells,

structor's standpoint at least,

such as the horse-chestnut, acorn, and walnut, are from the inof especial interest for object lessons, introduced

at intervals alternating with object lessons

on familiar objects,

tools,

and

processes.

few are suggested at the end of this chapter.

As
for

is

shown

in the

preceding chart, differences of latitude are compensated

altitude, countries near

by differences of

the equator frequently growing

species of trees

and other botanical growths

at certain altitudes characteristic of

northern latitudes.

typical

example

is

the northern pine, which flourishes

m Norway, Sweden, and Northern Europe generally, and also on the Sierra Nevada,
mean temperature for the year being almost identical in both cases. does not, of course, necessarily follow that exactly similar growths will be found in places far apart with a similar mean yearly temperature, but the number of
Spain, the
It

examples

is

at least striking.
:

With regard to differences of location, Mr. Dryer says " The distance to which any species of plant may extend towards the poles, up a mountain side, or into any relatively cold region, depends upon the length and average temperature

The distance to which any species of plant may extend of the growing season. towards the equator, or into any relatively hot region, depends upon the average temperature of a period about six weeks at the hottest time of the year."
Trees adapt themselves to conditions partly by variations of leaf surfaces
thus " deciduous
"
;

or leaf-shedding trees, including the beech, oak, plane, and sycamore, have broad horizontal leaves with a thin epidermis or skin which permits the maximum working power, viz. sustaining and nourishing the tree
whilst the growing season lasts, by exposure to the air.
Pines,

on the other hand, with

their

spiky,

needle-pointed leaves are

CHAP,

xi.]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

FIG.

i.

120
peculiarly

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xi.

adapted to resist drought, by virtue of the small aggregate leaf surface In tropical countries atmospheric evaporation is a considerable factor exposed. the majority of the growths are evergreen, and new leaves appear before the old ones are shed in order to sustain the supply of nourishment to the tree.

Oak-tree. An object lesson on the growth of an oakbe given with the aid of large charcoal diagrams made preferably from the actual tree, leaves, etc., or from the drawings in Figs. 1 and 2 of this chapter.

The Growth of an

tree could

It will

this way, the oak, ash, plane, apple,

be readily seen that any number of familiar trees could be dealt with in and walnut-trees readily lending themselves

For the purpose of object lessons, too much scientific not advisable, the chief aim is to arouse interest in botanical growths by The following data are suggested indicating the main features of timber growth. for a specimen object lesson, lasting some twenty or thirty minutes, the illustrato effective demonstration.
is

data

tions being prepared, as previously suggested, with charcoal

on large sheets of

white paper. To preserve these drawings for future use, they should be sprayed with a fixative and mounted upon millboards.

On
istics

Fig. 1 are

shown various drawings

illustrating

some of the main

character-

An acorn is shown just after bursting with the of growth in oak-trees. small shoot coming towards the light, this of course occurring in the spring of The next diagram shows the second stage with the shoot turned downthe year.
wards in search of moisture and nourishment.
shoot
is illustrated,

In the third diagram the leaf

and coincident with

this,

the root has increased in size and

also in the
root.

number of small

or secondary roots, which act as feeders to the

main

fourth stage, drawn from an actual specimen, shows main roots, secondary and hair roots, each one of the latter feeding the secondary roots and by means of them the parent root. As the tree increases in age and size, the roots

The

spread over a much larger surface in order to satisfy the increasing demands of The woody substance is formed by the ascending juices in the the small tree.

The rising sap, spring growth, some of these being deposited upon the stem. or natural juices, finally reaches the branches and twigs, causing the buds to apDuring the pear and finally burst into leaf, and in some cases flower. season the roots are constantly extending themselves in search of natural

summer
salts

and

elements, which are in turn conveyed through the various parts of the tree to The oak, it should be noted, has no bright the flowers and later to the fruit. unlike most other seed-bearing trees. definite flower During the autumn after
the fruit or seeds are mature a return of the sap and natural juices in a different

form takes place

tions

course. This can be clearly seen in most woods, darker in their Characteristic of the oak is " its colour than the spring layer of the annual ring. " system of extension," otherwise known as ramification ". New growths appear
at right angles to existing twigs, hence the to the parent growth, as

and return downward

in a less liquid form, forming a thick

those have changed in some degree by atmospheric condiautumn layer of wood in

oak branches, practically

diagrams in Fig.

at right angles

shown

in various

2.

The oak

is

FIG.

2.

Characteristic detail of growth of the oak-tree.

CHAP. XL]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

shown

121
in Fig. 2,

" cluster galls," peculiarly liable to foreign growths, such as

oak apples, and currant

1.

these being illustrated in Fig. Suggestions for object lessons on trees, etc.
galls,
:

2.

General characteristics of timber trees

Soft

woods and hard woods.

Introducing needle-pointed and broad

leaves.
2.

The growth
(a)
(b)

of a tree from a seed

Pine.

Oak

(see also Figs.

and

2).

3. 456.

Identification of trees from their barks.

,i

leaves.
,,

fruits.

,,

,,

general outlines

{(a) in
{
,,,.
.

summer.

\(b)
7-

in winter.

Commercial value and uses of some English

(a)
(b)
(c)

trees

(d)
8.

The oak. The beech. The apple. The cherry.

seasoning of timber
:

The
(a)
(b)
(c)

Water seasoning.
Natural seasoning.

Second seasoning.
Desiccation or kiln drying.
conversion of timber
:

(d)
9.

The
(b)
(c)

(a) Felling.

(d)

Lumbering. Shipment of timber. Cutting mill, machine and hand.

:

10.

By-products of timber (a) Charcoal.

(b)
(c}

Tanning bark.
Natural
oils

turpentine, resins, etc.

(d)
(<?)

Paper pulp from timber.

Gum,

n. The
(a)
(b}
(c}

rubber, etc., extraction of. formation of wood illustrated by the growth of:

The plant. The sapling. The tree.

:

12.

Geographical distribution of timber

(a) Australia.
(b)
(c)

Russia.

United

States.

(d)

England.

122

HANDCRAFT.
Shown by graph
13.

[CHAP.

xi.

or chart illustrating ratio.

Trees as decorative media:

Box, holly,
14. Afforestation

etc.

and

re-afforestation.

Need

for,

and

statistics of colonies

and foreign countries.

15.

Effect of climatic conditions

upon the growth of

countries.

timber.

Timbers peculiar
,,

to certain zones.

6.

Leaves and their function.

The

pine needle

leaf.

Deciduous timber.
Tropical growths.

Mother
from the
from

of Pearl, Japanese,

and Blue Pearl

are materials obtained

shell of the pearl oyster, the former kind being so " " which forms inside the shell and its relation to the pearl
it.

named because
is

of

almost detached

Pearl shell
little

is

composed

of

numerous
It
is

layers of a crystalline carbonate

of lime with but

exceedingly hard and of a peculiarly The best kinds of pearl oysters are found in the Indian Ocean, lustrous colour. Red Sea, Gulf of California, etc., and Ceylon, where pearl fishing has been

animal matter.

carried on for centuries. According to authorities on this subject, the pearl is produced by a small piece of grit or irritant entering the shell, which in time becomes covered with a secretion, forming a beautifully coloured stone-like gem

of an oval shape.

It

was not
;

until recent years that pearl shells

were dealt

in to

any extent commercially they were usually discarded after being opened, and the shores of some parts were strewn with these many feet deep. Now, however,
they are an important branch of pearl fishing owing to the
buttons, fancy articles, good-coloured shells are

demand

for pearl

North of

Australia,

For commercial purposes thick, much sought after. Important pearl fisheries lie to the the shells in that part being particularly suitable for com-

and inlaying

material.

mercial needs.

Ivory, the product of elephant tusks, is a beautiful material of peculiar milky colour used extensively for decorative purposes and especially for knife An inferior substitute is walrus tusk, much used in place of the better handles.

and more

Ivory in decorative woodwork is used chiefly in costly material. It can be rendered plastic by immerveneers, these being sawn by machinery. The original colour can, howsion in diluted acids which makes it transparent.
ever,

of ivory inlay
as

be restored by a similar process. Old Italian craftwork shows fine examples it is most successful when used in small pieces with some woods
;

mosaic patterns.

It

can be

fairly easily

worked by means of saws,

files,

and

glasspaper.

Tortoise-shell
shell of the tortoise.

is

It is

a beautifully marked and coloured material from the extensively used in fancy and ornamental turnery and

cabinet work.

Boule work of the Louis

XV

period

is

especially notable for the

CHAP.

XI.]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

Added
decorative effect
is

123

ornamental use of tortoise-shell. produced by painting The the underside a vermilion colour, this showing through the lighter parts. underside may also be gilded, by which means added brilliance of effect is
Tortoise-shell can be advantageously employed in large masses, which not the case with ivory and pearl. It should not be joined with square butt joints when connecting thin pieces, but spliced together, which effects a neater

obtained.

is

junction.

METALS.
The word
means a
or " metal "
is

derived

from the Greek word " metallon

Technically
it

"

which
a term

get "metal". pit applied to a number of elementary substances which

a mine, whence

we

is

possess, generally, certain well-defined characteristics, such as lustre, malleability, ductility, and fusibility. The broad definition of a "metal "is as follows: A solid opaque body,

possessing a peculiar lustre, fusibility, and conductivity. Those which are most frequently employed in commerce and the arts are as
follows
:

Common Name.

124

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xi.

ALLOYS.
When two
mixture
is

or

more metals are caused permanently

called an Alloy.

The term

is

to unite the resulting also used for similar mixtures of metals and
steel.

non-metals, such as iron and carbon

usually

The

melting-point of an alloy

is

below that of the most

easily fusible constituent.

is

Amalgam.
known
as
It is

When

mercury

one of the metals the mixture

is

generally

an amalgam.

many

not necessary in this work to give the names of all the known alloys, as of them are made for a special purpose or industry, and as these purposes

number of alloys it is possible to make, tions of metals are continually being invented, only the more be dealt with.
are as varied as the

and new combina-

common

ones

will

The

following table gives the alloy and

its

composition

Alloys

Their

Names

CHAP.

XI.]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

125

bedo

ustre

Heat.

for
Conductivity

!
nductivity
Electricity.

^3

1 2

16 8

ilLJ

-3

*g

asss*

Illllllllllllsllllllli^illl

26
But a useful

HANDCRAFT.
"

[CHAP.

xi.

" figure in connexion with calculation of weights is the Specific This figure expresses the number of times or " Relative Density ". any given volume of metal is heavier than an equal volume of water. For the exact conditions under which the comparison is made the reader is referred to a

metal.

Gravity

textbook of physics. Suffice it here to point out that when we say the relative density of iron or lead is 7 -4 or 1 1 -3 we mean iron is 7 '4 and lead 11-3 times as

heavy as water.
weight.
It

62^
cub.
if it

Ib.

An example is given of the use of this figure in calculating must be remembered that a cubic foot of water weighs 1000 oz. or An iron plate 6 x 4 ft. x i in. has in it 72 x 48 x i (nearly).
1

in., i.e.

728

^-5

2 cub.

ft.

This would weigh 2000

oz. or

125

Ib.

were water, and therefore since it is iron 125 x 7-4 = 925 Ib. If it had been lead the weight would have been 125 x 11-3. The same See table on p. 125. plate of cast steel would have weighed 125 x 7-8. Lustre. The power of reflecting the rays of light is possessed in a much The metals and alloys higher degree by metals than by non-metallic substances. which exhibit the greatest lustre for the longest time are those which are not
quickly attacked by the oxygen and carbonic acid in the air and are sufficiently hard to receive a high polish. Gold and platinum have considerable lustre, because though not very hard they are not affected by the constituents of the at-

mosphere. have then

less

Metals when highly polished are less easily tarnished because gases tendency to condense on their surfaces.

Malleability is the property of being able to be beaten out by hammering/ or the possessing of an internal mobility by which the shape may be altered by The malleability of a metal is affected pressure without cracking or breaking.
by the temperature of the metal
at the time of the

hammering

or working, also

" by the structure of the metal itself, or what is termed its molecular condition ". For example, a piece of gold or copper which has been hammered a great deal

becomes hard or brittle, and if the hammering is continued it will eventually crack. But it will, however, regain its malleability on being heated to a certain The method of cooling is also impordegree this heating is called annealing.
; ,

copper may be cooled from a red heat by being plunged into water, but steel by this method would become very hard, and to be softened steel must be heated to a red heat and then cooled very gradually. The crystalline or nontant, as

crystalline structure of the metal

line a metal
is

is

also a factor to be considered.

all

When

crystal-

not very malleable, but

malleable metals

become hardened by

be annealed during the process of generally very malleable and tenacious. Some metals undergo changes of structure in process of time. Brass wire becomes brittle when kept in a state of tension, or in a damp storeroom wrought-

hammering or working,
manufacture.

so that they have to

is

fibrous metal

iron chains used in carrying loads have occasionally to be annealed to restore their malleability, as by the constant strain they become crystalline. Gold

when hammered out

into the

form known as gold leaf

is

T^nnn, part of an

CHAP,

xi.]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

is

2/

inch in thickness, and

light.

semi-transparent, showing a green colour by transmitted

Conductivity
electricity.

is a power that metals possess of conducting heat and Metals that are the best conductors of heat are also the best con-

ductors of electricity, and in both cases the conductivity is seriously impaired by the presence of even small quantities of other metals or impurities. Tenacity is the property which enables a metal to withstand rupture by
pulling.
able.

The influence of impurities in metals upon their tenacity is very The enormous increase in tenacity produced by combining a small
is

vari-

pro-

portion of carbon with iron

relatively

well

greater

reduction

in

known, and may be contrasted with the strength caused by a trace of bismuth in

gold.

Ductility

is

the property of being able to be drawn out into fine wire or

;

The ductility of metals is not in the exact ratio of their malleability tubing. thus iron is very ductile and can be drawn into very fine wire, but it cannot,
tin.

except in a very pure state, be rolled into such thin sheets as either copper or

Fusibility is the property of becoming liquid when heated. Although the property of becoming liquid at high temperatures is not confined to the metals, it is one of those qualities which contribute very largely to their utility, for it
enables the founder to produce a large number of objects from a given pattern, with only a small expenditure of time and labour. It also offers to the worker in

metals a ready means of joining together in a durable manner the separate pieces pf his work.

Solidification.

All metals solidify after fusion,

state
is

and the temperature

at

which they change from the liquid to the solid

point
".

known

as the

"
freezing-

Alloys in solidifying very often

is

alter, as
is

the heavier constituent separates,

It

and consequently a metal

obtained which

not uniform in structure.

is

may
its

be taken as a general rule that the melting-point of an alloy most fusible constituent.

below that of

Contraction. Nearly all metals contract in cooling. So when making patterns for articles that have to be cast, allowance must be made for the contraction or shrinkage ; this depends to a large extent on their form and the distribution
cylindrical

of the metal.
or

box-shaped

Sand cores have a tendency to retard shrinkage articles shrink more in their length than in their
;

diameter.

The approximate
Aluminium
Bismuth "
Brass,

contraction of various metals

. .

is

as follows

-J

in.
,,

per foot

heavy ".
"
light
'

Brass,

"

Bronze

'&
. .

^ A
TJ

. .

Copper

T^

128
Iron, cast
1

HANDCRAFT.
.
. .

[CHAP. xi.

Iron,

wrought
"

Lead
Steel

....
. .
.

"

castings
.

^ ^ A ^
T\

in.

per foot

,,

,,

Tin
Zinc

.
"

.
.

a relative term, and is the resistance offered by the Hardness. molecules of a metal to their separation by the penetrating action of another

This

is

body, and is affected considerably by the presence of impurities. The presence of another metal often tends to increase both the brittleness and hardness.

Softness.
purity.

This

is

also a relative term, but in

many

instances

is

test

of

Aluminium. A bluish-white but somewhat soft metal, very malleable, and Can be cleaned by immersion in caustic potash and soda takes a good polish. unaffected by exposure to the atmosphere. Annealed only at a low temperature.
Difficult to solder

owing to

insolubility of oxide, but

can be welded by means of

for soldering this

the oxy-acetylene blow pipe. metal.

There are many patent solders

Aluminium Bronze.
; ;

An

alloy the colour of gold,

is fairly

malleable,

and

can be forged at a red heat takes a beautiful polish if burnished. Cleaned by immersion in dipping acid goes a rich brown when exposed to the atmosphere. Annealed by bringing to a bright red heat, cooling in air to a red, then plunging
into water.

Can be

soft soldered after joint

has been coppered by dipping in

silver soldered, or brazed.

copper sulphate and touched with an iron rod,

bluish-white metal, very brittle; expands on solidifying. and alloying with other metals to give fine and sharp castings. slight tap with a hammer will break an ingot of antimony, and the broken surface exhibits large shining facets.

Antimony.

Used

largely for type metal

solidifying.

Bismuth. A pinkish- white metal, brittle, very diamagnetic expands on Used for alloying with other metals to lower the melting-point.
;

is very fusible, is composed of lead, tin, and bismuth. Brass. A yellow metal, very malleable takes a fine polish. Cleaned by immersion in dipping acid turns black and green on exposure to atmosphere. Can be annealed by bringing slowly to a red heat and leaving to cool slowly in

Pewterer's solder, which

air

will

break

if

moved when

at a red heat.

Can be

soft soldered, silver soldered,

brazed, and welded by the oxy-acetylene blowpipe.

Britannia Metal. A nearly white metal, very malleable takes a fine polish, and can be cleaned by immersion in strong soda or potash darkens a very little on exposure to the atmosphere. Annealed by bringing to a temperature just above boiling water. Can only be soft soldered.
; ;

Although wrought iron is not cast, it contracts to about this extent after having been heated to a bright red. Some metals expand on cooling, and some nickel steel alloys neither contract nor expand by heating.

CHAP,

xi.]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

rich

29

Bronze. An alloy of a Can be cleaned by immersion

in dipping acid

green on exposure to atmosphere. heat and cooling slowly in air.

brazed.

takes a high polish. goes a dark brown and eventually Can be annealed by bringing carefully to a red
colour, malleable
; ;

brown

Can be

soft

soldered,

silver

soldered,

and

Cadmium.
Wood's
alloys
;

manufacturing purposes.
it is

Not used largely for white metal with bluish tinge, soft. Forms a component of one of the most fusible alloys, i.e.
hard white metal very
rare.
;

also alloyed with silver for electroplating.

Chromium.
alloying with steel.

difficult to fuse.

Used mostly

for

Comparatively

Cobalt.
a high polish
in the
;

bluish-white metal, malleable, ductile, and tenacious

takes

unaffected by the atmosphere.

arts.

Used in

electroplating,

seldom used

manufacturing

takes a high polish, and can be red metal, very malleable cleaned by immersion in dipping acid turns black and eventually green on exposure to the atmosphere. Can be annealed by bringing to a red heat and

Copper.

quenching

in water,

and can be

soft soldered, silver soldered, brazed,

and welded

by the oxy-acetylene blowpipe.

Delta Metal. A yellow malleable alloy ; takes a fine polish. Can be cleaned by immersion in dipping acid Can be does not tarnish in moist air. annealed by bringing to a red heat and cooling in air. Can be soft soldered, silver Used soldered, and brazed can be forged at a red heat and is non-magnetic. Can be extruded. largely in shipbuilding and marine engineering.
; ;

Dutch Metal. A bright yellow very malleable alloy takes a high polish, and can be cleaned by immersion in dipping acid turns black by exposure to the atmosphere. Can be annealed by bringing to a red heat and cooling in air. Can be soft soldered, silver soldered, and brazed. Used largely for imitation Can be easily distinguished from real gold, as it gilding, either in leaf or powder.
; ;

is

readily soluble in nitric acid.

German
polish.

Silver.

A white or

Can be cleaned by immersion

.

yellowish-white malleable alloy takes a high in nitric acid and water and then in dipping
;

acid, but tarnishes

on exposure to the atmosphere. Can be annealed by bringing a red heat and cooling in air. Can be soft-soldered, silver soldered, and brazed. Has a high electrical resistance.
to

Gilding Metal.
afterwards
gilt.

A light

brown

alloy.

Used

largely for articles that are

Similar in properties to

Dutch metal but not quite so malleable.

;

A bright yellow metal extremely malleable takes a bright polish, cleaned by immersion in a dip consisting of 2 parts by weight of hydro" chloric acid and i part^of nitric acid this is called aqua regia ". Gold is not
Gold.

and

is

affected by the atmosphere.

ing in 'the air;

Can be annealed by bringing to a red heat and coolmust not be moved when at a red heat as it is liable to break.
in the

Can be soft soldered, and silver or gold soldered. Gunmetal. A light brown alloy. Generally used 9

form of castings

30

HANDCRAFT.
Can be cleaned by immersion
by bringing
soldered,
in dipping acid
;

[CHAP. xi.

takes a high polish.

turns black by
in air.

exposure to

air.

Is annealed
silver

to a red heat

and cooling
largely
for

May

be

soft

soldered,

and

brazed.

Used

engineering

purposes.
rods, etc.

Gilding metal matches this in colour, and can be bought in sheets,

Indium.
fuse.

very hard, white, brittle metal,

is

very rare

and

difficult

to

Used mostly for scientific apparatus, and Cannot be crushed. temperatures.

Iron,

for objects to withstand very high

Wrought.
polish.
1

A
;

greyish-white metal, malleable at

scale can

all

temperatures
is

takes a
i

good
water

The

be removed by immersion
to the

in sulphuric acid

part,

parts

rusts

on exposure

atmosphere and

eventu-

ally destroyed.

Is annealed by bringing to a red heat

and cooling

in water.

May be

soft soldered, silver soldered, brazed, and welded either by the blacksmith's method or by the oxy-acetylene method the former is the stronger. Iron, Cast. A grey metal very brittle and hard. Used only in the form of
;

castings,

is really

the crude iron used largely for machinery.

it

When
and

cast iron is
it is

deprived of some of its carbon, thereby leaving " called malleable cast iron," and in this form
as
it is

much

softer

less brittle,

it is

often used instead of forgings,

cheaper.

very soft, marks paper can only be brought Should be cleaned by scraping or caustic soda darkens slightly on exposure to the atmosphere, but after this it is permanent and no further change takes place. Is annealed by raising to the temperature of boiling
;

Lead.

A grey malleable metal,

to a dull polish.

May be soft soldered ; is often joined by what is known as autogenous Wire and soldering or burning, especially for vessels used in chemical work. pipes can be made of lead by extrusion, squirting, or pressure.
water.

Magnesium.
heated.

A silvery white metal.

form
it

Used
;

largely in pyrotechny

and photography

Burns with a very bright flame when in the form of powder or

It is readily soluble

ribbon

in the latter

will light

by the aid of a match.

in dilute hydrochloric acid

and

in dilute sulphuric acid. tinge, very brittle.

Manganese.
and mild
steel
is
;

A grey metal with a reddish

and

Used mostly

for alloying with iron, copper,

nickel in the manufacture of very hard steel

has the effect of toughening and generally improves the quality.

Manganese
is

not usually used pure but in the form

known

as ferro-manganese.

Manganese Bronze.
malleable
; ;

light

brown

alloy
Is

sometimes called white bronze.

which takes a high polish and cleaned by immersion in dip-

not corroded by the action of sea- water. May be soft soldered, silver Used largely for screw propellers and marine engineering soldered, and brazed.
is

ping acid

owing to its great transverse strength, toughness, hardness, and the facility with which it can be cast sound. It is equal in strength to mild steel, and can be worked either hot or cold, but should be forged at a cherry-red heat.

Manganese
strong and tough
;

Steel.

greyish white metal

is

takes a

good

polish.

Very

toughness

improved by quenching

in water

from a white

CHAP,

xt.]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

;

heat.

while hot.

Cannot be hardened like tool steel or welded all shaping should be done Makes sound castings but contracts considerably.
or Quicksilver.
in

Mercury
peratures.

silvery white metal, liquid at ordinary

in scientific instruments.

tem-

Used

making amalgams and

Mild

Steel.

greyish-white metal, very malleable hot or cold, easily

;

welded and forged into shape while hot takes a good polish. Cannot be hardened or tempered like tool steel. Stronger than wrought iron, which it is

Can be soft soldered, silver gradually superseding for constructional purposes. soldered, brazed, and welded either by the blacksmith's method or by the
oxy-acetylene method
;

the former

is

the stronger.

Muntz Metal.
ham.
Really
it is

So called

after the patentee, Sir

;

a malleable brass

takes a high polish.

G. F. Muntzof BirmingMay be cleaned by imlike brass.

mersion in dipping acid, and can be annealed and soldered

It is

sometimes called yellow metal sheathing, as it was used largely for covering the bottoms of wooden ships it is now used for condenser tubes and marine work, as
;

it is

not affected by sea-water to any great extent. Can be forged at a red heat. Nickel Steel. A special steel of a white colour has a fibrous structure
;

takes a high polish. Very strong, tough, has great power of resisting shocks, and has a higher elastic limit than carbon steel, and is not corroded so quickly by sea

water.
cent.

Can be welded if the proportion of nickel is not more than three per Used largely for armour plates and crank shafts. Nickel. A brilliant white metal, malleable, ductile, tenacious, and can be welded takes a high polish. Does not readily discolour on exposure to the Used largely atmosphere. Is cleaned by immersion in dilute nitric acid. as an alloy to produce a number of varieties of white metals which go under It is also used largely different names, but are mostly similar to German silver.
;

in electroplating.

Ormolu.

The same

as brass in all respects.

Osmium.
furnace.

Used

bluish-white metal, very rare. Infusible except in the electric for filaments of electric lamps and alloyed with iridium for the

points of gold pens.

Pewter.

grey metal, very soft and malleable; takes a dull polish.

;

Cleaned by polishing with some abrasive substance turns a trifle darker but Can be soldered with a special solder otherwise unaffected by the atmosphere.
which has a low fusing-point.

Phosphor Bronze.
cleaned by immersion
brazed.
in

light

brown metal

takes a high polish.

dipping acid.

Can be

soft soldered, silver soldered,

;

Can be and

Used largely for engineering purposes, mostly cast work does not become crystalline under repeated shocks or jars resists corrosion by sea-water, and it is difficult to obtain a spark from it, consequently it is used in the factories
;

where explosives are made.

Palladium.

white metal, very rare, untarnishable.

Used

in

the

manu-

facture of scientific instruments.

132

HANDCRAFT.
Platinum.

[CHAP. xi.

A white metal,
;
;

very malleable

takes a high polish, unaffected

by the atmosphere coefficient of expansion the same as that of glass. It can It is used for the only be dissolved in aqua regia unaffected by single acids. filaments in incandescent lamps and high temperature work in chemical processes.

Can be welded
Silver.
malleable.

at a red heat.

perfect white of any metal takes a high polish, very Cleaned by immersion in dilute sulphuric acid or in a solution of potassium cyanide and water turns blue-black on exposure to the atmosphere, Can be annealed by bringing to a dull red heat and cooling but is not corroded.
;
;

The most

in

air.

May

be

soft soldered

and

silver soldered.

Silver Solder.
metals.

A white metal with a yellowish tinge. Used only for joining A

white alloy.

and vary in colour. Used only for joining metals. By altering the proportions or adding bismuth or cadmium it can be made fusible at various temperatures. Used largely by tinsmiths and fused with the aid of a solderDifferent grades have different melting-points,
(tinman's).

Solder

ing iron, blow-lamp, bunsen burner, etc.

Made

in

many

qualities.

often called spelter. yellow or white metal, usually in the form of grains of various sizes. Used for joining metals, fused with the aid of a blowpipe.

Spelter (used

in brazing).

Zinc

is

Steels.

See pp. 172-174.

Tantalum.
ments of

white metal, very rare, malleable.

Used mostly

for the fila-

electric lamps.

Tin.
polish.

care

it

Can be cleaned by immersion may be soft soldered. It is little

white metal, with a yellowish tinge, very malleable; takes a good in hydrochloric acid and water. With
affected by air at ordinary temperatures,

and

is

therefore used largely for coating

sheet

iron

to

protect

it

from

rust,

as in culinary vessels.

Tin Plate. This is small thin sheets of wrought iron or mild steel, which have been annealed, pickled, scoured bright, and dipped in molten tin on the top of which there is a quantity of melted tallow so that the sheets of metal pass
and causes the
through
sawdust.
rollers

through the melted tallow before entering the molten tin. The tallow is a flux tin to adhere to the metal sheets. The metal is then passed

which squeeze

off the excess tin,

and they are then dried

in clean

Block tin, as it is called, or doubles, are iron or steel sheets that have been dipped twice, so having a thicker coat of tin on them, then planished with a polished hammer on a polished anvil. They are usually from 20-25 I.S.W.G.

Terne
dipped
vary.
in

plates,

which are duller

tin.

in

appearance than tinned

plates, are plates

a mixture of lead and

The commercial names of tinned plates are very confusing, and the They are named by the size of the sheet, the quality, and thickness.

sizes

For

example,

Common

No.

is

marked
Ib.

I.C.
;

and the

size

is

225 sheets in a box weighing 108

the thickness

is

14 x 10 in., and there are No. 30 I.S.W.G. Another

CHAP. XL]

MATERIALS USED IN HANDCRAFT WORK.

called four cross doubles,
in.
is

133
1

DXXXX,
in.,

No. 22 I.S.W.G.

size of sheet is

x 12^

or 17 x 25

Tool
and lamp

Steel.

takes a high polish.

black.

