1.

Taxonomy
Taxonomy (from Ancient Greek: taxis, "arrangement," and - -nomia, "met!od""#$% is t!e science of defining gro&'s of (io)ogica) organisms on t!e (asis of s!ared c!aracteristics and gi*ing names to t!ose gro&'s+ ,rganisms are gro&'ed toget!er into taxa (sing&)ar: taxon" and gi*en a taxonomic rank- gro&'s of a gi*en rank can (e aggregated to form a s&'er gro&' of !ig!er rank and t!&s create a taxonomic !ierarc!y+#.%#/% T!e 01edis! (otanist 2aro)&s 3innae&s is regarded as t!e fat!er of taxonomy, as !e de*e)o'ed a system kno1n as 3innaean c)assification for categori4ation of organisms and (inomia) nomenc)at&re for naming organisms+

Definition
T!e exact definition of taxonomy *aries from so&rce to so&rce, (&t t!e core of t!e disci')ine remains: t!e conce'tion, naming, and c)assification of organism gro&'s+ T!e exact re)ations!i' of systematics and c)assification to taxonomy a)so *aries (eca&se t!e &sage of t!e terms in (io)ogy originated inde'endent)y+#5% As 'oints of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are 'resented (e)o1: T!eory and 'ractice of gro&'ing indi*id&a)s into s'ecies, arranging s'ecies into )arger gro&'s, and gi*ing t!ose gro&'s names, t!&s 'rod&cing a c)assification-#.% A fie)d of science (and ma6or com'onent of systematics" t!at encom'asses descri'tion, identification, nomenc)at&re, and c)assification-#/% T!e science of c)assification, in (io)ogy t!e arrangement of organisms into a c)assification+#7% "T!e science of c)assification as a'')ied to )i*ing organisms, inc)&ding st&dy of means of formation of s'ecies, etc+"#8% "T!e ana)ysis of an organism9s c!aracteristics for t!e '&r'ose of c)assification"#:% T!e *aried definitions eit!er ')ace taxonomy as a s&(-area of systematics (definition .", or a''ear to consider t!e t1o terms synonymo&s+ T!ere is some disagreement as to 1!et!er (io)ogica) nomenc)at&re is considered a 'art of taxonomy (definitions $ and .", or a 'art of systematics o&tside taxonomy+ ;or exam')e, t!e )ast definition#:% is 'aired 1it! t!e fo))o1ing definition of systematics t!at ')aces nomenc)at&re o&tside taxonomy: 0ystematics: "T!e st&dy of t!e identification, taxonomy and nomenc)at&re of organisms, inc)&ding t!e c)assification of )i*ing t!ings 1it! regard to t!eir nat&ra) re)ations!i's and t!e st&dy of *ariation and t!e e*o)&tion of taxa"+

2. taxon
<n (io)ogy, a taxon (')&ra): taxa" is a gro&' of one (or more" 'o'&)ations of organism(s", 1!ic! a taxonomist ad6&dges to (e a &nit+ =s&a))y a taxon is gi*en a name and a rank, a)t!o&g! neit!er is a re>&irement+ ?efining 1!at (e)ongs or does not (e)ong to s&c! a taxonomic gro&' is done (y a taxonomist 1it! t!e science of taxonomy+ <t is not &ncommon for one taxonomist to disagree 1it! anot!er on 1!at exact)y (e)ongs to a taxon, or on 1!at exact criteria s!o&)d (e &sed for inc)&sion+ T!e idea of a "nat&ra) system" of c)assification goes (ack to t!e da1n of scientific nomenc)at&re in t!e mid-$:t! cent&ry, as indicated (y t!e tit)e of 2aro)&s 3innae&s9 $85: 0ystema @at&rae+ 0ystematists since t!at time !a*e stri*en to determine t!e tr&e c)assification of t!e di*ersity of )ife, 1!ic! 1as at t!at time t!o&g!t to ref)ect t!e A)an of 2reation+ Today it is common to define a "good taxon" as one t!at ref)ects e*o)&tionary ('!y)ogenetic"

re)ations!i's+ T!is is not mandatory, as is e*ident from common)y &sed 1ords for non-mono'!y)etic entities s&c! as in*erte(rates, conifers and fis!+ A taxon may (e gi*en a forma) scientific name, t!e a'')ication of 1!ic! is go*erned (y one of t!e @omenc)at&re 2odes, 1!ic! set o&t r&)es to determine 1!ic! scientific name is correct for t!at 'artic&)ar gro&'ing+ Bany modern systematists &sing c)adistic met!ods, inc)&ding ad*ocates of '!y)ogenetic nomenc)at&re, re>&ire taxa to (e mono'!y)etic, consisting of a)) descendants of some ancestor+ T!ey genera))y do not refer to taxa as t!eir (asic &nit, (&t to "c)ades"+ C*en in "traditiona)" 3innean nomenc)at&re, fe1 taxonomists of o&r time esta()is! ne1 taxa t!at t!ey kno1 to (e 'ara'!y)etic+#$% A famo&s exam')e of a 1ide)y acce'ted taxon t!at is not a)so a c)ade is t!e "De'ti)ia"+

