Biosystematics

Definition of Taxonomy: The term taxonomy is derived from two Greek words - taxis meaning
arrangement, and nomos meaning law.
• It was first proposed in 1813 by A.P. de Candolle (a professor of Montpellier University
in France) in its French form, for the theory of plant classification. “Taxonomy is the
theoretical study of classification, including its bases, principles, procedures and rules”.
• According to Mayr (1982), “Taxonomy is the theory and practice of classifying
organisms”.
• Taxonomy is thus an information system comprising of classification, nomenclature,
descriptions and identification.
• According to Christoffersen (1995), taxonomy has become the most basic activity in
biology, dealing exclusively with the discovery, ordering and communication of
patterns of biological taxa. It, however, leans heavily on systematics for its concepts.
• Taxonomy is the study of scientific classification, in particular the classification of
living organisms according to their natural relationships.
• Taxonomy's first father was the philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), sometimes called
the "father of science." It was Aristotle who first introduced the two key concepts of
taxonomy as we practice it today: classification of organisms by type and binomial
definition.
• Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1603) was an Italian physician who created one of the first
new systems of classifying plants since the time of Aristotle.
• Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) was born, there were many systems of botanical
classification in use, with new plants constantly being discovered and named.

Biosystematics:

In 1830, it was John Lindley who first defined systematics. But he just wrote about Systematic
Botany rather than Systematics. Later in 1970 Michener et al. defined that Systematic Biology
and taxonomy are related to one another. It is simply known as “the study of biodiversity and
its origins” and it is an art as much as science. In a broader sense, it is a science through which
organisms are discovered, identified, named and classified with their diversity, phylogeny,
spatial and geographical distributions. Provides the organisms with a scientific name.
Describes an organism. Collects and preserve organisms. Scientifically classifies the
organisms.
Biosystematics classifies species through 3 specific branches.
1. Numerical systematics: it is a system of grouping of species by numerical methods based on
their character. Biological statistics is used to identify and classify animals. Eg :- cluster
analysis :- here the grouping of a set of objects is in such a way that objects in the same group
are more similar to each other than those in other groups.
2. Biochemical systematics: in this branch of systematics animals are identified and classified
based on the molecules / materials that make up the living part of a cell. Some of the characters
analyzed in the biochemical systematics are Metabolic factors, Amino acid sequence, DNA
and RNA sequences, Restriction endonuclease analyses etc.
3. Experimental systematics: this branch of systematics deals with identification of various
evolutionary units within a species and the role they play in the process of evolution. Here
factors like mutations, genetic divergence, and hybridization are considered as evolutionary
unit. Taxonomy is a part of systematics with concern to a organisms name, description and
classification
Systematics: The term Systematics is derived from Latinized Greek word systema, as applied
to the systems of classifications developed by early naturalists. Carolus Linnaeus – father of
Systematics. Biological systematics is the scientific study of diversification of living forms and
its evolutionary history. It’s the systematic classification of living things from the past and
present, and their relationship among organisms through time. It’s basically used to understand
the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees,
example:- phylogenies, phylogenetic trees.

PHYLOGENIES
Branching order Branch length
(Showing group relationships) (Shows amount of evolution)

Systematics is the science of diversity of organisms.

The scope of taxonomy and that of systematic in particular are:

1. It works out a vivid picture of the existing organic diversity of our earth and is the only
science that does so.
2. It provides much of the information, making it possible for the reconstruction of the
phylogeny of life.
3. It reveals various interesting evolutionary phenomena, making them available for casual
study by other branches of biology.
4. Almost entirely, it supplies information needed by the various branches of biology.
5. It provides names for each kind of organism, so that all concerned can know what they are
talking about and such information can be recorded, stored and retrieved when needed.
6. It differentiates the various kinds of organisms and points out their characteristics through
descriptions, keys, illustrations etc.
7. It provides classification, which are of great heuristic and explanatory values in most
branches of biology like evolutionary biochemistry, immunology, ecology, genetics, ethology,
historical geology etc.
8. It is important in the study of economically or medically important organisms.
9. It makes important conceptual contributions in population thinking, thereby making it
accessible to experimental biologists. It thus contributes significantly to the broadening of
biology and to a better balance within biological science as a whole.