Can be cleaned by immersion

greyish white metal, malleable, very strong and tough ; in a mixture of nitric acid
Is

Oxidizes on exposure to the atmosphere.

annealed by

heating slowly to a dull red and cooling in hot sand or lime very gradually. May be soft soldered, silver soldered, and brazed. With care can be welded. Some-

times called crucible

steel, cast steel,

carbon tool

steel.

Tungsten.
to

A grey

metal, very rare, very hard.

self- hardening steels.

Used

for alloying with steel

produce what are known as

very hard steel. Used for cutting tools in engineering Tungsten Steel. shops. Can be forged at a red haat and is hardened by bringing cutting edges to a white melting heat and cooling in a cold blast of air. Cutting edges last much

longer and do more work than carbon tool steels.

Type Metal.
ing
;

A grey metal,

fairly soft.

Used only

for casting

type for printmalleable

at

expands on solidifying. Zinc. Sometimes called

;

spelter.

bluish metal,

fairly

certain temperatures

takes a fair polish.

May be

equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids. bunsen burner, and can be soft soldered. Used largely for alloying with other metals and for the protection of iron from rust as in galvanizing.

cleaned by immersion in Is annealed by warming with a

THE EXTRACTION OF METALS.

The
extraction of metals from their ores
is

usually described as metallurgy,

and metallurgical chemistry is a special branch of chemical science which is usually conducted on a large scale at high temperatures. Ores are generally mixed with earthy matters and often contain two or more
metals in various forms up to a certain stage they are all treated in a similar manner, that is, the ores have to go through some preliminary processes such as crushing, washing, dressing, and roasting, before being smelted. Advantage is
;

also taken of the properties

in the extraction.

which are inherent

in

each particular metal to

assist

The methods used

By mixing

are broadly classified under the following

headings

Smelting.

the ore with a flux

and sometimes with

fuel

in

various kinds of furnaces, and raising it to a high temperature by means of a heated blast of air sufficient to reduce the ore to a liquid condition and then

pouring

it

into moulds.

The
copper,

following metals can be

cobalt,
lead,

extracted from their ores in this

iron,

manner

chromium,
tin,

nickel,

magnesium, manganese,

silver,

tantalum,

tungsten.

In this process a metal that liquefies at a low temperature is separated from a more infusible one by taking advantage of their different melting

Liquation.

34

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xi.

or fusing-points, and the following metals can be obtained in this way

anti-

mony, bismuth,

lead, silver.

Distillation.
;

By heating

certain ores the solid metals are driven off in the

form of vapour this is then condensed to a liquid or solid state. The following metals can be distilled from their ores mercury, cadmium, zinc.
:

Amalgamation.

This

is

accomplished by bringing the ores into contact

with mercury, which has an affinity for

some

metals.

The

resulting

amalgam

is

then heated, which drives off the mercury in the form of vapour, leaving the metal behind. The following metals can be extracted in this way gold, silver.
:

Electrolytic Methods. the ores in an electric furnace

the metal to a fluid- condition.

This
;

is

where the metals are produced by fusing

:

this

is

The

owing to the great heat required to bring following metals are extracted in this way

aluminium, magnesium, tantalum, tungsten, chromium.

Wet
salts
i

Methods.

The

and are then precipitated by the addition of another

ores in this process are dissolved in various acids or The acid, salt, or gas.

following metals can be extracted by this

method

nickel, cobalt, gold, palladium,

platinum,

silver.

Lead and Zinc Method.

By

fusing the ore with lead or zinc, with which

they combine, then heating the alloys so that the lead and zinc are either liquated or volatilized, leaving the metal behind in a spongy mass which is then smelted in

a special furnace to refine

are treated in this

it.
:

It is

manner

iridium,

then poured into a mould. osmium, platinum.

The

following

FIGS,

i,

2, 3,

and

4.

Illustrations of various

systems of projection.

CHAPTER

XII

DRAWING, DESIGN, LETTERING, ETC.

APPLIED TO
THIS chapter
is

WOOD AND METAL WORK.

to the practice of

intended to deal chiefly with the special application of drawing wood and metal work, and as an aid to the effective teaching
of the

and demonstrating

above subjects.

It

is

presumed that a knowledge of

elementary practical plane and solid geometry, drawing from the cast (light and The special kinds of shade), freehand and model drawing has been acquired.

drawing necessary to pupils when dealing with the subject of handcraft are as illustrated on plate opposite. Fig. 1 shows a tee joint in orthographic projection, meaning right projection, from orthos (right) and gonia (an angle), or the geometrical representation of solids upon a plane surface in front and side elevation, and plan. The representation may be full size, as in the case of a working drawing, as to
scale.

The procedure
is first

is

exactly the

same as

in solid geometry.

An

elevation
'.

(see Fig. 1)

Projectors
tal plane.

XY line, each point being numbered as a, b and a', b are then dropped from these points below the XY line into the horizonThe line ab is next drawn, then the thickness lines aa and bb. A side
drawn on an

view

object.

projected as shown, thus completing the three views required of the The next system called pictorial projection (see Fig. 2) is a simple method of obtaining an approximately correct pictorial view of a given object. An
is
is

elevation

first

drawn as
at

for

from the elevation

any convenient angle (30 or 45

is

orthographic projection, then lines are projected are most suitable), the

real thickness of the object

lines.

divided,

and one-half is transferred

to the thickness

points obtained are then joined up and the back surface is represented. It should be noted that the latter lines are always parallel to their corresponding lines in the face side. it differs from the Fig. 3 represents oblique projection
;

The

former method only in one particular, viz. real lengths are marked on the projected lines instead of half-lengths. Angles of 30 and 45 are also suitable for
this system. in a

Compass lines and curves can be represented also when occurring It is a satisfactory model, involving the use of ordinates or guide lines. method for representing joints, small models, and constructive detail, and has the
in

added advantage of showing three dimensions

and thickness.

a drawing,

viz.

length, width,
for large ob-

The

use of the latter system

is

not

recommended

(135)

136
jects,

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. XH.

having the disadvantage of giving an Various details are shown in drawing. Isometric projection, from isos and metric, ticularly well suited for the representation
objects, these usually being

unpleasant tilted-up effect to the

this

work,

drawn

as

described.

meaning equal measure, is parof architectural and woodworking

solids, or

composed of right-angled

with their ad-

jacent planes at right angles.

This system was invented by Professor Parish.

The

lines

BA, DA, and C A

constitute the isometric axes,

and

all lines

coincident

with a parallel to these axes are drawn true length upon the picture. To represent the front elevation of the tee piece in isometric projection, the width of the

stem should be marked from the regulatingpoint A. A perpendicular is then erected the lines of the head are then drawn parallel to BA and parallel to the axis DA DA respectively thickness lines of the object illustrated are drawn parallel to AC,
; ;

then true lengths are marked upon them, and when connected they are of course Curves, simple mouldings, and bevels may also be repreparallel to the axis DA. The uses and limitations of the latter system are similar to those of sented.
oblique projection. Working Drawings constitute an important part of handcraft subjects they are really an extended application of the principles embodied in the first example, and reference to the drawings in this book will suggest suitable arrangements of the views. Perspective is a branch of drawing
;

theoretical

knowledge based upon geometry, and it demands much study and practice in perspective shadow projection in order to become a proficient

From the standpoint of teacher or student requiring perspective draughtsman. as an aid to effective expression of ideas or for purposes of graphic demonstration, a strictly accurate method is not absolutely essential. Architects' perspective is
a much simpler system, and, although only approximately correct, it suffices for It may be divided into three kinds, of which the first is practical purposes.

The scale is first illustrated in Fig. 5, which also shows the key to the system. Next decided upon, and then the elevation, side view, and plan may be drawn. a ground line is drawn (see key diagram), then the height or eye line at a distance of 5 ft. above the ground line, this representing the average height of a
The plan should then be transferred, the front corner touching spectator's eye. the eye line, with the front line making an angle of 40 with it, the adjacent side A station point is next decided, its disof course subtending an angle of 50. tance from the GL depends upon the size of the object to be projected it may
;

be immediately below the nearest corner of the object, but not necessarily. Vanishing points must next be decided, the large diagram showing a suitable method of obtaining same one line is drawn at an angle of 40 with the SP and
;

another at 50 as shown. These are produced until they cut the HL. Angles of 30 and 60 may also be adopted, but the angle subtended by the vanishing lines should in all cases be 90. The position of the legs is shown in the plan a set
;

square is placed on the drawing, touching one point of the plan and also the SP, then short projectors can be drawn until they cut the HL. From these points

of intersection perpendiculars are dropped.

The

first

to

be so drawn

is

the

FIG. 5.

Diagrams

illustrating

method of showing objects

the eye line.

in perspective

when placed below

Iv io.

6.

CHAP,

xii.]

DRAWING, DESIGN, LETTERING, ETC.

137
and upon show the
;

nearest line of the leg in plan ; this must equal in length the elevation, this line all heights for horizontal lines are measured. Both diagrams

method of completing the drawing. the case of large curves ordinates

will

Decorative features are added freehand

in
It

may be employed
all

for greater accuracy.

in

be noticed from the views that an example

lines in

direction, whilst those

above the eye, as

below the eye run Fig. 6, run downwards.

an upward
lantern
is

shown
as that

as

in the latter

employed

for the table.

diagram. The preparatory system is the same In both cases it is assumed that the distance of

the spectator from the object is similar, therefore the nearest point in the plan coincides with a point on the HL. Projectors are drawn as before, and the necessary The nearest point of perpendiculars are drawn above instead of below the HL.
7 ft. 6 in. from the SP, and a perpendicular raised from provides the necessary line for preliminary measurements, which should also in this case be transferred from the elevation. If shading the completed line-

the lantern should be about

this

drawing

good effect can be obtained by shading certain parts. been considered in the diagrams to proceed from a position coincident with the left-hand VP. Those parts of the object farthest from the
is

desired, a

The

light has

light

lighting
is

are therefore strongly shaded, whilst the top receives a full measure of and is left clear. The front of the table receives about half the light and

Various media can be employed for this part of the With wash or colour drawings the washes should be made up in various depths of tone value with pen and ink work the distance of the lines one from
work.
;

shaded as half-tone.

another
as
is

increased or decreased according as light or dark tones are required, also the case if pencils are used. The rendering of small objects in peris is

is employed, as for example, the book-rest approximately 8 in. this has been multiplied by 8, giving an assumed height of 3 ft. 4 in., which enables the object to be drawn by the method previously described. This is particularly well suited for the representation of small handcraft models, including handles, finger plates, bread

spective

facilitated

if

a large scale
is

shown

in Fig. 7.

The

real height

platters, etc.

Design.
tradition,
itself is

It is

for this elusive subject.

a matter of extreme difficulty to lay down certain formula Certain sizes of objects have been decided by custom, a definite purpose, but proportion can be varied, and in Models or objects with a bold, decided

and

fitness for

an important element of design.

outline demand a corresponding boldness of decorative detail, whilst the lighter This guiding forms of craftwork are best suited to a dainty rendering of detail. principle is well exemplified by a comparison of Elizabethan wood or metal work

demand

with Sheraton's work of the eighteenth century. In the former, heavy proportions the use of large mouldings and carving with a peculiar freedom of treat-

ment, whilst Sheraton's elegant proportions have mouldings and projections reduced to a minimum, with decorative inlaid work, light and dainty in design, or Another important factor in design is painted ornament of a similar character.
the material employed.

Oak, a strong grained wood of coarse texture, requires IO

138

HANDCRAFT.
;

[CHAP. xn.

a heavier treatment than satinwood

by the character of the

material,

even tone or colour, readily

fine moulded detail in the former is obscured and conversely, satinwood or ebony, having an lends itself to lighter proportions and ornament. Colour
;

values have again a material bearing

upon the success of a design rosewood, ebony, holly, and oak harmonize well in most combinations, as do also Italian or American walnut and purplewood, ebony, snakewood, and satinwood. There are numerous pleasing colour combinations possible in the use of natur-

FIG.

7.

Method of representing small

objects in perspective.

ally

coloured woods alone, and the surest way to success

is

by experiment and

careful observation with reference to

harmony

of colour.
;

Ivory, tortoise-shell,

mother of pearl can be employed to advantage

utilized in in mass,

the

first

material looks best

and when

a dark groundwork for stencil effects. Tortoise-shell should be used and relieved by the use of silver or ebony, is very rich. The various varieties of pearl look best also in masses, with due regard to the beautiful A study of historic work, and even precolouring and lustre of the material.
historic,

cannot be too strongly urged

and

to understand decorative craftwork,

CHAP,

xii.]

DRAWING, DESIGN, LETTERING, ETC.

139

a study of history, customs, fashions, and politics is essential. illustrated in various parts of the work show in some measure

The examples how traditional

craftwork can be adapted to modern handcraft. Lettering. First reference to handcraft deals chiefly with suitable imitation of printed characters on drawings. There are many excellent books published

on
is

this subject specially suited for students and teachers. Albrecht Durer type well proportioned and tasteful in appearance ; it has the added advantage of

lending itself readily to geometrical construction, although this is not recommended unless a large exercise letter is being drawn. In one well-known antique book in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington, Albrecht Durer shows the
constructions employed by him for the whole alphabet. mediaeval Italian is particularly good, and well repay study

Ancient
;

Roman and

this

can be effected

through the medium of old pictures,

tablets, inlaid woodwork, and books. For general handcraft purposes a square kind of lettering is best. Applied to working and scale drawings, headings in notebook and incidental descriptions, it

is

easy to space, and can with some little practice be quickly drawn. good in. apart. These are then conplan is to draw two lines parallel and about verted into squares with a space of T \ in. between them. Such squares neatly filled with the letter (with the exception of I, which can be drawn with one

Letters are then drawn in each square, stroke) give a precise and pleasing effect. and when spaced in this way completed words and sentences give a pleasing idea of good spacing and proportion. For class work, not more than one style should

be adopted. The square lettering used upon many of the plates in this work can be reduced or enlarged in size according to the relative importance of the refer-

and have been found by the authors quite satisfactory for class work. 8 to 12 of this chapter are some reproductions of artistic metalwork that have been made for various purposes and in different metals, and which in some
ences,
Figs.
It will at once be seen how important are drawing, design, and lettering, in conjunction with mechanical processes and the knowledge of materials. They are examples of work that can be done by good

cases are based on traditional styles.

craftsmen,
if this

and

are modern.
is

They show how

it

kind of work

to be maintained,
in

is

material must govern design, evident that design drawing

and and

lettering should

be practised

the craftsman must be an

artist.

In many cases conjunction with the actual work. Teaching design in the abstract is of little use.

It is useless to make a fine design for a wrought-iron entrance gate, and when the working drawing is made, and the work comes to be executed, it is found that it cannot be made owing to its prohibitive cost (caused by the length of time required

to

make

it),

or

its faulty

construction, or the impossibility of

making and

fixing in

the metal required the forms as designed. The designer of metalwork must have knowledge of materials and technical processes, as well as of symbolical and con-

Many kinds of drawing, such as the drawing and colouring of plants, geometrical drawing, including development of surfaces, drawing with chalk, crayons, or charcoal on brown paper, or with charcoal, blue or red pencil
ventional ornament.

140
on white paper, especially
work.
if

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xn.

of a large size or to a large scale, are useful in metal-

out of workshop drawings from small coloured sketches is excellent practice, as it brings forward many points often overlooked in the small The working drawings should consist of full-sized drawings (where sketches.
practicable) of each particular part

The working

and

detail with the sizes in figures, as well as

the constructive details

cular part,

which are most suitable for that partiand should show the name of the material to be used. If cast and turned work enter into the design, there would be the necessary patterns, core
(joints,
etc.),

prints, core boxes, etc., to

age, turning,

and

fitting together,

be drawn, showing the necessary allowances for shrinkand the pieces that sometimes have to be added
Often during the manufacture,

(and afterwards removed) for holding the work.

patterns or designs arise which in themselves can be utilized as decorative features, e.g. the rivets which hold the raised piece of metal on the fingerplate (p. 67) only
;

three are necessary, the rest could be dummies, but they form a decorative feature. The laps on the tin box on p. 69 are decorative as well as necessary. All the articles shown in these pages have the names of the various metals of

difference

which they should be made and on examination it will be found that there is a wide between what should be cast and what should be wrought, as a model
;

for, and made in, wrought iron would not be suitable if made in For instance, the cage handle illustrated on p. 107, though correct for wrought iron, would be wrong made of cast iron or wrought copper, and would cost a great deal more, because more difficult to make in these latter metals. It is

that

is

designed

cast iron.

not what
It is for

is

many workers and

it,

possible but what is proper and most suitable for the particular purpose. students much easier to model a design for metalwork

than to draw

and

it

drawing ever can.

It enters largely into

gives a better appreciation of form, bulk, and relief, than the processes of blacksmithing (see p. 103),

p. 84), silversmithing (see p. 89), casting, chasing, and emdesign that has been modelled, and is going to be made in metal, can be measured and gauged for the various heights of the relief, etc., which can-

coppersmithing (see

bossing.

It is thus more realistic, but it applies more and hammered work. Working from a model, there is less possibility of mistakes being made and consequently less waste of material. Many of the objects shown could be easily modelled the correct size, and the work made from the model without a drawing at all. The models Nos. 10, u,

not be done with a drawing.

particularly to cast, raised,

12 on p. 103, and No. 2 on Fig. 9, would have to be modelled, but in various ways and materials as described on p. 106. Models Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 on p. 78 could be modelled in a plastic material, then a plaster cast taken of

them, and when suitable, such as Ch. ix, Fig. 6, Nos. 6, 10, n, 12 on p. 103, they could be cast in brass or bronze. Letters could be treated in the same way, as letters are used largely for signs, shields, nameplates, etc., but good examples should be copied in the early stages. They could also be raised from thin sheet metal as shown in Fig. 8, or sunk and filled with coloured wax as shown in
Fig. 11.

good

practical exercise

would be

to

draw a

letter

about

4, 5,

or 6

CHAP.

XII.]

DRAWING, DESIGN, LETTERING, ETC.

it

141

inches high, transfer

the modelling medium, model take a cast of the letter, _

with a pin to by means of a tracing and pricking through to it and take a plaster cast from it, and from this
.

__

-.

strengthening

it

by

^^

^^^^M^^S^^^BIM^^^^^

means of galvanized iron wire. This would be a pattern from which a

casting in

metal

could
in turn

be made.
could be
finished,

This
filed

up and

thus completing the letter from the drawing to the finished

articles.

Patterns

for

letters

could
in

also

be
FIG. io.

made

wood.

Colours should also

metal has
altered

Casket covered with tooled painted and gilt leather and enriched with bronze mounts and enamelled crest.
for decorative

be considered when drawing and designing

its

own

characteristic colour,

and

this

metalwork, as each can often be modified and

by colouring. The methods are described on pp. 179-180. The arrangement of one metal with another is often dependent on the colour, and
if

we include enamelling,
is

arrangement of colour

inlaying of another metal or of precious stones, etc., any The possible, and highly artistic effects are obtained.

casket illustrated in Fig. 10 and the memorial tablet (Fig. 11) are good examples of metalwork in which colour is an important feature. The casket itself is made

of

mahogany and covered with

feet,

richly tooled,

painted,

and

gilt leather,

mounted

In the centre of the lid there is handles, hinges, and lock. a heraldic crest in translucent enamel, thus forming a work of art in which colour
with bronze
is

base.
is

The memorial tablet (Fig. 11) is of copper on a green marble embossed, and the stars are of silver inlaid. Some of the lettering raised from the back, and the rest is sunk and filled in with red wax of a tint
predominant.
It is

different

from the surrounding copper.

The whole

is

emblematical of the

man

and

his

life.

The trophy in Fig. 8 (i) is of hammered copper mounted on a wood base, and the design is based on the apparatus the net and posts and the ball used in the game and the laurel or bay-leaf branches which were used by the ancients for
light,

making wreaths for the victors. The brass chandelier, or if fitted for the electric an electrolier, is a reproduction of an eighteenth-century Dutch one, and is made entirely of cast and turned brass, Fig. 8 (2). The lock plates, see Fig. 9 (i), made of wrought steel, with forged handles,
pierced and applied ornament, are of a design based on Elizabethan work of the They are polished and have been hammered in the making
out.

sixteenth century.

and the marks have not been taken

These give the metal a

rich appearance.

142

HANDCRAFT.
The

[CHAP. xn.

fireside

fire implements and stand, Fig. 9 (2), or as they are sometimes called, a companion, are also of polished steel, and the dragons' heads have been forged and chiselled. This is modern it could be made of wrought and cast brass, or of wrought and cast copper, or with cast and wrought copper handles and
;

steel reins.

This

last

treatment would be very effective.

Examples

are given

on page 103.

The
not too

intricate, of the

wrought-iron pediment of a gate shown in Fig. 12 (i) is a good example, use of natural forms treated in a conventional manner,

and

suitable for the material.

Each small

leaf has

been welded separately on to

each stem.

modelled, and as they vary in thickness, they have been The larger leaves are cut from thick forged from bar iron and shaped while hot. plate and modelled while hot, and then welded on to the scrolls, with the ex-

They

are

all

ception of the two end ones on the bottom bar. The illustration, Fig. 12 (2), is of a wrought-iron
character.

grille

of quite a different

This

is

based on the palm

leaf,

and treated conventionally.

i
-

-j

FIG. ii.

Memorial

tablet of

embossed and chased copper

inlaid

with

silver

and wax.

FIG.

i.

Part of a Dutch cabinet showing marquetried

floral

ornament.

FIG.

2.

Diagram

illustrating

method of inlaying

leaves, etc.

CHAPTER

XIII

DECORATIVE PROCESSES
IN
" Art

WOOD AND METAL WORK

is

man added

to nature."

BACON.

as equivalent Inlaying proper consists of cutting out thin pieces 'of wood, veneer, or other material to correspond with the units of a certain These are marked upon the groundwork and cut with chisels and design.
is

INLAYING

an

art of great antiquity.

The term may be regarded

to the Latin

"

interserere," to insert.

This leaves cavities into which the prepared units of the design are gouges. " inserted" or "laid in " the groundwork, being fixed with glue or other adhesive " medium. The term " marquetry is often confused with " inlaying," but the two
" marMarquetry comes from the French word processes are totally distinct. The latter queter," hence marqueterie, and originally meant to spot or mark. term is applied to decorative work where six or more sheets of veneer are

temporarily fixed together and cut simultaneously to a design with a special saw and implement called a " donkey ". The various pieces are then interchanged from
the different layers in order to effect the necessary contrast of colour and are then good example glued down to a sheet of paper to complete the whole design.

of inlaying
this
it

is

shown

in the frontispiece at the

head of the mirror frame.

From

can clearly be seen that the design must be composed of separate and A characteristic example of marquetry from a Dutch cabinet is distinct units.

shown in Fig. 1. A comparison of the two examples shows the fact that with the former process stencil effects are best and in the latter continuous designs of floral and symbolical devices can be executed. The inlaying in the frontispiece is also
an excellent object lesson
in the

handling of material, and the limitations of

It is an axiom of good inlay design imposed by the use of a brittle material. design that the various units of an inlayed pattern should be of such a shape as

permit of easy handling during the processes of cutting and shaping previous to glueing in. Obviously this prevents the use of composite parts designed with a too close resemblance to the natural motif, when it is interto

twining stems, sharply curved stalks, leaves, etc. understood by reference to the illustration, Fig. 3

This principle
;

will

be better
inlaying

here are shown

some

certain stiffness of effect is inevitable, but designs based upon the wild rose. considerable charm can be produced by good grouping and colour harmonies with To produce either of the panel centres shown, the design is natural woods.

144

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xin.

ms ip

Unijr of RepeoCt

said

]5

FIG.

3.

Various designs for inlaying based upon the " Wild Rose

'

FIG. 4.

Various specimens ot pictorial overlaying from Bethnal Green Museum.

CHAP,

xiii.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.

145

first

see A,

prepared on cartridge paper and glued down to the groundwork or panel, Fig. 2. Tracings are then made of each unit, i.e. stems, flowers,

and

In the case of leaves, these being glued down to suitably coloured veneer. the flowers, one tracing serves for three thicknesses of veneer, and so on with leaves and stalks. These are cut out with a small hand fret-saw [see illustration Ch. xvi, f. 8 (i)], used in conjunction with a small cutting board or a vice as
illustrated in

Ch. xvi,

f.

15.

They should be

cut "outside the line," that

is,

so as to leave the pencil mark upon the unit, and the cavities upon the ground are cut with gouges first "inside the line". Each piece should be tried and
fitted
if

necessary before glueing

is

proceeded with.

in Fig.

illustrates the

when the main units of the design have been inlaid. The spots and small diamond shapes are best done with a small square awl hole and chisel, afterwards
design
filled with a coloured composition. Although generally termed inlaying, the ex" amples shown in Fig. 4, are really overlaid ". These are admirable examples from the Bethnal Green Museum, illustrating the possibilities of good decorative work in woods and veneers. Richness of effect is obtained by the careful selection of material, with due regard to colour and the natural markings of the wood. The

executive processes attached to work of this type vary from those previously described. The general principle is to first lay a piece of veneer upon the groundwork (this is described under the heading of veneering in another part of
this work). The design is glued down to the groundwork and a tracing is taken of each unit, these being glued down to pieces of veneer and cut out with a fretsaw. As in the process of inlaying, each unit should be cut outside the line

and the groundwork outline just cut away. The design is commenced at a corner and laid down piece by piece until the whole is completed. Inlaying of
is shown in Fig. 5. This is a fine example of Persian craftsmanship and a beautiful specimen of design work. In the execution of this and similar work the groundwork was covered with a preparation of mastic a kind of lacquer and the prepared units were embedded until the whole box was in-

yet another kind

crusted with mother of pearl or ivory.

It

was then allowed to stand

until

thoroughly hardened, when appearance of inlaid work.

was levelled down, the finished surface having the The drawback to this process is that the mastic has a tendency to peel away from the groundwork, as can be seen in the photograph. The original coffer is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. There are various
it

interesting references to inlaying in classical literature.

Homer

were ornamented with inlaid work of precious metals and ivory.

refer to inlaying, using the

Chests mentioned by Vitruvius

and Pliny also horn and wax.

word "

cerostrata,"

meaning

inlaid with

" In Book 23 of the " Odyssey Ulysses describes to Penelope the " bridal bed in the following terms Beginning from this head post, I wrought at the bedstead till I had finished it, and made it fair with inlaid work of gold and of
:

silver,
1

and of ivory A Biblical reference to inlaying is found in i Kings x. Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory and overlaid it with the best gold ". There are several other references to this and other arts in the Bible.
''.

"

46

HANDCRAFT.
museums and

[CHAP. xiu.

Various London

the Louvre display specimens of inlaying of

ancient Assyrian and Egyptian origin, remarkable both for ingenuity of design and perfection of execution. Metal, ebony, and ivory were the chief media used. Processes connected with handcraft lessons, either constructional or
decorative,

must necessarily be simple and within the range of a boy's ability. Whilst, however, strict limitations to the practical side are imposed by a pupil's capacity and physical strength, the educational or culture value is practically unlimited.

Lessons on the history or development of inlaying can be devised, and the importance attached to this art in ancient times can be discussed through the medium of classic literature. The style of inlaying best suited to the needs of
handcraft centres
design.
is taken and arranged into a the simple action of two gouge cuts. boys should be limited to the use of a certain number of units and instructed to arrange them into a simple design. Reference

is

that in which a definite unit

Thus

in Fig.

6 a leaf

is

made by

The

show two simple treatments. When completed and drawn in outline, it should be pasted down to the work in hand. The same gouge is used to cut the units in the groundwork, and when it is placed in position
to Fig.

will

the design

is

it

should be

struck

smartly with

the

hand.

The

inside can then be easily

removed with a

small chisel, leaving cavities for the reception of Further applications of this prothe leaf units.
cess
skill

embodying various degrees of manipulative are illustrated in the woodwork models.

FIG. 6.

Gouge

patterns.

Another simple method of decorating the edges of handcraft models is that illustrated in This is a traditional type of decofrontispiece.

introduced during the period of Queen Anne. It is easy to manipulate and It is capable of many variations and is proceeded with as refined in appearance. follows Two pieces of wood of conration,
:

trasting colours

and

-j\ in.

thick are
;

gauged and planed up to thickness the end of each piece is then planed across and strips gauged and cut from
each piece, the edges being smoothed with a finely set plane. They are then
glued

down
is

alternately to a piece of

knife-cut veneer,
FIG.
7.

and when dry the

Building mosaic edging.

planed, and strips gauged off . . ,. , as indicated by the dotted lines in

edge
.

In each of these designs it is necessary to work a small rebate, diagram " mosaic " This process is further into which the inlay is glued and levelled off.
Fig. 7.

CHAP.

XIII.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.

147

illustrated

on p. 50. A few good specimens of mosaic stringings, which can be purchased at most veneer stores, are illustrated on p. 53. These are inlaid as shown on p. 54, and the method by which this is effected is as follows A
:

scratch
Fig. 8)

stock
is

(see

first

pre-

pared.

represents

the stock,

is

the

stock or butt piece,

and

is

connected to

the stock by a bolt

passed

through

and B.
fly

The

butter-

nut

C is loosened,
FIG.
8.

and B can then be

Diagrams

illustrating a scratch stock,

pushed along the required distance from the edge of cutter E. The sectional view shows the stock with convex edge fitting into the concave edge of the butt
piece or stop.
chisel,

E is made from TV in. steel, the edge sharpened like a produced as with an ordinary scraper. The scratch stock is operated by pressing the end of B against the edge of the material, drawing the instrument to and fro to form a channel into which are glued the stringings, and
The
cutter
is

and then a burr

are levelled with the groundwork. Various other applications of process involving slight variations of practice are dealt with as they occur in connexion with the models. The following are given as examples of combinations of colour in natural woods for purposes of inlaying
this
:

when dry they

For oak groundworks the following woods give pleasing effects Green and brown ebony. Various varieties of rosewoods, holly, chestnut, Italian and American walnut, and cocos wood, a species
:

of ebony.