Definition
T!e G)ossary of t!e <nternationa) 2ode of Eoo)ogica) @omenc)at&re ($FFF" defines#/% a "taxon, (')+ taxa", n+ A taxonomic &nit, 1!et!er named or not: i+e+ a 'o'&)ation, or gro&' of 'o'&)ations of organisms 1!ic! are &s&a))y inferred to (e '!y)ogenetica))y re)ated and 1!ic! !a*e c!aracters in common 1!ic! differentiate (>+*+" t!e &nit (e+g+ a geogra'!ic 'o'&)ation, a gen&s, a fami)y, an order" from ot!er s&c! &nits+ A taxon encom'asses a)) inc)&ded taxa of )o1er rank (>+*+" and indi*id&a) organisms+ #+++%"

4. Systematics
;or t!e (and, see 0ystematic ((and"+ ;or re)ated disci')ines concerning c)assification of )i*ing t!ings, see (io)ogica) c)assification, a)'!a taxonomy, and taxonomy+ ;or ot!er &ses, see 0ystematics (disam(ig&ation"+ A com'arison of '!y)ogenetic and '!enetic conce'ts Gio)ogica) systematics is t!e st&dy of t!e di*ersification of )i*ing forms, (ot! 'ast and 'resent, and t!e re)ations!i's among )i*ing t!ings t!ro&g! time+ De)ations!i's are *is&a)i4ed as e*o)&tionary trees (synonyms: c)adograms, '!y)ogenetic trees, '!y)ogenies"+ A!y)ogenies !a*e t1o com'onents, (ranc!ing order (s!o1ing gro&' re)ations!i's" and (ranc! )engt! (s!o1ing amo&nt of e*o)&tion"+ A!y)ogenetic trees of s'ecies and !ig!er taxa are &sed to st&dy t!e e*o)&tion of traits (e+g+, anatomica) or mo)ec&)ar c!aracteristics" and t!e distri(&tion of organisms ((iogeogra'!y"+ 0ystematics, in ot!er 1ords, is &sed to &nderstand t!e e*o)&tionary !istory of )ife on Cart!+

Definition

0ystematic (io)ogy (!ereafter ca))ed sim')y systematics" is t!e fie)d t!at (a" 'ro*ides scientific names for organisms, ((" descri(es t!em, (c" 'reser*es co))ections of t!em, (d" 'ro*ides c)assifications for t!e organisms, keys for t!eir identification, and data on t!eir distri(&tions, (e" in*estigates t!eir e*o)&tionary !istories, and (f" considers t!eir en*ironmenta) ada'tations+ T!is is a fie)d 1it! a )ong !istory t!at in recent years !as ex'erienced a nota()e renaissance, 'rinci'a))y 1it! res'ect to t!eoretica) content+ Aart of t!e t!eoretica) materia) !as to do 1it! e*o)&tionary areas (to'ics e and f a(o*e", t!e rest re)ates es'ecia))y to t!e 'ro()em of c)assification+ Taxonomy is t!at 'art of 0ystematics concerned 1it! to'ics (a" to (d" a(o*e+