Levels of Taxonomy:
➢ α (alpha), β (beta), Ƴ (gamma)
Alpha (α) taxonomy:
➢ Alpha (α) taxonomy is the analytic phase in which the species are identified,
characterised and named.
➢ At this level when a new species is discovered it is named in accordance with Linnaeus
system of binomial nomenclature.
➢ Here priority is given to the one who publishes his work first. All problems relating to
species are dealt here.

Beta (β) taxonomy:

➢ Beta (β) taxonomy refers to the arrangement of the species into a natural system of
hierarchial categories.
 ➢ This is done on the basis of easily observable, shared, structural features and evaluation
of numerous characters.
➢ Thus, β-taxonomy relates to the search of a natural system of classification. Each taxon
would thus possess diagnostic features unique to that taxon.
Gamma (Ƴ) taxonomy:
➢ Finally, gamma (Ƴ) taxonomy designates the analysis of intraspecific variations and
evolutionary studies. Much attention is paid to a causal interpretation of organic
diversity - study of speciation.
➢ But in actual practice it is rather difficult to dissociate them because these overlap and
integrate.
➢ There are only a few groups of animals (some vertebrates, especially the birds and a
few insect orders like Lepidoptera etc.) where the taxonomy has reached up to the
gamma level.
➢ Otherwise, in almost majority of the groups, the Works are still at the alpha and beta
level.

Experimental Taxonomy:
➢ modern taxonomy which considers species to be the product of evolution, studies all its
populations, varieties and sub-species and gathers information from various fields
before delimiting a species from its relatives. Julian Huxley (1940) developed the
concept of New Systematics.
➢ It is related to the genetical studies based on a common gene pool for a taxon and
become helpful to distinguish two different taxa.
➢ Some modern procedures are applied to collect the data for morphology.
➢ The use of electron arid scanning electron microscope in different groups are helpful in
morphotaxonomy.

Phylogeny
Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary history of the development of a species or of a
taxonomic group of organisms. The phylogenetic relationships are depicted in the form of a
phylogenetic tree, i.e. a tree diagram depicting how one taxon is closely or distantly related to
another taxon. The tree diagram demonstrating phylogenetic relationships is based on the
molecular sequencing data analyses as well as on morphological data matrices.

Phylogeny Definition: The definition of phylogeny in biology pertains to the evolutionary

history or development of a group of organisms, such as a tribe or a racial group. The phylogeny
meaning is somewhat similar to the term phylogenesis and as such, they are sometimes used
interchangeably. However, in a stricter sense, phylogenesis refers to the biological process by
which a particular taxon exists. Phylogenetics is another related term. It refers to the scientific
study of phylogeny. It applies molecular and analytical methods in understanding evolutionary
history and processes involved during the development of a species or of a taxon. Phylogeny
is the result of the studies and the analyses of evolutionary occurrences of living organisms and
it is represented by a tree diagram called the phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetics attempts to
explain the evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms through molecular
sequencing data and morphological data matrices. The term phylogeny was derived from
German Phylogenie that was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
Phylogeny vs. Ontogeny: Both phylogeny and ontogeny deal with the origin and the
development of organisms. They are both concerned with developmental histories. However,
ontogeny is different from phylogeny in a way that it looks through the historical development
of an organism within its own timeline (e.g. from its simplest to the most complex form) and
not on its evolutionary history. Thus, ontogeny is to the development of an individual organism
as phylogeny is to the evolution of a species.

Phylogeny vs. Taxonomy: While phylogeny is concerned with the evolutionary relatedness
and history of organisms, it is not concerned with the identification of these organisms. Rather,
it is the main concern of taxonomy. To be more precise, taxonomy is the branch of science that
is concerned chiefly with identifying, naming, and classifying organisms. It puts organisms
into taxonomic ranks, e.g. domain, kingdom, phylum or division, class, genus, species.
Nevertheless, the classification is based on morphology and phylogeny of organisms and
phylogenetics provides information for use during the identification and classification of
organisms. So while taxonomy is concerned chiefly with the identification and classification
of organisms, phylogeny provides data for such purpose and a phylogenetic classification
would be one that is largely based on molecular phylogeny data.