For Italian or American walnut groundworks

Brown

oak, the various varieties of ebony

and rosewoods,

holly,

pear, box,

and purple wood.

:

For rosewood groundworks

Brown

oak, ebony, purple, ivory,

for

and

holly.
pearl,

Other materials used

inlaying

include

mother of

blue and

Japanese pearl, ivory, and various metals, all of which can be judiciously combined with the majority of the preceding woods. All these demand certain
Pearl is a very brittle substance and exprocesses not previously dealt with. tremely hard, hence one thickness only can be cut at a time, and the best plan is
to trace the desired shapes
parallel vice (see
f.

on

to the pearl

and then

to fix

it

in the jaws of a

(i))

diagram Ch. xvi, f. 15). A small fret saw frame (see Ch. xvj, should be used to cut the pearl, held with the blade horizontal. A little

soap rubbed on the blade facilitates working, and if necessary the pieces should Before they are glued in, the pieces should be be regulated with a fine cut file.

148
roughened with the end of a
is file

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xin.

in order to assist the adhesion of the glue.

is

Ivory

treated in a similar manner,

above.

Metal

for

one or more thicknesses, as described inlaying should be about -% in. thick, and is also cut with fret

and

also cut,

saws as described, the underside being picked with a sharp point to assist adhesion. A small quantity of Venice turpentine or garlic added to glue acts chemically upon metallic surfaces, removing all traces of grease, and effects a much
stronger joint. thus obtaining

Mother of pearl
the
full

is

best
its

when

treated in masses for decoration,

charming colours and varying shades. Ivory is best for spotted or mosaic decoration, and the use of metal is practically restricted to small escutcheons and enrichments.
effect

of

Wax
fall

Inlaying.

This

is

another traditional type of decoration, rather

Theoretically the application of wax inlaying

unjustly abused in

some

quarters.

may be wrong,
out.

being contended that its composition is liable to shrink and In actual practice, however, a better state of things occurs, as is evinced
it

by a fine French cabinet (period sixteenth century) in the Edinburgh Museum. For this example a free treatment of design is possible, there being practically

no

limitation to the use of the material, as

is

is

the case

when

inlaying wood.

The
com-

design

cut out with a vee tool

and gouges, and the

cavities filled with a

position of wax, dry colour, and resin. The latter acts as a hardening element. The three media are melted and well mixed together, and the mixture is then put into

the grooves with a piece of stick. Previous to the insertion of the wax, the wood should be given a coating of ordinary French polish which prevents discoloration of the groundwork and a ragged effect in the fine lines owing to the composition

A design can be executed in one or more colours, soaking into the end grain. care being taken not to allow them to merge one in the other where they join.
The composition
is dry half an hour or so after its application, and the superfluous Colour combinations for this composition can be removed with a steel scraper.

process include reds, blues, blacks, and greens for oak yellows, blues, or greens for mahogany. Stronger contrasts of colour can be effected with wax inlaying, and
;

generally speaking, the tone of natural wood accentuated can be utilized as colour Various applications of this process are shown on pp. 33 and 27. schemes.

A combination of wax and veneer inlaying is also an effective

on
p. 50).

treatment (see Fig. 6

Punch work

filled

with this preparation

is

particularly suitable for

young pupils, giving a deal of scope for ingenuity in design, and it is particularly easy to manipulate. RECESSING. This type of decoration, a familiar feature of Jacobean work,
is

not

now used
in

of this art

flourished

excelled in

it deserves. There has been no noteworthy example England since the seventeenth century, nor abroad, where it about the same time. Switzerland, Germany, and Scandinavia all the practice of this art, and the museums show some excellent ex-

to the extent

amples of furniture decorated with cabinet in the Victoria and Albert

it

this process.

The

details of a fine

Tyrolean

Museum
is

will

be seen that the whole outline

are illustrated in Fig. 9, from which simply vee tooled and then recessed.

The

veins of the leaves are executed with one cut of the vee tool.

Simple

CHAP.

XIII.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.

149

PsCtternr- Ton- GT rofea^n

Specimen/- of inclred

PKOJ

FIG. g.

150

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xni.

geometrical designs and outlines based upon natural motives as on p. 144 can very well be introduced, and if the recessed part is painted in oil colour rich
effects are

produced.

Decorated

in this

way

is

the fine Scandinavian chair

It is

shown

opposite, exhibited at the last Paris Exhibition.

a rich example of work,

following the traditional lines of Scandinavian ornament,

detail for lessons, introducing simple carving

and provides much useful

In executing this work, a good plan is to transfer the design on to the groundwork and then to cut or outline the design with gouges, not necessarily removing all traces of the
recessing.
tooling, for a texture
is thus imparted to the background which has a very pleasThe background can be painted with an admixture ing effect when coloured. of painter's gold size and dry artist's colour which dries quickly. The surface or

and

the decoration can be treated with another colour, or simply cleaned Mediaeval German artists produced some very beautiful specimens of this work, imitating a " gesso " effect, and gilding the background with fine gold leaf; the raised portions were also gilded and burnished bright to effect a contrast
relief part of

up and waxed.

of tone.

The

writer has also seen specimens with a painted

background of a red

colour with the relief part gilded.

The drawings on p. 39 illustrate simple designs for recessed work which lend themselves also to decorative colour treatment.
is a simple process eminently suited to handcraft work. designing is easy, and has advantages in the development of taste and observation of proportion by the disposition of units in a much greater range than the degree of executive skill demanded. Good designs can be effected

PUNCH WORK

The

This

with such a simple tool as the leather washer punch, obtainable at ironmongers. is used for circular holes, whilst square and diamond shapes can be cut

Borders are especially effective when decorated in this way, and panels for doors and constructional models can be decorated with advantage. The circular punch should be held Fig. 10 shows three designs for borders.
with chisel?.

and struck smartly with in. deep. a hammer, cutting the wood about A slight movement of the tool usually suffices
in a vertical position,

to separate the core,

and the next spot can then

be proceeded with. The punch has an elongated conical attachment which causes the loose
circular pieces to

cuts are made.

become loose when several They may then be easily reSquare and
four chisel

moved by
FIG. to.

reversing the punch.

Simple patterns punched work.

for

diamond shaped holes are made with

cuts,
fill

Composition can be used to

ing colours. work.

in

removing the core with a small chisel. the spaces, or they may be painted in contrastalso has a pleasing effect in this type of

The

play of light

and shade

Carving,

like its sister art inlaying, is also of very ancient origin, as is evi-

denced by the examples

illustrated in the chapter

on decorative examples of

Norwegian bowls, examples of peasant

art,

carved wood, the bowl being painted.

FIG. ii.

A modern

Scandinavian chair shown at the Paris Exhibition.

CHAP.

XIII.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.
Nearly
all

handcraft.

nations have had a period in their history

when carving

was the pre-eminent craft. Not only has wood been chosen for carved decoration, but metal,
stone,

and marble, gems,

earliest

ivory,

and

pearls,

have
the

from the

times

all

been

utilized in

Mediaeval France and Italy produced most elaborate specimens of carving, especially during the Gothic and Renaissance
practice of this art.

These masterpieces are unsurpassed from the point of view of technique, with the exception perhaps of work belonging to the Grinling
periods.

Gibbons school

in England. Educationally, they should be regarded as the peculiar products of a period, interesting as studies, but devoid of true

aesthetic feeling.

VENEERING.
veneering
is

As a form

of

decoration
It
all

employed
furniture

process. with advantage in nearly

valuable

can be
kinds of
FIG. 12.

and advanced models, and

the
exercise

opportunities for and colour ideas.

right

of
in

The diagrams

affords good good design Fig. 13 show

panels,

designs for veneering suitable for door and these with slight alterations of size and arrangement would be

A fine carved panel in oak, a simple and effective design, English, early sixteenth century.

suitable for

bureau

flaps,

table tops,

and

flush doors.

To

icxecute the second

:

would be adopted ing board and then

first

example shown on p. 152, the following procedure damp and stretch a sheet of cartridge paper upon a drawNext
select suit-

carefully set out the pattern with pencil lines.

or veneers with contrasting figures such as fiddle back and mottled mahogany, or American and well-figured Italian walnut, or rose-

ably coloured veneers

wood and brown oak, then cut the pieces rather larger than the drawing, afterwards planing them to shape with an iron shoulder plane upon a shooting board.
It will

laid in

be found the best plan to lay on a piece of cross banding first this may be one or two pieces neatly joined with the mitres correctly fitted, and secured
;

by glueing down
glued

to the paper, then the three top pieces

would be planed and

down to the paper, The three large shapes.

be

these being followed by the diamond and half-diamond centre pieces would be dealt with next, and so on until

the whole of the centre part was completed, after which the cross bandings would In the first and third examples diamond shapes fitted to complete the panel. are fitted into a large diamond. This type of veneering may be expeditiously exe-

cuted by glueing up strips of veneers ebony and satinwood, for instance with the grain and width coinciding with the required pattern. One end can then be cut and fitted to the diamond shape and consecutive rows gauged off and moved
along one diamond in order to effect the change.

The

fifth

example shows

inlay-

152

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xni.

Vfeneera.

FIG. 13.

CHAP, xm.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.

153

ing in this case the groundwork would be fitted and glued to paper as described, the inlaying being completed when the groundwork had been veneered the process of inlaying would then be similar to that described for solid work earlier in
; ;

the chapter.

Caul veneering

is

best for

work of

this kind, distinct

suitable only for light knife-cut veneers.

caul should be

from hammer veneering, made from in. pine,

rather larger than the surface to be veneered.

The groundwork is well toothed and sized, and when quite dry it is covered with glue, this being allowed to chill before placing the veneer in position with the paper uppermost. The veneer should be secured with one or two veneer pins
driven in close to the edge, and then a piece of paper is laid over the paper on the back of the veneer in order to prevent the spare glue sticking to the caul. The latter should be thoroughly heated and then placed over the veneer and
firmly

handscrewed

all

together, this causes the glue to run

and the pressure apin the

plied forces all the spare glue out.

at least twenty-four hours.

The work should remain

quite dry the pressure
is

handscrews

When

removed and the top

paper removed by toothing, or damping down and scraping with a chisel. Veneering, consisting of hammer and caul veneering, cannot be fully dealt
with in a work of this
"
size,

and readers are referred

to Wells

and Hooper's

Modern Cabinet Work

"

for further details of this process.

DECORATIVE PROCESSES IN METALWORK.

Applique or Applied Ornament.
fixed

Rosettes, wreaths, medallions, and

all

enamels are often applied to plain surfaces, and

except the enamels could be

by brazing,

silver soldering, soft soldering, or riveting, the rivets

being shown

as part of the decoration as illustrated in Ch. vi, Fig. 7 (3) or hidden (secret Some old Gothic ironwork has been done by piercing the ornament riveting).
it on to a plain background, which gives a very In some Spanish work of this kind the effect was heightened by laying on the background a piece of red leather or velvet and then fixing on the Doors were decorated in this manner and must have looked very pierced work.

out of thick metal and riveting

fine effect.

rich

and

beautiful.

of the same small ornaments are to be applied, If the design they may either be cast from a pattern, or stamped with a die. is cut in a piece of iron or steel the reverse shape to that which is required, really making an intaglio, soft metal is easily hammered into the die so formed without

Where a number

the aid of a press.

Another method is to lay a piece of very thin metal on the die, then on this a piece of lead and hammer both into the die, then take out and trim off superThis is a In this way quite nice clean ornaments can be made. fluous metal.
very

When making

borderings, pearlings, etc. the die the progress can be seen by wetting the die slightly and squeezing modelling wax into the sunk portion, the wax impression when removed

ancient

method of making small ornaments,

154

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

xm.

Ornaments can also be fixed by screws, but there is giving the object in relief. When the applique is of china, glass, always the liability of their working loose. or enamel, a setting has to be made and fixed to the background, the enamel
inserted

enamel

and the edges of the setting pressed or burnished down on to the sometimes a loose setting can be made which, holding the object inde-

pendently, can then be screwed or riveted to the base, so avoiding the burnishing down of the edges of the setting on to the pearl, stone, or enamel.

Bidri
ware, as
it

Ware.
was made

There

is

another form of inlaid work which

is

called Bidri

at Bidar, a city north-west of

Hyderabad.

The articles are cast in pewter and the designs are chiselled out and silver It is blackened by the application of a solution of salammoniac, hammered in. The design is then rubbed up and the saltpetre, salt, and copper sulphate.
ornament
is

left

in white

on a black background.
is

Niello

is

black on a white

background.

Bronzing
results

or

Metal Colouring

an

art

which produces very beautiful

on metallic objects, and to obtain an insight of what is possible in this direction the work that has been executed by the Japanese should be well studied.

They

are certainly unrivalled in this branch of metalwork.

The chemical

colour-

ing or bronzing of metals requires a knowledge of metallurgy and chemistry, and to produce beautiful results the possession of artistic taste on the part of the
operator.

The colouring of the object is affected by the purity or otherwise of the metal, the temperature of the solution used, as well as by the purity or impurity of the chemicals used in making up the bath. The most important point in connexion with the bronzing of metals is that they must be scrupulously clean and of a uniform colour and smoothness before being immersed in the bronzing solution.
to

Any article made of brass, many shades of brown by

;

bronze, gunmetal, or similar alloy may be brought the following method Thoroughly clean the
:

object by boiling in a strong caustic potash solution and well rinsing in three waters then dip in a solution of nitric acid 2 parts, sulphuric acid i part,

Again rinse well in three hydrochloric acid pint to each gallon of dip. waters. If the object does not come up a bright uniform colour, well scrub with
-

silver

in a solution of a quarter of

sand and water and repeat the acid dip. When a nice bright colour, dip an ounce of potassium sulphide to one gallon of boilif it

ing water,

does not come right the

first

and repeat the dip

swill well in

in the sulphide solution

time scour with silver sand and water, to produce a very dark shade wipe
;
;

over with a piece of rag that has been dipped in a weak solution of the acid dip

two or three waters and dry out

in hot sawdust.

To produce

a blue

colour as well as a variety of shades of brown, clean, scour, and dip, as described above, and dip in a boiling solution of hyposulphite of soda 4 oz., acetate of lead 2 oz., water i gal. Dissolve these separately and add the lead solution to
the hypo solution. To produce a steel colour, clean, and immerse in a solution made as follows Arsenic 8
:

scour,
oz.,

and dip as before blue copperas 2 oz.,

CHAP. xm.J

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.
2 oz., verdigris 2 oz., spirits of salts 7 lb.,

55

carbonate of iron

then scour well with

sand and water and repeat and dry out in hot sawdust. If the colour is too This can now be turned a dark green if light, blacklead as you would a stove.
All these bronzes when finished required by lacquering with green lacquer. should be brushed over with beeswax or lacquered.

To redden
wrap up the

brass articles to

article well in thin iron wire

acid dip. That is, colour owing to use, but

Note.

match copper, clean, scour, and dip as before, and immerse for a short time in the old the acid dip that has become too weak to give the bright
is still

used for pickling.

The potassium
in

sulphide should be in dark greenish-yellow lumps

together, as ornamental

and be kept
in the solid

an

airtight bottle.

Chasing; and carving usually go

is

work

that

is

made

usually, if

made

in iron, forged as near as possible to the

quired, then chiselled out and finally called rifflers. Figures that have been cast are finished off by the latter process. Men who do this kind of work are called " Chasers," but they can usually do

shape resmoothed up with punches and bent files

embossing as well as modelling (this class of work is really modelling in metal). Examples of this kind which would be modelled, cast, and then chased are illustrated in Ch. ix, Figs. 9, 10, 11.

Damascening;

is

laid with gold or silver,

the term usually applied to metalwork that has been inand is of Oriental origin, and was established at

Damascus during the reign of the Emperor Domitian, first century A.D. The word is also applied to work which is made of a peculiar kind of steel of a watered
or striated appearance. This appearance is obtained by welding together a piece of iron and steel. By repeated twisting, doubling over, and welding together a
pattern
water.
is

obtained which

is

brought out by the application of sulphuric acid and

is

Another method of damascening which

not such a good one as that

indicated above, but was largely practised in later times, is to cross-hatch the whole of the design to be inlaid with a graver which leaves a number of sharp Gold leaf is then applied in successive layers and burnished down points.

which keys the metal to the ground. Fine wire can also be applied in the same manner, working out the design as you go along, tapping the wire down with a light hammer which keys it
to the points,

on

into position.

But

this

is

really

method which

gives the effect of

damascened work

a form of onlaying, not inlaying. Another is stencilling the spaces of the

design with a compound which is not affected by acids and electroplating the object with gold or silver. Electroplating, or the electro deposition of metals, is coating one metal with another by means of the electric current, and the process is roughly as
follows
in a hot solution of caustic soda

be electroplated is first thoroughly cleansed by washing and then suspended on a copper wire which is fastened to a copper rod, resting on the edges of a tank containing a solution
:

The

article to

56

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xin.

There is a similar rod or set of rods at the other of the metal to be deposited. end of the tank which holds suspended in the solution a series of plates or The path the electricity anodes, as they are called, of the metal to be deposited.
takes
is

through the rods and pieces of metal called the anodes, then through the

solution to the articles to be plated which are called the cathodes, and through the articles back to the dynamo or battery ; when the process is finished or enough

scratch brushed,
is

metal has been deposited on the articles, they are taken from the solution, washed, and finished. The thickness or amount of the metal deposited

measured by weighing the

article before

and

after plating, or

by the time

it is

in the bath.

The

metals mostly used for electro deposition are gold,

silver,

copper, nickel, cobalt, brass, and zinc. Embossed Work. Punch decoration or repousse work is that kind of work on which designs are raised from the back by means of punches and hamlaid loosely or fixed
e.g.

mers of many shapes and sizes. The work is usually on thin metal, and is either on a bed of some substance which allows the metal to give,
soft

wood,
is

pitch, plasticine,

The

design

drawn on the metal and then scribed

visible.

wax, block of lead, a bag of sand or plaster. in so that as the work pro-

ceeds the outline remains

When

high

relief is

desired

it is

better to raise

the high parts with a hammer, laying the metal loosely on a sand bag ; when the necessary amount of relief is obtained the work should be stuck on a bed of

A good example of hammered and repousse This is from the Victoria the silver jug illustrated in Ch. vin, Fig. 5 (1). and Albert Museum other examples of this kind of work are also shown in Fig. 5.
pitch,

and worked up with punches.

work

is

Enamelling.
is

This

is

the

name
It is

chiefly to the surfaces of metals.

given to vitrified substances applied executed in various ways and styles, and
the application of opaque or

known as Plain enamelling, which is simply translucent colour in the form of a pattern, etc.

In Champlevi enamelling the design is cut out of the solid metal, leaving thin walls of metal to outline the design, and the cells thus formed are filled
with the various coloured enamels.

In Basse faille enamelling the same process is gone through as in champleve enamelling, but in addition the bottoms of the cells or divisions are modelled in relief, so giving greater depth and play of light to the enamel the cells are filled
with.

In Cloisonne enamelling the design is laid out by means of applying to a smooth groundwork a piece or pieces of rectangular or triangular wire forming or outlining the design, which are silver soldered down on to the groundwork

and then the hollows are filled with enamel This is held in position by the enamel only.

in

some

instances the cloisons are

really a modification, or

an easier

method, of obtaining a result similar to champleve enamelling. Plique a jour enamelling is enamelling or enamelled work that can be seen through, simply a network comprising the design and the spaces filled in with
various coloured enamels which are translucent.

When

the spaces in the design

CHAP,

xiii.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.

157

are small the object can be fired without a support to hold the enamel in its place, but where this is not possible the object has to be laid on a back or support

made

of

some

material such as platinum that will not stick or fuse at the tempera-

Enamelled work can be done on gold, silver, copper, and gilding metal, but the best results are obtained on gold or silver, though often the colours have to be toned down to prevent them looking harsh and raw. When enamelling on other metals which are not so brilliant,
ture at

which the enamel melts.

paillons are often used to lighten

or silver
this

foil laid

on the enamel,

fired,

up the design these are simply pieces of gold and then covered with more enamel. By
;

means a reflected light is obtained which can be toned down to suit the design. Enamel in the sense in which it is used here means coloured glass that is fused on the metal, and there is nothing to compare with it for brilliant and beautiful
effects.

It is

one of the decorative

arts

seen at

its

best in association with metal

Hinges, handles, bell pushes, switch covers, finger plates, brackets, fenders, jardinieres, grilles, altar rails, candlesticks, etc., could all be made most decorative

work.

by the right use of good enamelled work. To obtain the best results an enamelling furnace must be used, that is a furnace constructed specially for this purpose and heated either by gas or benzolene according to the system that
is

desired.

supplied in the lump or ground to a certain fineness as required must be thoroughly washed (this is one of the most important processes) and the metal base, which must also be scrupulously clean (scraped for
is

The enamel which

preference),

is

slightly

domed, and the enamel

in

form of a powder which has been

wetted with some thin

gum

tragacanth

metal, is applied to the back and This is thoroughly dried and pressed down to form a firm and even coating. then placed in the muffle of the furnace when the furnace is at the right It is then taken out and left heat, and baked until the enamel has fused.
to cool.

necessary, to make it adhere to the front of the work with a spatula and well
if

This process

is

Engraved and Punched Decoration.

our

repeated until the operator is satisfied. Decorative processes in metal-

work date back to very remote times, and the early tools and objects in metal in museums show how decorative effects can be produced by very simple means.
early forms of decoration consisted of series of lines arranged to form a definite pattern, often

The

of a geometric character.

Dots of various

either from the front or back were often arranged in the

shaped bumps were hammered up from the back in shaped bumps were outlined on the front with engraved
form required.

sizes punched same manner, roughly thin metal and then these lines

which gave the

British

The bronze-plated doors of Shalmaneser II, now in the Museum, and made about 859-824 B.C., are decorated in this manner.

very

example of decoration by means of engraved lines is the bronze pin shown in Fig. 14, p. 158, and the bronze shield Fig. 14 on the same page shows also an early specimen decorated by bosses. The silver plate or dish in Fig. 5, Ch. vm, from the Victoria and Albert Museum, of a much later date, shows alternate decoration by
early

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP.

xiii.

a similar process, and the wider range of sizes makes it most effective. The gold petrel illustrated in Fig. 14, now in the gold room of the British Museum, is another example of the possibilities of decoration by means of different-sized

punches of various shapes, and the finger plates shown in Ch. vn, Fig. 4, show how an arrangement of bosses and engraved
lines
for

can be made effective and suitable modern requirements. Further ap-

of these simple processes are illustrated in Ch. vn, Fig. 5. Engraving is cutting a design
plications

with a graver or burin, but it can be done with other tools which produce a similar effect. In some kinds of engraving the tool is fixed into a handle of wood and used by hand, but in other kinds of work it is used like a chisel

and

hit

with a hammer.
is

In memorial

tablets the design

method, and
used,

cut by the latter different-shaped chisels are

depending on the design and shape of the cutting. In some instances

FIG. 14.

Ancient metalwork

in the British

Museum.

coloured wax

is

laid in the grooves or channels so formed.

The

greater part of

old work, however, was cut with chisels or gravers leaving vee section lines ot various widths. Some modern work is done with a machine called a Router,

which cuts away the groundwork leaving the letters or ornament in relief. Filigree. This consists mainly of round wires, soldered together in various patterns, sometimes, with little metal balls and little leaves soldered to
the ends of the wires, producing a most charming effect. Variations of this is where two pieces of wire are twisted together forming a kind of rope, using this

CHAP,

xiii.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.
and
also

159
work
is

instead of the single wire,

where the

filigree

fastened to a back-

ground.
not always applied to metalwork by electro deposition, as gates, weather vanes, etc., are ornamented by applying gold size, and when this becomes tacky gold leaf is laid on. This is very durable when properly

Gilding

is

railings,

signs,

done and good quality gold used. It is also done in a cheaper way by using gold powder or imitation gold leaf, but this has to be varnished with a transparent varnish to last, and when this is affected by the weather the alloy
underneath turns black. The same method is used for applying copper, silver, and bronze powders of various colours and is known as bronzing, but it is only a sham bronzing. Another method of gilding, called fire gilding or mercurial gilding, is to cover the article with an amalgam of gold and then heat to volatilize the mercury afterwards dip and scratch brush or polish as required. This is the most durable method of gilding, but it is also the most expensive. Inlaying. This very ancient and historic method of ornamenting metal produced some remarkable examples of craftsmanship, and the many pieces of work shown in the British Museum of Saracenic and Persian origin
;

should be well studied, so that an idea of the possibilities of this kind of work may be obtained. Metal can be inlaid with metal, or with coloured
wax, or with coloured stones or gems, or with enamel. Damascening, niello, As for example the Celtic finger are forms of inlaying. plate Ch. vn, Fig. 5 (10), instead of being raised as shown, could have

and Bidri work

the

same design worked out with two

inlaying

parallel

strips

or

threads
chisel

of copper.

When

wire

only

a groove

need
is

be

cut

with

shaped and

held as shown in F"ig. 15. and placed in the groove

The
;

wire

annealed

groove

are
is

hammered

then the edges of the down on to the wire,

the work

planished up from the back and the

The Tudor plate on instead of having the rose embossed could have a plate of copper inlaid to the outside shape,
face finished off as required.
p. 78,

and the other lines giving the form could be en- FlG I5 ._ Me thod of holding an The engraving chisel, graved on the copper plate after it was inlaid. stars in the memorial tablet illustrated in Ch. xn are of silver inlaid, and show
up
well against the rich coloured copper.

When wax is to be inlaid the design is cut away, leaving a wall of metal all round, and the wax, which should be of brittle character, is powdered fine and the cells filled with it, then the object is warmed so that the wax melts and fills in the design. This operation is repeated until the cells are filled the plate is
;

then cleaned up with pumice stone, or Water-of-Ayr stone, and polished. The Fusible metal memorial tablet shown in Ch. xn has been done in this manner.

could also be used in the same manner.

160

HANDCRAFT.
Lacquering.

[CHAP.

xm.

Though

this

is

a method of decorating metals

surfaces.

it

really

comes

under the finishing or preserving of metal Metal Objects," p. 177.

See chapter on " Finishing

This process deals with the working up of thin sheet metal and only applies to what is known as hollow ware. It is a cheaper and quicker method of making such things as reflectors, tea and coffee pots, bowls, It consists of turning a wood or cups, bases for candlesticks and lamps, etc. metal chuck to the shape required, and then fixing between the chuck and back-

Metal Spinning.
lathe,

on a

The lathe is then put in motion, a long handle and held in the hand and under the arm of the operator, the metal is burnished down on to the chuck. To prevent wrinkles being formed in the metal while it is being spun or burnished
centre of the lathe a
flat

circular piece of metal.

and with a

steel burnisher,

which

is

in

down on
to

to the chuck, a flat piece of steel

left

is

held up against the back of the

metal by the

hand of the worker.

be frequently annealed. of materials to avoid making " wasters," as they are called. Spun work is often further decorated by etching, that is, a design is drawn or stencilled on the spin-

In spinning deep articles the metal has Spinning requires a great deal of skill and knowledge

Stamping has
is

ning and the spaces are eaten away with acid; this is known as etched work. to a certain extent supplanted spinning, but sometimes the work
partially

stamped and then finished by spinning. Niello is the name given to those articles of gold and silver which have the design engraved, and the engraved lines filled with a black composition composed of silver, copper, lead, and sulphur, which is made up separately and

powdered very
as a flux
;

fine.

the article

This powder is applied to the metal with borax which acts is then heated, the compound liquefies and runs into the

When cool the work is scraped over, polished or burnished, This method is said to be the leaving the design in black upon the metal. origin of engraving (printing), as when testing the work for accuracy, etc., the lines
hollows of the design.

were

filled

with a black substance and a piece of paper was pressed on to the

surface which caused the reversed design to be transferred to the paper and any Tommaso Finiguerra was the inventor, and he lived faults could be easily seen.
in

Florence about the middle of the fifteenth century.

He

was skilled in niello

work.

Piercing.

This

is

accomplished

in

many ways according

to the material

and

punched or pierced by means of cutting dies, or pierced by cutting out the design with a hand fret saw, or a power fretAnother method is to use various shaped chisels and afterwards cutting machine.
its

thickness.

Thin

material can be

trim up with a
fret

file.

The examples shown

saw
;

in

Ch. vin, Fig.

6,

would be best cut out with a

made in mahogany and castings made from it. Solder Decoration. Another method of decorating metal surfaces is to
if

a number were required a pattern could be

CHAP,

xiii.]

DECORATIVE PROCESSES.

l6l

on the object, fill the spaces with a black varnish, or some not affected by the flux and heat, scrape clean the pattern that is left by the stencil, and apply the flux and ordinary soft solder with a soldering iron, then wash the varnish off and the design in solder will be left in
stencil out a pattern
is

composition that

relief.

" Tools of the early sixteenth century from the picture " Melancholia by A. Durer.

CHAPTER XIV

TOOLS THEIR EARLY FORMS & HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

:

"Without
"

tools

man

is

nothing, with tools he

is all."

CARLYLE.

The

the instruments of his craft, smith came holding in his hands the tools anvil and hammer and well-made pincers, wherewith he wrought the gold."
"

Odyssey," Book III.