3. Hierarchy
A !ierarc!y (Greek: !ierarc!ia (HI IJ ", from !ierarc!es, ")eader of sacred rites"" is an arrangement of items (o(6ects, names, *a)&es, categories, etc+" in 1!ic! t!e items are re'resented as (eing "a(o*e," "(e)o1," or "at t!e same )e*e) as" one anot!er+ A(stract)y, a !ierarc!y can (e mode))ed mat!ematica))y as a rooted tree: t!e root of t!e tree forms t!e to' )e*e), and t!e c!i)dren of a gi*en *ertex are at t!e same )e*e), (e)o1 t!eir common 'arent+ Ko1e*er, a rooted tree does not a))o1 for items to (e "at t!e same )e*e) as" one anot!er, since a tree 'ro!i(its cyc)es+ To accommodate t!is, a !ierarc!y can (e mode)ed &sing a gra'! or a 're-order re)ation on t!e set of items+ A)ternati*e)y, items of )ike ty'e can (e gro&'ed toget!er, and t!e !ierarc!y can (e mode)ed &sing a 'artia) order re)ation on t!e set of sets-of-)ike-items+ A !ierarc!y (sometimes a((re*iated KD" can )ink entities eit!er direct)y or indirect)y, and eit!er *ertica))y or !ori4onta))y+ T!e on)y direct )inks in a !ierarc!y, insofar as t!ey are !ierarc!ica), are to one9s immediate s&'erior or to one of one9s s&(ordinates, a)t!o&g! a system t!at is )arge)y !ierarc!ica) can a)so incor'orate a)ternati*e !ierarc!ies+ <ndirect !ierarc!ica) )inks can extend "*ertica))y" &'1ards or do1n1ards *ia m&)ti')e )inks in t!e same direction, fo))o1ing a 'at!+ A)) 'arts of t!e !ierarc!y 1!ic! are not )inked *ertica))y to one anot!er ne*ert!e)ess can (e "!ori4onta))y" )inked t!ro&g! a 'at! (y tra*e)ing &' t!e !ierarc!y to find a common direct or indirect s&'erior, and t!en do1n again+ T!is is akin to t1o co-1orkers or co))eag&es- eac! re'orts to a common s&'erior, (&t t!ey !a*e t!e same re)ati*e amo&nt of a&t!ority+ ,rgani4ationa) forms exist t!at are (ot! a)ternati*e and com')ementary to !ierarc!y+ Keterarc!y (sometimes a((re*iated KT" is one s&c! form+

6. Morphology
<n )ing&istics, mor'!o)ogy is t!e identification, ana)ysis, and descri'tion of t!e str&ct&re of a gi*en )ang&age9s mor'!emes and ot!er )ing&istic &nits, s&c! as root 1ords, affixes, 'arts of s'eec!, intonations and stresses, or im')ied context+ <n contrast, mor'!o)ogica) ty'o)ogy is t!e c)assification of )ang&ages according to t!eir &se of mor'!emes, 1!i)e )exico)ogy is t!e st&dy of t!ose 1ords forming a )ang&age9s 1ordstock+ L!i)e 1ords, a)ong 1it! c)itics, are genera))y acce'ted as (eing t!e sma))est &nits of syntax, it is c)ear t!at in most )ang&ages, if not a)), 1ords can (e re)ated to ot!er 1ords (y r&)es (grammars"+ ;or exam')e, Cng)is! s'eakers recogni4e t!at t!e 1ords dog and dogs are c)ose)y re)ated, differentiated on)y (y t!e ')&ra)ity mor'!eme "-s", on)y fo&nd (o&nd to no&ns+ 0'eakers of Cng)is!, a f&siona) )ang&age, recogni4e t!ese re)ations from t!eir tacit kno1)edge of Cng)is!9s r&)es of 1ord formation+ T!ey infer int&iti*e)y t!at dog is to dogs as cat is to cats- and, in simi)ar fas!ion, dog is to dog catc!er as dis! is to dis!1as!er+ 3ang&ages s&c! as 2)assica) 2!inese, !o1e*er, a)so &se &n(o&nd mor'!emes ("free" mor'!emes" and de'end on 'ost-'!rase affixes and 1ord order to con*ey meaning+ (Bost 1ords in contem'orary 0tandard 2!inese ("Bandarin"", !o1e*er, are com'o&nds and most roots are (o&nd+" T!ese are &nderstood as grammars t!at re'resent t!e mor'!o)ogy of t!e )ang&age+ T!e r&)es &nderstood (y a s'eaker ref)ect s'ecific 'atterns or reg&)arities in t!e 1ay 1ords are formed from sma))er &nits in t!e )ang&age t!ey are &sing and !o1 t!ose sma))er &nits interact in s'eec!+ <n t!is 1ay, mor'!o)ogy is t!e (ranc! of )ing&istics t!at st&dies 'atterns of 1ord formation 1it!in and across )ang&ages and attem'ts to form&)ate r&)es t!at mode) t!e kno1)edge of t!e s'eakers of t!ose )ang&ages+ Ao)ysynt!etic )ang&ages, s&c! as 2!&kc!i, !a*e 1ords com'osed of many mor'!emes+ T!e 2!&kc!i 1ord "tmey)e*t'Mtrkn", for exam')e, meaning "< !a*e a fierce !eadac!e", is com'osed of eig!t mor'!emes t-mey--)e*t-'Mt--rkn t!at may (e g)ossed+ T!e mor'!o)ogy of s&c! )ang&ages a))o1s for eac! consonant and *o1e) to (e &nderstood as mor'!emes, 1!i)e t!e grammar of t!e )ang&age indicates t!e &sage and &nderstanding of eac! mor'!eme+ T!e disci')ine t!at dea)s s'ecifica))y 1it! t!e so&nd c!anges occ&rring 1it!in mor'!emes is mor'!o'!ono)ogy+