Molecular phylogeny: Molecular phylogeny, a branch of phylogeny, makes use of molecular

sequencing to study evolutionary relationships and histories. Molecular sequencing, in this
regard, is a useful tool to understand the phylogenies of different taxa. Basing the relatedness
on morphology, anatomy, physiology, and life cycles can be confounding. There are instances
wherein some traits are easily identified as either similar or disparate. However, there are also
instances when their similarities and disparities are vague. Furthermore, there are also
situations when two species seem to belong to a common taxon but after analyzing their
genomes they turned out to be evolutionary distant. Fortunately, more advanced tools for study
and research have become available and they have provided scientists a more reliable basis for
determining and analyzing phylogeny. Nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, store and retain
certain genetic information that scientists use as hints of plausible evolutionary origins and
history. It is because these biomolecules are heritable. By comparing such information through
the aid of a computer program, the degree of relatedness between and among organisms can be
recognized. By looking at the genome (as well as the proteins being code for), the evolutionary
relatedness can be analyzed, i.e. whether the organisms are closely related or distant. One of
the most widely used for molecular phylogeny studies and analyses is the sequence of the small
subunit of the ribosomal RNA. (1) The analyses that can be derived from such sources have
the advantage of providing quantifiable data. The relatedness between taxa can be
demonstrated through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices.

Phylogeny diagrams: Phylogeny may be represented by a tree diagram called phylogenetic

tree (also called an evolutionary tree). The diagram depicts the relationships among organisms
or the relatedness between taxa. It is created based on molecular phylogeny studies and on
morphological data. By comparing organisms based on commonalities and incongruences,
their evolutionary relationship could be established and represented in a tree diagram.
A phylogenetic tree may be rooted or unrooted. A rooted phylogenetic tree implicates a
common ancestor where closely-related taxa descended from. An unrooted phylogenetic tree,
in contrast, does not show a common ancestor but it hypothesizes on the degree of evolutionary
relatedness between taxa. The tree diagram is essential as it aids in understanding biodiversity,
evolutions, genetics, and ecology of the various groups of organisms. By simply looking at the
positioning and the length of the ‘branches’, one could easily infer how one group may be
evolutionarily related to another. Those that are joined together implicate evolutionary
relatedness. The internal nodes signify a hypothetical common ancestor.
In biology, the tree of life is a schematic model that shows the evolution of organisms
both the extinct and the living. Tracing the bottom (the root of the tree) leads to the last
universal common ancestor of life on earth. As for the tips, they represent the living organisms
at present and some being the most recent in the evolutionary lineage. In 2016, a modern
metagenomics tree of life is suggested. (2) The diagram includes 92 bacterial phyla, 26 archaeal
phyla, and all five of the Eukaryotic supergroups.

Importance: Phylogeny pertains to the evolutionary history of a taxonomic group of organisms