INTRODUCTORY.
THE
study of the development of tools is one, which, owing to the absence of records referring to their early uses, is necessarily difficult, and direct evolution

tools

hard to prove. Study of this subject shows that development of races and of may be presumed to have proceeded along very similar lines in different
countries
at

different

times.

But

it

should be clearly understood that the

prehistoric times
is
is

definite uses of tools

and implements belonging to and the study of

largely pure

conjecture.

To

correctly trace evolution in tools

an impossible task regarding

is

prehistoric examples,

tools belonging to a particular country

It is, however, interesting to note necessarily largely conjecture in its early stages. that the "development" of tools and implements, through which may be traced

the development of man, has, as indicated above, proceeded in very like ways in countries so far apart as England and Egypt. European developments, in England,

development

Sweden, and Switzerland for instance, exhibit some remarkable sequences of For the purpose of object lessons to handin design and material.
probably
sufficient,

craft classes the national aspects of the subject are

thus con-

siderably reducing the range of the subject.

It is

recommended

that for purposes

of demonstration, wherever possible, large charcoal drawings be made from the actual examples, the drawings being made permanent by the application of some
fixing solution

and placed on

rollers.

The Saw.
indicated

The

first

tool to

be dealt with

is

the saw.

Its antiquity is

by many classical references, and there are references in Isaiah to saws and planes. Illustrations of various saws from earliest times are

shown

in Fig.

1,

but

it

should be clearly understood that these are shown as

(162)

FIG.

i.

CHAP, xiv.]

TOOLS

EARLY FORMS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.

163

interesting examples characteristic of certain periods, rather than

an attempt to

show

definite

" evolution

".

The example, Fig. 1, No. i, shows a chert saw of Egyptian origin. Chert is a kind of stone, which here has been worked by a curious chipping process so as to produce a serrated edge. The particular uses of this type are not definitely
known, but it is presumed to have been chiefly for bone and meat sawing. No. 2 on the same page is, like the above, in the British Museum.
It is

harpoon, and was produced in a fashion similar to that employed in the Egyptian These belong to the European and Egyptian Stone Ages respectively. chert saw.

No. 3
the
first

illustrates

a Swiss saw, after Lubbock, the blade of which resembles

clear.

example, and is fixed into a wooden handle. The reason for the hole is not The use of this tool was probably also for bone and wood used in the

early Swiss lake dwellings.

same page,

is

by a sickle. handle by insertion, with an iron ferrule for extra security. absence of timber-producing trees indicates the reason for so
tures being

The Egyptian iron saw, illustrated in No. 4 on the a particularly fine example, and appears to have been suggested The blade of this implement is of iron, and it is secured to the
The comparative

many

early struc-

made

of stone, or, as

is

frequently the case with tombs,

hewn from

the solid rock.

Authorities

on ancient Egyptian architecture

assert that timber

was used to a considerable extent in prehistoric times, producing in support of this theory evidences of stone dwellings of a 'later period, which have obviously been inspired by earlier wooden dwellings. No. 2a illustrates another Egyptian saw in the form of a knife with one serrated edge. It cannot be decided which is the earlier of these two types, and
their uses

The
They

illustrations

can only be surmised. Nos. 6 and

show two saw knives of Australian

origin.

and animals' teeth fixed in the first case by embedding in gum. They were used more as knives than saws. The second example of this type, No. 7, is a particularly interesting specimen, consisting of teeth laced into a wooden handle in a most ingenious fashion.
consist of sharks'

The

tools

shown
is,

in

Nos.

5, 8, 9,

10,
8,

n,

of the latter series

together with No.

are all of English origin. The first exhibited in the Guildhall Museum of

the City of

London.

is prehistoric, whilst the example No. 8 was excavated in London and was probably attached to a handle by the insertion of the tang, and secured by pinning through both handle and tang, as is indicated by the example.

No.

Wall,

A
"

mediaeval frame saw

is

illustrated in

No.

10,

used chiefly for cross cutting

deeping," or splitting logs from end to end in planks, etc., was doubtless effected A by means of the pit saw, the use of which still remains in country districts.

two-handled cross-cut saw

is

illustrated in

No.

9.

These were used

also for

splitting small logs, the latter being fixed in

eighteenth century veneers also were cut in authentic old work will show. The illustration No.

a vertical position. During the this manner, as an examination of

1 1

is

of a pit saw, the use

164
of which
is

HANDCRAFT.
now almost
for

[CHAP. xiv.

It was and still is entirely superseded by machine saws. deep cutting a log from end to end. The log is wedged above a "pit" or well hole, and one sawyer is above the log, the other below. The cut is made on the downward stroke, and it is necessarily a tedious process

used to some extent

compared with up-to-date vertical frame sawing, by which twelve or more cuts can be made simultaneously through a log 2 ft. and upwards in diameter. No account of saws, however brief, would be complete without mention of
Japanese saws. These are fashioned as illustrated in Fig. 2, and, as will be seen from the diagram, the teeth are spaced in an opposite direction to those of English saws. They resemble large carving knives, and the cut is made on the

backward stroke instead of on the forward one,

pattern.

as is the case with the English Native Japanese craftsmen are remarkable adepts in the use of these tools, some of which have teeth on both edges, thus combining two grades of In the Pitt-Rivers Collection at Oxford are cutting edges in one instrument.
interesting

some

models of these

tools.

FIG.

2.

The

Chisel.

The term

is

derived irom the French word " ciseau," the

" Latin " seco (I cut) having a similar meaning, and may safely be supposed to have been practically the first tool used by primitive man. It is the forerunner of the plane, and the term includes generally gouges, turning tools, and various

metalworking

tools.

In the British

Museum and

other collections there are

existing examples of implements belonging to the early Stone Age which " and like purposes. Of these may be menwere probably used for " chiselling " " " tioned a chopping tool found at Stoke Newington and a primitive double " chisel found at Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France, both of which are in the

many

British Museum. They are necessarily of a very simple and crude character, The Neolithic, or later Stone Age, being only roughly shaped pieces of pebble. marks a very considerable advance in tool production methods of hafting were
;

introduced, and the processes of grinding and polishing the stone blades led the way to the adoption of other materials than flint and quartzite, the two latter Reference to Fig. 3 being the chief materials employed up to this time.
will

show two good examples of Neolithic

celts of flint.

One

resembles a

CHAP, xiv.]

TOOLS

EARLY FORMS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.

165

flint-celts-

Neolithic

FIG. 3.

66
"

HANDCRAFT.
and the other a
"

[CHAP. xiv.

"

gouge

cold

chisel

".

The

this type

were put can only be conjectured, but whether used

uses to which implements of for breaking clods

of earth in agricultural operations or as weapons of defence or sustenance, the process involved would be that of "chiselling," the implements being based

upon the action of a wedge, which forms the basis of cutting actions
planes and chisels alike.

in

Hafting proceeded differently in various countries, one interesting example in the British Museum of Swiss origin showing a small stone axe fixed into horn and then mounted in a wooden haft. The
centre part of horn was introduced in order to lessen the risk of the handle In Fig. 3 is also shown two fine specimens of Scandinavian gouges besplitting.

five

We now come to a stage, approximately some thousand years ago, which marks the introduction of metal This period is known as the Bronze into the manufacture of primitive tools.
longing to the Neolithic period.

thousand to

six

Age, and

it

is

remarkable also for the

artistic

character of

its

well as the extraordinary

moulds used

for casting the

implements.

productions as Authorities

celts of the

Early agree that the use of bronze, strangely enough, preceded that of iron. Bronze Age are really metal copies of their Neolithic prototypes they were probably used more as axes than as chisels, as we understand the
;

term.

There are many evolutionary stages before the type shown

in Fig.

(5)

was reached, the expansion of the blade towards the cutting edge is accounted The hafted celt shown for by the hammering out necessary to harden the edge.
in Fig.

(5) is

drawn from an example

in the British

Museum, and the

haft

is

the original one. Both the types shown in Fig. 3 (5, 6) are known as socketed celts, that is, a socket which receives the handle is made in the butt

not

end of the implement,

this

cases a loop or ear-piece was provided

In some being effected by means of core casting. which as is the case with Fig. 3 (6)

presumably was bound for greater security. is an earlier one, a cleft stick received the

The example shown

celt,

in Fig.

(7)

which was more firmly secured

by binding with thongs of hide. Socketed celts of various types may be considered as the latest development of the implement in prehistoric times, although *there are many spear-heads and swords still existing which indicate the develop-

ment among implements of war.

big

jump

is

now

necessary, the next ex-

ample shown being a relic of the Roman occupation of Britain, see Fig. 3 (8). This specimen is now, in the Pitt-Rivers Collection at Oxford, and curiously enough, it is made on almost identical lines to the implement illustrated in Fig.
3
It is obviously of wrought iron, is octagonal in section through the iron (5). This socketed part, tapering away to a hexagonal shape at the cutting edge. was found in 1863 during excavation at the corner of Great Winchester Street,

London

Wall.

There

is

also a fine example, similar in general character to

it,

in

the Guildhall Museum.

The mediaeval iron chisel illustrated in Fig. 3 (10) was found at Wapping, and belongs also to the Romano-British period. It was probably used for stone
dressing, as

may

also

have been the curious spoon-like gouge

illustrated in Fig.

FIG. 4.

CHAP, xiv.]

TOOLS: EARLY FORMS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.

167

3 (ir) also belonging to the period last mentioned. In Fig. 3 (9) is illustrated a remarkable chisel, a hand adze, from the Pitt-Rivers Collection. It has a
short steel blade fitted into a handle of elk horn elaborately carved. Two pieces of hide are attached to the stem part in order to protect the knuckles when
It was used with a chopping action for An using the chisel. shaping canoes. native Japanese chisel illustrated in Fig. 2 is constructed on the
(8).

interesting

socketed principle, and similar in general outline to the example, Fig. 3

THE EVOLUTION OF THE HAMMER.

In Fig. 4 an attempt has been
the ordinary

made

to

show the gradual development of

hand hammer from the

stages
it

earliest

known

types.

The

illustrations

show broadly the various

adopted
for attaching the

has passed through and the

head to the shaft or handle.

in

As

in all

many methods human inven-

a series of steps. The hammer, a tool of percussion, is the most widely used of all tools. The prototype of the hammer is of course found in the clinched fist, a tool or a
tions progress has

been made

weapon according

to circumstances,
this

and one

that

man soon

learned to use.

When

he found that

look around for

was not hard or powerful enough he would naturally something better, and this he found in rounded pebbles. These

were used by primitive man for many purposes, and it is only when the stone was chipped or marked by blows caused through working on a harder material that it can be recognized as having been used as a hammer.
Fig.
It
4,

No.
in

was held

i, shows a piece of flint that has been used as a hammer. Some hammer the hand and is known as a hammer stone.

stones were oval in form, and others had pits or depressions chipped out of both sides for the thumb and finger to fit into so that a better grasp could be obtained. Fig. 4, No. 2, shows a hammer head of deer horn with a hole for the

handle.

This

is

in the British

Museum and was

found

in

a British barrow in

association with a burnt

Museum

there are

Lambourn Downs, Berkshire. In the Guildhall some hammers complete with handles made from the antlers
body
at

of the red deer.

Fig. 4, No. 3,
it

is

pose of lashing
indicated
ford.

to a handle.

an oval stone hammer grooved for the purSimilar forms were used as net sinkers, as is

Fig. 4,

by names and description in the Pitt-Rivers Collection at OxNo. 4, is from the Horniman Museum, and was held in the

hand.

This comes from Vancouver in

in Tahiti for

North America.

similar

object

pounding bread fruit and called a pounder. Fig. 4, No. 5, is a quartzite hammer made from a pebble, and the hole has been made by For pecking or drilling a pit on either side until the two depressions met.
was used
drilling the holes the drill

was simply a

stick twirled
Fig.
6).

between the palms of the

hand and fed with sand and water

(see

Some

of the European

specimens were perforated by means of a piece of cane twirled between the hands and fed with sand and water as illustrated in Fig. 6, No. 4. P'ig. 4, No. 6, is a

68

HANDCRAFT.
hammer

[CHAP. xiv.

decorated
in the

British

Museum

There is head, and was probably not used for serious work. a broken portion of a stone hammer decorated with a

number

ception of a shaft

of lines arranged to form an all-over pattern, this was found in a Mycenaean ;

B.C.

and perforated

for the re-

tomb
that

that dates

back to
in

about 1350

Fig.

4,

No.

7,

is

stone

hammer

was found

the

Thames. Fig. 4, Nos. 8 and 9, illustrate hammers of cast bronze hollow at the That shown in No. 8 was found at top end for the insertion of a shaft. Thorndon in Suffolk, and No. 9 comes from Ireland. The round heads showr in No. 9 are simply decorative. Fig. 4, No. i o, shows a limestone mould for castAt the bottom of the mould a depression will be noticed. ing hammer heads.
This was
for the reception of a core or circular piece of clay or soft stone, so that

when the metal was poured into the mould it would flow round this core, and when the metal had solidified and was removed from the mould and the cojb
taken out a hole would be
left

ready for the shaft.

in.

Fig. 4,
in.

No. n,

is

a cast

bronze

hammer head about 7 been much used. Fig. 4, No.

long and
is

3^

in

diameter and has

12,

an iron claw hammer practically the

same shape as the modern tool. Fig. 4, No. 13, is also of iron, and it has a thin pene and a rectangular face. Fig. 4, No. 14, is a German claw hammer with a square face and the claws rounded on the top and decorated on the sides with engraved lines and dots. Fig. 4, No. 15, is a modern example of an engineer's
or
fitter's

Museum
as
it is

there are two

hammer made of steel with hardened face and pene. In the Guildhall hammer heads of interest, one is an iron war hammer, or
Martel de
fer,

called,

of the fifteenth century.

It is similar in

shape to our

present-day double square face planishing hammer, with the exception that the faces have nine projecting spikes about half an inch long, thus making it more
of a club.
iron.

The
the

other

is

Roman

claw

hammer

of a peculiar shape

and made of

This was found at Austin Friars.

all

stone became a hammer head is not known, but nearly hammers from various countries show very simple methods of hafting, and the smith of to-day holds various tools in the manner that was usual in the early centuries. The illustrations forming Fig. 5 show various methods of hafting, so that a larger amount of power can be obtained without In Australia the Aborigines fixed the stone head of hurting the arm or wrist. their hammer to a handle made from the small branch of a tree, with a kind of

How

hammer

the stone-headed

gum

or cement (see Fig. 5, No. i). Fig. 5, No. 2, shows how the head, which has a groove round the centre, was fastened by means of moistened strips of hide which contracted in the drying, so binding the stone head firmly to the handle. In Fig. 5, No. 3, the head is wrapped round twice with a flexible branch and
tied with split rattan.
fitted to

Fig. 5,

No.

4, is

a stone

hammer head

with one

flat

side

a piece of a tree from which a branch has grown out at right angles and the stone head is tied on with sennit cord. The head of Fig. 5, No. 5, is attached to the handle by means of a leather thong. Sometimes the handle and binding is in one piece, as when it is made of substance like whalebone or horn

FIG. 5.

The

evolution of the

hammer.

CHAP, xiv.]

TOOLS

EARLY FORMS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.

169

and then round the shaft while in a pliable condition. When it dries, it hardens and is practically irremovable. Fig. 5, No. 6, shows a haft of flexible wood cut away and then bent round the head and pegged down. Fig. 5, No. 7, is a right-angled branch and the end is fitted tightly It is tied on with sinews or into the hole left in the bronze hammer head.
tied

and

round the head

strips

These bindings were very often done in quite a decorative In Fig. 5, No. 8, a piece of wood is wedged into the hammer head and this is fitted to a shaped shaft that has a rectangular hole in it. The piece of wood with the hammer head fixed to it was put through the hole and kept
of hide.

manner.

in

position by a taper wedge.

Fig.

5,

No.

9,

has a hole right through the

hammer head which is of bronze, and the end of the shaft is split and a simple In Fig. 5, No. 10, a withy, or willow branch, taper wedge of wood driven in. is wound twice round the cold sett and an iron coupling or ring slipped on. Fig. A piece of in. 5, No. n, shows a modern method of holding a flatter.

round

iron
it

is

made red hot and bent twice round

it

the

flatter

so

that

Two holes are then drilled close holds the tool firmly. together in a hammer shaft, the ends of the rods are bent at right angles and A collar from put through the holes in the shaft, bent over and clinched.
when
cools
in. iron is then made and shrunk on. Fig. 5, No. 12, is a modern f x method of fixing an engineer's hammer to the shaft. The shaft is fitted to the A wedge of iron is eye and then cut down with a saw parallel with the head. made with a number of burrs thrown up on the faces and edges with a diamond-jjjj-

When the wedge is driven in the burrs catch in the wood and pointed chisel. This kind of hammer is made heavier at the head does not readily work loose.
the face than at the pene end so that it will naturally assume a position in the hand with the face downward, so relieving the user from the necessity of specially forcing it into that position.

In using a

hammer

it is

essential to study the

difference

between a sharp blow with a light hammer and a slow blow with a
least

heavy one, the former penetrates the farthest and gives while the latter penetrates less and spreads more.

lateral pressure,

Of modern hammers
on
this subject alone, for

there

is

each particular trade has

a great variety, and a volume could be written its own set, and a set comprises

There are also the mechanically operated hammers, such as the hammer, the steam hammer, and the pneumatic hammer. When one considers all the hammers, from the tiny ones used by the jeweller to the mighty steam hammer with its hundred-ton blow, we are bound to marvel at man's inany number.
trip

or

tilt

genuity.

of Drilling Appliances. A tool or appliance for making a a world-wide necessity. So early was the need felt that the drill is of unknown antiquity, but the reproductions on the next page show a few methods and appliances in use in various countries, and at various times.

Forms
is

hole

Fig.
is in

6,

No.

i,

shows a bone perforator

the

Horniman Museum.

in use in the Neolithic ages. This All the early needles for sewing were of some

12

I7O
sort of

HANDCRAFT.
bone or horn.
Fig. 6,

[CHAP. xiv.

No.

2,

is

not bore a hole as

we understand

the term,

a "Firedrill," and although it does it could be used to make a hole

when other
getting
of a
its

fire

appliances were not available, and was the primitive method of before the introduction of flint and steel. Fig. 6, No. 3, is a drawing

bow drill from the sculptures at Thebes, and as this city was at the height of prosperity in 1600 to 800 B.C., some idea can be gained of the age of a tool for drilling holes. In the Pitt-Rivers Collection at Oxford there is a drawing,
taken from a fresco in Egypt, of a
it,

a hole in a chair with

the

Horniman Museum
for

man using the same kind of drill, and boring In the worker sitting down on a stool while boring. there is a fire-making bow drill, the bow of which is the
hide.
it

rib of a walrus,

and the thong of

Fig. 6,

No.

4,

shows the ancient method

adopted

must have been very laborious. In Fig. 4 some hammer heads are shown which have been perforated in this manner. Fig. 6, No. 5, is known as a mouth or strap drill for fire-making and has been
boring holes in stone, but
in Alaska, North America. The shaped piece at the top is held between the teeth, and in some instances a piece of bone or stone is inlet to take the point of the rod and so prevent it slipping or firing by the circular motion.

used

The

strap is simply a piece of hide tied round pieces of bone that can be held The circular motion is obtained by pulling each conveniently in the hand. end of the strap alternately. Fig. 6, No. 6, is a pump drill of very primitive construction the centre rod is a piece of cane with a circular piece of wood
;

called a whorl

wedged in position. The cross bar is a flat piece of wood with a hole to take the rod, and the ends are held by a piece of skin tied to the top of the centre rod. The point or drill is a piece of shell tied on with a piece of wet skin which in drying contracts. The motion, which is backwards and forwards,
is

hand

this

obtained by holding and working the cross bar up and down with one was in use among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico. The same

pattern is now used by saw-piercers, jewellers, and china drillers, the only difference being that they are made with a steel downrod and a brass whorl, the cross bar
being! connected
fugal drill,
is

by a thin; cord. A similar drill used by jewellers, called a centriarranged to turn continually in one direction, and instead of a solid brass whorl, they have a bar going through the down rod with a solid brass ball at each end, and the motion is obtained by the same action as in the Archimedean
drill in Fig. 6,

No.

9.

Fig. 6,

No. No.

7, is

wood
is

brace,

made

in 1760, to

be seen in the Pitt-Rivers

Collection at Oxford.
Fig. 6,
ture.
It is
8.

This

modern work,
is

nicely

of the drill

peculiar, as

it is

or fiddle drill of wood and of Indian manufacmade, and of good shape. The cutting edge in the form of a vee, so it has a scraping action

bow

when
at

in

use.

This form of

drill

stock

is

at the present

time largely used for

certain work,

and

it

is

called a fiddle

drill.

In the above-mentioned collection

Oxford some primitive lathes based on this form of drill are to be seen. There is no doubt that this form of drill suggested our lathes, through such

Bone
Perforator Csed in -Neolithic ofoe
Fire
Drill
\

Bow'

drill

tfx>ru->he

at Tfeefoey

SciMpWe$

6$eJ by

bein Iwirled

^rocfccin fire d'ineidentally

<*^
STONE,

vtdrili

^
fforn-tfie
*"-

handle-jptndlo drill -aiid-bow

Indian

N910
Drill

.yhell-poinr

Drill

-Stoc
6.

Stock

FIG.

CHAP, xiv.]

TOOLS: EARLY FORMS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.

all

171

forms as the old tree lathe, the spring pole lathe, and Berson's lathe,

which

work on the same simple principle. Fig. 6, No. 9, is the simplest form of an Archimedean

drill,

named,

it

need

hardly be pointed out, after the supposed inventor of the screw, Archimedes, who lived 250 B.C. This drill stock is of square iron twisted, and the travelling hand-

The bottom

The top works on a tenon on the twisted rod. piece of gunmetal is cast on. of the rod has a square hole to hold the drills. Fig. 6, No. 10, shows a modern hand or breast drill geared to two speeds. It has a universal three-jaw chuck to hold the drill. The original ones of this

pattern were called Millar's Falls drills, after the place where they were made. In addition to the above drills and materials used as drills, operations have revealed
that tubular drills set with emery were used in ancient Egypt. Needless to say, diamonds have replaced emery in the modern development of the tubular
drill.

CHAPTER XV

SUPPLEMENTARY PROCESSES AND DATA FOR OBJECT LESSONS ON METALS

HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF METALS.
in many ways according to the nature of the material. metals can be hardened by rolling, hammering, stretching, bending, or by the addition of other metals. They can also be annealed or softened by

THIS may be accomplished

Nearly
all

heating to various temperatures and subsequent cooling.

cooling, within reason of course, the softer
brass, hard-rolled copper,
rolling.
it

becomes.

The longer steel is in What is known as spring

and hard-rolled phosphor bronze, are hardened by

steel

Wrought
in

iron
is

and mild

the surface or skin

hardened and the

instances.
It
is

can be hardened by case hardening, i.e. interior left soft. This is a most useful

combination

many

done

as follows

The

article to

be case

placed in an iron box containing substances rich in carbon, such as the box is then luted up powdered charcoal, horns, bones, leather cuttings, etc. with clay and made airtight, put into a furnace and kept at a red heat until the
is
;

hardened

This may take from twelve hours upobjects have absorbed sufficient carbon. wards. The objects are then dumped into a tank of water which is kept agitated. Small objects may be case hardened by heating to a red heat, then rolling in
yellow prussiate of potash, which fuses on the surface on being reheated the mass is quenched in cold water. This operation has to be repeated until the Cast iron can only be hardened by being chilled. necessary hardness is obtained.
;

Carbon Tool Steel

can be hardened, tempered, and annealed, and these

It can be hardened by heating to a bright properties make it universally useful. red heat and quenching in water, brine, oils, fat, wax, lead, and mercury. But

results.

the various kinds of tool steel vary as to the heat required to obtain the best Tempering is bringing the hardened steel to a temper or proper degree
is is

of hardness or toughness by reheating after hardening. The temper by the colour of the film of oxide on the brightened surface. It

judged
always

necessary to brighten the tool after hardening. and cooling slowly by burying in ashes or lime.
(I

To

anneal

is

to soften by heating

The

oxides seen in colours on

7 2)

CHAP, xv.]

PROCESSES

AND DATA FOR LESSONS ON METAL.

it is

173

the brightened surface of steel while oxygen of the air with the metal.

being tempered are combinations of the

Non-Tempering
for chisels

Steel.
;

This

is

and like tools it is hardened by dipping right a cherry red, and as the name implies it does not have to Point hardening is a method sometimes adopted for similar tools and is conducted as follows The chisel is
:

simply carbon tool steel which is used out in cold water from

be tempered. hardening chisels and heated for about 2 in.

from the cutting edge the point is placed in water to a depth of three-quarters the chisel is then taken out and the point is rubbed with of an inch until cold
;
;

a piece of grit stone until bright the heat from the remaining portion runs back to the point, and when the cutting edge is the right colour it is cooled right out.
;

cases

In oven tempering, ovens are used for tempering tools right through and in some The ovens are very reliable and can be heated to any known is preferable. In small shops where expensive appliances are not
is

degree of temperature.
available,

done with a gas blowpipe or on a sand bath, which is A metal box is filled with fine sand and placed on the very useful and simple. The tool is hardened and brightened and then laid in the fire or a gas stove.
tempering
hot sand and turned over and over until the correct temper is obtained. Another method is to heat a piece of iron and lay the tool on it. Lead, tin, and A bath of the molten metal is made and the bismuth, alloys are also used.
articles to

be tempered are immersed

in

it.

The molten

metal can be tested

with a pyrometer and very accurate tempering can be accomplished. For very small tools a piece of pipe can be made hot and the article held inside until the Self-hardening or air-hardening steels owe their hardright colour is obtained.
ness to the presence in
are forged at a bright red heat,

are heated to

them of chromium, tungsten, or molybdenum. They and to harden them the cutting edges of the tools a white glassy heat and cooled by a blast of cold air. This treattool steel.

ment would ruin ordinary carbon

Tempering
Colour of Oxide.
Light yellow
.
.

Scale.
Tools.

For

files,

scrapers, engraving tools,

steel.

and lathe

tools

for

hard cast iron and

Yellow

Lathe

tools, dies, planer tools for iron.

Dark yellow Brown Dark brown . Brown with purple spots

..

...

Milling cutters, dies, punches. Taps, cold chisels, shears, scissors.

Centre punches, scribers,

drills for brass.

Light purple

Axes, planes, twist drills. Chisels for cast iron, large shear blades, table knives, cold sets, saws for metal.

Dark purple Dark blue

Hand and
Springs.

pit saws, screw-drivers.

74

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xv.

METHODS FOR DISTINGUISHING TOOL STEELS FROM MILD STEELS AND WROUGHT IRON.
By
fracture or examination of the grain

Wrought
reddish scale.

Iron has a rough

fibrous fracture.
is

Good

quality wrought iron

has a fine fibrous fracture.

Outside appearance

of a dull black colour with

Mild Steel
and not

fibrous like

has a grey-white colour with small polished grains intermixed wrought iron inclined to be granular and silky in appearance.
;

Outside appearance is of a bright black colour. Cast Iron has a dull grey granular appearance, and the grain varies acfiner the grain the better the quality. a grey-white granular appearance, and the better the quality of the steel the finer the grain, until with air hardening steels the grain has a silky appearance. Outside appearance is of a very bright blue-black

cording to the quality.

The

Tool Steels have

colour.

Shear Steels have

closely mixed,

and

it

a coarse granular appearance with white faceted grains does not break with such a clean fracture. These steels

can be welded.

Burnt Iron or Steel

facets

is

very brittle, coarse grained with very bright

mixed with

dull grains.
it

To

fracture the metal, nick

with a chisel,
If

file,

or emery wheel, then break

is

it.

DOUBLING OVER TEST.

and then hammered
fibre;
flat

wrought iron
it

doubled over on

itself

at the

bend

will partly

break open and show the

mild

steel

does not break when treated in this manner.

DROP TEST. Tool

on a stone
floor.

Mild Cast Iron

with a
file
;

Steels have a very high-toned ring when dropped harder the steel the higher the note. Steels and Wrought Iron have a lower tone and a dull ring.

The

HEAT TEST.
if it

has a very dull and dead sound. Heat to a bright red and quench out in water, then try cannot be filed it is carbon tool steel.

it

High Speed Steel

it is

can hardly be

filed at all

when

in its natural state as

very hard.

The methods above mentioned are rough and ready, but the necessary chemicals for testing in the proper manner are not always to hand. Warping and Cracking of steel is caused by improper treatment when
being forged, insufficient annealing (setting up internal strains), not heating thoroughly when preparing for hardening, or heating too quickly.

Warping in hardening is caused by one side of the article being cold before the other, or the thin side becoming cold before the thick side, so distorting the object.

CHAP, xv.]

PROCESSES

AND DATA FOR LESSONS ON METAL.

175

CASTING OR FOUNDING
the art of working metals by pouring them while in a fluid condition into moulds where they solidify and harden into the form of the mould they fill. It is the most impoitant of the operations by which metals are fashioned into ornais

an

mental and useful forms, although in practice some metals cannot be cast. It is art that has been known and practised from very early times. In the Victoria

and Albert Museum there

dynasty dated 1122-1225
the British

is

some

B.C.
is

cast bronze coinage belonging to the Chou In the room of Greek and Roman life at

Museum

there

use about the eighth century, and a stone mould for casting
f.

a limestone mould for casting metal which was in B.C., a bronze mould for palstaves (a kind of axe),

4.

hammer heads. This last is illustrated in Ch. xiv, Nos. 8 and 9 on the same page are bronze castings of an early date. There are many operations in casting, and the article to be produced is

now seldom made, moulded, and

casting of
it.

cast by one man, as was the case when Benvenuto Cellini modelled his figure of Perseus, and directed and helped in the

The most

making a mould from and pouring the metal

this in

important operations in casting are making the pattern, sand or some other suitable material, and melting into the mould. Patterns are usually made outside the

It is a foundry or in the patternmaker's shop, quite distinct from the foundry. woodworking trade, and the pattern-maker should have a knowledge of metals

and of foundry
while
all

foundry.