5. Physiology

A!ysio)ogy (Nf4i)diN- from Ancient Greek OP ('!ysis", meaning "nat&re, origin", and -QM (-)ogia", meaning "st&dy of"#$%" is t!e scientific st&dy of f&nction in )i*ing systems+#.% T!is inc)&des !o1 organisms, organ systems, organs, ce))s, and (io-mo)ec&)es carry o&t t!e c!emica) or '!ysica) f&nctions t!at exist in a )i*ing system+ T!e !ig!est !onor a1arded in '!ysio)ogy is t!e @o(e) Ari4e in A!ysio)ogy or Bedicine, a1arded since $FR$ (y t!e Doya) 01edis! Academy of 0ciences+

History
T!e st&dy of !&man '!ysio)ogy dates (ack to at )east S.R G2 to t!e time of Ki''ocrates, a)so kno1n as t!e fat!er of medicine+#/% T!e critica) t!inking of Aristot)e and !is em'!asis on t!e re)ations!i' (et1een str&ct&re and f&nction marked t!e (eginning of '!ysio)ogy in Ancient Greece, 1!i)e 2)a&di&s Ga)en&s (c+ $.7T$FF A?", kno1n as Ga)en, 1as t!e first to &se ex'eriments to 'ro(e t!e f&nctions of t!e (ody+ Ga)en 1as t!e fo&nder of ex'erimenta) '!ysio)ogy+#S% Uean ;erne), a ;renc! '!ysician, introd&ced t!e term "'!ysio)ogy" in $5.5+ <n t!e $Ft! cent&ry, '!ysio)ogica) kno1)edge (egan to acc&m&)ate at a ra'id rate, in 'artic&)ar 1it! t!e $:/: a''earance of t!e 2e)) t!eory of Batt!ias 0c!)eiden and T!eodor 0c!1ann+ <t radica))y stated t!at organisms are made &' of &nits ca))ed ce))s+ 2)a&de Gernard9s ($:$/T$:8:" f&rt!er disco*eries &)timate)y )ed to !is conce't of mi)ie& interie&r (interna) en*ironment", 1!ic! 1o&)d )ater (e taken &' and c!am'ioned as "!omeostasis" (y American '!ysio)ogist La)ter 2annon+#c)arification needed% <n t!e .Rt! cent&ry, (io)ogists a)so (ecame interested in !o1 organisms ot!er t!an !&man (eings f&nction, e*ent&a))y s'a1ning t!e fie)ds of com'arati*e '!ysio)ogy and eco'!ysio)ogy+#5% Ba6or fig&res in t!ese fie)ds inc)&de Vn&t 0c!midt-@ie)sen and George Gart!o)ome1+ Bost recent)y, e*o)&tionary '!ysio)ogy !as (ecome a distinct s&(disci')ine+#7%

. Phylogenetic !lassification
A!y)ogenetic nomenc)at&re, often ca))ed c)adistic nomenc)at&re, is a met!od of nomenc)at&re for taxa in (io)ogy t!at &ses '!y)ogenetic definitions for taxon names as ex')ained (e)o1+ T!is contrasts 1it! t!e traditiona) a''roac!, in 1!ic! taxon names are defined (y a ty'e, 1!ic! can (e a s'ecimen or a taxon of )o1er rank, and a diagnosis, a statement intended to s&'')y c!aracters t!at differentiate t!e taxon from ot!ers 1it! 1!ic! it is )ike)y to (e conf&sed+ #$%#.% A!y)ogenetic nomenc)at&re is c&rrent)y not reg&)ated, (&t t!e <nternationa) 2ode of A!y)ogenetic @omenc)at&re (A!y)o2ode" is intended to reg&)ate it once it is ratified+

Definition
T!e c)ade s!o1n (y t!e das!ed )ines in eac! fig&re is s'ecified (y t!e ancestor W+ =nder t!e !y'ot!esis t!at t!e re)ations!i's are as in t!e )eft tree, t!e c)ade inc)&des W, A, G and 2+ =nder t!e !y'ot!esis t!at t!e re)ations!i's are as in t!e rig!t tree, t!e c)ade inc)&des W, A and G+ A!y)ogenetic nomenc)at&re ties names to c)ades, gro&'s consisting of an ancestor and a)) its descendants+ T!ese gro&'s can e>&i*a)ent)y (e ca))ed mono'!y)etic+ T!ere are s)ig!t)y different 1ays of s'ecifying t!e ancestor, 1!ic! are disc&ssed (e)o1+ ,nce t!e ancestor is s'ecified, t!e meaning of t!e name is fixed: t!e ancestor and a)) organisms 1!ic! are its descendants are inc)&ded in t!e named taxon+ 3isting a)) t!ese organisms (i+e+ 'ro*iding a f&)) circ&mscri'tion" re>&ires t!e f&)) '!y)ogenetic tree to (e kno1n+ <n 'ractice, t!ere are on)y one or more !y'ot!eses as to t!e correct tree+ ?ifferent !y'ot!eses )ead to different organisms (eing t!o&g!t to (e inc)&ded in t!e named taxon, (&t do not affect 1!at organisms t!e name act&a))y a'')ies to+ <n t!is sense t!e name is inde'endent of t!eory re*ision+#citation needed%