and it is used as a basis in phylogenetics as the latter deals with the relationships of an organism
to other organisms according to evolutionary similarities and differences. Thus, phylogeny is
essential in the scientific study of the identification, classification, ecology, and evolutionary
histories of organisms. It shows the relationships between groups of organisms (taxa)
particularly the differences and similarities among them. It becomes vital in understanding
biodiversity, genetics, evolutions, and ecology among groups of organisms. Apart from
phylogenetics, it is also vital in the field of taxonomy. It expands the basis of evolutionary
relationships of organisms from the morphological aspect to the genetic constructs of
organisms.
Limitations: Inferences derived from phylogenetic studies are not absolute. The data derived
from genomic studies may possibly contain erroneous data. For instance, the genomic analyses
may be based on faulty data, e.g. those flawed by horizontal gene transfer between species. (5)
Phylogeny that is based on several genes or proteins from different genomic sources (e.g.
nuclear or mitochondrial) is also likely to be more precise than on a single gene or protein
alone. Otherwise, the analysis may be a phylogeny of the gene and not of the species. Another
important limitation is the lack or insufficiency of a quality DNA sample from extinct species.
Identification:
Plant identification implies assigning a plant to a particular taxonomic group – ultimately to
the species. The identification of plant specimen is its determination of as being identical with
or similar to another and already known plant.
Identification is the determination of a taxon as being identical with or similar to another and
already known elements; the determination may or may not be arrived at by the aid of literature
or by comparison with plant of known identity. No names need be involved in the process of
identifying a plant. The naming of plant or nomenclature is different than identification.
When the unknown plant is collected from a known locality, the common practice is to refer to
a book accounting for the plants of that region. This contains usually the analytical keys and
descriptions.
Methods of Plant Identification:
The first step is the determination of the families to which the unknown plant belongs. Knowing
the name of the family one can turn the keys to genera for determining the generic name and
then for the specific identity of the plant to the species key. Since, for many reasons, the identity
and name of the plant obtained may be incorrect, it is always safe to check the description of
the plant to ensure that there is a reasonable agreement between the characters observed in the
unknown plant and those given in the description of the plant presumed to be. Second method
is the utilization of the latest floras and check list of the particular region. These comprise
usually an index to the plants known for the locality and generally provide other pertinent habit,
distributional and frequency data. By the process of elimination an unknown plant can be
assigned to a genera having one or more species, and identification may be completed by
comparison of characters with those given in any standard work accounting of the plants of
that area. Third method is the identification by means of monographs or revisionary works
accounting for the particular family or genus.
Types of Keys:
Keys used in floras are usually diagnostic, that is, identifying an unknown plant by the
conspicuous features. Diagnostic characters are sometimes referred to as key characters. A key
may be short and limited to a single pair of contradictory statements or propositions. A single
pair of contradictory statements or each pair of choices is called a ‘couplet’.
Each statement of a couplet in a key is called ‘Lead’. Keys do not offer descriptions of the
plants concerned, but state only the essential diagnostic characters by means of which the taxa
can be identified.
Keys are of two types: punched card keys and dichotomous keys.
1. Punched Card Keys:
Punched card keys are used in the school, colleges etc. by the students. Punched card keys
consist of cards of suitable size with names of all the taxa (all families, genera or species for
which the key is meant) printed on each one of them. Each card has a number and any one
character printed near one of the corners. All the taxa showing this character are indicated by
a perforation in front of their names, while those lacking this character are without any
perforation.
Dichotomous Keys:
A dichotomous key presents two contrasting choices or couplet at each step. The key is
designed so that one part of the couplet will be accepted and the other rejected. The first
contrasting characters in each couplet are referred to as the primary key characters. These are
usually the best contrasting characters. Characters following the lead are secondary key
characters.
The dichotomous keys are of two types, viz., Indented key (Yoked key) and Bracketed key
(Parallel key).
Indented key or Yoked key:
A dichotomous key in which the first part of a contrasting couplet is followed by all subsequent
couplets; each subordinate couplet being indented one step further to the right for clarity of
presentation. The indented key is the one most widely used in manuals for the identification of
vascular plants. In the indented key, each of the couplets is indented a fixed distance from the
left margin of the page.

A. Indented Key:

The first choice, with in the above genera is between “Fruit a group of achenes; flowers not
spurred” and “Fruit a group of follicles; flowers spurred”, these paired statements being given
the same indention.
If the latter choice is taken, the next choice, shown of the indention, is between “Flowers
regular, spurs 5” and “Flowers irregular, spur ‘1’. Thus the plant in question has follicles and
irregular flowers with a single spur, it must be a Delphinium.

Bracketed or Bracket Key or Parallel Key:

A dichotomous key in which contrasting parts of a couplet are numbered and presented
together, without intervening couplets, although the brackets joining each couplet are now
omitted.
In this the two couplets are always next to each other in consecutive lines on the page.
The same example of bracketed key is given below:
(i) Fruit a group of achenes; flowers unspurred……… (2)
(i) Fruit a group of follicles; flowers spurred ……..… (4)
(2) Petals absent……………………………………… (3)
(2) Petals present……………………………. Ranunculus
(3) Sepals usually 4; involucre absent…………. Clematis
(3) Sepals usually 5; involucre present………… Anemone
(4) Flowers regular; spurs 5………………..….. Aquilagia
(4) Flowers irregular; spur 1 ………..………. Delphinium

The number at the right end of a line in the bracket key indicates the next numbered pair of
choices to be considered.
The keys use the most conspicuous and clear-cut characters, without special regard to those
considered taxonomically the most important. For this reason the sequence of taxa is often
quite artificial, and such keys are frequently termed artificial keys. Artificial key is an
identification key based on convenient phenotypic characters and not indicating phylogenetic
relationships.
Natural key is an identification key constructed from a natural classification and indicating the
supposed evolutionary relationships of the group within the branching sequences of the key.