Iron is practically always cast in an iron foundry, practice. the non-ferrous metals and alloys are cast in what is called a brass The tendency of the times is to specialize in one particular metal or

group of metals, and by so doing better castings at a cheaper rate are obtained. Patterns Patterns are made either in metal, wood, plaster of Paris, or wax. which must be hollow have cores made of sand and shaped in core boxes.

Moulds

for casting

metal are

made
is

and brick

dust.

When sand

used

of sand, metal, or a mixture of plaster of Paris it is contained in an iron frame called a flask
;

this flask consists of

two iron frames which

fit

together with pegs and eyes, the

There is green-sand moulding which pegs on one frame the eyes on the other. is moulding in sand that is not dried, and dried sand moulding, where the mould has to be dried or baked in an oven. Large iron castings are cast in a loam
mould, which
a piece of
flat
is

often made by being " swept up ". When the object is circular wood made to the shape required and pivoted on a centre rod and

" revolved against a mass of sand cuts or " sweeps up the mould.

Cores are
in the

also

made by sweeping

up.
is

When

case of car wheels, or

the surface of an iron casting rolls, this part of the

wanted extremely hard, as

is

mould
it

made

of iron, so that

when

the molten metal flows against the cold iron

is

chilled

owing

to its cheapness, porosity, and refractoriness, is Its porosity allows for the escape of the gases venient material for moulding.

and hardened. Sand, the best and most con-

76

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xv.

generated, while its refractoriness keeps it in shape when the molten metal is poured into the mould. The best moulding sand is found along the banks of

For repetition work moulding machines worked by hydraulic large rivers. power or by hand have displaced hand moulding and are now largely used. Another method of casting, known as " Cire Perdu " or the lost wax process,
is

used

for the best class of figure

sold with clocks and

marked

at

1 75.

work, not the bronze figures one sees 6d. the set. These are mostly cast of

is known as a slush mould. A good illustrawax process is shown in the Indian section of the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is a sand mould containing a cast brass curb chain anklet a model of the anklet is first made in wax, each link being unconnected with the others except by a narrow band along the top. The model is gradually encased with the liquid composition which forms the mould the metal is deposited in a crucible attached to the mould and the whole is placed in the fire. The action of the fire destroys the wax model, the wax being absorbed into the

zinc or antimonial lead, in what

tion of the lost

mould, which then retains a complete impression of the anklet, each link being separate from the other with the exception of the narrow band at the top. When the metal is ready the whole affair is reversed, the hot metal fills the impression left by the wax model, and when the band connecting the links is filed

The

This object is from Rajputana. left in the form of a chain. candlestick on p. 94 is an example of cast and turned work, and the method of making it is shown on the page following. Castings and wood patterns showing how the patterns would be made for
off the anklet is

various objects are illustrated in Chs.

vn and
8)
10,
is

ix.

The Dutch chandelier (Ch. xn, work. The handles (Ch. v, 6, Nos.
f.

f.

a good example of cast and turned

12)

n,

wax and then

cast in plaster, or carved in

is,

wood.

would have to be modelled in It would be better to have

to

these cast in " fine cored brass," that

the

mould would have

be faced with

some very
of

fine parting

compound such

as French chalk, which gives a fine outer

and cored. It is cored by having small pieces moulding sand fitted to the various undercut parts so that they will come " away and the pattern be withdrawn and then the pieces of sand called false " cores are replaced so that the mould is perfect and ready for receiving the
surface to the finished casting,
metal.

The

and

off these plaster patterns piece

majority of patterns received by founders from artists are in plaster, moulds are made in sand.

The metal used in an iron foundry is usually melted in a cupola furnace, but other metals than iron are melted in crucibles which are placed inside a
or

Modern furnaces are mostly heated by gas furnace heated by gas, coke, or oil. oil, and can be tilted so that the metal may be poured into the ladle or mould
molten metal out of
fire

direct, thus saving the trouble of lifting the crucible full of

the
etc.

by manual labour.

Crucibles are

The plumbago

crucible

of plumbago, graphite, fire clay, consists of equal parts of clay and graphite.

made

Owing

to the great differences in characteristics

and

faults

which are inherent

CHAP, xv.]

PROCESSES

AND DATA FOR LESSONS ON METAL.

knowledge of metallurgy The most common faults
is

77

in the metals themselves, a

very necessary for the

:

successful casting of metals.

in castings are

Blow Holes,

Overshot Oval Castings

together too lightly.

caused by the gases not getting away. Castings, caused by badly fitting flasks.
instead of round, owing to the moulds being

pinched

Seared Castings, caused by

the metal to shrink.

the

mould being too hard and not allowing

ture or the corners of the

Imperfect Corners, owing to the metal being poured at too low a temperamould not being pricked to allow the metal to run up
in castings see pp. 127-128.

sharp.

For the shrinkage of metals

CLEANING, FINISHING, AND PRESERVING OF METALWORK.

Many
copper,
is

German

of the articles shown in these pages could be made of brass, bronze, silver, or similar metals, and it must not be forgotten that finish
taste

maker.

most important, but this depends on the possession of good The finish chosen must suit the object and its surroundings.

by the
colour

The

should be uniform and beautiful and should be consistent with the metallic

The necessary steps to be taken for preparing the work character of the work. ready for colouring or finishing are numerous. Thorough cleaning is carried out in the following manner The object should be held by a piece of copper or brass
:

wire, or

by brass tongs,

etc.,

so that

it is

not stained by the hands.

It is

then

boiled in a solution of caustic soda

grease, dirt, or old lacquer.

(i Ib. to

[N.B.

the gallon of water) to remove all Articles of aluminium, tin, or zinc must be

treated with care, as they

may be

partially dissolved

by

this liquid.]

The

object

is

then well scoured with fine wet sand and well washed in running water. It is placed in pickle to soak for one to three hours, according to the strength of the

Then it is washed and scoured (This is spent dip with water added.) with sand and water, washed again in cold water then passed through boiling water. It is then run through the old dip, then through the bright dip, through
pickle.
It is necessary that the three washing waters, and finally through boiling water. object should be quickly dried, and this drying is done by shaking it about quickly in plenty of hot sawdust.

The above applies to all copper, brass, bronze, and similar metals. The is now ready to be bronzed, as described on p. 154, scratch brushed, For scratch brushing a brush made of fine brass polished, or electroplated. wire is required. Hand or lathe scratch brushes can be bought. The work is
object

brushed with this and stale beer or water and vinegar. It is then well rinsed in two washing waters, finally in hot water, and dried in hot sawdust. It can now be relieved or lightened up by burnishing with a steel, agate, or bloodstone If the object is to be burnisher and stale beer, wiped off and lacquered.

178
polished,
it

HANDCRAFT.
may be pressed
against a revolving calico or other

[CHAP. xv.

mop

or

bob

fixed

on the spindle of a polishing head which revolves at a very high rate of speed. The mop or bob may be of leather (rhinoceros or walrus hide, which is sometimes called bull neck), felt, calico, or wool, and fed with carborundum, emery,

Mops or bobs are made in tripoli, rouge, lime, tallow, etc. various sizes, but are not usually larger than about 12 in. diameter and 2 in. thick. After being polished the work is usually greasy. The grease is removed by
sand, bathbrick,

washing in two or three baths of paraffin or benzene. Nearly all metalwork after Lacquering may be accomplished finishing and colouring should be lacquered.

by dipping the

article into

a vat of lacquer and drying in a special room or oven,

by putting the lacquer on with a brush when the work is hot or cold (depending on
the lacquer), and drying, or by spraying the lacquer on with a patent air spray or brush as it is called. Lacquer is a thin spirit varnish made in various colours.
It is generally shellac dissolved in

alcohol and coloured with dragon's blood,

patents aniline

turmeric, saffron, etc.

What

and go by fancy names) are

dyes.

known as cold lacquers (all of which are made with amyl acetate and coloured with
are

Many of these lacquers smell like essence of pears. It is essential that the work should be free from all dirt, dust, grease, etc., before being lacquered. Skill and artistic taste are required for the blending and lacquering of metallic
objects.

Figure work

is

sometimes brushed over with white

paraffin

wax or

beeswax.

Iron and steel articles, structures, etc., are preserved from rusting by gilding, painting with oil colours, or coating with another metal which is not affected by the atmosphere, such as tin, zinc, copper, nickel, etc. Before being protected

by painting, ironwork should be heated sufficiently to dispel all moisture, and while hot should be painted with a coat of boiled linseed oil applied at a boiling
heat.

After twenty-four hours this operation should be repeated, and then the Tin colour coats applied, or it may now be gilded after the necessary sizing. plate is wrought iron or mild steel sheets, thoroughly cleaned, passed through a

bath containing molten tin with about 4

rollers

in.

which squeeze

off the surplus tin.

The

of tallow on the top, then through Iron is plates are dried in bran.

galvanized or coated with zinc by hot galvanizing, electro galvanizing, SherardFor hot galvanizing the work is cleaned by sand izing, or dry galvanizing.
blasting, pickling in hydrochloric acid, or burning.
It is

then passed through a

bath of molten

zinc,

and allowed
its

to cool.

Work
of

be distinguished by
similar

spangled appearance.
deposition

preserved in this manner can Electro galvanizing is done in a

other metals (see p. 155), but

manner

to the electro

owing

to the difficulty of depositing zinc, slight modifications are necessary.

Sherardizing is a process is most successful for this work. process invented by Mr. Sherard Cowper Coles, and is somewhat as follows The work is cleaned as previously described and then placed in an airtight drum
:

The Cowper Coles

for a few charged with zinc dust. This is rotated and heated to 500 or 600 F. hours and allowed to cool. When removed the articles are found to be coated

CHAP, xv.]

PROCESSES

AND DATA FOR LESSONS ON METAL.

79

with zinc depending in thickness upon the temperature and duration of the treatment. They are of a brighter colour than articles done by the electro deposition method.
It is possible by this method to galvanize only certain parts, by coating portions of the articles with a composition which prevents the zinc being

deposited.

The

following are a few simple

:

and

useful recipes for general

work

Bright Dip for Iron

Water

gal.

Sulphuric acid Zinc

. .

i Ib.
i

oz.

Nitric acid

8 oz.
:

Bright Dip for Brass, Copper, and Similar Metals

Nitric acid
.

2 parts.
i

Sulphuric acid

part.

Hydrochloric acid

Matt Dip for Brass,

nitric acid,

etc.

pint per gal. of dip. Dissolve 6 oz. clean sheet zinc in

gal.

hot

then pour in sulphuric acid slowly until dip looks white, then heat to 160 F. and test; if too coarse add sulphuric acid. Stir with glass rod; never use wood, and don't put hydrochloric acid in it.

Removing Copper Oxide from Brass after Brazing. Old bright dip heated 150 F., then add 2 qts. of sulphuric acid for every gallon of bright dip. To Copper Wire Nails or Iron Screws :
Blue
vitriol
. . . .

to

i i i

oz. oz.
gal.

Sulphuric acid

Water
To Boil Brass work and
boil.
:

Articles White.
i

Put 8
qt.

of tartar into a boiling pot with

oz. pure tin shavings and 6 oz. cream of water. Make sufficient to cover the

See p. 154. Various Shades of Brown on Brass, etc. Various Shades of Brown, including Brilliant Shades of Blue 4 oz. Hyposulphite of soda
.

Acetate of lead

Water

.....
.
.
.

2 oz.
i

gal.

To

be used hot and each chemical to be dissolved separately. Green Bronze :

Ammonium carbonate Common salt

. .

2-

oz. oz.

f
i

Acetate of copper

oz.

Cream
Water
Brush the work over with
obtained.

of tartar

f oz. 16 oz.
until

this

and

let it dry.

Repeat

the right colour

is

80
Steel

HANDCRAFT.
Colour on Brass
:
-

[CHAP. xv.

Arsenic

Ib.

Blue copperas Carbonate of iron

Verdigris
.

-4 oz.
.

2 oz.

Hydrochloric acid Immerse, wash off, scour with sand, and repeat then brush up with blacklead.
.

..7
essential.

.2 oz.
Ib.

until a

good colour

is

obtained,

The procedure for the above cases is similar in nearly all. The work must be thoroughly cleaned and dipped bright and then immersed in above solutions.

To

obtain the best results a

little

practice

is

Surface colours or patinas By chemicals as above.

heating.

may be obtained

oxidizing or atmospheric influence.

alkalis.

electro deposition.

dipping in molten metals.

,,

varnishing or lacquering.
rolling,

that

is,

soldering a thin piece of metal on to a thick base

and

then rolling

all

out together

examples

Sheffield plate, rolled gold.

METHODS OF JOINING METALS.

In
is

all

essential.

kinds of metalwork a knowledge of how metals Joints are either permanent or temporary.

may be

joined together
joints

Permanent

can

be made by burning, autogenous welding, ordinary welding, brazing,

soldering, soft soldering, folding, riveting.

silver

Temporary joints
fitting.

are screwing, bolting,

wedging, taper

fitting,

force

and shrink

In

many

cases,

though we
joints,

call

brazing, silver soldering, soft soldering,

and

riveting

permanent

they can

with care be taken apart again. Burning. The method of burning a joint together is as follows The two pieces of metal to be joined are placed in position and fixed so that a stream
:

of molten metal

may be run between

the joint until the ends to be joined are at

the molten metal that has been flowing to waste is then checked, the joint filled up and left to cool. The joint is usually embedded in sand. When cool it is removed and the lumps trimmed off, leaving the metal in one
;

the same heat

piece

and without any

sign of a joint.

Nearly

all

metals can be joined by this

method.

Autogenous Welding,
which consists of
ible
is

finely divided

or thermit welding, is done as follows Thermit, aluminium and oxide of iron, is placed in a cruc:

which has a hole

in the

bottom

fitted

with a fusible plug.

The

crucible

placed in position over the ends to be joined, and the ends are enclosed in a

CHAP, xv.]

PROCESSES

AND DATA FOR LESSONS ON METAL.

l8l

mould which has an outlet that can be closed after sufficient metal has passed When everything is ready the fusing action is started through to heat the joint. by igniting a special powder, or magnesium powder, which can be lit wkh a match. The heat generated by the chemical action reduces the iron oxide to a fluid
mass of iron
the mould.
;

this melts the fusible plug, allowing the

is

metal to enter and

fill

This

also called aluminothermy.

is

carried out by means of various gases, such as and is now fairly general in its application. The The mixing of them takes gases are under pressure and drawn from cylinders. The place in the mixing chamber of the special blowpipes which are used.

Blowpipe Welding

acetylene, oxygen, hydrogen,

fusion of the edges

edges of the metals to be joined are filed clean and bevelled, and while the is taking place the actual joint is fed with a metal of the
is

kind that
joint.

that

The advantages welds can be made

being welded, in the form of rod, to fill up the spaces in the of this method are that the appliances are portable, so " in situ " and the heat is localized. The perfection of
skill

the weld depends on the

of the operator.

Electric Welding is very suitable for repetition work, is very quick, and dissimilar metals may be welded. But it requires special plant and fittings for each

The operation is somewhat as follows The pieces to be welded particular job. are held tightly one by each arm or guide, and these are insulated one from the other ; the electric current is turned on, and the ends are brought close together
:

but not quite touching. This causes an electric arc to form at the ends to be welded, and they heat from the centre to the outside, and when it is at the right
temperature, the ends are forced together either by manual or hydraulic power. Ordinary Welding which is done by the smith consists of thickening up or up-setting, as it is called, the ends to be joined to allow for their subsequent

reduction by hammering and then raising the pieces to a welding heat, laying one on top of the other, and hammering them together. The work is heated in a coal or coke fire assisted by a blast of air. Wrought iron and mild steels are
usually brought to a bright white heat
heat.

and tool There are various forms of welds such as

welds, but the scarf weld
is

steel to

a dull white or yellow

scarf welds,

tongue welds,

split

welds,

and jump

the strongest

and most common.

A flux is generally used to protect the surfaces of the metal to be joined from silver sand for wrought the action of impurities in the fuel and from oxidation iron and mild steel, Venetian red and borax for tool steels.
Brazing and Soldering consists of joining metals by means of alloys which are heated and fused together with the edges of the work, so that they There are three essentials for this kind of alloy with the metals being joined.
work.

The

joints

must be clean.
is

A
A

flux

must be used.
to

The

solder or alloy used must melt before the material that

is

be joined.

coal-gas blowpipe flame assisted by an air blast

generally employed,

82

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xv.

but a forge

The

fire, or spirit blow lamp would very often answer the same purpose. only difference between brazing or hard soldering, as it is sometimes called, and silver soldering, is that in the one case spelter is used and in the other silver

solder

is

used.

(For the composition of these see

p.

124.)

The

following

The method of procedure should be adopted when brazing or silver soldering. the edges fit together. When fitted, the parts should joint should be clean and be held together by ties of iron binding wire, when the joint is difficult to adjust one or more iron dowel pins should be used. These with the wire ties prevent any shifting of the joint during the progress of the operation. The work should
forge, care being taken to support it so arranging the coke around joint to conserve the heat, place it so that all the parts are open to observation, otherwise while The difference of the the solder is fusing, some adjoining part may be melted. melting temperatures being very slight, spelter should be mixed with water and

now be

carefully adjusted
is

on the bed of the

that no strain

on the

tied joint.

When

powdered borax in a small pot. When the work is in position the joint should be moistened with the borax water and the joint "charged," i.e. just sufficient The work should of the moistened spelter laid on the joint to fill it when fused.

now be heated

in the vicinity of the joint,

and when there are unequal thicknesses

the heaviest parts should be heated first, gradually bringing the heat up to the joint ; watch that both sections receive the same amount of heat, otherwise it

not be a good joint. When a red heat is reached the borax will melt dry powdered borax should now be dusted on from time to time to prevent the solder
will
;

perishing or being converted into oxide ; as the heat increases the flame should be localized over the solder and a fiercer blast given until the spelter fuses and flows into and fills up the joint. When this point is reached remove the flame

and allow the work

;

to cool.

It

should not be moved until

all

traces of red heat

p. 177) to dis-

have disappeared then place solve the borax and oxide.

in pickle (for

composition of this see

Soft Soldering.
applying a suitable flux

(for this

This consists of well cleaning the parts to be soldered, see p. 188), heating the metal, and applying just

sufficient solder to make the joint. Soft soldering must be done with the aid of a soldering iron or bit (see Ch. xvi, f. 16), spirit lamp, gas blowpipe, or heat of some kind to melt the solder. When using a soldering iron or copper bit, as it is sometimes called, it must be well tinned, that is, the iron must be heated, filed

clean,

rubbed

in the flux,

advantage to

tin the parts to

and the point covered with be soldered first.

solder.

It is

very often an

Zinc Chloride for Soft Soldering. Place some pieces of zinc in hydrochloric acid until the acid stops working, then leave it for twenty- four Now strain and filter it, and add 2 oz. of water to the pint of acid. hours. In Riveting, pieces of metal are joined together with rivets. These are
made
of various metals and in different shapes, such as half-round or snap head, A rivet is known by the shape of the pan, countersunk, flat, or conical head. head, length of stem under head, diameter of stem, and the metal it is made of.

CHAP, xv.]

PROCESSES
of riveting

AND DATA FOR LESSONS ON METAL.

is

183

The method
thickness

as follows

The

rivet

is

selected according to the

of the plate to be riveted, the holes for the rivet are then either punched or drilled, the rivet is placed in position and the metal set down with rivet set ; sufficient length of rivet is left to project through the plate and form the other head
;

the end or

tail

of the rivet should be

flat,

the

tail

should be

burred over with a light hammer and finished to shape with the aid of a cup tool. For illustrations of rivet set and cup tool see Ch. xvi, f. 21 (27). The
distance of one rivet from the other
is

known

as the

"
pitch,"

and depends on

the nature of the work.

Screwing is joining metals together with screws and should be avoided, as screws are liable to work loose. They are made of iron, brass, bronze, or steel,
and have heads of various shapes, half-round heads, countersunk heads, cheese All screws used for metal are heads, half-round and countersunk combined. known as tapped screws or metal-thread screws to distinguish them from screws
used
for

wood.

They

are

made
is

to

many

The
in

pitch of a screw

the distance

it

standards and in various pitches. will move in the direction of its axis
:

one revolution through a fixed nut. The following are some of the standards Whitworth, British Association, known as B.A., U.S.A., International Metric, and Screws are known by their diameter, standard, shape of head, Bicycle standard.
metal,
i

and length under head,

as for

example

in.

Whitworth round head,

brass,

In screwing work together the part that takes the head of the screw has a clearing hole in it, while the other part has to have a tapping hole ;
in.

underhead.

this

is

also

known

as the core diameter so that

it

can be threaded.

This allows

the work to be drawn tightly together. In engineering shops the screws used in machinery for imparting motion are known by their shape such as "square,"
set or grub screw is one that "buttress," "knuckle," or "acme thread". has a point and no head, but a saw cut in the screw itself, so that it can be

turned with a screw-driver.

Bolting and
machines.

Wedging
now

is

used mostly

for fixing together various parts

of

Bolts are

usually

made

to the

Whitworth standard.

The
is

size

of the head bears a fixed relation to the diameter of the bolt.

There

a large

variety in use, such as hexagon, ball, cheese, coach, deck, square, countersunk,
etc.,

bolt

name applies generally to the shape of the head. When an extra long " required a "bolt end is welded to a length of rod, as this is more convenient. Where there is a lot of vibration " lock nuts " have to be used because
the
is

ordinary nuts work loose.

taper
fits

Of

these there are

many

forms.

are

due

to frictional contact,
is

and

in the fixing of nearly all

Wedging, keying, and wheels and

friction clutches.

pulleys this property

utilized as well as in

what are known as

The system adopted by

the Morse and other companies for holding drills of all sizes by means of taper fits and removing them by means of a hand lever is an extremely simple and convenient method -in every way.

A Force
and the two

Fit is where the pin is parts are forced together.

made

An example

very slightly larger than the hole of this is the lathe pulley

184

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xv.

CHAP, xv.]

PROCESSES
f.

AND DATA FOR LESSONS ON METAL

185

Ch. xvn,

22

(i).
it is

lathe spindle as

This pulley of cast iron is forced on to the steel mandrel, or This appears as if made in one piece. called.
is

A Shrink
metals,
to

Fit

where advantage

is

taken of the property of expansion of

and

it is

utilized in

many

ways.
it

be put on some work to hold

The method is used where a collar has The collar is made slightly together.

has to go on, it is heated to a bright red and put on. On cooling it contracts, so binding the work tightly together. Cast iron cannot be utilized in this manner. For example see Ch. xn, Fig. 12, No. i.
smaller than the

work

it

Joints in Tinned Plate Work. These are usually plain or folded lap A and B, Fig. 8, Ch. vin). The plain lap joints are soft soldered and riveted with tinned iron flat-headed rivets. Folded lap joints, as illustrated in Fig. 8, Ch. vin, Letter B, can be made by hand or in a machine called
joints (see

a folder, and when made by machinery they are so well done that they are watertight without the aid of soft solder.

HINTS
Annealing Metals
1.
:

WHEN WORKING

METALS.

2.

Anneal zinc with a Bunsen burner, not a blowpipe, or it may volatilize. When annealing aluminium mark over with common soap and warm until
;

soap turns black it is then annealed. 3. Before annealing sheet brass work ease any stresses that may exist by Also warm very slowly and gradually increase temperature to avoid malleting.
fire

cracks.
:

Soldering Metals
1.

2.

All metals should be tinned at the joint before being soft soldered. Use hydrochloric acid as a flux when soldering galvanized iron.

3.

Before soft soldering pewter be sure the solder melts before the job.
:

Brazing Metals
1.

Iron should be reddened before being brazed,

i.e.

rubbed with sulphate

of copper (bluestone) and water. 2. File all joints before brazing

3.

and

silver soldering.

4.
5.

Butt joints should be nicked before brazing. If spelter is not fusible enough add zinc filings or a
first.

little silver solder.

Before brazing sheet or rod brass, practice on a waste piece of the same

material
6.

See that your work is well packed up and tied before brazing so that does not separate when on the point of fusion.
7.

it

See that there

it

is

not any lead or solder on brass

>

when bringing the

brass

to a red heat as

will

cause a hole.

Forging
1.

2.

Keep Keep

the

fire clean,

and

free

from clinker.
in

the face of your

hammer

good condition.

13

86
3.

HANDCRAFT.
See that your tongs
fit

[CHAP. xv.

the work, so avoiding an accident.

4.
5.
6.

Do not work iron at a dull red heat. Do not work or heat carbon tool steel beyond a bright red heat. When cutting material on the anvil with a hot or cold sett see that

the

tools

do not touch the face of the anvil when nearly through.

7.

block of copper with a piece

fitting into

the square hole in the anvil

is

handy
8.

for cutting out thin material on, especially if the material is hot.

Good

forge coal should be even in size, glossy black,

and should crumble,

work.

not

split.
9.

Pea-size washed coke breeze makes a nice clean

fire for light

10.

Before welding see you have

:

all

the tools ready to hand.

as possible

Other Points that you may need 1. Keep hammers off tin plate as much
and
little

use a mallet instead,

of that.

Measure twice before cutting your material off. is in or on the moulds used for casting lead in. 4. When loading brass tube for bending, see that no air-pockets form. Prevent by heating tube at loading end and work downwards with the blowpipe
2. 3.

See no dampness

so allowing the material to settle ; reversing the process might cause a burst. 5. Use a slate pencil for marking on iron, or a scriber made of brass wire.

CHAPTER XVI

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND TOOLS FOR AND TECHNICAL HANDCRAFF CENTRES

THE WOODWORKING
SHOP.
for

THE

essential

feature
is

of

properly

equipped workshop

technical

or

well-lighted spacious room, so arranged as to render classrooms easily accessible, one of these if possible actually adjoining the work-

handcraft work

lofty,

shop.

A plan of a woodworking shop is illustrated on page 188 arranged for the accommodation of twenty students. In centres devoted exclusively to junior handcraft work, the accommodation can easily be increased to double capacity by
using

double

benches

not necessarily any larger in

size

than those shown.

The

plan illustrated is of a shop suitable for day handcraft or technical work, which also lends itself well to evening instruction in woodworking subjects. The

D are arranged in three rows, all facing one way. An instruction bench placed in the same relative position, facilitating demonstrations, and it is The wall at this end should be provided with placed upon a raised platform B. a large blackboard, not less than 6ft. square, which can be raised or lowered
benches

is

is made through the folding doors at room adjoining shop, and on the south side the handcraft room can be entered through the timber store marked D in diagram. E in plan marks

at will.

Entrance to the handcraft room

class

from the

the position of a small lathe (see also Fig. 22 (26)) operated by foot-power, or a small electric motor can be attached to each machine at comparatively small cost.
("j

marks position of an oilstone table (see also Fig. 4, p. 192) for general use. F and show position of store cupboards, the upper parts provided with glazed doors,

and serving

as storage space for special tools, models of tools, etc. used for demonstration purposes books, and a divided portion can be fitted up as a small timber museum, with specimens of timber, cross-sections of timber, leaves, Students' books, drawing paper, charts, twigs, etc., for use in object lessons.

and
trays
PI

large diagrams
fitted

used

in class
part.

work can be accommodated

I

in racks

and

into the
i

bottom
f

indicates a grindstone (see also Fig. 5,

93)-

tne pl an

a g as stove with rings for accommodation of glue-pots.

(187)

188

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

FIG.

i.

Suggested arrangement of workshop

for

handcraft and technical classes.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

189

Electric power can now be utilized for an earthenware sink for washing purposes.

this purpose.

represents in plan

Heating

is

best effected by the radiator system, with valves for regulating

Open fires should not on any account be introduced in woodworking rooms. The spirit of emulation, a much discussed and sometimes abused virtue, can be encouraged by the judicious selection and arrangement of good examples of decorative craftwork. These should be protected with glazed
the temperature.

frames and hung about the walls about 4

vals for different specimens.

ft.

in.

high, changing

them

at inter-

Decoration, economical, and

carefully studied in institutions

yet possessing
at the

some

aesthetic merit,

should be

which aim

development of taste.

Distemper

colours are good, as they can be readily renewed, preferably light green or grey more suitable to the eyes than crude or vivid colours which are so conducive to eye-strain. Ventilation is readily effected by means of iron
tones, these being

casements, now an accepted type of window for school buildings. with adjustable covers are also an advantage.

Air bricks

Parquetry or wood floors of pine or yellow deal are preferable of teak wood, affording a better grip for the feet and not becoming slippery so rapidly. Projecting portions of tool cabinets placed round the walls

Flooring.

to those

made

should be avoided

a good plan is to fit pieces between the tool cabinets at an angle of 45 with the wall and floor lines, thus avoiding accumulation of dust in corners and rendering sweeping and cleaning much easier than would otherwise be the case.
;

Tool Cabinets.