".Phenotypic #nalysis
Bicroorganisms can (e c)assified on t!e (asis of ce)) str&ct&re, ce))&)ar meta(o)ism, or on differences in ce)) com'onents+

Definition
A!enoty'ic c)assification of !&man 2?:(X" T ce))s &sing t!ree ce)) s&rface markers, 2?.8, 2?.: and 2?S5DA, 1as recent)y s&ggested to (e &sef&) for identification of nai*e, memory and effector 2?:(X" T ce))s+ Ko1e*er, it sti)) remains &nc)ear 1!et!er s&c! c)assification 'recise)y ref)ects f&nctiona) c)assification of 2?:(X" T ce))s+ To c)arify t!is, 1e c!aracteri4ed eac! 2?.82?.:2?S5DA s&(set of tota) and !&man cytomega)o*ir&s (K2BY"-s'ecific 2?:(X" T ce))s (y ana)y4ing t!e ex'ression of 'erforin and t1o c!emokine rece'tors, 22D5 and 22D8, as 1e)) as t!eir f&nction+ An in*erse corre)ation (et1een 'erforin and 2?.8 ex'ression 1as fo&nd in a)) fo&r 2?.:2?S5DA s&(sets+ T!erefore, to ac!ie*e a '!enoty'ic c)assification of 2?:(X" T ce))s t!at more 'recise)y ref)ects t!eir f&nction, t!e 2?.8(X" s&(set 1as di*ided into 2?.8()o1" and 2?.8(!ig!" s&(sets (ased on t!e ex'ression )e*e) of 2?.8+ ;&nctiona) and f)o1 cytometric ana)yses of 2?.82?.:2?S5DA s&(sets s!o1ed t!at t!is '!enoty'ic c)assification ref)ects f&nctiona) c)assification of 2?:(X" T ce))s+ K2BY-s'ecific 2?:(X" T ce))s from !ea)t!y

K2BY-sero'ositi*e indi*id&a)s 1ere 'redominant)y fo&nd in effector and memoryNeffector s&(sets, indicating t!at K2BY-s'ecific effector 2?:(X" T ce))s are acti*e)y ind&ced (y K2BY re')ication in !ea)t!y K2BY carriers+ A!enoty'ic ana)yses of 2?:(X" T ce))s &sing t!is c)assification 1i)) ena()e t!e c!aracteri4ation of antigen-s'ecific 2?:(X" T ce))s+

$. #natomy
Anatomy (from t!e Greek Z T anatemn[, "< c&t &', c&t o'en" from T ana, "on, &'on", and Z T temn[, "< c&t"" is t!e st&dy of t!e (ody ')an of anima)s+ <n some of its facets, anatomy is c)ose)y re)ated to em(ryo)ogy, com'arati*e anatomy and com'arati*e em(ryo)ogy,#$% t!ro&g! common roots in e*o)&tion+ K&man anatomy is im'ortant in medicine+ T!e disci')ine of anatomy is s&(di*ided into gross (or macrosco'ic" anatomy and microsco'ic anatomy+ Gross anatomy is t!e st&dy of str&ct&res t!at can, 1!en s&ita()y 'resented or dissected, (e seen (y &naided *ision 1it! t!e naked eye+ Bicrosco'ic anatomy is t!e st&dy of str&ct&res on a microsco'ic sca)e, inc)&ding !isto)ogy (t!e st&dy of tiss&es" and cyto)ogy (t!e st&dy of ce))s"+ T!e !istory of anatomy is c!aracteri4ed (y a contin&a) de*e)o'ment in &nderstanding of t!e f&nctions of t!e organs and str&ct&res of t!e !&man (ody+ Bet!ods !a*e a)so im'ro*ed dramatica))y, ad*ancing from examination of anima)s t!ro&g! dissection of cada*ers (dead !&man (odies" to .Rt! cent&ry tec!ni>&es inc)&ding W-ray, &)traso&nd, and magnetic resonance imaging+

1%. &i'e the hierarchical system of classifications.

T!e Kierarc!ica) 0ystem of 2)assification T!e s'ecies is t!e most easi)y recogni4ed &nit of c)assification+ C*ery organism (e)ongs to a 'artic&)ar s'ecies, and 1!i)e s'ecies conce'ts can sometimes (e diffic&)t to reso)*e, t!e idea of a gro&' of organisms (e)ong to a gro&' of ot!er1ise simi)ar-)ooking organisms 1it! 1!ic! it can inter(reed isn\t diffic&)t to com're!end+ A(o*e t!e s'ecies )e*e), it !as (een traditiona) to recogni4e more inc)&si*e gro&'s of organisms+ <n t!e cats, 1e can recogni4e at )east fo&r genera (sing&)ar gen&s": Acinonyx (c!eeta!s", Aant!era ()ions, tigers, and ot!er "(ig" cats", 3ynx ((o(-tai) cats" and ;e)is (sma))er cats"+ A gen&s is a gro&' of s'ecies re)ated (y common descent, and t!e s'ecies 1it!in a gen&s s!are certain (deri*ed" feat&res+ Aroceeding &' t!e taxonomic )adder, t!ese genera are inc)&ded in t!e fami)y ;e)idae (a)) cats"+ T!e ;e)idae is s&(se>&ent)y inc)&ded in t!e order 2arni*ora, consisting of ot!er fami)ies of meat-eaters (e+g+, 2anidae #dogs%, =rsidae #(ears%, and B&ste)idae #1ease)s and otters%, etc+"+ T!e order 2arni*ora is, in t&rn, ')aced in t!e c)ass Bamma)ia, 1!ose defining c!aracteristics inc)&de !air and mammary g)ands+ T!is system of c)assification is !ierarc!ica), in t!at t!e taxonomic categories form gro&'s 1it!in gro&'s+ Kig!er categories contain greater n&m(ers of s'ecies, and !a*e (roader definitions+ T!e &ti)ity of s&c! !ig!er )e*e)s of c)assification is a''arent: <f 1e kno1 t!e name and c)assification of an organism, 1e a&tomatica))y kno1 a considera()e amo&nt of information a(o&t t!at organism and 1e !a*e a system (y 1!ic! 1e can comm&nicate ne1 information+ T!e term taxon (')&ra) taxa" refers to a taxonomic gro&' at any )e*e)+ T!e ma6or taxonomic categories &sed in (io)ogy are: Vingdom A!y)&m or ?i*ision (for ')ants" 2)ass

,rder ;ami)y Gen&s 0'ecies ]o& s!o&)d not concentrate too m&c! on t!e ranks t!emse)*es - t!ey are sim')y t!e entities into 1!ic! 1e ')ace sma))er gro&'s+ T!ere are "s&(s" and "s&'ers" for e*ery category, and se*era) ot!er categories t!at can (e st&ck in (et1een t!ese ma6or gro&'s+ T!e (inomia) name of a s'ecies consists of a gen&s name and a s'ecies e'it!et+ T!&s, Aant!era )eo is t!e name for a )ion+ Csc!sc!o)4ia ca)ifornica is t!e name for t!e 2a)ifornia 'o''y+ <n 'rint, t!e gen&s and s'ecies names are a)1ays ita)ici4ed or &nder)ined+ T!e gen&s name a)1ays (egins 1it! an &''er case )etter, and t!e s'ecies e'it!et 1it! a )o1er case )etter+

C*ery s'ecies of organism !as one, and on)y one scientific name+ T!is is extreme)y *a)&a()e to science (eca&se t!ere 1i)) (e no conf&sion 1!en comm&nicating to ot!ers a(o&t any s'ecies+ <n fact, t!ere are <nternationa) 2odes of @omenc)at&re t!at 'reside o*er t!e a'')ication of scientific names+ 2ommon names are occasiona))y &sef&), (&t are more often so&rces of conf&sion+