The

particular design

and arrangement of these of course

illustrated will serve as first

varies according to conditions, but the

examples

That illustrated in suggestions which can be adapted to other requirements. Fig. 2 is designed to serve for both junior pupils and evening students in technical
work. The material is whitewood, painted to harmonise with the wall treatment. The arrangement of the tools will be apparent from the diagram, a set of small

planes for juniors and a set of large planes for seniors.

All other tools, compris-

The arrangement ing gauges, saws, square, chisels, etc., are for common use. shown has the advantage of being readily examined by the instructor before the
students are allowed to leave the workshop. cupboard is provided for storing models or exercises belonging to various sections. complete list of tools for

this

cabinet

is

as follows

14 in. tenon saw. 8 in. dovetail saw.

Large trying plane. Small trying plane.

Large jack plane. Small jack plane.

Cutting gauge.

Large trying plane. Small trying plane.

in. try square. Dividers, 6 in.

Bevel.

and
i, f,
,

| in. mortise chisels.

f J
,

in.

firmer chisels.

Smoothing plane. Rasp and file.

12

in. rule.

Mallet.

Hammer.
Striking knife.

Marking gauge.
Mortise gauge.

Screwdriver.

190

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

TO 'BE -EXECUTED IfN- PINE PRINTED

GREEN

ELEVATION -OF A- FITTED TOOL

FOR.- HflNDICRflFT- flND-

TECHNICAL-

SECTIONflL-VIEW-

FIG.

2.

Suggestion for tool cabinet accommodating large and small sets of tools
junior

for

and senior students.

CHAP. XVI.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

IQI

The

small cabinet illustrated in Fig. 3 indicates a suitable arrangement for a

handcraft outfit only, and is intended to be hung on the back of a bench when not in actual use. Upon the commencement of a class these racks are transferred to the students' benches

and remain there during the

lesson.

They may

be checked by the instructor

after class is finished.

plan shows the arrange:

ment and position of

tools allowed to each rack as follows

A
dovetail

small tenon or

shoulder

saw

and
are

a
at-

saw

tached to the front as

shown, and a 12 in. iron rule is hung on the back

part.

All extra tools are

stored in the cupboards and are issued as occasion demands.

L. in
in-

plan

of

workshop
a

dicates

continuous

arrangement of tool cabinets, a decided advantage when sweeping, as no inaccessible corners

have to be negotiated.

An
Table

Oilstone
(Fig. 4)

ELEVATION- AND PL^N OF

ft

HANGING

-TOOL.

CflBINET FOR- HflNDICR-flFT- CLASSES

should

be provided, as shown in plan, made about 4

ft.

lined

long with with

the top
in.

zinc.

All sharpening by pupils should be effected on

this table,

which obvi-

CENTIMETRES
FIG. 3.

DECIMETRES)

ates the disposal of oil

small tool cabinet for the use of handcraft pupils.

also reduces the

upon the benches, and number

of
oilstones
thirty

A. marking knife. B. marking gauge.

C. 6
in. try

F.

in. chisel.

G. mallet.

required.

square.

H.
I.

in. chisel.

With

pupils

not

more than

five oilstones

D. | E. |

in. chisel.

in. chisel.

J.

f |

in chisel.
in. chisel.

K. hammer,
for the instructor or student teacher

are necessary.

A
It
is

Circular

Saw

would be best placed

in the timber store,

and operated
in

especially useful
is

locking arrangement

horse-power motor. A for large classes. material of preparation advisable in order to prevent tampering.
either

by foot or a small

the

192

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

The Grindstone (Fig. 5) is the type best suited to handcraft work. The method of operating same will be evident from the illustration. The chisel is secured in a rack or falling frame, and a straight bevel can easily be obtained by a young boy. It also reduces the chance of accident to a minimum. A Glue-pot Stand is shown in plan, consisting of bar iron riveted Each ring has a gas tap attached, and a master together with rings at the top.
tap governing
all

the rings

is

also fixed

The Lathe,
craft centre for

illustrated in Fig.

22

above the connexion to gas pipe. (26), is suitable for small work in a hand-

turned work.
plate for
flat

The

demonstration purposes, and also for the execution of simple length is 4 ft., and includes two slide rests and a centre face-

work.

motor should be attached

if

turned work

is

done

to

any extent.

FIG.

4.

An

oilstone table with zinc-lined top.

is

A Bench

of

German manufacture

illustrated in Fig.

(i),

provided with

wooden screws and iron stops. It can also be obtained with iron screws and handles, and these are an advantage in scholastic work, wooden screws being so A double bench is shown in Fig. 7, but its use is not frequently broken. recommended.

TOOLS.

PLANES.

Fig.

fectly true surfaces,

a Trying Plane, used for obtaining pershooting joints, squaring ends upon a shooting board, in fact
(4) illustrates

for practically every planing process that requires great truth

and

exactness.

The

length varies from 18-30 in., the former for junior use, and the latter size for special jointing work. Twenty-eight inches is the standard full size for general work. Double irons are used in both sizes 2 in. for the small size and 2| in.
for the large one.

CHAP. XVI.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

193

Description of Fig. 6 (continued}.

The Jack Plane is illustrated in Fig. 6 (5). It is used for roughly planing material prior to the use of the trying plane. Length varies from 14-20 in. for handcraft and technical work respectively, with irons 2-2$ in. wide. Although gauged
irons are

recommended -,for

all

planes,

some

prefer the ordinary or tapered type.

FIG.

5.

A Smoothing
it is

Plane

is

shown

in

(10),

and as the name

indicates

used for smoothing up surfaces

after they

have been prepared with a jack

;

and

trying plane. Width of iron varies from if-2^ in. the smaller size is best suited to handcraft work, the student obtaining more control over a tool proportionate to his size. In all planes the pitch of the iron varies accordingly as it

is

intended for hard or soft wood

generally speaking, a low-pitched iron

is

best

for

young students.

194

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

FIG.

6.

Miscellaneous woodworking tools.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

195

Description of Fig. 6 (continued). (7) illustrates the Plough.

The terms

or stock

(2) the skate, consisting

applied to this tool are (i) body of a steel fixed in the sole (3) the fence,
; ;

which regulates the margin of grooves and (4) the stop. This is adjustable and is set by means of a screw it is used to determine the depth of a groove.
;

(8)

is

the

Rebate Plane.
is

Made from

f-i

in.
its

on

sole,

and as the

ordinary uses, it may with advantage be used for shooting small veneers when a shoulder plane is inaccessible it is then worked flat upon a small shooting board.
;

name

indicates

used

for rebating.

In addition to

(9)

is

the

Block Plane.
and

Used by craftsmen

for shooting

end grain of

material, general fitting,

It is

mitres.

The

iron

is

fixed at a particularly low angle.

(8)).

usually used in conjunction with the mitre block (see Fig. 8

FIG.

7.

double bench.

(12)

is

Shoulder Plane.

Made

of malleable
is

iron,

and used

for re-

gulating end grain shoulders. veneers. It is then used on

This tool
its side,

almost indispensable when working and in conjunction with a shooting board.

is

The

cutting-iron

is

fixed at a
is

low angle, and, as

placed uppermost.
is

also the case with the block

plane, the bevel of the iron

An Old Woman's Tooth

wood with a plough-iron wedged
the sole,

illustrated in (8), consisting of a

block of

beyond and used chiefly for regulating the depth of grooves cut across the grain, after the end has been roughly removed with a chisel. An Iron Spokeshave is shown in (n). Useful for fine work, especially in

in position, the cutting part projecting

hardwood.

The English
is

or curved in section, as

pattern spokeshave, see Fig. 6 (13), is made flat also the American pattern, suited respectively for consurfaces.

cave and convex edges or and beech wood.

(14) illustrates

The

English types are

rules

made

in box, lance,

an Iron Rule.

Such

may be obtained up
sizes,

to 3

ft.

long divided with English and metric measures.

(2) illustrates a beechwood Mallet, made in various combined marking and striking knife made of hard steel.

and

(3)

is

196

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

SAWS

are divided into a

8).
is

number of
8

classes according to their design

and
is

system of teeth (Fig.

A Hand Saw
is

illustrated in Fig.

(9).

The
in.,

rip

saw of similar shape

in.

properly called a Half-rip

Saw,

length 28

teeth spaced

apart,

and

used

for

from 20-26
deep.

in.

heavy cutting or "ripping" up stuff. The Hand Saw ranges in. in length, the blade of steel, teeth 6- to the in. and
are rather smaller in size

Panel Saws
The

and the teeth

are also closer together.

They are especially suitable for young length ranges from 16-26 in. The American Disston handcraft students for cross cutting and general use.

saws are of specially good quality, and their being made with a blade slightly " set " tapering in cross-section, reduces the necessity for much upon the
teeth.

A Tenon Saw is illustrated in (7). Made with iron or brass backs, The thickness of the blades and the spacing of the teeth according to quality. The blade is held tightly by the metal back, and, as also with dovetail vary.
The back is bent slightly in its saws, the process of fixing them is as follows The remainder of length and is then closed over the handle end of the blade. the blade is then pressed into position, and the back is then sprung straight and
:

The natural tendency for the back to spring back into a closed over the steel. curved shape holds the blade rigid and in constant tension. The use of this saw is restricted to light cross cutting and for wide shoulders. It is not used for
tenons as the

name seems

to imply.

and are

excellent substitutes for the former in educational

Disston shoulder saws range from 12-18 in., work the teeth are
;

smaller and they are not unwieldy.

A
handle.

Dovetail

used for
(2)

Saw is similar in shape to the tenon saw, but with an open Lengths vary from 6-10 in. with teeth spaced 15 per inch. They are cutting dovetails, small tenon cutting, and cross-grained grooves.
shows a

Bow

string tension attachment.

Saw, so named The frames

;

because of
are

its

construction with bow-

made

of beech or box

wood with

separate handles,

and the blades range

in length

from 8-16

in.

teeth spaced

in. They are used for approximately 1 2 to the inch width of blade about general curved cutting, such as circles or shaped brackets. It is however generally known (4) is sometimes called a Compass Saw.

as a

Keyhole
(i)

Saw

from

its

particular use.

It is

only used for cutting away

material inaccessible to the

bow

saw.
;

thin metals,

shows a small frame or Fret Saw the best pattern for cutting mother of pearl, veneers, or fretwood, and thin material generally. Fret saws are used with the frame to be obtained in packets of one dozen in
;

varying degrees of fineness. If a saw breaks off, the thumbscrew can be slackened and the opening of the frame contracted, when a broken saw can be fastened in
again.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

97

Description of Fig. 8 (continued]. (3) illustrates one type of

Mitre Cut.
It
is

Used when

mitre joints in mouldings, etc.

of beech and can be

made

cutting butt or as a class

model.

Used for setting out oblique shoulders (5) shows an Adjustable Bevel. and angles and testing bevelled edges. The stocks are made of rosewood and ebony with a dotted adjustable steel blade. hard woods and thin metals. Drills (6) shows a Hand Drill for boring may be obtained with a screw attachment in the handle, which when screwed
off discloses

a small receptable used for storing the

drills.

This instrument

is

especially useful for boring simple patterns in

material.

wood

for inlaying in

wax or other

A Mitre Block is shown in (8) with a piece of moulding in position ready for planing. The metal screw action illustrated is much better and quicker These mitre blocks are prepared to to operate than the wooden screw type.
shoot

wood

at angles of

90, 45, and 77^, square or

Is

butt, mitre

and

half

mkres

respectively.

A Block
stone

Plane
(10)

(12).

designed specially for use with the

:

latter.

Oilstones

of various varieties are as follows

(i)

Washita, a good

for general use. The cutting qualities vary, and can be judged best by rubbing the thumb-nail along the surface, comparing the relative grip with stones of differing quality. (2) Indian oilstones are rather more expensive than

washita.

They

are excellent cutting stones, rapid sharpeners,

(4)

and impart a keen

oilstones, excellent

edge.
"
(5)

(3)

Charnley Forest, a close-grained stone.

"

Turkey

cutters, lasting,

Arkansas

and sharpeners, rather more expensive than the above varieties. an expensive kind, excellent for surgeons' and dentists' instrufine tools.
It is

ments and other

composed
;

of pure

silica, crystallized similarly

to

the washita stone, has a perfectly smooth surface, and yields only to the cutting of a diamond when being trued up this stone is very expensive. Slips (13), may be obtained of various sections. Suitable for sharpening

gouges and shaped plane-irons

Pincers
familiar to
all.

(14),

in any of the preceding kind of oilstones. do not demand a detailed explanation here, being a

tool

Used for boring holes to receive screws. (15) shows a Twist Gimlet. (n), a London pattern Hammer. (12), a Set Mitre for setting out mitred work.
(17), a

Bradawl, which when being used should have

placed
across the
grain,

the

blade

thus

avoiding

the cutting edge of the splitting of the wood

fibres.

(18),

a Screwdriver.

Fig.

8 (19, 20), a

Rasp and

File respectively

for

wood.

To

be obtained

in

varying degrees of coarseness.

The

latter cut specially for use with

wood.

198

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

FIG.

8.

Saws and various other woodworking

tools.

CHAP. XVI.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.
see Fig. 9 (2),
is

199
so called

CHISELS AND GOUGES.

because
in.
it is

The Firmer Chisel,

the firmest type of paring chisel.

steel,

wide of well-tempered

Firmer chisels are made from Y^-I^ and used for general chisel work where striking with

hammer

or mallet

is

not necessary.

A Paring

Chisel

is

shown

in (i), the

The width blade of extra length, and used for work inaccessible to a firmer chisel. All chisels are made with either square or bevelled of blade varies from f-i^j in.
edges
;

the

latter,

see

(3),

afford an advantage in dovetailing

and

in bevelled

work where a square chisel edge could not be entered in the corner. (4) shows another kind of handle, made chiefly in boxwood. Fig. 10 (i) illustrates a Firmer Gouge, made from -1^ in. in width and of varying curvature.

them from

Firmer gouges are always ground and sharpened on the outside face, distinguishing which are sharpened upon the inside thus enabling scribing gouges

FIG.

9.

Various types of chisels and handles.

Firmer gouges a cut to be made square with the face of an object or moulding. such as the concave shape in a pen tray, are especially useful for recessing work etc. Carving gouges are made of hard-tempered steel, much thinner in section,
with the bevel hardly perceptible, and are

made

in various shapes.
;

Mortise Chisels
in. in

are illustrated in Fig. 10 (2)

is

sizes
i.e.

sixteenths.

Their use

restricted to mortising,

range upwards from the act of preparing the

receptacle or cavity to receive a tenon or mortise lock.

BORING TOOLS.

Fig. 10 (7) illustrates a

Brace

with a ratchet attachment

which permits the use of this tool in a corner, where an ordinary brace could not be used. The best types are made with ball-bearing head (see diagram adjoining)

and mounted with cocos or ebony wood. Dowel or Twist Bits are illustrated
in diameter.
if

They

in. in (4); sizes range from T " drift " are used for deep boring where a centre bit would

V*

(3) is used for boring wood to receive screws and effect a clean hole, reducing the possibility of splitting to a minimum.

bored to any depth. The Spoon Bit

200

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP, xvi

FIG. 10.

Woodworking

tools.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

2OI

Description of Fig. 10 {continued}. Centre Bits, (5), are used chiefly for comparatively shallow boring, and the larger sizes are of special utility, as for example, when boring out the core

of an oilstone case
(6)
is

is

necessary.

to receive

Rose-head Countersink. Used to shape the heads of holes This type bores much cleaner than the Snail-head Counterscrews.
a
is

sink, which
of

a quick cutter and useful for large work.

GAUGES.
styles
finish,

The Mortise Gauge (n),

chiefly in

is

made

in several qualities

and

rosewood or ebony with brass fittings. The type illustrated is most serviceable, and does not require the use of a screwdriver when the points have to be adjusted. This is the best type owing to its simple
action.

(12)

is

Cutting Gauge with

brass-cased head

and screw adjustment.

to advantage in almost every instance where gauging is necessary making a thinner and cleaner line than the marking gauge. All gauge heads are better when faced up with
is

This tool

used for splitting thin material, and

may be used

brass, lasting longer,

but working rather heavier owing to the extra grip of the

is

metal-facing.

A Marking Gauge

shown

in

(13).

Used

for

gauging up material

previous to planing, and also for the production of lines parallel to an edge from which the gauge is operated. The marking point consists of a small round piece of steel filed to a sharp point. Brass strips are sometimes cut into the face of the

stock (see illustration) and add to its wearing qualities. character are described in the succeeding chapters.
(9) illustrates
arcs,
etc.,

Other gauges of a special

a pair of Steel

Compasses

upon wood.

An

alternate pattern,

used for marking circular which permits of a more speedy

In addition to their use in striking adjustment, is called Spring Dividers. arcs, the latter pattern are specially suited to the divisions of lines by trial. Cramps. (14) illustrates an iron type which has obvious advantages over the wooden pattern.

They

are stronger

and

truer, easier to adjust,

and do not

necessitate the frequent renewal of the screws.

joints

They

and framing, and are made up

to 6

ft.

long.

up Lengthening bars can also be

slips in drawers.

are used for cramping

obtained to extend the action of the cramp. (19) is a Gee Cramp for small work fixing mouldings and
(20)
illustrates

the

English pattern Handscrew,

English ash handles.
is
is

usually

made

with

beechwood chops and

is

split

Split material for the screws

essential, or frequent breaking

bound

to occur.

Hickory,

being close-

grained, strong,

and easy running,

is

a superior
in

wood

for these screws

The German pattern

illustrated

(16),

made

and chops. A of hornbeam.

strong handscrew, and more popular with most craftsmen than the English type. Sizes of both vary from 4 in. chops. A Glue-pot is shown in (10). The example is of iron with galvanized
lining.

Copper

glue-pots, although

more expensive, are

better because of the

202

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

Description of Fig. 10 (continued], quicker heating qualities and freedom from breakage to which the cast-iron

type

is

particularly susceptible.
is

A Holdfast

illustrated in Fig. 10 (15),

and

is

used to secure boards and

general work to the bench. (18) is a suitable kind of Oil-can, and that most important tool, the Try Square, used for a very large number of purposes, is shown in Fig. 10 (17).

The Straightedge,

of which several are necessary in the general equipment

FIG. ii.

Straightedge.
1 1
.

of a well-ordered handcraft shop, is illustrated in Fig. of mahogany with rosewood or satinwood

or ebony edging 2-5 ft. 6 in.
;

They

are best

made

length varying from

in

Winding
Fig.

Strips are shown

12.

Made from mahogany

with
FIG. 12.

Short dowels ivory or ivorine sights. are fixed as shown to keep a pair together

Winding

strips.

when not

in use.

large

Wooden Square
' -

is

shown

in Fig. 13.

One

of this type should

---

FIG. 13.

Large wooden square.

be included

in general

equipment.
length.
is

Length of stock and blade

1

varies

the latter

ranges from 10-24

in. in

A Shooting Board

illustrated in Fig.

4.

It is best

made

in

mahogany.

FIG. 14.

Shooting board.

FIG. 15,

A horizontal vice.

A
in

mitre attachment

is

clamps, flat Fig. 15 is a horizontal vice, one of which should be in every equipment. invaluable for holding metal or tools whilst cutting or repairing.

dowelled to the board, this being used for shooting mitre It can be removed at will. mouldings, etc.
is

It

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

203
(Fig.

METALVVORKING TOOLS AND THEIR USES

The tools illustrated (1) Centre Punch.
work of
all

16).

in Fig.

16 are as follows

Sometimes called a mitre punch.

descriptions, also for dotting the place

Used for marking where holes have to be drilled

steel.

for the centre of the drill to start in.

(2)

Made

of tool

The Engineer's

Hammer

and the pane, pene, or peen. fastened with a metal wedge driven in parallel with the length of the head. The shaft should be carefully fitted so that the oval of the shaft is true with the head
eye,
;

head consists of three parts the face, the The shaft should be of hickory or ash, and

if it is

otherwise

it

causes the student

when

using a chisel to miss the head of the

brass for use
in.

chisel

and

hit his

hand.

(3)

Scriber.

Made

either of brass or steel

on iron and

steel,

steel for use

on

brass, copper, etc.

Used

for

marking

(4)

Outside Calipers.
sizes

and

for transferring

Used for measuring the outside diameters of bodies from the rule to articles in the round, or vice versa.
There are many

Usually
varities.

made

of iron or steel and used largely in turning.

(5)

Wing Compasses.
all

Made of iron
kinds.

with hardened steel points.

Used

for

geometrical setting out of

Used for cleaning files by brush(6) Scratch Card or Card Wire Brush. It consists of ing it on the file and in the same direction as the cut of the teeth. card wire tacked on a piece of wood shaped so that it is suitable for holding in
the hand.

Used for filing all kinds of flat surfaces (7) An 8 in. Hand Bastard File. and roughing down any metal. Sometimes called a safe edge flat file, as it has one edge without teeth, for use when filing shoulders.
(8)

An 8 in.
flat

Half-round Bastard File.

for

Used

for the

preliminary roughing

down

of

and curved surfaces

or

any metal.

(9)

Hand

Cold Chisel.
purpose
it

state in contradistinction to a hot

a hot

state.

For

this

Used for cutting all kinds of metals in a cold hand chisel that is used for cutting metals in would be 3 in. longer and thinner at cutting edge.

Made

of tool

steel.

Or sometimes called a copper bit. Used for all (10) Soldering Iron. kinds of soft soldering. Handle usually of wood, rein of wrought iron, bit of wrought Made in various sizes and shapes 1-2^ Ib. are the most useful copper.
;

weights.

that

(n) Tinman's Gas Stove. Used by a tinman when soft soldering, so one iron can be getting hot while the other is being used. Stove made of
(i 2)

cast iron.

copper,

etc.

Lancashire Hack Saw. Used only for Frame of wrought iron, blade 12 in.
are, thin at the back,

soft metals,

such as brass,

long,
it

and

thick
filed
;

on edge

where teeth

tempered so that

can be

no

set to

204

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

,1,1,1,1.1,1,1,1,1,1.1,1,1.1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1.1,1,111,1,1,1,1,1,1,1

FIG. 16.

Metalworker's tools.

CHAP, xvi.j

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

20$

teeth.

Description of Fig. 16 (continued). Should not be used for steel or iron.

in Fig. 17.

Teeth 8 or loto the inch.

Should

be held as shown
(13)
for steel

Star Hack Saw. Used and iron as well as other

metals.

Frame cf

cast-iron,

blades
filed.

8 in. long, hardened, cannot be

Teeth 14 to the inch. Can also be had with twenty-three teeth per in.
(14)

Hack Saw

Measurements taken over

all.

Blade. Somefiled,

times tempered so that they can be filed, or hard teeth with soft backs.
(15)

or hardened so that they cannot be

iron or steel, sometimes with or

Steel

Try Square.

Made
soft.

of

all

without measurements, hardened or

(16)

Imperial Standard

Wire Gauge.

measuring the various thicknesses of metal. Not used for steel wire, lead, zinc, tempered.

One Made of

of the gauges used in

steel

and hardened and

silver,
:

or gold.

The tools illustrated on Fig. 18 are as follows Used generally for turning a tap. (r) Double-handed Tap Wrench. Holes made to suit various sized tap heads. Made of iron or steel. Used for the same purposes as No. i, (2) Adjustable Tap Wrench.
with
the exception that adjustment handle which has a hole for a lever to
(3)
is

obtained

by

turning

the right-hand
nuts.

assist in tightening.

Single-ended Spanner.

Used
Used

for turning bolts

and

Made
3.

of

malleable iron with case-hardened jaws.

(4)
(5)

Double-ended Spanner.
Stillson

for the

same purpose

as

No.
;

Really an adjustable spanner with teeth the more pressure put on the handle the tighter the grip in the jaws. The teeth are in opposite directions, and they mark the object being held.

Wrench.

Also an adjustable spanner, but (6) Double-action Coach Wrench. the jaws open and close very quickly, owing to the two screws which are right and left handed also a better grip of the object being held in the jaws can be Sometimes called a monkey wrench. obtained.
;

(7)

holds the dies.

Stocks and Dies. The stock is that portion with handles which The dies are adjustable by means of the set screw, and a number
These are used
for outside

of sets of dies are usually supplied with the stocks. screwing of all sorts up to the capacity of the stocks.
(8)

Stocks and Dies.

Sometimes called

fine dies for brass, as they are

usually used for screwing brass and copper tube, and the thread is twenty-six to the inch. This thread is used largely in brass work. The dies are for three different sizes and denote the outside diameter of finished work. There is also a wheel for

cutting off thin tube, which, like the dies,

is

adjustable by means of a thumbscrew.

206

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP, xvi

FIG. 18.

Metalworker's

tools.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,
1

AND

TOOLS.

2O?

Description of Fig.
(9)

8 (continued)

Stocks and Dies.

means
piece.

British Association).

Sometimes called B.A. stocks and dies (B.A. Stocks are usually of gunmetal, and the die is in one

A saw-cut is put in one side of die and a small set screw to allow a small adjustment by means of the springiness of the die to compensate for wear. The dies are held in their place by means of the milled-headed set screw shown, and
sizes are

known by number from o

Circular Split Die.

to 10, o being the largest.

This

is

the B.A.

standard.
(10)
( 1 1
)

This

is

the die used in the stocks of No.

9.

Double-handed Screw Plate.

A piece of flat steel, pierced, tapped,

Made largely to

suit

hardened, and tempered, for screwing pins by once running down. Whitworth standardized threads.
(12)

Inside Chaser.

Sometimes called

comb

chaser.

Made

in all pitches for

inside screwing tool, or inside screwing internal vee threads it has to be

;

fixed into a

handle and used by hand.

for cutting external

(13)
sizes.

Outside Chaser. Used Makes a pair with (12).

threads of

all

kinds and

(14)

Plug

or

Bottoming Tap.

The one

illustrated is a

in. fine

thread,

that

is

twenty-six to the inch.

(15)

Taper Tap.
in.

ones

for

(16)

Makes a pair with (14), and this pair with the remaining and f in. would make a set with the stocks and dies (8). First Taper Tap.

(17)
(18)

Second Taper Tap. Plug or Bottoming Tap.

Used
in

These three form a

small sizes;

set of taps

and are

of one size and pitch.

combination with the stocks and dies

only in
it

(7).

Made in all sizes, and used for enlarging holes. tapered and squared so that they can be turned by means of a tap wrench or used in a fitter's brace, illustrated in Fig. 20 (9).
The ends
(21)

Wire Tap. Made (19) necessity for using a tap wrench. Reamer or Rimer. (20)

does away with the

are

made

Broach. Has five flat sides. Used for enlarging holes. Milling Tool. Sometimes called knurling tool, consisting of a knurlUsed by pressing ing wheel which runs on a hardened pin in an iron holder. against the work, which is revolved in lathe, when the knurling wheel cuts a pattern on the work. Used in the same manner as a knurling wheel, (23) A Pearling Wheel.
(22)

but mostly used to decorate, or put a series of pearls or beads on a circular object. Used in the holder (22). Made of steel (24, 25, 26) Knurling Wheels.

and hardened.

Used for holding work in the hand or for (27) Lancashire Hand Vice. Sometimes made holding templets to metal while the metal is being marked out. of all steel or of wrought iron with jaws faced with steel.

SMITH'S TOOLS.

The

tools illustrated in Fig. 19 are

some of those

that

are used in the forging of metals.

208

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

FIG. 19.

Smith's tools.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

200

Description of Fig. 19 (continued).

few numbers show some of the tongs in general use, but there is a of different shapes which are generally made to fit the work in hand or are altered to fit, as unless the tongs fit the work so that it is held securely, and
first

The

large

number

in the proper manner, an accident wrought iron and of all sizes.

(1)

is

likely to occur.

Forge tongs are made of

Open-mouthed Tongs.
iron.

Used

for holding

medium-sized pieces of

round or square
(2)

Sometimes
flat

called

flat bills.

Close-mouthed Tongs.
Sometimes called

Used
bills.

for holding small sizes of

round or

square iron.
(3)

Hollow-bit Tongs.
Rivet Tongs.

Used

for

holding round iron.

Sometimes called

round

bits.

Used for holding rivets or small round iron at right Sometimes called ring tongs. For holding bolts or similar work. The hollow at back of (5) Bolt Tongs. jaw allows the head to clear the tongs. Also used for holding flat iron to bend it
(4)

angles to tongs.

edgewise.
(6)
(7)

Bolt Tongs. Another form of (5). Pick-up Tongs. For picking up work

of irregular shape.

Sometimes

called

mandrel tongs.

(8)

Bent-bit Tongs.

For holding iron

parallel to tongs.

Sometimes

called side tongs.

shown in Fig. 20 (8). For making mouldings. The iron, a little smaller than the width of the tool, is heated and placed in position and is driven into the tool by means of a flatter and sledge hammer. Corresponds with the rodded (10) Bottom Swage or Rounding Tool.

Tongs
(9)

for holding flat iron are

Bottom Tool.

top swage shown just above in various sizes.

it.

Used

for

making anything round, and they are made

sizes,

(n) Bottom Swage.

small tenons or similar work.
(12)

Of three different
Used
in

T ff f
,

in.

for

rounding up

Bottom

Fuller.

conjunction with (13) for putting hollows

or necks in the work.

(13)

(14)

Top Fuller. Used in conjunction with (12) as above. A Flatter. Used for bringing work to a smooth flat surface.

sett

Used for cutting hot metal It is much thinner than a cold (15) Hot Sett. and not tempered so hard, and has a sharper angle for cutting edge.
(16)

Set

Hammer.
Sett.