11. Scientific names.

@omenc)at&re is a system of names or terms, or t!e r&)es for forming t!ese terms in a 'artic&)ar fie)d of arts or sciences+#$% T!e 'rinci')es of naming *ary from t!e re)ati*e)y informa) con*entions of e*eryday s'eec! to t!e internationa))y-agreed 'rinci')es, r&)es and recommendations t!at go*ern t!e formation and &se of t!e s'ecia)ist terms &sed in scientific and ot!er disci')ines+ @aming "t!ings" is a 'art of o&r genera) comm&nication &sing 1ords and )ang&age: it is an as'ect of e*eryday taxonomy as 1e disting&is! t!e o(6ects of o&r ex'erience, toget!er 1it! t!eir simi)arities and differences, 1!ic! 1e identify, name and c)assify+ T!e &se of names, as t!e many different kinds of no&ns em(edded in different )ang&ages, connects nomenc)at&re to t!eoretica) )ing&istics, 1!i)e t!e 1ay 1e menta))y str&ct&re t!e 1or)d in re)ation to 1ord meanings and ex'erience re)ates to t!e '!i)oso'!y of )ang&age+ ,nomastics, t!e st&dy of 'ro'er names and t!eir origins, inc)&des: ant!ro'onymy, concerned 1it! !&man names, inc)&ding 'ersona) names, s&rnames and nicknames- to'onymy t!e st&dy of ')ace names- and etymo)ogy, t!e deri*ation, !istory and &se of names as re*ea)ed t!ro&g! com'arati*e and descri'ti*e )ing&istics+ T!e scientific need for sim')e, sta()e and internationa))y-acce'ted systems for naming o(6ects of t!e nat&ra) 1or)d !as generated many forma) nomenc)at&ra) systems+ Aro(a()y t!e (est kno1n of t!ese nomenc)at&ra) systems are t!e fi*e codes of (io)ogica) nomenc)at&re t!at go*ern t!e 3atini4ed scientific names of organisms+

Definition ( criteria

@omenc)at&re is a system of 1ords &sed in 'artic&)ar disci')ine+ <t is &sed in res'ect of gi*ing names systematica))y fo))o1ing t!e r&)es to a)) kno1n )i*ing+ <t is a'')ied to many c!emica) com'onents, main)y &sed in car(on and !ydrogen com'onents+

12. )*les in +riting scientific names.

After t!e first &se, t!e gen&s name can (e a((re*iated to 6&st its initia): ;+ cat&s+ L!en a section of t!e text mig!t (e dis')ayed on its o1n, yo& mig!t 1ant to s'e)) o&t t!e name in f&)) t!e first time it a''ears t!ere+ ;or instance, some academic 6o&rna)s re>&ire t!at yo& 1rite o&t t!e gen&s in f&)) t!e first time it is &sed in t!e a(stract, and in a)) ta()es and ta()e ca'tions+ L!en yo& introd&ce t!e name of anot!er s'ecies in t!e same gen&s, yo& can &se t!e a((re*iated gen&s name for t!e ne1 s'ecies:$ T!e domestic cat is s'ecies ;e)is cat&s+ Got! ;+ cat&s and its 1i)d re)ati*e, ;+ si)*estris + + + <f yo& are disc&ssing t1o s'ecies t!at (e)ong to different genera t!at ne*ert!e)ess start 1it! t!e same )etter, say, 3eo'ard&s 'arda)is, t!e oce)ot, and t!e 2anadian )ynx, 3ynx canadensis, it is (etter not to a((re*iate t!eir gen&s names+ A((re*iations of more t!an one )etter: <\*e seen a fe1 instances of t1o-)etter a((re*iations of gen&s names, for instance A&+ afarensis and Ar+ ramid&s for A&stra)o'it!ec&s afarensis and Ardi'it!ec&s ramid&s, and <\*e seen disc&ssion of t1o- or t!ree-)etter gen&s a((re*iations for some taxonomic gro&'s+ G&tc!er\s 2o'y-editing. says t!ey are to (e a*oided, (&t t!ey\re 'ermissi()e to a*oid am(ig&ity+/ < recommend 1it! yo&r target '&()ication to see 1!et!er t!ey a))o1 t!is sty)e+ 0ometimes t!e f&)) gen&s name isn\t s'e))ed o&t on first &se+ 0ome organisms, s&c! as t!e famo&s st&dy organisms C+ co)i and 2+ e)egans, are so 1e)) kno1n t!at it\s common in informa) disc&ssion to 6&st &se t!e a((re*iated *ersion of t!e name+

13. )*les in the scientists +ho contri,*tion in taxonomy.

Taxonomy And Carolus Linnaeus Taxonomy is t!e 'art of science t!at foc&ses on naming and c)assifying or gro&'ing organisms+ A 01edis! nat&ra)ist named Carolus Linnaeus is considered t!e 9fat!er of taxonomy9 (eca&se in t!e $8RRs, !e de*e)o'ed a 1ay to name and organi4e s'ecies t!at 1e sti)) &se today+ Kis t1o most im'ortant contri(&tions to taxonomy 1ere:

1. A !ierarc!ica) c)assification system 2. T!e system of binomial nomenclature (a .-'art naming met!od"

2aro)&s 3innae&s )i*ed from $8R8 to $88:+ ?&ring !is )ifetime, 3innae&s co))ected aro&nd SR,RRR s'ecimens of ')ants, anima)s, and s!e))s+ Ke (e)ie*ed it 1as im'ortant to !a*e a standard 1ay of gro&'ing and naming s'ecies+ 0o in $8/5, !e '&()is!ed !is first edition of Systema Naturae (The System of Nature", 1!ic! 1as a sma)) 'am'!)et ex')aining !is ne1 system of t!e c)assification of nat&re+

Ke contin&ed to '&()is! more editions ofSystema Naturae t!at inc)&ded more named s'ecies+ <n tota), 3innae&s named S,SRR anima) s'ecies and 8,8RR ')ant s'ecies &sing !is (inomia) nomenc)at&re system+ T!e tent! edition of Systema Naturae 1as '&()is!ed in $85: and is considered t!e most im'ortant edition+ <ts f&)) tit)e in Cng)is! is System of nature through the three kingdoms of nature, according to classes, orders, genera and species, with characters, differences, synonyms, places +

Linnaeus's Classification System <n Systema Naturae, 3innae&s c)assified nat&re into a !ierarc!y+ Ke 'ro'osed t!at t!ere 1ere t!ree (road gro&'s, ca))ed kingdoms, into 1!ic! t!e 1!o)e of nat&re co&)d fit+ T!ese kingdoms 1ere anima)s, ')ants, and minera)s+ Ke di*ided eac! of t!ese kingdoms into classes+ 2)asses 1ere di*ided into orders+ T!ese 1ere f&rt!er di*ided into genera (genus is sing&)ar" and t!en species+ Le sti)) &se t!is system today, (&t 1e !a*e made some c!anges+ Today, 1e on)y &se t!is system to c)assify )i*ing t!ings+ (3innae&s inc)&ded non)i*ing t!ings in !is minera) kingdom+" A)so, 1e !a*e added a fe1 additiona) )e*e)s in t!e !ierarc!y+ T!e (roadest )e*e) of )ife is no1 a domain+ A)) )i*ing t!ings fit into on)y t!ree domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya+ Lit!in eac! of t!ese domains t!ere are kingdoms+ ;or exam')e, C&karya inc)&des t!e kingdoms Anima)ia, ;&ngi, A)antae, and more+ Cac! kingdom contains phyla (sing&)ar is phylum", fo))o1ed (y c)ass, order, family, gen&s, and s'ecies+ Cac! )e*e) of c)assification is a)so ca))ed a taxon (')&ra) istaxa"+

T!e eig!t )e*e)s of t!e !ierarc!ica) c)assification system+ Cxam')es for t1o s'ecies are s!o1n: t!e !o&se cat and t!e !&man s'ecies+ Binomial Nomenclature Gefore 3innae&s came &' 1it! a standardi4ed system of naming, t!ere 1ere often many names for a sing)e s'ecies, and t!ese names tended to (e )ong and conf&sing+ 3innae&s decided t!at a)) s'ecies names s!o&)d (e in 3atin and s!o&)d !a*e t1o 'arts+ Demem(er, t!is .-'art system is ca))ed (inomia) nomenc)at&re+ <t is sti)) &sed today and gi*es e*ery s'ecies one &ni>&e .-'art scientific name+ 3et9s )ook at an exam')e+ <n $85:, 3innae&s ga*e a (inomia) name to t!e !o&se cat+ Ke ca))ed it Felis catus+ T!e first 'art of a (inomia) scientific name, )ike Felis, is t!e gen&s name+ T!e second 'art of a scientific name,catus in t!is exam')e, is t!e specific epithet+ <t is &sed to identify a 'artic&)ar s'ecies as se'arate from ot!er s'ecies (e)onging to t!e same gen&s+ Toget!er, t!e gen&s ')&s t!e s'ecific e'it!et is t!e f&)) scientific name for an organism+

T!ere are many im'ortant r&)es t!at m&st (e fo))o1ed to kee' a)) (inomia) names standardi4ed:

1. T!e entire .-'art name m&st (e in 3atin+ 2. T!e entire name m&st (e 1ritten in ita)ics (or &nder)ined 1!en !and1ritten"+ 3. T!e gen&s name is a)1ays 1ritten first+ 4. T!e gen&s name m&st (e ca'ita)i4ed+ 5. T!e s'ecific e'it!et is ne*er ca'ita)i4ed+
T!e 'erson 1!o first '&()is!es a (inomia) name for a s'ecies is considered t!e a&t!or+ <n most scientific '&()ications t!at &se (inomia) names, it is &s&a))y a''ro'riate to gi*e credit to t!e origina) a&t!or+ ;or exam')e, t!e f&)) name for t!e !o&se cat inc)&ding its a&t!or is 1ritten as: Felis catus3innae&s, $85:+ T!is means t!an 3innae&s '&()is!ed t!is s'ecies name in $85:+

Assignment n Science !