Used

for setting

down

square shoulders or similar

Is

work.
(17)

A Cold

Used

for cutting cold metal.

much

thicker than a

hot sett and tempered to a dark brown colour, and cutting angle is 60. Usually fitted with a withy twisted round chisel as shown in Ch. xiv, Fig. 5 (10), or has a
hazel rod fitted into the eye as shown.
(18)

A Square

Drift

Punch.

Used

for

punching square

holes.

210

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

Description of Fig. 19 (continued].

(19)

Round

Drift

Punch.

Used

for

punching round holes.

Used for bending metal into different (20 and 21) Scroll Wrenches. forms; (20) is forged out of one piece of metal, and in (21) the fork is forged from one piece, and a handle made from a piece of gas barrel is shrunk on.

When doing a number of pieces which are all the quicker to make a scroll iron and bend all the scrolls on it by holding the end of the iron at the centre and pulling it round (usually when the iron is at a red heat), thus making them all alike.
(22)

Scroll Iron.
it is

same shape

(23)

Scroll

Horn

or

Fork.

It is

put in the vice and used in conjunction

with (20 and 21).

(24) (25)

Smith's Shovel or Slice. For use at the forge fire. Poker. Used at the smith's fire. The end is turned up
fire

so that the

clinker which forms at the bottom of the

(26)
(27)

either

Smith's Rake. Hardie or Anvil Cutter. Used for cutting off pieces hot or cold. The hardie fits into the square hole in the
is

can be picked out. Used for pulling the fuel over the work in the
tail

fire, etc.

of bar or rod iron of the anvil.

The

iron

laid across the

hand hammer.
the iron breaks

The
off.

iron

is

edge of the hardie and the iron is struck with the then reversed and process repeated, a slight tap and

The
smith
:

illustrations in Fig.

20 are of the plant and

fitted

tools largely

used by the

(1)

Portable Forge,

with a hood, and has a solid tue iron or tuyere

The other part of the forge is of wrought iron riveted together. Forges are made in various sizes, and the sizes are those of the bed or hearth, and the one illustrated is 33 x 27 in. The hearth should be about 2 ft. 3 in.
of cast iron.

from the
(2)

floor.

is

Double-blast Circular Bellows, made in various sizes. The nozzle connected to the bellows by means of a piece of leather tubing. If the bellows
little

are at a

distance from the forge, the blast

is

conducted to the back of the

tue iron by means of large-bore gas barrel. The size of this is (3) Grindstone. the face of the stone.

The one

illustrated is

The size is the diameter. known by the diameter and width of 36 x 5 in. The stone itself is either
They
are of different
as follows
:

of natural sandstone, or of some artificial composition. degrees of coarseness and hardness, and some of the

names are

The stone should not rest in water for Yorkshire, Newcastle Blue, Bilston. any length of time as this tends to soften it and so make it wear unevenly.
(4)

Hand-drilling Machine, one of the

simplest forms.

Made

mostly of

cast iron, except the spindles,

which are of wrought iron. The drill is fed downwards by means of the hand wheel on top, and holes up to i in. diameter can be
easily drilled with
(5)
it.

Smith's Anvil and Stand.

:

Theanvil

is

of wrought ironfacedwith steel.

The

parts are as follows

The horn

or

beak

the chopping step or block or table,

CHAP. XVI.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

211

FIG. 20.

Smith's plant and

tools.

2t2

frANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

which
tail,

Description of Fig. 20 (continued). is left soft for cutting on the face, which
;

is

hardened and

slightly

rounded the
;

which has a square and a round hole in it and is flat. The square hole is for bottom tools, and the round hole is for use when punching small holes. Underneath the tail there is usually a hole which is for placing a lever in, to assist in lifting the
anvil.

The

stand
it

is

of cast iron.

tree trunk half-buried in the

ground makes

good
(6)

stand, as

Lever

absorbs vibration and does not jump like the cast-iron stands. Shearing Machine for cutting thick sheets and bar iron,
is

That portion which shears the rods

(7) (8) (9)

called the cropper.

Straight

Pane Sledge Hammer. A Box Tongs for holding flat iron rod.
Metalworker's Brace.
fixed with a
It

useful weight

is

about 8

lb.

Fitter's or

has a taper square hole for

the

drills

and they are

thumbscrew.

The
(1)

tools in Fig. 21 are mostly sheet metalworker's tools

Two-hole Gas

Pliers.
in.

They

are measured over

pliers.

and are as follows all and the length

:

should be stated, such as 10

5 in. size are called (2)

two-hole gas

Their uses are varied.

The

burner

pliers.

Bellhanger's Cutting Pliers, or Flat-nosed Cutting Pliers.

also

Known
(3)

(4)
(5)

are then
(6)

Made from 5-10 in. long. by their length over all. Round-nosed Pliers. Made from 5-10 in. long. Manchester Cutting Nippers. Made from 6-18 in. long. Tinman's Straight Shears or Snips. Made also with curved jaws known as bent snips. Made from 6-16 in. long. Fret-saw Frame, best quality. Made of tool steel, used by piercers
to

measured from saw blade

(7) 2
lb.

back of frame.

Usual

size 12 in.

A
(8)

Cross-pane Riveting Hammer. Head weighs from about 4 oz. to heavier make of head is called an engineer's or fitter's cross-pane
to about 3 lb.

hammer, and weighs up

called a

Round and Square-faced Planishing Hammer.

smoothing hammer. Used all weights up to 4 lb.
for

Sometimes

smoothing or flattening sheet metal.

Made

in

(9)

Chaser's

Hammer

or

Repousse Hammer.
oz.

Used

chiefly

by

chasers and embossers.

Weight of head from 2-4

or

(10-19)
are

Chasing Tools
or

Repousse" Punches, and numbers (io-u)

is
is
is

(12-13) are Raising or Cushion Tools; (14) Setting-down Tool, as the straight side is higher than the round (15) Half-round or Curved Tracer; (16) is a Cup or Ring Tool; (17)

Liners

Tracers;

a
a a

Pearling
(19)
is

or Ball

Tool;

(18)

is

a Riffler or Riffle, used for modelled and cast work.

(20)
(21)

Flatterer Facing Tool or Planisher; filing the hollows and shaped surfaces in
size.

Drift, used for finishing a square hole to an accurate

Creasing Iron.

Used

for

knocking up and finishing beads, wired

edges, etc.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

213

12

13

It

16

17

FIG. 2i.

Metalworker's tools.

214

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

Description of Fig. 21 (continued).

(22)

Tinman's Anvil.
is

but the curved edge

square.

One edge is rounded Made of wrought

off

iron

and one side is curved, and faced with steel,

up.

hardened and polished.

(23)

Must be kept polished and covered

(24) (25)

Hatchet Stake. The edge is of steel hardened and polished. Funnel Stake. Made of wrought iron and polished, not steel faced. Half-moon Edging Stake. Faced with steel, hardened and

polished.
(26)

Pepper-box Head-stake
polished.

or Ball

Head-stake.

Faced with

steel

and hardened and

Note.

marks on these stakes are transferred

(8)

Nos. (21-26) must be kept polished and well looked after, as any This also applies to Nos. to the metal.

and

(29).

These are made

in

many

sizes

and weights, and are usually sold

the metal after the rivet has been

by the pound.
(2 7)

Rivet Set.

Used

for setting

down

At the side of the hole there is a hollow cup for rounding up placed in position. the tail of the rivet after it has been hammered over.
(28)

Groover

(29)

An

or Seam Set for setting down seams or folds in sheet metal. Engineer's Surface Plate. Used for testing and setting out.

Must be kept covered. Usually of cast iron and planed up in a planing machine. Only the most expensive ones are hand scraped. Made in various sizes. very useful for (30) Fletcher Russell Foot-bellows for blowpipe work Made in different sizes. small work and does not take up much room.
;

(31)

Gas Blowpipe.

Used

for brazing

and

silver-soldering

and connected

with the foot-bellows (30) outside tube it is made of.

valve gas control.
(32)

by india-rubber tube. Known by the size of the The one illustrated is a f in. blowpipe with lever-

Brazing Pan.

Made

of sheet

and bar

iron riveted together.

Filled

with coke, fireclay, asbestos, charcoal, or pumice stone, and used for brazing, silver-soldering, etc. handy size is one about 18 x 24 in. and about 2 ft.

in.

high to the top edge.

The

small trays at the side are for spelter and borax.

The
(1) (2) (3)

tools illustrated in Fig.

22 are mostly lathe tools as follows

parallel shank.

Straight-fluted Drill with

Morse-twist

Rose Countersink with

Slocombe
is

Drill with parallel shank. taper square shank.

This

is

only suitable for

soft metals unless rehardened.

countersink

The angle of the Drill and Countersink combined. This is used the average angle used for the centres of lathes. largely for the pieces of work that are to be turned in the lathe, as it drills and countersinks the holes for the centres at one operation.
(4)

Nos. (5-13) make a useful set for use in the slide rest, (5) Lathe Tools. and they are usually made of carbon tool steel, and in different size material according to requirements. No. 5 is known as a Diamond-pointed Roughingdown tool or a hook tool.

CHAP, xvi.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

21$

Description of Fig. 22 (continued}.

(6)

Round-nosed Roughing-down Tool.

it

If

mild steel

cuts better

if

the right-hand corner marked

in.

used on wrought iron or A is ground down a bit

lower than the front left-hand corner, about -$-\

the metal being cut.
(7)
etc.,

lower.

But

it

depends on

Right-hand Side Tool.

side.

Used

for

squaring up or facing off shoulders,

the same

on the right-hand
(8)

Left-hand Side Tool.

Used

for

purpose as

(7),

only

opposite hand.
(9)

Vee Threading Tool

for cutting exterior threads with the

automatic

slide rest in action.

(10)

Square Threading Tool

slide rest in action.

for cutting exterior square threads with the

for

automatic
drawn.
(i i)

Could also be used

one side of the
for roughing out.

also easier to forge the nose at

tool,

a cutting-off tool. It is instead of the centre as

Simply a matter of

taste.

Inside Boring Tool

Used mostly

for shallow holes

or rings.
(12)

(13)

action.

Inside Boring Tool for finishing cuts. Inside Vee Threading Tool for use with the automatic slide rest in The same kind of tool only with a square end instead of a vee is used
1 6,

for cutting inside square threads.

(14, 15,

17)

Tools used

for turning brass.

They have no top

rake,

and

90. (14) Is known as a Ripper, used for roughing down; (15) is a Planisher, used for smoothing or finishing; (16) is a Round-nosed Planisher; (17) is a Right-hand Side Tool or an offset tool, used for squaring up shoulders, ends, and inside work.
have cutting angles of about 70
to
%

Used for holding high-speed steel turning tools. (i 8) Lathe Tool Holder. these small tools can be ground on an emery wheel, and the holder takes the strain of the cutting, steel of small section can be used, so saving cost of material
As
and the trouble of
(19)
forging.
for finishing off iron
in the hollow.

Spring Planisher
is

and

steel.

If

it

springs too

much a

piece of hardwood

wedged

(20)

name
jaws
:

is

Three-jawed Chuck fitted on to a face-plate of a lathe. The correct Cushman three- jawed geared scroll chuck. It usually has two sets of
Inside Jaws.
For Cushman
scroll

the ones in the chuck are outside jaws.

(21)

chuck.

simultaneously by means of a key.

(22)
for bolts,

Used

for holding

These are all moved work that has to be turned.

An Independent Four-jawed Chuck,

and has not been
fitted to

with reversible jaws, slotted

a face-plate. Used for holding irregular shaped pieces of work, parts of which have to be turned. Holds work that (20) cannot hold.
(23)
drilling.

An Archimedean

Breast Drill-stock.

Used by hand

for light

216

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

FIG. 22.

Metalworker's

tools.

CHAP, xvr.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

217

Description of Fig. 22 (continued}.

Used for screwing down on to the end of a piece being turned between the centres of a lathe. The tail catches on the angle piece in the driving chuck J (26) or the dog in the driver plate. Made in many forms and in cast iron, malleable iron, and steel.
(24)

Lathe Carrier.

of

work that

is

Slide Rest, bolted to the bed of a lathe. Used and moving them with precision. The circular piece on top is the tool holder and it can be moved in a circle, and the two set The top slide moves parallel with the bed of screws hold the tool in position.
(25)
for holding turning tools

A Compound

the lathe, but

it

can also be moved

slide,

in

a circle by loosening two bolts which are

underneath the top

of the lathe.

The

about 30 each side of a line at right angles to the bed bottom part of the slide rest is fixed, but the whole of the

top portion can be moved at right angles to the bed of the lathe by means of the lower screw. The top slide, which turns on the bottom slide, allows for
taper turning.

Plain Foot-lathe. It is very simple, and rarely or never gets With a few accessories a wide range of work can be done with it. It is usually known by the length of the bed B and the height of its centre. That is the height from the face of the lathe bed to the point of the centre in the The names of the parts are as follows driving chuck J.
(26)

out of order.

A. Standards or legs of cast iron.

B. Lathe bed.

Usually of cast iron with the top and top edges planed smooth

and

true.

C. Driving-wheel or fly-wheel of cast iron, with vee grooves, for taking a

round

belt.

fairly

heavy one

is

preferable.

D. Crankshaft.
conical bearings.
set screw, the

Made of wrought iron, The fly-wheel is fixed on

little

with the ends case-hardened for the

to the crankshaft

by a key or with a

end of which goes a

E. Crank.
F. Treadle.
it

way into the shaft. Made of wrought iron. Sometimes called the pitman. It should be of hardwood and be as wide as convenient, as then

is more comfortable to use. The bolts after being tightened up should have the ends burred, or riveted up ; if not, they soon work loose and drop out. The bar at the back to which the treadle supports are riveted, and which works between

two

centres,

is

called the treadle shaft.

G. Back stay or stretcher.

rigid

Made

of wrought iron.

Keeps the standards

and the correct distance apart. H. Fast headstock. Made of cast

screw, the front

iron, the tail

end bored with a hole to take

collar of

the

tail
I.

end bored

to take a

coned

hardened

steel.

Fitted on to the steel mandrel. Driving pulley of cast iron. Kept in Has four grooves for the reception of the gut band. position by being a force fit. This screws on to the nose-piece of mandrel and is fitted J. Driving chuck.

with a catch bar which

is

is kept in its place by means of a set screw. kept in position by being a taper fit.

The

centre

2l8

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

Description of Fig. 22 (continued'). K. Tailstock or poppet head.

barrel

M, which

is

screwed and

is

Made made

of cast iron and drilled to receive the

to

move backwards and

it is

forwards by
in

means of the hand-wheel L. L. Hand-wheel of cast

the barrel

When

necessary

fixed
to

M,

so

moving

it

iron. This is keyed on backwards and forwards.

by the set screw N. a screw which works

M.
is

Sliding barrel.

Made

fixed to the

hand-wheel L.

Has a

of wrought iron and screwed for the screw which taper fitting at the forward end to take a

centre, and has a keyway cut in its length into which a set screw is fitted, so preventing the barrel turning when the hand-wheel is turned. N. Set screw of wrought iron or steel. Used for fixing the barrel.

O. Tool

rest.

Made

of cast iron.
in

Moves on a base

plate,

which

is fitted

to

the bed of the lathe.

P.

Can be placed

Tee

rest.

Usually of cast

any position. iron, which in consequence generally gets

iron.

broken.
drilled in

Should be of malleable cast iron or wrought the top they add to its convenience.
steel.

If

holes

are

Q. Set screw of wrought iron or R. Hand nuts. Made of cast

Fixes

Tee

rest in the correct position.

iron.

Made

like this so that they can

be

tightened without the use of a lever or spanner. plates which fit the underneath part of lathe bed

They run up
;

against the cast

these have a hole in them,

through which the bolt passes.

S.

Nut and

cast plate for tightening

up

fast

headstock.

(27)

Hook and

Eye.

Made

of tool steel hardened

and tempered to a

purple colour and are screwed inside.

belts used on light machinery and end and the hook or eye screwed on until the end of gut comes through this end is then burnt down level with a red-hot piece of iron. Gut belts can be tightened by twisting them up, or loosened by untwisting them.
;

are used for connecting the gut The gut belt is tapered at the foot-lathes.

They

THE METALWORKING SHOP.

When
setting out a

the main idea should not be

or how much how can the maximum
appliances.

metalworking shop for the purpose of giving instruction, how much work can be turned out in a given time, labour-saving machinery can we put into a given space, but rather,
of instruction be given with the

minimum

of tools and

giving instruction without the aid of expensive equipment the Moreresourcefulness of the student is developed as well as his adaptiveness. over, a student, just because he is a student, is more likely to damage expensive

By

tools.

this in itself

Often a student can repair a simple tool that he may have broken, and is a good With the shop planned and equipped with the training.

plant and tools illustrated in Fig. 23, it is possible to do all the work indicated on these pages. All the tools and appliances shown have been proved to be the
best

of course

and the most necessary for the teaching of metalwork on broad lines. But many can be done without, or many more can be added as occasion

CHAP. XVI.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND

TOOLS.

219

220
demands.
if

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvi.

The plan of a shop on page 219 is offered as a suggestion, and could but it is based on one in actual use, necessary be modified to suit conditions and is very convenient. An additional advantage would be a storeroom for the
;

safe

keeping of metals, etc., and a room suitable for the pickling, washing, and The necessary working dipping of metals, with a small room for lacquering. drawings to be used in connexion with the work could be done in the shop
itself,

as the patterns, tools, etc., necessary for reference are all handy.

With

reference

to

the

ventilating, lighting,

and heat-

ing:

Plenty of windows with casements and fanlights above,

so that
artificial light
is is

not

used more than

necessary,

are suggested. In ther the fanlights

bad weacan

be

opened when the casements For artificial lightcannot.

ing the

use

of

individual
lathe,

lights to

each vice and

consisting of a single counter-

weight pendant, with switch lamp holder and lamp, are

best.

These are economical,

the
light

as

only

actually

wanted need be used.

winter

For heating the shop in low - pressure steam

satisfactory

seems very
comfortable.
FlG 2 4-

and

In Fig. 24 will be seen the section of a bench

for
files

with a rack
in.
in.

above.

The bench should be

be of beech
file
i ft.

3 in.
i

high and 2 ft. 8 wide and not less than

ft.

broad

the front board should

in. thick.

The bottom

of the

rack should be

ft.

3 in. from the bench.

Leg

vices are very suitable

parallel vices.

for general use, as they are

more

solid to

work on than

Various

should be obtained, say from 3^ to 4^ in. jaw width. The jaws vary by \ in. The large vices should be fixed in close proximity to the forges. The rack for smith's tools illustrated on page 221 is most convenient if fixed to the wall by the
sizes

side of the forges, as then the tools are close by

Fig. for

and handy for working. In shown a strong wood stand for holding a cast-iron block which is used chopping out work with hammer and chisel, as illustrated on page 62. The
26
is

block measures 12 x 12 x 2^

in.

fillet

of

wood

is

screwed down

all

the

CHAP. XVI.]

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT,

AND
FOR.

TOOLS.
ETC.

221

c
ro"

RACK

BOTTOM TOOLS

RACtC FOR,

TONGS

UPRIGHTS "4"x
NX/ALL

I"

2/6"

LINE

ELEV: PLAN & -5ECT END vox/

1

IRON

1"

'A"

OF- A-R.ACK. FOR.

1

SMITH'S -TOOUS

FLOOR, LINE
FIG. 25.

Rack

for smith's tools.

way round

to prevent the iron block

for the stands
;

provided, two

and

four for

jumping off. Six of these blocks should be bench use. The shop is designed for

use without power

stone,

and

drilling

if power was installed the arrangement of the lathes, grindmachines would have to be modified. It is also arranged for

little

eighteen boys and one instructor, but with the aid of another instructor and a arrangement of the work ten more boys could be accommodated by using

the six lathes and two forges, two boys to each forge, so making accommodation
for twenty-eight.
If the shop was required for the use of advanced students, some additional machinery would be required, such as a planing machine, screw-cutting lathes, etc., and then power would be a necessity, and for the convenience of working it would be best to have all the machines in a separate shop.

FIG. 26.

chopping block on wood stand.

CHAPTER

XVII

THEORY OF CUTTING ACTIONS OF TOOLS

are many methods of cutting metals and necessarily many cutting tools, and a general knowledge of the main principles of the methods is of importance to any one who has to manipulate metals.

THERE

Only the elementary cutting tools which can be sharpened without expensive equipment will be dealt with here. The most efficient cutting angle depends not only on the material of the tool itself but also on the material and condition of the metal to be cut.

To minimize

the heat generated by the action of cutting, oil or

some other

lubricant must be used.

Cutting operations may be classified as follows Chiselling, sawing, filing, shearing, punching, drilling, turning (including cutting with a diamond), screw:

ing, milling, fusing.

Some
or cold.

of these processes are performed

is

when the metal

is

cold,

some must
either hot

be done when the metal

hot, whilst for others the metal

may be

The

action of a metal cutting tool

is

generally considered a shearing action.

Shearing takes place when sufficient force is applied to tear away the metal from the main body so that the action may be taken as follows
:

Cutting with a metal cutting tool consists of pressing, tearing, and shearing the metal away with the one side or face only of the tool under pressure, as the
opposite side
is

This

is

illustrated in Fig.

generally clear of the work, as in the action of a turning tool. With a pair of shears both sides or faces of the 1, No. i
.

tool are

under pressure

this

is

shown
force

in Fig.
is

1,

No.

2.

applied to the cutting edge of the tool and the substance is severed particle by particle. The tenacity of the material opposes the entry of the tool, but the first motion given to the tool, which severs

In

many

instances a

moving

at the

a portion or a shaving which, directly it is away from the main body, is curled up, same time still presses down on the slope of the tool so keeping it up to the work. When the tool is too keen, as may be the case with a badly ground

turning tool or twist drill, the cutting edge gets drawn into the metal by the same action and the point or edge gets sheared off. In the use of a " hot sett " or " chisel " the action is rather that of wedging

than that of shearing.

(222)

CHAP. XVII.]

THEORY OF CUTTING ACTIONS OF

TOOLS.

223

NOTE. FDIMT OF TOOLSMOULD CENTRE OF WORK

.

^
.

-^

BELIEF AEOLTT.

-A MATERIAL BE ,NGCUT

^/ B-B
I,

BLADES
.

orSHARS
IN

il

NO i

SIDE:

VIEW or LATHE:
IM

NOS. 5HtA^5

ACTION

TOOL

ACTION

NO 5. HACK SAW BLADE

SOFT METALS NOTt NO SET OF TtETH
.
.

FOR

5AW BLADt FOR ALL MELTAL5 NOTE TEETH ARE NOT 3ET BUT THE
.

BLADE:

is.

IS0.5"

TEETH OF FILE

ENLARGED

^
\

ORT.P. No 8 PLAM OF POINT

._

SHAPE OF TEETH FOR

)

NO 9

F0fm CUTTERS FORMS OF TEETH USED ON MILLING CUTTERS

.

FIG.

i.

Examples of cutting

tools, their actions

and cutting angles,

224

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvn.

Chisels. Chipping, the removal of metal by means of a chisel and hammer, is becoming obsolete, for machinery does the work better and quicker, and in large works pneumatic tools often take the place of the chisel and hammer. In small shops, however, the chisel is still a very necessary tool, and the one illustrated in Ch. VI, f. i, is very useful for general purposes; but when used
for chipping only, the cutting edge instead of being straight across (as drawn) should be slightly curved, so that in actual use the corners will not break off or

be drawn into the metal.

For cutting

soft

metals such as brass, copper,

etc.,

more acute cutting angle could be used with advantage, say 50 instead of 60, and it could be left a little harder by cooling out when temper colour is a light
brown.

Saws.

The "hack saw

XVI,
f.

"

illustrated in Fig. 1,

No.

3,

which should be held

as illustrated in Ch.

17, is

used only on
in Fig. 1,

soft metals,

which the teeth should be

to sharpen the teeth

filed is

shown

No.

3,

and the angle to but the best method is

on an automatic grinding machine which not only grinds the teeth to the correct slope but spaces them as well. " Metalworkers do not always rely on " set of teeth to keep a clear kerf and so prevent the saw from binding, as the saws with thin backs keep their edge
better,

answer the same purpose, and are more common.

most

efficient

saw

for cold iron or steel as well as for other metals

1,

is

shown on the same page

This, a Bradenberg patent, has a very " " long life ; the peculiar set should be noticed. Some saws are made with teeth " set " and hardened and the backs left soft. that are
(Fig.

No.

4).

Metals are

now sawn

either hot or cold, a circular saw running partly im-

for hot metal, in a bath of oil for cold metal. " " of the parts of a saw are as follows Space is the distance from tooth " " " " is the depth of the tooth to tooth measured at the points or throat gullet " " from point to the root gauge is the thickness of the saw generally measured " by the wire gauge "set the amount of clearance given to the saw teeth in either

mersed

in a

bath of cold water

Names

direction to prevent the saw binding

and

to clear

away the

chips.

Filing.
size with a

A
tang

file is

one of the principal

a handle.

tools of a

metalworker and the most

difficult to master.

It consists

of a steel blade or body of very variable form

and

"

"

for fixing into

Teeth of

suitable

form and

size are

cut on the blade, and the latter is hardened and tempered. Files are classified and described according to the form, use, and nature of their teeth. Most of the terms used to describe the form require no explanation, e.g. parallel, half round,

round
like

a knife file has a section (a taper round is called a rat tail), triangular the section of a knife blade a warding file is a very thin flat file used for Pillar and cotter files are narrow files of rectangular filing the wards in keys.
;

A riffler is a bent file used for filing concave surfaces. Feather-edge have a rhombic section with two very acute and two very obtuse angles. The teeth or cut of a file are spoken of as rough, middle, bastard, second cut,
section.
files

smooth, and dead smooth, according to the number of teeth per inch, which

CHAP, xvii.]

THEORY OF CUTTING ACTIONS OF TOOLS.

225

The teeth of an ordinary file form two ranges from about 14 to 100 or more. sets crossing each other at an angle this arrangement constitutes the double or
;

cross cut.
is

with a single set of teeth is termed a float. A safe-edged file one which has one size or edge without teeth. Rasps may be grouped with

file

files though their use is chiefly confined to the woodworking trades, their form and process of manufacture are similar to those of files but the teeth consist " thrown up with a diamond-pointed chisel instead of the straightof " burrs edged chisel which is used in making the teeth of a file.
;

The
action,

and

action of filing is similar to that of sawing, consequently it is a scraping if the teeth of the saws in Fig. 1, Nos. 3 and 4, are compared with
file

the enlarged section of the

ity is at

tooth, Fig.

1,

No.

5,

on the same page, the similar-

once apparent. It should be noticed that in all files the front part of the tooth slopes backwards or has what is termed " negative rake ". The width
of the tooth at the bottom and the height of it have a great deal to do with the life and efficiency of a file, for if the tooth is high and narrow it is liable to chip or wear away more rapidly that if the tooth was of medium height and had a

wide base, which gives solidity and length of life owing to having plenty of support under the cutting edge. The angle of the cut in relation to the axis of the file is also important, as by means of this we get a slicing cut which causes the
metal to
All

come away
files
it

in curled chips and with comparative ease. have a small amount of curvature in their length.

If a flat file is

examined
flat

be seen to be thickest in the middle, and this allows a nearly surface to be obtained by filing, as any high part of the surface can be filed
will

down

in that particular place

left

by

slightly raising the

handle of the

file

and press-

ing with the

hand on the

front portion of the blade.

A scraper is usually a triangular file ground at the end on all the faces so of course there giving three keen edges which are finished up on the oil stone are many other forms, but this is very effective. This acts in the same way as a
;

only it is like one tooth being used instead of a number, and it has the advantage of being able to be held so that it will cut quickly or slowly according Another most important to the angle of the face presented to the work. point is the height the work should be so as to obtain the best results, and
file,

as the

The right a vice this governs the work. the worker is standing upright is, when with his elbow close to his side and his hand touching his shoulder the tops of
work
is

usually

held

in

height for the tops of the

jaws of a vice

the jaws should just touch the point of his elbow. The most suitable files for use in a general way are 4 in., 6 in., 8 in., half round bastards and smooths safe edge bastards and smooths. 10 in., 12 in.
;

and some safe-edge squares might be added as the necessity Files used for iron and steel should be kept separate from those used arose. on soft metals and wKen new files that have been used on soft metals will not cut, pass them on to be used on iron and steel which they will cut admirably. New files used on iron and steel get 'the teeth chipped, and wear out rapidly.
few
rat-tail files,
;

226

HANDCRAFT.
a
file

[CHAP. xvn.

gets clogged it should be brushed with the file cleaner (Ch. XVI, some pieces of metal get jammed in between the teeth of the file and cause scratches on the work being filed, they can be removed by pushing them
f.

When
1

6)

if

^^^_M_^^_ _^___ ^____

r

___

out with the corner of a

brass

or

iron;

metal are
these

flat piece of these small pieces of " called To avoid pins ".

when

filing

iron or

steel

chalk

the
it.

or put a spot or two of oil on When filing aluminium use paraffin

file

or turpentine.

The proper method

file is

of
in

standing and holding a

Fig. 2.

shown

Shearing
Shearing
is

and

Punching.

explained in the early part of this chapter, and the action is the

same in punching, as both edges cut in each case, and both act on the two sides of the metal. This can be seen by
referring to Fig.
1,

No.

6.

It

will

be

noticed, however, that the

FIG. 2.
Position

punch

itself

has parallel sides while the die has a

very slight clearance to prevent the punch binding. The use of the punch in smiths' shops, however, is quite different, as when a piece of iron is brought to a bright red heat and then a hole is punched in it by driving a punch which tapers a little outwardly towards the top, through
filing.

when

the metal with the aid of a

hammer, the hot metal

is

first

of

all

pressed from

underneath the face of the punch and then the punch is usually driven half-way through from each side so forcing the metal outwardly and enlarging the hole.
This action makes a swelling on the bar where the hole has been punched, so retaining practically all of the material and hardly weakening the bar to any

In the action of punching as illustrated in Fig. 1, No. 6, the bar is weakened according to the amount of material removed, but it is quicker and a machine does the work. Drilling, turning, and boring are three different Drilling and Turning. In drilling the work is stationary and the drill revolves, in turning operations.
extent.

the work revolves, and in boring the work

is

fixed to the saddle of a lathe

is

which

travels in a given direction, while the boring tool

is

fixed in a boring bar

which
the

placed between the centres of a lathe and revolves. This is the general practice, but of course there are
is

many

variations

action of boring

similar to drilling, though

one could not

drill

a hole with a

boring tool. Drilling differs in principle from almost every other operation in metal cutting, as it cannot be guided in any given direction and is supported by The ordinary the bearing of the cutting edges of the drill against the material.

CHAP. XVII.]

THEORY OF CUTTING ACTIONS OF TOOLS.

227
it it

flat or diamond-pointed drill (Ch. VI, f. 6) is a most useful tool, because can be easily made and tempered, and will withstand very rough usage, but does not cut in the true sense but scrapes, and requires great pressure to force

it

into the metal,

If the lip

and cuts very

slowly.
is

(Fig.

1,

No. 6)

longer than lip

the diameter of the hole will

be twice the radius of A, as this drill is guided solely by its point, and the hole so drilled will bear no relation to the diameter B. Another disadvantage of this

form of

drill is that if

the metal

is

spongy or has blow holes

in

it

where a hole

is

being drilled it will run into the softest part, or into the space away from the harder metal, so giving an uneven or slanting hole.

For rapid and good work

twist drills,

America, are universally adopted.

obtain the best results with this
with an automatic twist
larger hole
is

This
drill

drill is illustrated in

brought to perfection by Mr. Morse of Ch. XVI, f. 22. To

it

should be ground on an emery wheel

made

grinding attachment, for unless the lips are equal a than the diameter of the drill, as illustrated at B in Fig. 1,
drill

No.

7.

If the angles of
drill)

both the

lips

(which should be 120, that

is

60 each -side

of the centre of the

it

soon dulls and

are not the same, one lip does all the work, consequently Another important point is that if the requires regrinding;

cutting edge or lip C of the drill is not the highest point or has not the proper amount of " clearance," it will refuse to cut, or if it is too high it gets drawn into the metal and is then broken off.

is

When the point of the drill protrudes through the stock being drilled, but not quite through, extra care must be taken or the drill will catch in the fash of the hole and get broken. The spiral grooves of the twist drill provide the " rake," and this causes the chips to curl out of the way instead of being pulverized as
is

the case with the

drills

have

oil

cated.

The
it

flat drills and less power is required. Some twist holes through the centre so that the cutting edges can be lubrisense of feeling is or can be utilized more in drilling holes than in
tell

any other operation, and so the operator can

whether the

drill is

doing the

work

as

should, so avoiding accidents.

Turning.
and
also by the

This

is

partially explained in the early portion of this

i

diagram No.

on

p.

book (p. 79) 223, but further, the most suitable angles for

the various metals are approximately as follows (though the best angle is determined by trial and the shape of the tool being varied according to the hardness

of the material being cut)

228

HANDCRAFT.

[CHAP. xvn.

lasts the longest,

In actual practice the most efficient angle is that which cuts the sweetest and but the three factors which tend towards or cause the destruction
:

of a turning tool are

1
.

Actual wear due to use.

Presence in the material being cut of impurities which are harder than
itself.

2.

the tool
3.

The

This

last factor

heat generated which may be sufficient to soften the cutting edge. does not operate to the same extent where high-speed steel is

being used. In round-nosed roughing down tools such as shown in Ch. XVI, f. 22, No. 6, " " " as well as Side rake is not shown in side rake there should be top rake ". No. 6, but it could be obtained by lowering the corner marked A.
Castings of iron should have the scale removed with an old file, or by pickle, or by chipping, before they are turned, as the scale ruins the turning tools owing to its hardness.

The
and
if

be very obtuse or even square

the job
is

turning tools for brass are very simple, and their cutting angles must " draw in,' as, if made acute they tear the metal or
1

ripples or

strise.

not held firmly and without any shake it is liable to be full of A quicker speed should be used than that in turning iron.

Turning
used
in

tools consisting of black

it is

America, and

speed

steel

diamonds brazed into suitable shanks are being claimed by the users that they are as superior to hightools as the latter are to carbon steel tools, and in the long run they
is

are cheaper.

Screwing
work
in a lathe,
is

threading tool

ways, and when a thread is cut on a piece of the same as turning, only the movement of the sometimes different. Threads are cut by special thread milling

done

in

many
is

the action

machines, by dies which are operated by power, or by hand, by taps. Taps are Dies are illustrated in Fig. 18 on the same page. illustrated in Fig. 18, p. 206. The dies have to be held in various ways, one of which is in the stocks illustrated

on the same page. For cutting screws of

to be specially designed,

different
it is

numbers of threads

in

a lathe the lathe has

and

usually

known

as a screw-cutting lathe.

The

action of a tap cutting a thread is the same as that of a turning tool, as the cut" " ting edge of the thread on the tap has relief made by the backing off and rake
in practice that

caused by the shape of the hollows which are milled out of the tap. It is found when the hole is drilled slightly larger than the theoretical core

been

diameter and then tapped, nearly as good a thread is obtained as would have if the hole had been the correct size, and this relieves the tap of a portion
of the strain.
its

way

into the metal, not only

During the cutting of the thread, and owing to the tap forcing is the material removed but it is also squeezed

between the threads, so decreasing the diameter of the hole. This illustrates the " " flowing power of metals. This action does not take place in cast iron. In

CHAP, xvii.]

THEORY OF CUTTING ACTIONS OF TOOLS.

XVI,
it is
f.

229
is

comb
no

or hand chasers, which are illustrated in Ch.

18, there

relief

but

rake,

and

as they are usually used

is

on

soft metals

not necessary.

Milling'

usually performed

shaping or cutting metal by means of a revolving cutter, and is " .in milling machines," which are made in many forms suitCutters are

able for various requirements. with varying number of teeth.

the cutter.

made

of almost infinite variety

and

In some machines the work revolves as well as

Some work can be done very much quicker on a milling machine could be done on a lathe, as milling machines can be run at considerably higher speeds than other tools, as each tooth of the cutter is in contact with the work for only a small portion of the revolution and has a chance of being cooled
than
it

The majority of milling cutters have the front faces of the teeth radial or without any rake, as shown on p. 223, Fig. 1, No. 9, and each tooth should act as a turning tool. Cutters for mild steel cut better with a " " small amount of rake, but for brass negative rake is necessary. Form cutters " " are those which produce a formed surface and are backed off so that they
by the lubricant used.

which is done on the face of the tooth marked A, Fig. 1, No. 9. Other cutters are sharpened by grinding at B as shown in the same diagram. Milling cutters are also made with inserted teeth, that is, the body is of soft iron and the teeth which are made of special steel are fitted into grooves and screwed into position. This makes a very durable
retain their original shape after grinding,

when a tooth gets damaged it can be easily replaced. Fusing. Wrought-iron and steel plates, and structures of all sorts, are now cut up by oxygen, and it is a process based on the fact that a jet of oxygen directed upon a previously heated spot of metal ignites it, with the result that the metal is rapidly taken away in the form of an oxide. The cutting operation is as follows The surface of the metal to be cut is first heated by a mixed jet of
tool, for
:

oxygen and coal

gas.

When

this part
is

has been brought to a state of incandes-

cence, a fine cutting jet of oxygen

This immediately prodischarged upon it. duces combustion of the metal with the resulting formation of iron oxide. The
of oxygen is made sufficiently strong to blow away the iron oxide in front of with the result that a clean narrow cut is effected through the metal at a
in.

jet
it,

When cutting material more than 6 speed of travel similar to hot sawing. in thickness, hydrogen is used instead of coal gas.

INDEX
NOTE. The page numbers in thin type refer to references in the text; numbers in black type refer to illustrations, or to references accompanied by an illustration on the same page.

WOODWORK
(For index to

METALWORK SECTION,

see

p.

236.)

Abacus,

no
J.,

Bradawl, 197, 198 Bread platters, 40, 41, 42

Bridling,

Adam, R. &

52
etc.,

109 Adam doorways, facing p. no or periods Ages Stone, copper, bronze, and iron, Ancient Egyptian furniture, 3 sculpture, 3 Angle brackets, 49 Animal forms in prehistoric art, 2

Buildings for centres, equipment, 187

i

Cabinet showing marquetried ornament, facing p. 143

Cabinets, tool, 189, 190, 191

Architects, 4 Architect's perspective, 144 Architrave, Ark, the, evidences of construction, 3

Candle bracket,

36,

37
97,

no

Candlesticks, brass,

wrought iron, Carbon paper, use of, 24

Carving, 27, 158
application of 39,

98

Artichoke galls, facing Artist craftsmen, 4

p.

120

55 Norwegian and Scandinavian

examples, facing 10
p.

150

Cavetto,
. Base, Bead, 116 Beech, Bench, demonstration, 188 woodworker's, 192, 194, 195 Bevel, adjustable, 197, 198

no no

Celts, forms of chisel, 164, 165 Centre bit, 200, 201 Chair, Early Egyptian, facing p. 4

Channelling,

no

Chisels, 199, 200 Chisel, Early English

and

foreign

Bookstand, 26, 27 Boring tools, 199, 200 Boule work, 122 Bow saw, 196, 198
Brace, ratchet, 199, Brackets, angle, 49 for candle, 36,

165 Japanese, 164

of,

forms

200

Circular rims, construction Classical quotations, 3. Climatic conditions, 116 Clock case, 20, 21

of,

53

37

Column,

circular,

no

(230

232
Column,

INDEX TO WOODWORK SECTION.

development
form s
origin
of,
of,

and

various

no no

Evidences of early

art,

Exogenous growth, 115 Expansion bit, 200

Compasses, steel, 200, 201 Composite order, no Conventional designs, 144

Cornice,

no
;

Facia,
File,
Fillet,

no
197,

Corona, no Countersink, 200, 201 Craftwork, historic application classwork, 109 Cramp, thumbscrews, 200, 201 woodworkers, 200, 201 Crossbanding, 52 Currant galls, 120

wood,
1

198
inlaid,

10
carved,
tooled,
38,

to Finger plates,
etc.,

39
199

Firmer
Flap or

chisel,

gouge, 199, 200

fall,

50

no Cyma reversa, no
recta,

Flower support, 10, Forking, 52 Fretsaw, 196, 198

Frieze moulding,

no

D
Decoration, diaper, 46 ,, geometrical, 46 Decorative processes, 143, 149
Dentil,
Garlic, use

of,

157

no

Design, 145 Dividers, 200, 201 Door knocker, 24, 25

Doorways, features

of,

in
in in

historical styles,

object lessons on,

Gauges, cutting, 200, 201 ,, marking, 200, 201 mortise, 200, 201 ,, Gimlet, twist, 197, 198 Glove box, 22, 23 Glue pot, 200, 201 Gopher wood, 4 Gouge, carving, 199
firmer, 199,

Doric

200

Dove

ailing, 51

flint,

165

angles for, 26 diminished, 29

lapped,

27
1

patterns, 146 tooling, 27, 35 Grain, twisted, 117

through, Dovetails, cutting, 26 Dovetail saw, 196

Grindstone, 192, 193 Grooving, 29 Guttae, 1 10

Dowel
Drill,

bits, 199,

200

Drawing, 135
facing hand, 197, 198 no Drip moulding,
of,

H
p.

evolution

170
Hafting, early forms of, 165 Half-happed frame, 13 162 ,, ,, ,, joints used

Diirer, A., sixteenth century tools,

in,

13

setting out, 13

Hammer,
Egyptian
,,

evolution
1

of,

167, facing p.
p.

68
forms, facing

chairs,
stools,

Entablature, Entasis,

no

facing facing

p.

p.

4 4

mediaeval

167 tendon pattern, 197, 198

no
tools for centres, 187

Hand

Equipment and

holes, cutting, 19 setting out, 19

INDEX TO WOODWORK SECTION.

Handkerchief box, 22, 23 Handscrew, English, 200, 201 German, 200, 201 Hingeing a knocker, 25 pivot, 23 Historical notes on craftwork, i Holdfast, bench, 200, 202 Hollow moulding, no Husk ornament, no

233

Mallet, 194, 195 Marking awl, 194, 195 Marquetried cabinet, facing p. 143

Materials used in handcraft work, 115 Mirror frames, 34, 35, 36 Mitre block, 197, 198
cut, 197,

Modillion,

no

198

Module,

ro

Morris, William,

i, 14 Mortise and tenon joints, 34, 35

chisels, 199,

200

Inlaying, 50, 52 application of wood, 33, 37. 39, 55 definition of, 151

35

Mosaic edging, 16, 35, 146 Mother of pearl, 122

inlaying, facing p. 146

Mouldings, 29

Eastern examples, facing p

146
facing p. 145 procedure for, 38, 145, facing p. 143 with wax, 27, 148 Inlay, limitations of wood, 143 Introduction of gold, i
pictorial,

Oak
,,

apples, facing p. 120

tree,
p.

Ionic,

no

Isometric axes, 136

projection, Ivory, uses of, 122

fa cing

p.

135

European, 116 growth of an, 119, facing 120 Oblique projection, facing p. 135 Occasional table, 52, 53 Oilcan, 200, 202 Oilstones, varieties of, 197, 198 Oilstone table, 191, 192 Old woman's tooth, 194, 195
Orthographic projection, facing Ovolo moulding, no
p.

135

Japanese pearl, 122

Keyhole saw, 196, 198

Key rack,
Knocker,

10, II

Painted decoration, application Panel saws, 196, 198

of,

33

Knife box, 18, 19

24,

25

no Pedestal, no
Paterae,

Paring

chisel,

199

Pen

trays, 16, 17
in, 136,

Perspective, drawing

Lamp

Pictorial projection,

facing

p.

138 135

bracket, 31, 32 Lettering, 24, 25, 139

Picture panels, 12, 13, 14, 34, 35, 36

methods of

Pigeon holes, 50
cutting,

24

Pilaster,

in

"

M
Mahogany, 116 Cuba, 116
Honduras, 116 Spanish, 116

Pin

bit,

200

Pincers, 197, 198 Pine yellow, 116

Pinning, 43 Pin or pivot hanging, 43 trays, 16, 17 Plane, block, 194, 195 16

234

INDEX TO WOODWORK SECTION.

Shop, decoration
of,

Plane, jack, 193, 194 rebate, 194, 195 shoulder, 194, 195
trying, 192,

189

flooring of, 189 ventilation of, 189

Silver grain, 117 Skirting, Slips, oilstone, 197, 198 Slot screwing, 33 Spokeshaves, iron and wood, 194, 195 Spoon bit, 199, 200

smoothing, 193, 194 194

no

Plinth,

no
1 1

Plough, 194, 195

Poplar,
6
Portico, 109

Adam, facing Punch work, 158

p.

no

Spring growth, 120 Square, try, 200, 202 wooden, 202 ,,

Stationery case, 49, 50, 51 Stencilling, 14, 22, 35, 39
Stiles,

in

Ramification, 120

Stool, ancient Egyptian,

Rasp, wood, 2 Rays, medullary, 117 Recessing, application

patterns Roots, hair, 120

construction
of,

of,

47, 48,

facing p. 4 49

32

for,

149

Store, timber, 197 Straightedge, 202 Strap, method of cutting, 26

work, 25
Striking plate for knocker, 25 Stringings, drawings of, 53
Strips, winding, 202 Surbase, no

secondary and primary, 120

Router, 42 Ruler, round, 10, Rule, steel, 194, 195

Swag,

no

Sap, 120

Saw, bow, 196, 198

circular, 191

Table, circular sketch of, 54 construction of, 52, 53 ,,

compass, 196, 198 dovetail, 196, 197

Egyptian facing saw, 196, 197, 198 hand, 196, 198 Japanese, 164
chert,
fret

p.

63

making a, 53 making an oblong, 54 oblong drawings of, 55 occasional, 52, 55 Tea tray, 28, 29
,,

Templet, use

of,

53

keyhole, 196, 198

knife,

Tenon saw,
p.

facing

p.

163 163
163

mediaeval, facing panel, 196

Swiss

flint,

facing

p.

196, 198 Tenons, mitred, 48 Timber, characteristics of, 121 chart, 115 classification of, 115, 116
,,

tenon, 196 various, 162, 196, 198

Scandinavian chair, facing

Scotia,

no

p.

150

,, ,,

conditions affecting growth 117 growths, 115, 117, 119

of,

hard and
of,

soft,

identification

Scratch stock, 147 Screwdriver, 197, 198 Segmental building up, 53. Set mitre, 197, 198 Shaft of column, no

Shooting board, 202

117 ,, object lessons on, 121, 122 Toilet mirror, 45, 46, 47 Tool cabinets, 189, 190, 191 Tooling, application of, 39, 55 Tools, early forms of, 162, 164, 165

INDEX TO WOODWORK SECTION.

Toothing, 153 Tortoise shell, description Torus, no
Veneering, caul, 153 designs for, 152 procedure for, 151 Venice turpentine, use of, 148
Vice, horizontal,

235

of,

122

Towel

rail,

drawings

of,

43

Tracery, in Trochilus, Try square, 200, 202 Turning, construction

202

no

Von
of,

Reber,

no

Tuscan, Twist bits, 199, 200 Tyrolean detail, 149

no

designs

for,

48,

49 49

W
Walnut black, 116 Watch stand, 15
method of making, 14 Whitewood, American, 116
Winkelstein, no Wood, colour combinations
of,

U
Under-railing, 48, 52, 55 Upholstered stool, 47, 48, 49

147

Working drawings, 136 Workshop, arrangement plan of, 1 88

of,

187

Vee-tooling, 22 application of, 14, 23, 33 Veneered patterns, building up, 151

Yew, 116

INDEX TO METALWORK SECTION

B
Achilles, 6

Alcinous, palace of, 5-6 Alloys, 124 Aluminium, 9, 128 bronze, 128

Ball head-stake, 213, 214 Bellows, double-blast circular,

210,

211
Fletcher Russell
foot,

213,

214
for

Amalgam, 124 Amalgamation process

Angle and Angles for Annealing Antimony,

extraction

of metals, 134 corner plates, 62, 63 cutting tools, 227 metals, 185

128

Bench, metalworker's, 220 Bending, facing p. 62, 63 Bessemer, Sir H. G., 9 Bidri ware, 154 Bismuth, 128 Block for chopping, 221 Blow pipe gas, 213, 214
welding, 181
Bolting, 183

Anvil, cutter, 208, 210 smith's, 210, 2ii tinman's, 213, 214

Bowls, 85

Applied ornament, 153 Applique, 153 Autogenous welding, 180

method of

raising,

88

Box, tin, 68, 69 Brace fitters, 211, 212

INDEX TO METALWORK SECTION.

Brass, 128

Brazing, 181-85 pan, 213, 214 Britannia metal, 128

Core box, method of making, 96 Corner clamps, 68, 71

plates, 62,

63

Broach, 206, 207 Bronzes, 120, 121, 123 Age, 5

Countersink, rose, 214 Cowper coles, 178 Craftwork, Historic application classwork, 109
;

to

Creasing iron, 212, 213 gates, 6 Cropper, 212 Bronzing, 154 Building and equipment for handcraft Cutters, 223 centres, 218, 219 Cutting action of tools, 222-9 Burning, 180

Byzantium,

C
Cabin hooks, 60,
61.

Dagobert, 8

Damascening, 155

Cadmium, 129

Damascus swords,

Darby, Abraham, 8 Calamine, 7 Decorative processes, 153 Calipers, outside, 64, 65, 203, 204 Delta metal, 129 turned brass, 94, 95 Candlestick, Die, circular split, 206, 207 iron, 97, 98 Dishes or paterae, 85 Card wire, 203, 204 Distillation of metals, 134 Casket, 141 a line, method of, 93 Cast brass candlestick, turned, 94, 95 Dividing Dog bars, 114 Casting or founding, 175 Drilling appliances, 169 faults of, 175 machine, 210, 211 Centre or mitre punch, 60, 61, 211 81
a loose, 80, 8 1 Chandelier, Dutch, in
,,
,,

brass, facing

p. 140 Chaser, inside and outside, 207 Chasing, 155

tools, 212,

213 method of holding, 86

plug, and turning, 226 Drills, evolution of, 169 ,, stock, archimedean, 215, 216 ,, various, 64, 65, 214, 216 Drift punch, 208, 209-10, 212, 213 Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury,

Chariot burials, 7
Chisel,

Dutch chandelier, facing

metal, 129

p.

140

hand or cold, 66, 67, 211, 212 method of holding, 63, 167
cutting action
of,

224

.Chopping blocks, 221 out, facing Chromium, 129

p. 62, 63

Eighteenth century gates, 112 Eleanor, Queen, 8

Electric welding, 181 Electrolytic methods, 134 Electroplating, 155 Embossed work, facing pp. 140, 142,

Chryselephantine work, 5 Chucks, various, 79, 80, 224 Cleaning, colourings, etc., 177-8 Clip, development of, 74 Cloisonne, 8, 156 Cobalt, 129 Cold set, 208, 209 Compasses, wing, 203, 204 Constantine, 7 Constantinople, 7, 8 Copper, 7, 129
age, 5

156. Enamelling, 7, 8, 156 Engraving, 160

and
J

punched decoration,
57
use,

chisel, method of Equipment, 203, 218 Escutcheons, 57, 58, 59

159

INDEX TO METALWORK SECTION.

Hammers,
File,

237
of,

evolution

167

hand bastard,
teeth,

203,

half round, 203,

204 204

various, 80, 81, 203, 204, 209, 211, 212, 213 Handle, cage, method of making, 107,
1 08 Handles, decoration

223, 224

Filigree work, 166 Filing, 224 Finger plates, 66, 67, 76, 77, 78

of,

74
79,

method of making, 73, 74

various, 70-73,
82, 102,

Finishing metal objects, 177 Fireside companion, facing p. 142 Flatter, 209 Fluxes, 184 Force fit, 183 Forge, portable, 210, 211 Forging, 60, 62, 185

103

Hardening and tempering of metals,

201 Hardie, 210

Hatchet stake, 213, 214 Henkle, J., 7 Hinges, 99, 100, 101 method of making, 102 Footman, 90 Founding or casting, object lesson on, Hints when working metals, 185
175
Fret

saw frame,

Fuller,

Homer's " Odyssey," 213 method of holding, 91 Hook and eye, 216 Huntsman, 9 208, 219
212,
stake, 213,

Holdfast, 60, 61

5, 7

Funnel

214

Fusing, 229

G
stove, tinman's, 203 Gates, eighteenth century, 112 wicket, 113 Galvanizing, 178 Gauge, grinding, 64, 65 Imperial standard, 205 Gauls, 7

Inlaying, 159 Iridium, 130 Iron age, 6

grilles, 7, 68, 71, 72, 75

Gas

railings,
scroll,

facing 210

p. 112,

113

soldering, 203

wrought and

how

cast, 6, 8, 130 to distinguish,

174

German

silver,

129
Joining metals, 180-5 Joints in tin plate, 185

Gilding, 159 Gilding metal, 129 Gold, 5, 129

Grilles,
P-

iron, 7, 68, 71, 72, 75,

facing

143 Grindstone, 210, 211

Groover or seam Gunmetal, 129

set,

213, 214

Keltic work, 7 Knurling wheel, 206, 207

H
Lamp
Hack saws,
204 method of holding, 205 sawblades, 223 Rafting, method of, 169
203,
irons, 113

standards,

13

Lathe, carrier, 216, 217 chucks, 215, 216 foot, 216, 217
tool in action,
tools, 214-5,

Half-moon edging

stake, 214

Hammered

223

work, 84, 85

216, 217

238
Lead, 6 1

INDEX TO METALWORK SECTION.

and zinc method of extracting metal from ore, 134 Object lessons, data for, 172 Leonardo da Vinci, 8 Oil-can, method of making, 91, 92 Ormolu, 131 Lettering in metalwork, 140
Lever, 61

Osmium, 131

Link extinguishers, 114

Lock
p.

holders, 114 and plates

of,

handles,

facing
Palace of Alcinous, 5, 6 Pala d'Ora, 8 Palladium, 131 Paterae, 84, 85 Pearling wheel, 206, 207 Pepper-box, head-stake, 213, 214 Pewter, 7
Phidias, 5

142 Lubricants, table Lubrication, 83 Lyre forms, 114

83

Magnesium, 130 Manganese, 130

bronze, 130
steel, 130 Mercury, 131 Metal spinning, 160

Phosphor bronze, 131

Picture suspender, 65, 66 Piercing, 160
,,

(saw), 91

Pilaster,

114

Pin

cutter, 68,

Metals, 123
characteristics of, 124

69
up, 86

Pitch, to

make

Platinum, 132
Pliers, various, 212,

descriptions of, 128-33 extraction of, 133

historical notes
4-9, 112

213

on craftwork,

Poker, 1 06, 208, 210 Polishing metals, 178

metalwork, 177 method of hardening and tem- Preserving of metals, 125 Properties 201
pering,

Punch, a square
,,

drift,

208, 209

joining, 180-5 object lessons on, 172 properties of, 125-8

decoration, 150, 158

,,

round

drift,

208, 210

shrinkage

of,

127

to clean, finish, etc., 177

Metalworker's bench, 220 ,, shop, 219

tools,

Quicksilver, 131

204-6,

208-11,

213-6

R
for smith's tools, 221 Raising, method of, 85, 86

Mild

steel, 131

Milling, 229

Rack

206, 207 Models, course of, 60, 71

tool,

Muntz

metal, 131

N
Nickel, 131
steel,

Rake, smith's, 208, 210 Ramps, 114 Reamer, 206, 207 Recipes for cleaning, colouring,
i54> i?9> l8

etc.

Rejas, 8, 113

Repousse
131
Riffler,

tools, 212,

213

Niello, 8, 160

Nippers, cutting, 212, 213

212 Riveting, 182 Rivet set, 213, 214

INDEX TO METALWORK SECTION.

s
Steels, carbon tool, 172 cast, 7, 9 how to distinguish, 174

239

Saw

blades, 205
fret,

212 Lancashire hack, 203 method of holding hack, 205 piercing in metal, 91 star hack, 205 Saws, cutting action of, 223, 224 Scraper, 225 Scratch brushing, 177
cord, 203,

iron tempering, 173

Stillson wrench, 205, 206 Stocks and dies, 205, 206, 207 Stove, tinman's gas, 203

Surface plate, 213, 214 Swage, bottom, 208, 209

Swaging, facing Swape, 79, 82

p. 62,

63

204

Screwdriver, 60, 61 Screwing, 183, 228

plate, double handed, 207 Scriber, 66, 67, 203, 204 Scroll horn, 208, 210

Screw

208, 210 wrench, 208, 210 Seam set, 213, 214 Set hammer, 208, 209 Sett, hot and cold, 209
iron,

Tablets, facing pp. 140, 142. Tantalum, 132 Tap wrench, 60, 6 1 Taps, various, 206, 207 Tempering of metals, 172, 173
scale,

173

Shalmaneser
Shears

II,

Theory

of cutting actions, 222

in action,

223

Thomas
Tin, 132

of Leighton Buzzard, 8

tinman's, 212, 213

Shearing and punching, 226 machine, 211, 212 Shop metalwork, 219 Shovel, smith's, 208, 210 Shrink fit, 185

plate, 132

Tinman's gas

stove, 203

Tinning, 88, 178

Shrinkage in castings, 127, 128 Silver, 132 cup, dish, jug, facing p. 89
solder, 132

Tommy or lever, 60, 6r Tongs, smith's, 208, 209, 211, Tool racks, 220, 221
steel, 133,

21-2

174

Slide rest, 207

Tools, metalworking, 207-15 Tripods, 89, 90 Tubal Cain, 7

Smelting, 133 Smith's tool rack, 221

tOOls, 207,

Tungsten, 133
steel,

133
of, 78,

208, 210, 211, 212,

Turned work, examples

?5

82, 94,

213
Solder decoration, 160 tinman's, or soft, 132, 182 Soldering fluid, 182
iron, 203,

Turning, 227
brass with a ripper, 83 iron with a graver, 83 notes on, 82, 83

204

metals, 185 Spanner, double ended, 205, 206 single ended, 205, 206
Spelter, 132 Square, steel
try,

Type

Twisting, method metal, 133

of,

74

204, 205
Upsetting, facing Uzziah, 6

U
p. 62,

Stakes, various, 213, 214 Standards, lamp, 113 Staple, 60, 6 1

63

240

INDEX TO METALWORK SECTION.

Wohler, 9

Working drawings, 140

Vee
block, 81

Vice, Lancashire hand, 207 method of fixing, 220 Vinci,

Leonardo
6, 7

da, 8

Wortz, 6, 7 Wrenches, various, 60, 61, 205, 206, 210 Wrought-iron pediment for a gate,
grille,

Vulcan,

facing p. 142 facing p. 142

W
Wedging, 183
Welding, various, 180, 181
Yarrenton, Andrew, 8

Wet methods
ore,

of extracting metal from

134
standard, 204, Zinc,
7,

Z
133
chloride, 182

Wicket
205

gate, 113

Wire gauge, Imperial

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